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1. INTRODUCTION
3D printing technology is not a brand new discovery. It was created in the 1980s, but due
to some main challenges, it has not revolutionized the way we live yet. It has shown
endless possibilities of application. Areas, such as medicine, engineering, architecture,
medicine and even cookery will be truly impacted by this technology.
The world population has now exceeded the 7 billion mark, and if the prognosis of the
United Nations comes true, there will be 9.2 billion people in 2050. As the case is today,
most of the people will want to live in the megacities because they promise a better life
and wealth. Due to this, the population density in the cities would increase like never
before. This would lead to redevelopment and slum rehabilitation projects to be
undertaken on large scale. Imagine a situation wherein a huge bunch of people will need
an urgent space to live in. Thus, a situation will arise when the cities will have to grow
rapidly but also sustainably, keeping in mind the environmental effects and also the
economy. Contour Crafting is an emerging technology that uses robotics to construct free
form structures by repeatedly laying down layers of material such as concrete. This has a
great potential in automated construction of whole structures as well as sub-components.
Using this process, a single house or a colony of houses, each with possibly a different
design, may be automatically constructed in a single run. Tool path planning and
optimization benefits the technology by increasing the efficiency of construction of
complicated structures. CC can automatically construct custom-designed structures by
repeatedly laying down construction material. CC has the capability to fabricate with
thick layers using various materials and without compromising surface quality unlike
other automation methods.
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In the last two centuries, automation of various products has evolved considerably but
very few of them are successful. Still construction of whole structures remains largely as
a manual practice. This is because the various conventional methods of manufacturing
automation do not fit in the construction of large structures. Layered fabrication is a
promising new approach generally known as Solid Free Form Fabrication (SFF).
Although several methods of SFF have been developed in the last 2 two decades and
successful applications of these methods have been reported in various industries
including industrial tooling, medical, toy making, etc., most of the current layered
fabrication methods cannot deliver the wide variety of materials applicable to
construction industry. Currently Contour Crafting (CC) seems to be the only layer
fabrication technology that is uniquely applicable to construction of large structures such
as buildings.
3. RAPID PROTOTYPING
During the last 18 years, construction automation and robotics have been implemented at
various extents to address problems facing the construction industry such as productivity,
quality, safety, high costs and skilled labor shortages in the United State and Japan. The
Japanese construction industry, in particular, is very active in automated construction
research, seeking a solution to the skilled labor shortage. Many large Japanese
construction companies have their own research centers with sophisticated equipment and
large staffs researching new construction technologies. Kajima Corporation, for example,
spends more than $900M / year on construction research; a significant portion is invested
in construction automation.
Approximately 89 single task construction robots have been prototyped and deployed in
construction sites in Japan .These single task robots replace simple human tasks thereby
reducing labor costs and construction time. Automated construction systems such as
AMURA, SMART and FACES are capable of fabricating high raised structures. These
systems typically use precision fabricated components such as pillars, beams, ceilings,
floor slabs and others during operation. Also, fully automated construction systems do not
allow much flexibility in the design of structures. The cross section of a structural
member, for example, cannot be readily changed. A system capable of generating a
variable cross section structure would be rather expensive. Furthermore, current
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automated systems require many prefabricated parts. This translates into extra costs for
inventory, transportation, and additional machinery.
In recent years rapid prototyping (RP) processes have been implemented in a variety of
applications and disciplines such as architecture, automobile design, aerospace and
medical industries. RP processes are capable of fabricating complex structures, as shown
in Fig. 1. However, RP systems today are not suitable for fabrication of larger scale parts.
A special RP technology developed at the University of Southern California (USC) is
Contour Crafting, which was introduced at the 19th International Symposium on
Automation and Robotics in Construction (ISARC) in 2002. CC technology adapts RP
capabilities and extends them to the field of large scale construction. As in other RP
methods, in Contour Crafting (CC) material is added layer by layer according to a
computer control sequence.
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built. It is based on printing the building layer by layer using special material ejection.
