CHAPTER 1

MAIN HYDROLOGICAL CONCEPTS

Learning Objective

This chapter is designed to assist the students to develop and enhance their ability
and knowledge in main hydrological concepts such as hydrological cycle and
water balance equation.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

1. define hydrology.
2. apply fundamental knowledge of hydrology particularly use in civil and
environmental engineering.
3. apply water balance equation as the base of a modeling of hydrology which
covers processes of precipitation, evaporation, infiltration, runoff and
groundwater.
Hydrology

1.1 Introduction to Hydrology And Its Utilizing

Hydrology is a science that studies the availability and movement of water in the
earth. Hydrology is also defined as a science related to the occurrence and
distribution of natural water on the earth. As general, hydrology covers many type
of water, including transformation among liquid, solid and gas in atmosphere,
surface and subsurface land.

The field of hydrology is of fundamental importance to civil and environmental

engineers, hydrogeologists, and other earth scientists because of the
environmental significance of water supply, major floods and droughts and their
management, drainage and urban stormwater issues. Commonly, cases of
hydrology are solved using various sciences such as mathematics, physics,
statistic, meteorology, oceanography, geography, geology, geomorphology,
hydraulics, and water resources engineering. In addition, many modern hydrology
problems include considerations of water quality and contaminant transport.

1.2 Hydrology Cycle And Water Balance Equation

Hydrologic cycle is a continues process in which water is evaporated from

water surfaces and oceans, moves inland as moist air masses, and produce
precipitation if the correct vertical lifting conditions exist. The precipitation that falls
from clouds onto the land surface of the earth is dispersed to the hydrologic cycle
via several pathways (Fig.1.1).

Cloud

LS P

Cloud Cloud

T
P P

Wind
F R E E
E
P = Precipitation
T = Transpiration LS E
G WT
F = Infiltration Lake
R = Run-off Reservoir R
G = Groundwater flow WT
E = Evaporation from lake, land surface and ocean
LS = Land surface G Ocean
2 WT = Water table

impermeable layer

Figure 1.1:
The Hydrologic Cycle
 Main Hydrological Concept

Hydrologic cycle is a very complex series of processes (Fig.1.1), but under

certain well-defined conditions the response of a watershed to rainfall, infiltration,
and evaporation can be calculated if simple assumptions can be made. A
watershed is a contiguous area that drains to an outlet, such that precipitation that
falls within the watershed runs off through that single outlet (the catchment is
sometimes used synonymously for just the surface portion of the watershed).

Outlet
Outlet
a. Elongated shape b. Concentrated shape

Figure 1.2:
Typical watershed areas

A portion of the precipitation (P), or rainfall, is retained in the soil near where it
falls and returns to the atmosphere via evaporation (E), the conversion of water to
water vapor from a water surface, and transpiration (T), the loss of water vapor
through plant tissue and leaves. The combined loss, called evapotranspiration
(ET), is a maximum value if the water supply in the soil is adequate at all times.
Some water enters the soil system as infiltration (F), which is a function of soil
moisture conditions and soil type, and may reenter channels later as interflow or
may percolate to recharge the shallow groundwater. Groundwater (G) flows in
porous media in the subsurface in either shallow or deeper aquifer systems that
can be pumped for water supply to agricultural and municipal water systems.

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Hydrology

The remaining portion of precipitation becomes overland flow or direct runoff

(R), which flows generally in a down-gradient direction to accumulate in local
streams that then flow to rivers. Evaporation and infiltration are both complex
losses from input rainfall and are difficult to measure or compute from theoretical
methods. Surface and groundwater flow from higher elevation toward lower
elevations and may eventually discharge into the ocean, especially after large
rainfall events (Fig.1-1). However, large quantities of surface water and portions of
groundwater return to the atmosphere by evaporation or ET, thus completing the
natural hydrologic cycle. Precipitation from the atmosphere is a major force that
drives the hydrologic cycle, and understanding major weather parameters and
systems is important for the prediction of precipitation events.

