The Artifacts of Illegal Immigration

www.archaeology.org A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America July/August 2009

January/February 2011

Top 10
Discoveries
of the Year

Australias
Painted
History
Saving Buddhist Heritage
in Afghanistan
PLUS:
Lost Viking Fortress,
Colonial Coffeehouse,
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 JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2011
VOLUME 64, NUMBER 1

CONTENTS
features
18 Mining A
Afghanistan
fghanistans
s Past
Will economic pressure destroy
the countrys Buddhist heritage?
BY ANDREW LAWLER

24 Top 10 Discoveries
of 2010
ARCHAEOLOGYs editors reveal the
years most compelling stories

32 Reading the Rocks

Aboriginal Australias painted history
BY SAMIR S. PATEL

38 The Fight for

Ancient Sicily
Rewriting one of the ancient worlds
most dramatic battlefield accounts
BY JOHN W. I. LEE

42 The Journey to El Norte

How archaeologists are
documenting the silent migration
that is transforming America
BY HEATHER PRINGLE

38 Specialists conserve and

analyze remains from the more Cover: Aboriginal X-ray depictions
than 2,000 graves found at
of kangaroos from the central panel
ancient Himera in Sicily, site
of a famed battle in 480 B.C. at Djulirri in northern Australia

vk.com/englishlibrary 1
 departments
4 In this Issue
6 From the President
8 Letters
9 From the Trenches
Roman helmet pokes holes in Englands
antiquities scheme, King Herods theater box,
remote Anasazi towers, and a lost Viking city
24

42
12 Reviews
The Olmec go Hollywood and pictures
from the spirit world

14 World Roundup
Roman Britain murder mystery, rst feast,
Paleo-atbread, the Young Man of Chan Hol,
earliest mountaineers, a 300-year-old watch,
and more

16 Insider
Who owns the dead? A controversial
32
amendment to federal repatriation law
complicates the relationship between
Native Americans and archaeologists

49 Letter from Virginia

How archaeology helped reconstruct
a long-lost eighteenth-century coffeehouse
in Colonial Williamsburg

72 Artifact
A model homecomplete with family dog
from a Han Dynasty tomb

on the web www.archaeology.org

More from this Issue: See a video tour of the Interactive Digs: Read about the latest
rock art at Djulirri in northern Australia, and visit another discoveries at the Minoan site of Zominthos in
site nearby with more painted surprises. central Crete.

Column: Heather Pringle discusses new thinking on Archaeological News from around the
the collapse of civilizations. Perhaps they didnt disappear, worldupdated by 1 p.m. ET every weekday. And
but just reinvented themselves. sign up for our e-Update so you dont miss a thing.

2
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
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IN THIS ISSUE
Editor in Chief
Claudia Valentino

Primary Sources AIA Online Editorial Director

Executive Editor
Mark Rose

Jarrett A. Lobell
Deputy Editor
Eric A. Powell
Senior Editors AIA Online Senior Editor
Samir S. Patel Eti Bonn-Muller
Zach Zorich

T he item that you see here is, quite obviously, a backpack. But it is also a
primary source, an artifact found in situ. It is like millions of other objects left
behind, through the millennia, by people who have tried to cross from a place
that has become undesirable, to one that might possibly offer more. In The Journey
to El Norte (page 42), contributing editor Heather Pringle visits with archaeologist
Design Director
Ken Feisel
Editorial Assistant
Malin Grunberg Banyasz