This method promises an automated construction process that is safe, fast and reliable. 3d
printing helps us make one step further towards lean principles by minimizing waste in
construction duration and increasing error proofing through activity automation.
Furthermore, it guarantees an evolution in building textures that increases the quality of
life for its residents without having a negative impact on public safety and welfare.6 This
has a great potential in automated construction of whole structures as well as
components.
Using this process, a single house or a colony of houses, each with possibly a different
design, may be automatically constructed in a single run. Tool path planning and
optimization benefits the technology by increasing the efficiency of construction of
complicated structures. CC can automatically construct custom-designed structures by
repeatedly laying down construction material. CC has the capability to fabricate with
thick layers using various materials and without compromising surface quality unlike
other automation methods.
In CC, computer control is used to take advantage of the superior surface forming
capability of troweling to create smooth and accurate, planar and free-form surfaces. The
layering approach enables the creation of various surface shapes using fewer different
troweling tools than in traditional plaster handwork and sculpting. It is a hybrid method
that combines an extrusion process for forming the object surfaces and a filling process
(pouring or injection) to build the object core. As shown in Figure 3, the extrusion nozzle
has a top and a side trowel. As the material is extruded, the e traversal of the trowels
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creates smooth outer and top surfaces on the layer. The side trowel can be deflected to
create non-orthogonal surfaces. The extrusion process builds s only the outside edges
(rims) of each layer of the object. After complete extrusion of each closed section of a
given layer, if needed filler material such as concrete can be poured to fill the area
defined by the extruded rims. Some internal walls can be extruded within each layer to
create square hatches or other types of hatches(see Figure). The hatching process may be
required for large objects, since setting or curing can start before the filler material gets a
chance to spread over the entire surface of the layer.
However, when hatching is used, each of the small hatches is filled separately, which
because of their small size allows more control over the spreading and curing of the filler
material. Hatching can also accelerate the forming process because it provides for
concurrent extrusion and filling (i.e., as the extrusion nozzle creates new hatches,
previously made hatches can be filled).
5. CC MACHINE
The machine consists of a trowel rotation system, and a vertical extrusion head capable of
linear motion along three coordinate axes. The trowel rotation mechanism consists of a
bevel gear, and a connector.The connection mechanism allows the raw material to flow
continuously from the cylinder to nozzle, and can rotate the extrusion system without
disturbing the material flow while fabricating complex curves.The extrusion system
consists of a top and side trowel, a cylinder that contains the raw material, and a piston
and a threaded feed rod that extrudes the raw material through a nozzle. The process
utilizes a Programmable Multi-Axis Controller (PMAC), a high-performance servo
motion controller, capable of controlling up to eight axes of motion (Delta Tau Data
Systems, 1996 a, b). The eight axes can be all synchronized for completely coordinated
motion; each axis can be put into its own coordinate system for eight completely
independent operations; any intermediate arrangement of axes into coordinate systems is
also possible. Limit switches are used to restrict motion to specified limits.
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7. CONCRETE PROPERTIES
7.1 Workability
The ease of placing,consolidating and finishing freshly mixed concrete and the degree to
which it resists segregation is called workability.The workability on 3D printed concrete
is a crictical factor on CC.The layers first poured have to support the layers that will be
poured sequentially but also cannot cure very fast causing bond problems between the
layers.
7.2 Extrudability
Extrudability refers to the ability to transport the fresh concrete through a hopper and
pumping system to a nozzle where it must be extruded as a continous filament.The
concrete mixture in this process need to have a good extrudability rate,otherwise it is
going to create concrete clog points inside the 3D printing machine,causing delays and
maintainance necessity.It is known for every proffessional on construction that once you
start pouring concrete you should stop when the labour is done.