In the learning of hydrology always there is a question how much water

available in the earth. This question describes the main objective of hydrology, but
human is not able to asses the volume of water in the earth exactly, however the
availability of water can be estimated based on natural water circulation through
hydrologic cycle. According to Water of the World (1964), the total volume of water
in the world is about 1,358 million km3 mainly in the form of sea water. The total
volume of fresh water is only 2.8 % (most of fresh water are in the form of ice and
glacier), thus the total volume of fresh water which can be used for human live is
only 0.63% or 8.54 million km3 in the form of groundwater, lake, and rain.

For any hydrologic system, a water budget can be developed to account for
various flow pathways and storage components. The hydrologic continuity
equation for any system is.

dS
I −Q = (1-1)
dt

where: I = inflow [L3/t]

Q = outflow [L3/t]
dS/dt = change in storage per time [L3/t]

The same concept can be applied to small basins or large watersheds, with
the added difficulty that all loss terms in the hydrologic budget may not be known.
For a given time period, a conceptual mathematical model of the overall budget for
Fig.1-1 would become, in units of depth (i. or mm) over the basin.

P–R–G–E–T=∆ S (1-2)

where: P = precipitation,

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 Main Hydrological Concept

R = surface runoff,
G = groundwater flow,
E = evaporation,
T = transpiration,
∆ S = change in storage in a specified time period.

Example 1.1
For a given month, a 121 ha lake has 0.43 m 3/s of inflow, 0.37 m3/s of outflow, and
total storage increase of 1.97 ha-m. A USGS gage next to the lake recorded a total
of 3.3 cm precipitation for the lake for the month. Assuming that infiltration loss is
insignificant for the lake, determine the evaporation loss, in cm, over the lake for
the month.

Solution
Solving the water balance for inflow I and outflow Q in a lake gives, for
evaporation,

E = I – O + P – ∆ S,

 m3  30day  24hr 3,600sec

 0.43 1month   
 sec  1month 1day 1hour 
I= = 0.92 m = 92 cm
 2

(121ha)  10,000m 
 1ha 

 m3   30day  24hr 3,600sec

 0.37 (1month)    
 sec   1month 1day 1hour 
Q= = 0.79 m = 79 cm
 10,000m2 
(121ha)  
 1ha 
P = 3.3 cm

ΔS =
(1.97ha− m)
(121ha) = 0.0163 m = 1.63 cm
E = 92 – 79 + 3.3 – 1.63 = 14.67 cm

Example 1.2

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Hydrology

A swimming pool (6m × 6m × 1.5m) has a small leak at the bottom.

Measurements of rainfall, evaporation, and water level are taken daily for 10 days
to determine what should be done for repair. Estimate the average daily leakage
out of the swimming pool in cm3/day. Assume the pool is exactly 1.5 m deep at the
end of day 1.

Evaporation Rainfall Measured Level

Day (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 12.7 - 1,524
2 0 25.4
3 12.7 -
4 0 50.8
5 12.7 -
6 12.7 -
7 0 101.6
8 12.7 -
9 12.7 -
10 12.7 - 1,321

Solution
The water balance equation becomes:

Q=P–E–∆ S

Total change in storage, ∆ S = 1,321 – 1,524 = -203 mm

Total precipitation, P = 25.4 + 50.8 + 101.6 = 177.8 mm

Evaporation, E = (7) × (12.7) = 88.9 mm

Thus, outflow = 177.8 – 88.9 – (-203) = 291.9 mm

Outflow should be in cm3/day. The height change is distributed over the pool area.

( 291.9mm)  1cm   100cm

 × ( 6m) 
 100cm
( 6m)   3
Q=  10mm  1m   1m  = 1,050,840 cm /day
10days

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 Main Hydrological Concept

1.3 Hydrologic Data

Data on hydrologic variables are fundamental to analyses, forecasting, and

modeling. Such data may be found in numerous publications of agencies,
research institutes, universities, and other organizations.