Contributing Editors
Roger Atwood, Paul Bahn, Bob Brier,
Andrew Curry, Blake Edgar, Brian Fagan,
David Freidel, Tom Gidwitz,
Jason De Leon to see the work he is doing in the Arizona desert to document what is Stephen H. Lekson, Jerald T. Milanich,
Jennifer Pinkowski, Heather Pringle,
a contemporary
contempo pattern of mass migration, before the Angela M. H. Schuster, Neil Asher Silberman
record of it i disappears.
Accou
Accounts of events by historians are sometimes Correspondents
Athens: Yannis N. Stavrakakis
incomp
incomplete. In The Fight for Ancient Sicily (page Bangkok: Karen Coates
Islamabad: Massoud Ansari
38), John
Jo W. I. Lee follows the work of archaeolo- Israel: Mati Milstein
gist St Naples: Marco Merola
Stefano Vassallo who has been excavating Paris: Bernadette Arnaud
the Sic
Sicilian site of ancient Himera, searching for Rome: Roberto Bartoloni,
Giovanni Lattanzi
the pre
precise location of a famed battle between the Washington, D.C.: Sandra Scham
Greek
Greeks and Carthaginians. Historians accounts
have varied and Vassallos work is beginning Publisher
Peter Herdrich
to ooer a detailed view of living, ghting, and Associate Publisher
Kevin Quinlan
dy
dying in 480 b.c. Fulllment Manager
In order to preserve a site for future study, Kevin Mullen
aarchaeologists seldom excavate all of it. But Vice President of Sales and Marketing
Meegan Daly
iin the case of Mes Aynak in Afghanistan Director of Integrated Sales
Gerry Moss
w
which provides an essential record of ancient Inside Sales Representative
Bud
Buddhism in that countrythey are hoping to Karina Casines
uncover as a much as they can before it is destroyed for West Coast Account Manager
Cynthia Lapporte
the copper that lies beneath
b it. For Mining Afghanistans Past Oak Media Group
cynthia@oakmediagroup.com
(page 18), we sent Andrew Lawler to Afghanistan
Afghan to document the work being done by 323-493-2754
French archaeologist Philippe Marquis in one on of the worlds most dangerous places. LATIN AMERICA REPRESENTATIVE
Adelina Carpenter
The struggle for who should decide what ha happens to the artifacts and remains of Native acarpent@prodigy.net.mx
011-52-55-55-43-7677
Americans continues
continues. InWho
In Who Owns the Dead?
De (page 16), Julian Smith lls us in on a Circulation Consultant
new amendment to federal repatriation law and examines the underlying cultural values Greg Wolfe, Circulation Specialists, Inc.
that shape the relationships among museums, Native Americans, and archaeologists. Newsstand Consultant
T.J. Montilli,
The question of who owns history also comes into play in Reading the Rocks (page Publishers Newstand Outsource, LLC
Ofce Manager
32), by Senior Editor Samir Patel. Patel traveled to the remote northern coast of Aus- Malin Grunberg Banyasz
tralia, to visit an extraordinary Aboriginal rock art site that has paintings dating from For production questions,
contact production@archaeology.org
15,000 years ago through the 1950s and constitutes the Aboriginal Australians account
of their history, including their record of contact with the world beyond their shores. Editorial Advisory Board
James P. Delgado, Ellen Herscher,
And, of course, we bring you the always popular Top 10 Discoveries (page 24). We Ronald Hicks, Jean-Jacques Hublin,
Mark Lehner, Roderick J. McIntosh,
guarantee at least a few surprises. Susan Pollock, Jeremy A. Sablo,
Kenneth B. Tankersley

ARCHAEOLOGY MAGAZINE
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Subscription questions and address

changes should be sent to Archaeology,
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toll free (877) ARKY-SUB (275-9782),
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4
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FROM THE PRESIDENT Archaeological
Institute of America
Located at Boston University

A Warm Welcome
to the AIAs New President OFFICERS
President
C. Brian Rose
First Vice President
Elizabeth Bartman