7.3 Curing
Curing is the process in which the concrete is protected from loss of moisture and kept
within a reasonable temperature range. This process results in concrete with increased
strength and decreased permeability. Curing is also a key player in mitigating cracks, wh
ich can severely affect durability.Due to the fact that CC construction has accelerated
rhythm, its curing must be speeded up as well. However, this high velocity should not be
too fast to the point of harming the bond between the layers. To reach this precise curing
speed, many techniques may be used, for example thermal and chemical ones.
7.4 Mixture
Concrete is a mixture of several components in certain proportions which goes by the
name of concrete mix design on construction language .The mix ranges depends on the
application necessities.The mixture designs for 3D printed concrete are not cheap or easy
to come up with. Many researches going on in the CC area are committed to study and
improve the mix designs. Therefore, the perspective is to decrease the cost of the
materials. For example, usually, the size of the aggregates should not be over 2 mm, and
most part of the times, additives like superplasticizer, retarder, accelerator, and
polypropylene fibers are needed, and they are very expensive. Through several trial and
error experiments, a mixture characteristic found to be suitable for the new CC machine
is as follows;(1lb =4.309kg)
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8. COST ESTIMATION
Once the machine parameters have been defined, cost of deposition for each wall
segment can be calculated according to its geometrical information. Cost of traveling
between the edges is related to the cost of moving between the vertices and the cost of
rotation along the edges. This cost can be estimated according to the relevant position of
edges. The total construction can be evaluated once a tool path has been defined. Each
edge has two end points; therefore, there are a total of four possible traveling costs from
one edge to another edge. Since the nozzle of the Contour Crafting machine has to orient
itself to be perpendicular to the tangent of the wall segment, the nozzle may need to be
re-oriented when traveling between edges. For example, in order to construct a corner,
the nozzle must rotate 90 between the constructions of two wall segments.
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compared to other approaches, the method of construction chosen has a great impact on
sustainability of any project. While no construction method can be considered as
inherently sustainable, there are practices considered more sustainable than others. In
order to further understand the sustainability potential in contour crafting in application to
single family housing it was reviewed using the USGBC, LEED (United States Green
Building council,Leadership in Energy and Environment Design)for homes point system
published in 2008 as a guideline. LEED was selected as a baseline since the guidelines
set by LEED have become the current accepted international standard for defining
sustainable building practices. Contour crafting reduces the amount of time spent on site
thereby reducing the negative environmental impact of prolonged construction. Concerns
such as silt and runoff due to disturbed topsoil are reduced notably through diminished
exposure to weather before being permanently reset into the landscape.Since workers are
needed on the site for less time and they must travel to the site less and more efficient the
construction process becomes. The amount of waste generated on site also reduces as CC
process only mixes the cement and polymer right before the application. However due to
the nature of contour crafting and requirements necessary for the construction process to
be effective, other areas of LEED for homes became affected through the use of CC.
10. APPLICATIONS OF CC
Contour Crafting technology is relatively straight forward and simple. The significant
benefits of Contour Crafting are short construction times, no human workers, cheaper
cost and flexible of materials. These characteristics gave researches several brilliant
applications.
Application in constructions
Commercial applications
Low income housing
Space colonies
Emergency housing
10.1 Applications In Construction
A single house or a colony of houses, each with possibly a different design can be
automatically constructed in a single run using Contour Crating technology.
Conventional structures can be built by integrating the CC machine with a support beam
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picking and positioning arm and adobe structures. It may be built without external
support elements using shape features.
Design Flexibility: The process allows architects to design structures with functional
and exotic architect geometries that are dicult to realize using the current manual
construction practice.
Multiple Materials: Various materials for outside surfaces and as fillers between
surfaces may be used in CC. The quantity of each material may be controlled by
computer and correlated to various regions of the geometry of the structure being built.
Paint Ready Surfaces: The quality of surface finish in Contour Crafting is independent
of the size of the nozzle orifice. Sand, gravel, reinforcement fiber and other applicable
materials available locally are mixed and extruded through the CC nozzle. The surface
quality in CC is such that no further surface preparation would be needed for painting
surfaces..