1.3.1 General Climatology Data

The most readily available sources of data on temperature, solar radiation,

wind, and humidity are monthly climatological data published by the World
Meteorogical Organization (WMO) summarizes wind, temperature, humidity,
evaporation, precipitation, and solar radiation on a series of maps. For national
climatologically data commonly is provided by department of agriculture of each
country.

1.3.2 Weather Systems

The atmosphere is the major hydrologic link between oceans and continents
on the planet, facilitating the cycle of water movement on earth. The hydrologic
cycle is shaped by the conditions of the atmosphere, with precipitation as the main
input to the cycle. Water vapor content is both a major catalyst and a balancing
factor of atmosphere processes that create the weather in the lower atmosphere.
Atmosphere pressure is defined as the force per unit area exerted on a surface,
and atmospheric pressure measures the weight of the air per unit area. Average
air pressure at sea level is approximately 1 atmosphere or 1,013 millibars (mb).

Humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere and

can be expressed in several ways. Specific humidity is the mass of water vapor in
a unit mass of moist air. The relative humidity is a ratio of the air’s actual water
vapor content compared to the amount of water vapor at saturation for that
temperature. Water vapor has the ability, unique among gases, to change from
one state of matter to another (solid, liquid, or gas) at the temperatures and
pressures that typically exist on earth. A change in phase requires that heat be
released or absorbed. The process of converting solid ice to liquid water, called
melting, and water to vapor, called evaporation, both require significant heat
change.

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Hydrology

Atmospheric weather systems are fueled by solar input and characterized by

air masses in motion, circulating winds, cloud generation, and changes in
temperature and pressure. Lifting mechanisms are required for moist air masses
to cool and approach saturation conditions. As a result of the interaction of rising
air masses with atmospheric moisture, the presence of small atmospheric nuclei,
and droplet growth, precipitation in the form of rain, snow, or hail can result. The
exact mechanisms that lead to precipitation are sometimes quite complex and
difficult to predict for specific areas.

Horizontal variations in atmosphere pressure cause air to move from higher

pressure toward lower pressure, resulting in the generation of wind. Vertical
displacement causes air to move as well, but at a far slower rate than horizontal
winds. The vertical movement and lifting of air results in the formation of clouds.
Clouds are familiar to all of us, and represent collections of small droplets of water
or tiny crystals of ice.

Atmospheric moisture is a necessary source for precipitation and is generally

provided from evaporation and transpiration. Common measures of atmospheric
moisture, or humidity, include vapor pressure, specific humidity, mixing ratio,
relative humidity, and dew point temperature. Under moist conditions, water vapor
can be assumed to obey the ideal gas law, which allows derivation of simple
relations between pressure, density, and temperature.

The partial pressure is the pressure that would be exerted on the surface of a
container by a particular gas in a mixture. The partial pressure exerted by water
vapor is called vapor pressure and can be derived from Dalton’s law and the ideal
gas law as

ρ wRT
e= (1-3)
0.622

where: e = vapor pressure (mb)

ρ w = vapor density or absolute humidity (g/cm3)
R = dry air gas constant = 2.87 x 103 mb cm3/g 0K
T = absolute temperature (0K)

Relative humidity (RH) is approximately the ratio of water vapor pressure to

that which would prevail under saturated conditions at the same temperature. It
can also be stated as RH = 100 e/es. Specific humidity is the mass of water vapor
contained in a unit mass of moist air (g/g) and is equal to ρ w/ρ m, where ρ m is the

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 Main Hydrological Concept

density of moist air. Using Dalton’s law and assuming that the atmosphere is
composed on only air and water vapor, then,

ρm =
( P − e) + 0.622e= P
(1− 0.378e/P) (1-4)
RT RT

Equation (1-4) shows that moist air is actually lighter than dry air for the same
pressure and temperature. Thus,