N o job is more important to me than safeguarding the past, and Im honored Vice President for Education and Outreach
Mat Saunders
to have served as president of the Archaeological Institute of America (AIA) Vice President for Professional Responsibilities
for the last four years. In my last column in Archaeology, I have the distinct Sebastian Heath
honor of introducing my successor, Elizabeth Bartman. Vice President for Publications
Jenifer Neils
The last four years have been dicult for archaeologists, as the scal crisis and the Vice President for Societies
continuing conicts in Iraq and Afghanistan have forced the disciplineincluding the Alexandra Cleworth
AIAto be both exible and vigilant. Treasurer
Brian J. Heidtke
Despite these challenges, we at the AIA Chief Executive Officer
have strengthened our connections in Peter Herdrich
other countries, especially Germany, Chief Operating Officer
Kevin Quinlan
Russia, and China, as part of an attempt
to form a United Nations of archae- GOVERNING BOARD
Susan Alcock
ologists, and our new site preservation Michael Ambler
grants have been awarded to projects in Carla Antonaccio
Cathleen Asch
eight countries. Elizabeth, or Liz, as youll Barbara Barletta
come to know her, will continue these David Boochever
Laura Childs
initiatives, and I know her energy and Lawrence Coben
wisdom will be boons to the AIA. Julie Herzig Desnick
Mitchell Eitel
Some of you may already know Liz William Fitzhugh
from her dynamic, wide-ranging AIA Harrison Ford
John Hale
Elizabeth Bartman and C. Brian Rose catch up
lectures, including Egypt, Rome, and Sebastian Heath
Lillian Joyce
at the AIAs recent gala in New York. the Concept of Universal History, The Jeffrey Lamia
Industry of Sculptural Restoration in Robert Littman
Elizabeth Macaulay-Lewis
Eighteenth-Century Rome, and Challenging the Masculinist Ideal: Sexy Boys in Peter Magee
Roman Art. Others of you may have consulted her magisterial study of Livia, wife of Shilpi Mehta
Helen Nagy
the emperor Augustus (Portraits of Liva: Imaging the Imperial Woman in Augustan Rome), Naomi Norman, ex officio
or her groundbreaking research on the archaeology of battle or ethnicity in Roman Eleanor Powers
Lynn Quigley
portraiture. She has served as an energetic president of the AIAs New York Society, an Dan Rahimi
Paul Rissman
exhibition review editor for the American Journal of Archaeology, and a trustee of the Ann Santen
Etruscan Foundation. I was fortunate to have had Liz as a colleague in graduate school at William Saturno
Glenn Schwartz
Columbia University, where we compared notes from our latest excavationsI at Aph- David C. Seigle
rodisias, she at Carthage and the Athenian Agora. For the last four years, during which Chen Shen
Douglas Tilden
she served as AIA rst vice-president, I relied heavily on her counsel and guidance. Claudia Valentino, ex officio
Liz says she is an archaeologist of the storeroommeaning she examines the familiar Ashley White
John J. Yarmick
for greater insight. That instinct will serve her well as she leads the AIA. She will take
a clear-eyed look at all we do and we will be better for it. I leave you with sadness but Past President
Jane C. Waldbaum
with the knowledge that the AIA is in excellent hands.
Trustees Emeriti
Norma Kershaw
Charles S. LaFollette