10.1.1 Automated Reinforcement
Robotic modular embedding of steel mesh reinforcement into each layer may be devised.
The three simple modular components may be delivered by an automated feeding system
that deposits and assembles them between the two rims of each layer of walls built by
Contour Crafting. A 3D mesh can be built for columns. The mesh will follow the
geometry of the structure. It is possible to feed glass or carbon fiber tows through the CC
nozzle to form continuous reinforcement consolidated with the matrix materials to be
deposited.
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urbanization is too slow to accommodate all poor citizens. The cheap and rapid
characteristics of CC provides a solution since a fully functional house can be made in
less than one day. By using this technology developing countries will be able to solve
housing problems of the current and future population.
10.4 Emergency Housing
The people are prone to some kind of emergency due to war, natural disasters or
economic crisis.So many peoples are suffering from these problems.So the best option for
them is a home.The house should be cost effective, good quality with proper facilities.
The CC creates a fully functional house including pumping and heating within a day.
10.5 Space Colonies
Contour Crafting is the best solution for any extraterrestrial construction that NASA
approved. Scientists are already using tremendous amounts of money on shipping
research machines from earth to another planet.They need to minimize the cost on the
actual construction. Astronauts do not have much labor power and time to construct
building by themselves. Sending construction materials from earth is too expensive and
inecient to carryout. By using lunar Contour Crafting, there is no need for human labor.
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Conventional Method: Besides being one of the most hazardous industry, construction
nowadays has become overpast because it still depends mainly on the man force. One of
the challenges of Civil Construction industry today is to find well-qualified workers
because most of them still need to be trained, causing additional costs and schedule
delays. In addition, its labor is very expensive because of the big number of workers that
it brings to the construction site.
CC Method: The great advantage of this technology is the use of few workers at the
construction site. Only specialized people (computer and management skills) would be
required to operate the machine. Due to this fact, not only men would be able to work in
construction, but women and elderly people as well. In conclusion, CC machine does not
get tired, does not give excuses of failures, and does not need to be trained. In contrast, it
might work 24 hours a day, thus it speeds up the job schedule.
11.3 Safety
Conventional Method: Construction industry is the most hazardous of major industries.
One of five worker deaths in 2013 were in construction, according to the United States
Department of Labor. The causes of deaths were falls, followed by struck by object,
electrocution, and caught in between. Every time that a mega construction is being built,
the human loss is very high. For example, the construction of Hoover dam (in the
Colorado River) took life of more than a hundred of workers.
CC Method: With Contour Crafting, work injuries and fatalitiy rate are reduced to zero
because of the very safe method of construction. As it has a low number of workers and a
computer executes almost everything, it does not bring any danger to the construction
site.
11.4 Sustainability
Conventional Method: This method is very harmful to the environment. First, it pollutes
the environment. Second, it also emits many harmful toxic materials, which are
dangerous for the whole environment (soil, air, people and animals), such as dust.
Finally, the number of waste materials is very high. Usually, the quantity of materials
used to make a building could easily be enough to build one more building, but the
wastage does not make it possible.
CC Method: Due to its accuracy, Contour Crafting technology provides construction
without waste, being considered as environmental friendly and a sustainable process,
consequently. In addition, it does not make any noise, besides of being a fast process. It
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uses less material, less energy for all construction activities and less transportation of
material, equipment, and people.
11.5 Productivity
Conventional Method: Construction today can last months, and even years. It is liable to
schedule delays and work failures. For example, when the concrete is poured, it cannot be
stopped until the job is finished, forcing workers to spend a long time at the construction
site, which causes loss of productivity because human beings get tired. In addition, the
use of formwork is a big factor that causes delay in jobs flow because it requires a lot of
labor to work with forms.
CC Method: With Contour Crafting, 10 houses can be built in a single day, or even more.
This method does not use formwork, which is a shortcut in the construction time.
Computers execute everything in the construction, so it might be as much as 50 times
faster than conventional method. In addition, this method is very accurate to execute its
assigned commands, so it is able to make its jobs faster.