ρw 0.622e
q= = (1-5)
ρm P − 0.378e

Where: q = specific humidity (g/g)

e = vapor pressure (mb)
P = total atmospheric pressure (mb)
ρ m = density of mixture of dry air and moist air (g/cm3)

Finally, the dew temperature Td is the value at which an air mass just becomes
saturated (e – es), when cooled at constant pressure and moisture content. An
approximate relationship for saturation vapor pressure over water es as a function
of temperature T is

 4278.6 
es = 2.7489× 108 exp −  (1-6)
 T + 242.79

In order for vapor to condense to water to begin the formation of precipitation, a

quantity heat known as latent heat must be removed from the moist air. The latent
heat of condensation Lc is equal to the latent heat of evaporation Le, the amount of
heat required to convert water to vapor at the same temperature. With T measured
in 0C,

Le = – Lc = 597.3 – 0.57 (T – 00C) (1-7)

where Lc is in cal/g. The latent heat of melting and freezing are also related:

Lm = – Lf = 79.7 (1-8)

where Lm is also in cal/g. Thus it takes about 7.5 times the energy to evaporate a
gram of water compared to melting a gram of ice.

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 Hydrology

Meteorologists use the moisture relationship and the latent-heat concepts to

obtain pressure-temperature relationships for cooling of rising moist air in the
atmosphere. The rate of temperature change with elevation in the atmosphere is
called the adiabatic lapse rate. The dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) is 9.80C per
km and assumes no phase changes of water.

Precipitation is the primary input to the hydrologic cycle, whether in the form of
rainfall, snow, or hail, and is generally derived from atmospheric moisture. In order
for precipitation to occur at the earth’s surface,

1. a moisture source must be available,

2. moist air must undergo lifting and resultant cooling,
3. a phase change must occur with resulting condensation onto small nuclei
in the air,
4. droplets must large enough to overcome drag and evaporation to reach the
ground.
Temperature of Temperature of
environment (0C) environment (0C)

3000 Environmental 00 00 3000 00 120

Moist
Lapse rate
adiabatic
rate
Altitude (m)
Altitude (m)

70C/1000m
60C/1000m
2000 160 100 2000 160 180

Environmental
Dry Lapse rate
0
1000 adiabatic 23 0
20 1000 230 240
rate

100C/1000m 70C/1000m
300 300 300 300
0 0
0 10 20 300C 0 10 20 300C
32 50 68 860F 32 50 68 860F
Temperature of lifted Temperature of lifted
unsaturated air (0C) saturated air (0C)
(dry rate) (moist rate)

(a) The unsaturated parcel of air at each elevation (b) The lifted, saturated air parcel is warmer at each
is colder than its surroundings. The atmosphere is elevation than its surroundings. The atmosphere is
stable with respect to unsaturated, rising air unstable with respect to saturated, rising air

Figure 1.3:
Vertical temperature and stability

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 Main Hydrological Concept

Type of precipitation is determined from factors that lift moist air to

atmosphere which consist of frontal, orographic, and convective precipitations.
Frontal precipitation (Fig.1.4) resulted from warm air which is blown by wind to
atmosphere and cooled through adiabatic process to generate cloud. The rate of
cooling is 50C/100m up to the moist air to reach the dew temperature. If the
cooling process is continued, then the cloud will be melted and precipitation
occurs.

Orographic precipitation (Fig.1.5) occurs do to the warm air moves to the

mountain area and cooling process is exist. Convective precipitation (Fig.1.6)
occurs do to elements of air which have difference temperature and density
crashing to one another and the evaporation process occurs.

Cloud with temperature of 50C

100 m

Warm surface

Figure 1.4
Front precipitation

Cloud

Dry
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Moist

Figure 1.5
Orographic precipitation
Hydrology

Cloud

Warm air Cold air

Figure 1.6:
Convective precipitation

Problems

Q1. What kind water is good for human consumption, how do we get it?
Q2. Can we consume river water?
Q3. Do you know the source of river water? Give short explanation.
Q4. Do you know well water? Where do we get it?
Q5. Who are the users of knowledge of hydrology?
Q6 Why do we need to control and manage water?
Q7. An area has problem of water every year. During rainy season the volume
of water is adequate to fulfill the requirements; even sometime it is too
much and causes flooding. But, during dry season it is insufficient, even
sometime drought is occurred. Therefore, please give an idea how to solve
this problem.