General Counsel
Mitchell Eitel, Esq,
Sullivan & Cromwell, LLP

C. Brian Rose Archaeological Institute of America

656 Beacon Street Boston, MA 02215-2006
President, Archaeological Institute of America www.archaeological.org

6
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
 Planet Art.
Explore the History of the Old Testament
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 LETTERS
Keeping Frothy Chocolate Alive
The Power of Chocolate (Novem-
ber/December) told how the Maya
and Aztecs cherished the foam atop
their chocolate drinks. Such a drink
is still made in the Zapotec region of
Mexico. Tejate is a traditional cacao
beverage made with a special meth-
od that produces foamthey even
have a tejate celebration every year at
San Andres Huayapan.
Earl Neller
Ellensburg, WA
As I read The Power of Chocolate,
I realized that ancient chocolate
preparation techniques are very much
alive in modern Nicaragua. A frothy
drink made of ground cacao and
ground corn known as pinole is com-
monly served at restaurants all over
the country. Frothing is important
because the ground cacao and corn
have a tendency to settle to the bot-
tom. The traditional way to drink
pinole is in a jicaro, a thin gourd ves-
sel that bears a striking resemblance
to the cylindrical drinking vessels
in the article. While many ancient
techniques have been lost, traditional
preparation practices in the Nicara-
guan diet and national psyche endure.
Zac Steele
Philadelphia, PA
The Power of Chocolate states
that Neil Judd found the 111
cylinder jars at Pueblo Bonito in
the 1920s. We work as seasonal
rangers at Chaco Culture National
Historical Park and conduct daily
tours at Pueblo Bonito. We tell our
visitors that it was George Pepper
and Richard Wetherill, of the Hyde
Exploring Expedition under the
ARCHAEOLOGY welcomes mail from
readers. Please address your comments
to ARCHAEOLOGY, 36-36 33rd Street,
Long Island City, NY 11106, fax 718-472-
3051, or e-mail letters@archaeology.org.
The editors reserve the right to edit
submitted material. Volume precludes
our acknowledging individual letters.
8
In 1896, the Hyde Expedition excavated these cylinder jars in Chaco Canyon.
auspices of the American Museum
of Natural History, who unearthed
the jars back in 1896.
Clif and Jane Taylor
Kensington, CA
Deputy Editor Eric A. Powell
responds: Thank you for writing in
and pointing out the error. While the
Smithsonians Judd did excavate some
cylinder jars at Chaco Canyon in the
1920s, it was Pepper and Wetherill
who uncovered the extraordinary cache
of 111 jars.
Taino Culture Lives
I was very disturbed at the assertion
that the Taino people no longer exist
in Uncovering the Arawaks (Sep-
tember/October). This is an aront
to many Puerto Rican and Domini-
can people who identify themselves
as Taino and practice Taino cultural
traditions. Though Europeans have
considered them to be extinct, native
peoples can still exist culturally
without true proof of bloodline.
Jo Lynne Harline
Ogden, UT
English Pet Peeve
In World Roundup (November/
December), you imply that fondness
for household pets in England was a
post-seventeenth-century development.
However, in the sixteenth century, the
Lisle Letters document a great fond-
ness for dogs and talking parrots. An
English nobleman, Lord Leonard
Grey, kept tame deer as pets. This
vk.com/englishlibrary
morally suspect fondness for pets
surely did not erupt from nowhere.
Marybeth Lavrakas
Chapel Hill, NC
Finger Bowls:
Not What You Think
World Roundup noted that a
tomb in Guatemala featured bowls
containing human ngers and teeth,
which might have been symbolic
food oerings. Food oerings?
They seem more like a public
display of grief arranged by the chief
mourners. I am interested to know
which ngers they were: important
thumbs or less essential pinkies, and
if they belonged to relatives of the
deceased. Thank you for a lively and
illuminating magazine.
Jean Corkill
Prunedale, CA
Senior Editor Samir S. Patel
replies: For more information on the
Guatemalan tomb, see our coverage
of it as one of the Top 10 discoveries
of the year (page 26). The bowls that
contained the ngers and teeth appear
to have been wrapped in some kind
of vegetal matter (as sacred foods
sometimes are), and it is possible
that all the ngers came from a single
individual, according to archaeologist
Stephen Houston of Brown University.
The ritual signicance of the bowls is
not completely understood, but it is
clear that the burial involved elaborate
and probably painful rituals.
ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
 LATE-BREAKING NEWS AND NOTES FROM THE WORLD OF ARCHAEOLOGY