TABLE I
Cost Savings In Contour Crafting Compared To Conventional Construction
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Chart no: 1 Number and Rate of Fatal Occupational Injuries, by Industry Sector,
2010
Chart no.2 Comparison chart showing Chart no.3 comparison chart showing
cost efficiency and speed of CO2 emission and embodied energy
construction for concrete masonry and contour
crafting
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0.75 inch
6 inch
2 feet
concrete
Concrete form
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wall thickness. The following is a standard formula widely used as a design guide for
vertical formwork based on ACI standard 347:
P=W*H
Where: P = Lateral pressure
W = Unit weight of fresh concrete
H= Depth of fresh concrete
These are design guides for wall concrete for work. The actual pressures may vary. Note
that reliable data is difficult to obtain in published references when the pour rate is less
than 1 ft / hr.
For CC applications, pour rates less than 13 cm/hour (5/hour) will allow erection of a
3m (10 feet) tall concrete wall without using special high strength form materials.
Once concrete inside the form hardens, pressure is no longer generated below the level
of fresh concrete.
Wait until the concrete hardens completely since even partially cured concrete generates
minimal lateral pressure on the form.
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A batch of concrete was poured to a height of 13 cm (5). The second batch was poured
on top of the first batch after one hour without problems.
The test procedure, if repeated 24 times, will result in the erection of a 10 feet high
conventional concrete wall in 24 hours. Ten feet is a standard height for concrete
walls in residential housing construction.
12.6 Results
Concrete was manually poured into the extruded form in 13 cm incremental depths (one
hour intervals) to a final height of 60 cm (2ft).
Figure 18 shows the finished wall.
The compressive strength of this wall will vary depending on the type of concrete chosen.
Concrete pouring in this demonstration, however, has been independent of the extrusion
forming process. With more experimentation, the filling process can be synchronized
with the extrusion process. The coupling of these two processes will depend on many
factors including extrusion rate, pour rate, and cure time and strength requirements. In the
next generation CC system, the mechanical assembly for continuous concrete pouring
will be integrated into the CC extrusion nozzle assembly.
13.ROBOTICS APPROACH IN CC
The original robotics approach proposed for Contour Crafting is depicted in Figure 19.
This approach uses a gantry robot that has to be large enough to build an entire house
within its operating envelope and lays one continuous bead for each layer. Such an
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approach is not without its attractions, but it requires a large amount of site preparation
and a large robot structure.
Figure 19: CC using a gantry robotics approach Figure 20: CC using coordinated mobile
robots for construction and other
auxiliary activities
An alternative robotics approach for CCC is the use of an inverted Stuart Platform
system, such as the one developed at the US National Institute of Standards and
Technology and named RoboCrane (see Figure 19). Application of RoboCrane in CCC is
currently under study by researchers at NIST. In this project a concrete delivery system is
devised and used in conjunction with a CC nozzle installed on the RoboCrane platform.
Ease of transport and installation are the major advantages of this approach.
A third alternative robotics approach involves the coordinated action of multiple mobile
robots. The mobile robotics approach depicted in Figure 21, has several advantages
including ease of transportation. and setup, the possibility of concurrent construction
where multiple robots work on various sections of the structure to be constructed, the
possibility of scalable deployment (in number) of equipment, and the possibility of
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construction of structures with unlimited foot print. In this arrangement various mobile
robots performing various activities such as fabrication, plumbing, electrical work, etc.
work in coordination.
A CC Mobile Robot may use a conventional joint structure, as shown in Figure 21, and be
equipped with material tanks as well as material delivery pump and pipes. The end
effectors of the robot could carry a CC nozzle that can reach from ground level all the
way to the top of a wall. If the mobile robot arm could be made of a rigid structure,
position sensing at the end effecter may not be necessary. Instead, a position sensor (e.g.,
a laser tracker) may be mounted at a fixed location, and the related retro reflectors may be
installed on each mobile robot base. In this configuration, the robot does not engage in
fabrication while moving. Once it reaches a pre defined post (called mobile platform
post), it anchors itself by extending some solid rods from its bottom. Then it starts the
fabrication from the last point fabricated while at the previous post. This arrangement is
routinely practiced in some industrial applications such as robotic welding of large parts,
such as in ship building.