Q8 A canal is 80 km long and has an average surface width of 15 m. If the

evaporation measured in a class A pan is 0.5 cm/day, what is the volume of
water evaporated in a month of 30 days.
Answer: 180,000 m3

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 Main Hydrological Concept

Q9. A reservoir has the following inflows and outflows (in cubic meters) for the
first three months of the year. If the storage at the beginning of January is
65 m3, determine the storage at the end of March.

Month January February March

Inflow 3.5 5.7 8.3
Outflow 6.4 7.1 5.5
Answer: 63.5 m3

Q10. The drainage area of the Sembrong River at Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, is
11,839 km2. If the mean annual runoff is determined to be 144.4 m3/s and
the average annual rainfall is 1.08 m, estimate the evaporation losses for
the area.
Answer: 0.7 m

Q11. At a particular time the storage in a river reach is 55.3 acre-ft. At that instant,
the inflow into the reach is 375 cfs and the outflow is 563 cfs. After two
hours, the inflow and outflow are 600 cfs and 675 cfs, respectively.
Determine: a) The change of storage during 2 hours and 2) The storage
volume after 2 hours.
Answer: a) –21.73 acre-ft and b) 33.57 acre-ft.

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Hydrology

World Water Balance Statistic

Total volume of water in the world is constant = 1.36 x 1018 m3

• Ocean - 97.2 %
• Icebergs and glaciers - 2.15 %
• Groundwater - 0.64 %
• Lakes and rivers - 0.0085 %
• Atmosphere - 0.0015 %

Malaysia Water Balance Statistic

Total volume of water Malaysia is = 990 billion m3

• 360 billion m3 evaporates back to the atmosphere in the vapour form

• 566 billion m3 in the form of surface runoff
• 64 billion m3 in the form ground water

Water Measurement Units

Water can be measured using different types of units depending on their

purposes and usages.

i) measurement in the form of depth

Unit : mm, cm, m, inch, feet

Average daily rainfall is 300 mm

Maximum depth of River X is 10.5m
Daily requirement of water for plant is 0.5 cm

ii) measurement in the form of volume

Unit : cm3, m3, liter, ft3, hectare-meter (ha-m), acre-ft

14
 Main Hydrological Concept

The volume of water for that swimming pool is 60 m3

500 litre of water is required to water that small garden daily
The reservoir can hold a total volume of 150 hactare-metre of water
iii) measurement in the form of discharge

Unit : Liter per second/min/hour (lps, lpm, lph), m3/sec/min/hr,

ft3/s/m/hr.

Scopes of Hydrological Study

1. Water Resources Development: To determine the availability of water

resources in any catchment areas in term of volume and the when it is
available. Important in planning and designing of water supply projects for
industries, agricultures, domestics, recreations, transportations, fishing, etc.

2. Predicting and Designing of Flood Control: To assist in predicting the

probability of flood occurrence to any one area in term of time, frequency and
magnitude. These information are used to avoid or reduce the damages
caused by the flood, as well as to plan and design the drainage related
structures such as bridges, drainage systems, culverts, reservoirs, detention
and retention ponds, etc.

3. Planning an Alternative Water Resources Development (Groundwater) :

To determine the availability of water in the ground as an alternative and
additional resources especially during a long dry seasons and its effect to the
earth surface.

3. Planning Preservation and Rehabilitation of Ecosystem : Most of the

natural ecosystem depends on the ecosystem regime of the catchment areas.
As an example, the water populations such fishes and aquatic plants depends
wholly on the hydrological regime of the river valley.

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