Heads Won, Tales Lost

L ast May, a 24-year-old man in northern A rare Roman
bronze helmet was
England with a handheld metal al detector found found in northern
nze-and-tin
the remains of a stunning bronze-and-tin England by a man
Roman helmet dating to the first or second century using a metal detec-
tor. It was sold at
a.d. Within days, he had brought 40-some-some pieces of Christies auction
the artifactcalled the Crosby Garrettrett helmet after house several
the village near where it was foundtoto Christies months later.
torers began
auction house in London. There, restorers
reassembling the helmet, preparing itt for sale,
even reattaching a rare figurine of a winged
griffin that would have perched on the he peak of
the cap and had broken off.
Word of the nd soon reached Tullie llie
House Museum in Carlisle, 35 miles north more, the law doesnt apply to objects
of Crosby Garrett. Within a month, made of base metal or bronze, no
museum ocials raised more than matt
matter how noteworthy. These
$2.5 million to buy the piece at sho
shortcomings made the sale of the
auction, far above the artifacts high he
helmet possible.
estimate of $477,600, and close to To have it bought by a U.K.
the museums entire annual budget. pr
private buyer was the worst
But when the helmet went on p
possible outcome. Its a great
sale in October, a Britain-based lo that everyone very much
loss
collector outbid the museum, re
regrets, says Roger Bland, a
paying $3.6 million. As a result, Br
British Museum archaeologist
the British public may never see one and director of the PAS. The
of the most extraordinary Roman sale was an especially bitter pill
artifacts found on their soil. Tu House, whose Keep It
for Tullie
Ralph Jackson, the British Museum ms Cum
in Cumbria campaign to buy the
chief curator of Romano-British collec-ec- helmet h had kicked o with a $1.6 mil-
tions, saw the helmet under restorationon at lion pledge fro
from the government-funded
ir, the eyes,
Christies. You look at the folds of hair, Herit Memorial Fund. Natu-
National Heritage
nd you can
the eect of the tinning on the face, and rally this has been very disappointing, but were
kmanship. And
see its an example of top-quality workmanship. moving forward with several options we would like
the face has a chillingly serene expression that makes you to pursue with the buyer, including a temporary exhibi-
know that this is someone whos going to kill you, he says. tion or creating a replica, says Andrew Mackay, Tullie
The case has shocked the British museum world. It Houses senior curator. So far we have received no reply.
has also revealed a gaping hole in the countrys Portable The anonymous nderwho, along with the owner
Antiquities Scheme (PAS), by which people who nd of the land on which the helmet was found, is now a
artifacts made of gold, silver, and other precious materi- millionairehas shown authorities the artifacts exact
als are required to oer them to a museum at fair market nd spot on a remote hillside, and archaeologists plan to
value. The law strongly urges metal detectorists and deal- excavate soon, according to Sally Worrell, a PAS ocer
ers to report all types of archaeological nds, but it does in London. But were trying not to publicize the nd
not require them to do so. (The auction house had volun- spot too much, for obvious reasons, she adds.
tarily reported the helmet to PAS authorities.) Further- Roger Atwood

www.archaeology.org
vk.com/englishlibrary 9
 FROM THE TRENCHES

Luxury Box Seating Archaeologists

working south
of Bethlehem

I
on the site of
n the rst century b.c., thousands of guests came to be
King Herods
wined, dined, and entertained in a massive palace and burial palace and
complex built by King Herod south of Bethlehem. Hebrew entertainment
University archaeologist Ehud Netzer calls it Herods Country complex have
Club. But where would the VIPs have sat to watch the dramatic uncovered an
elaborately
and comedic productions staged for them? According to Netzer,
painted
theater box.

who has been excavating a section of the site since

2006, the lavishly decorated theater box he recently
uncovered above a semicircular theater stage and
rows of bench seating would have been the ideal
vantage point.
Wall paintings such as those that decorate the
royal box have never before been discovered in this
region. Depicting natural landscapes, nautical scenes,
animals, and the Nile, they are most similar to
paintings found at Pompeii that date to the late rst
century b.c. Netzer believes they were painted by
Italian artists brought in specially for the job.
Mati Milstein