13.1 Roof Construction
Roof construction may or may not need support beams. Supportless structures such as
domes and vaults may be built by all of the above robotics approaches. For planar roofs,
beams may be used. Under each beam a thin panel may be attached to sustain the roof
construction material delivered by the CC nozzle. In the mobile robotics approach the
beams may be picked and positioned on the structure by two robots working
collaboratively, each being positioned on the opposite sides outside of the structure.
Delivery of roof material becomes challenging with mobile robots and may be done by a
robot inside the structure. This robot may progressively deliver the material over the
beam panels as each beam is placed on the roof. For the last few beams this robot could
exit the structure and perform the material delivery from outside. An alternative approach
for beam positioning and roof material delivery, which may be used in conjunction with
the mobile robotics approach, is the use of the NIST RoboCrane system. RoboCrane may
be installed on a conventional crane as shown in the lower part of Figure 22(the top part
of this figure shows the RoboCrane moving an actual steel beam.)
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Figure 23: A Contour Crafting robot is shown here printing a road in front of a parabolic hangar
structure housing a lunar Lander. In the background can be seen a plant intended for processing
regolith that will be used in the construction process
Figure 24: A Contour Crafting robot, housed on an 'ATHLETE' rover, is shown here printing a
parabolic vault structure out of processed regolith. The structure is intended to house a
lunarlander or other equipment, and is unpressurized. The parabolic form has been adopted,
because it is structurally efficient and lends itself to the Contour Crafting mode of
construction. In the background can be seen an array of solar panels intended to supply power
to the robot.
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rocket ejects and secondary hyper-energetic regolith projectiles. This will require
construction of roads, dust-free platforms, shade walls, equipment storage hangars and
radiation and meteorite protection shelters. All of the above infrastructure can be built
from regolith and other ISRU materials utilizing several methods of robotic fabrication
investigated in this proposed study. Maximizing ISRU using robotic construction
technology as an enabler is the prime driver for this architecture. Several construction
tasks will be necessary to achieve safe and productive conditions for extended human
presence at extraterrestrial sites.
14.1.4 Materials And Processes For Construction
CC Technology Using Sulfur Concrete
Creation of sulfur-based concrete is fairly straightforward once sulfur is extracted from
regolith. As shown in the top portion of Figure 25, sulfur concrete is made of about 80%
regolith and 20% sulfur. Contour Crafting structures using sulfur concrete requires
mixing the two components and then extruding the dry mix through a CC nozzle barrel
that is heated to 130 C, the melting temperature of sulfur. Sulfur concrete structures can
have a compressive strength of 3000 psi which is higher than the strength of most
ordinary hydraulic concrete structures, such as those built with concrete blocks.
Figure 25: Sulfur, sand, sulfur/sand mix Figure 26: Experimental machine for
yielding sulfur concrete extrusion testing of sulfur concrete
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15. LIMITATIONS OF CC
1. Due to its size and weight, the machine has to be attached to another machine that
would be able to move it.
2. The difficulties of the environment. How these machines would surpass the issues of
the environment, such as unleveled ground, weather impacts, etc. There are some
researches with great ideas to improve this issue, such as a machine suspended by
cables oriented by a Cartesian system
3. The cost is still an obstacle to develop this technology because of its recent discovery.
The maintenance fees for these machines are also very expensive. If CC development
had more support from sponsors, maybe it could be developed faster.
4. The great challenge of the construction industry will be adapting to the transition
between conventional construction and CC method. One of the CC technology
limitations are the fact that it is not compatible with conventional design.