Ask Utah State Archaeologist
Kevin Jones what his favorite
overlooked site is and hell tell
you that, without a doubt, it is
Cave Towers.
The site Cave Towers, also referred
to as Mule Canyon Towers, is named
for seven large Anasazi, or Ancestral
Puebloan, stone towers that were
built around A.D. 1200 at the head
of a deep gorge on Cedar Mesa in
southeastern Utah. Rising amid piyon
and juniper, the towers may have been
defensive works, perhaps associated
with dwellings built into nearby cliffs.
Jones says the site has an unusual
power to engage visitors imaginations,
and that should you visit, you will nd
yourself wondering just who these
people were, and why they chose to
build towers around this remote gorge.
Keep in mind Cave Towers is an
extremely fragile site. The towers
need stabilization and there are
no signs or paths at the site. Jones
cautions visitors not to lean on the
masonry and, of course, never take
any artifacts.
Other places of interest Jones says
Hovenweep National Monument, some
40 miles from Cave Towers, is one
place not to miss. The park protects
six prehistoric Ancestral Puebloan
era villages spread over a 20-mile
expanse of mesa tops and canyons
along the Utah-Colorado border.
Another place not to miss is the
nearby Edge of the Cedars State Park,
the site of an Ancestral Puebloan ruin
and a museum that has an excellent
collection of pottery.

While youre there Cave Towers is 20

miles from the towns of Blanding and
Bluff, where there are several hotels.
If you nd yourself in downtown Bluff,
says Jones, you must treat yourself to
a meal at the San Juan River Kitchen,
which has an organic garden and
serves meat that is hormone- and
antibiotic-free, a big surprise in a town
as small as this. MALIN BANYASZ

10
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
Irelands Viking Fortress
T he remains of the legendary
Viking fortress Linn
Duachaill have been
discovered in northeastern Ireland,
45 miles north of Dublin. Historians
to as a longphort, a term used to
describe a fortication built by the
Vikings to protect their ships.
A defensive rampart has already
been excavated at the site and exam-
metalwork looted from native Irish
sites have also been recovered. We
are excited to learn what insights
into medieval times Linn Duachaill
will reveal, says Kelly.
and archaeologists have been trying to ples of Viking silver and ecclesiastical Erin Mullally
locate Linn Duachaill for more than
200 years, says Eamonn Kelly, Keeper
of Antiquities with the National
Museum of Ireland, who led a lengthy JOURney into the heart of History
research and targeted excavation effort
Since 1983, Far Horizons
that resulted in the discovery of the has been designing
infamous Viking base. ANCIENT MAYA
CAPITAL CITIES unique itineraries led
Copan, Tikal, Yaxchilan, by renowned scholars
Bonampak, Palenque for small groups of
With Epigrapher, Stanley Guenter sophisticated travelers
March 3 - 13, 2011 who desire a deeper
knowledge of both
THE OLMECS past and living cultures.
With Professor Kent Reilly
March 12 - 19, 2011
SYRIA
With Dr. Amr Al-Azm
May 6 - 21, 2011
JORDAN
With Professor Gary Rollefson
May 22 - June 4, 2011
TURKEY BY YACHT
With Professor Jennifer Tobin
May 15 - 28, 2011 FEATURED
JOURNEYS
GREECE
With Professors Jeremy ETHIOPIA
& Maud McInerney & the Easter Festivities
June 6 - 16, 2011 With Professor Neal Sobania
Linn Duachaill was founded in April 12 - 26, 2011
a.d. 841, the same year as Viking SOUTHWEST USA
Dublin. The fortress was used as a Co-sponsored with UCLA Extension CYPRUS & MALTA
center by the Vikings to trade goods, With Dr. E.C. Krupp With The History Channels
organize attacks against inland Irish June 17 - 26, 2011 Professor John France
April 3 - 17, 2011
monasteries, and send captured Irish LIBYA
slaves abroad. For more than 70 years, With Professor Garrett Fagan IRAN
Linn Duachaill rivaled Dublin as the October 8 - 23, 2011 With Dr. Ruth Young
preeminent Viking holding on the April 24 - May 11, 2011
and much more!
east coast of Ireland before it was Scotland Turkey Italy Greece
eventually abandoned. The Crusades Oman Peru
The discovery of Linn Duachaill China Mexico Silk Road
will nally allow archeologists to Cambodia & Laos Yucatan
English Pub Crawl Sudan India
compare the actual site with medieval
documents. The names of leaders of
the garrison are recorded, along with Photo: Ethiopia Icon
extensive accounts of attacks they
carried out. The site is often referred 1-800-552-4575 www.farhorizons.com
www.archaeology.org
vk.com/englishlibrary 11
 REVIEWS
BOOKS