16. INDIAN SCENARIO AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVE
Our planet is running out of raw material, due to its irresponsible use by people. Contour
Crafting is an environments friend because it wastes no material at all. In addition, it
does not bring noise, dust or make harmful emissions to the environment. All the major
industries of the world work mostly with automated systems, except construction
industry. However, it has inevitably changed, and Contour Crafting is a potential agent of
this transition.
India is one of the fast developing nations of the world which is facing an acute shortage
of space due to major population migrating towards the big cities in search for jobs and
better living. As a result of this various redevelopment projects are being undertaken in
the mega cities. But with the use of conventional techniques the rate of construction is
very slow to match the demand for space and moreover the harm to the environment due
to these construction practices is very alarming. Also the rate of construction is bound by
the economy as the cost involved in the redevelopment and city expansion projects is
huge. But with the advent of contour crafting technology, all of these shortcomings can be
mitigated if given a broad platform in our country. This paves the way for complete
mechanization in the industry and what better example than this technology would be
needed to provide the onset for it.
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17. CONCLUSION
The world has walked more and more in destination to automated systems. In the future,
computers will make all the processes of major industries. It also includes construction
industry. There will be a time when all the steps of buildings will be performed by
machines. For example, design, plumbing, reinforcement, and electrical systems would be
made by CC technology Another point of Contour Crafting is that it has a great
productivity, building houses in a matter of hours, without wasting any material. In
addition, its cost can be much lower than the conventional method cost because CC uses
less workers and materials. This new technology is an environmental friend, which does
not pollute or cause any evil effect to our environment. However, even with all its
benefits, Contour Crafting has some challenges to overcome. First, CC developers should
study how this technology would be managed at a construction site. Second, it is
necessary to see how people would react to this transition between conventional method
of construction (many workers, wasting and fatalities) and the automated construction
method (less workers, wasting and more safety). Finally, the great challenge is to
overcome the current cost barrier of this technology. The authors believe that the more
this technology is developed, the cheaper it will become to be applied in the reality.
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SEMINAR REPORT 2017 CONTOUR CRAFTING
18. REFERENCE
1. Crafting Large Prototypes - IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine,September 2011
2. Extraterrestrial Construction Using Contour Crafting ,Behrokh Khoshnevis,
Professor (khoshnev@usc.edu) Jing Zhang, PhD Candidate (zhan947@usc.edu)
Industrial & Systems Engineering, University of Southern California,August 15,2012
3. Automated Construction Using Contour Crafting ,B Khoshnevis, h. Kwon, and s.
Bukkapatnam Industrial And Systems Engineering, University Of Southern
California Los Angeles,2010
4. Contour Crafting Simulation Plan For Lunar Settlement Infrastructure Build-Up NIAC
Phase-I Final Project Report October 2012,B. Khoshnevis, A. Carlson, N. Leach
And M. Thangavelu
5. Toward Total Automation of On-Site Construction - An Integrated Approach based
on Contour Crafting Berok Khoshnevis, Professor D. J. Epstein Department of
Industrial & Systems Engineering University of Southern California Los Angeles, CA
90089-0193
6. Concrete Wall Fabrication By Contour Crafting Dooil Hwang And Behrokh
Khoshnevis Daniel J. Epstein Department Of Industrial & Systems Engineering
University Of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089
7. International Journal Of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT) ISSN: 2278-
0181 IJERTV4IS080593 Www.Ijert.Org (This Work Is Licensed Under A Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.) Vol. 4 Issue 08, August-
2015,Gabriel Fernandes / Lucas Feitosa ,Department Of Civil & Environmental
Engineering Howard University,Washington DC, United States
8. Journal Of The International Association Of Advanced Technology And Science
Automated Costruction By Contour Crafting ,Piyush Sharma ,Department Of Civil
Engineering, Dronacharya College Of Engineering
9. International Journal Of Research In Advent Technology (E-ISSN: 2321-9637)
Special Issue National Conference Vishwacon'16, 19 March 2016 22 Contour
Crafting A Potential Revolution In The Construction Industry.
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