Pictures from the Spirit World

F or more than 40 years, David Grant Noble has
been using a camera to capture the meaning and
emotion of the archaeological sites of the American
Southwest. In the Places of the Spirits (School for Advanced
Research Press, $60.00 cloth, $30.00 paper) is a collection
of very fine black-and-white photographs with accompa-
nying text that offers an intimate view of these ruins.
The book is divided into two parts. The first treats
archaeological sites, including the ruins of Kiet Siel and
Canyon de Chelly, as well as a variety of rock art sites, as
artistic subjects. These are not the typical sun-
The cliff houses at Betatakin bleached shots of the ancient Southwest, but are
in northeastern Arizona
rather a tonal investigation of ruins and artifacts
were built in 1267 and
abandoned by 1300. best examined slowly. Nobles accompanying text
offers a blended narrative that touches on the
archaeology, ethnography, and spiritual experience
of the areas. The tone, again, is quiet.
In the books second part Nobles photographs
bring us closer to the present with shots of archae-
ologists excavating the remains of Pueblo Grande,
an enormous site that was in the path of a new
expressway being constructed in Phoenix in 1990.
Noble documented the excavations, but also
became fascinated with the modern people living
in the parks and on abandoned pieces of land that
were about to be paved. The book moves naturally
from past to present, but I couldnt help wishing
for more photographs of the excavations. Nobles
work succeeds, however, because he is equally
comfortable working in both worlds.
Zach Zorich

EXHIBITIONS The site of La Venta near Mexicos Gulf

Spotlight on the Olmec Coast has produced some spectacular

Olmec artifacts, including a funeral offering
of green stone figurines (below), and one of

T he Olmec of Mexico may be the Etruscans of ancient Mesoamerica. the famous colossal heads (right).
Much as the Romans overshadowed the Etruscans, the Olmec
have long lacked a place in the popular imagination on par with
the Aztecs and Maya. But Olmec: Colossal Masterworks of Ancient
Mexico, at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art through
January 9 and at the de Young Museum in San Francisco
starting February 19, might change that. The show
reveals that the Olmec civilization, which flourished on
the tropical Gulf Coast of Mexico for a thousand years
ending about 400 b.c., also achieved greatness in some
of its enormous ceremonial works.
The exhibition is the biggest of three concurrent
shows that opened LACMAs airy and adaptable new
Resnick Exhibition Pavilion. The six-foot-tall Colossal
Head #5 from the ancient city of San Lorenzo greets
visitors with an arresting sneer. At the other end of
the long, spacious main gallery is its counterpart,
with a face like a smiling Buddhas. Its benign

12
vk.com/englishlibrary
visage, were told, didnt save the head
from having its nose smashed off
mutilations were a common fate for Port Arthur.
the statuary of deposed Olmec royals. TA SM A NIA , AUST R A LIA .
Cutting through the otherworld-
liness of much of what we see in
this show are moments of connec-
tion between then and now, notably
El Bebe, a squalling green-stone
infant shown in a squint-eyed, gape-
mouthed howl familiar to parents
throughout the ages. But a ceremonial
array of 16 coneheaded figures could
feed a UFO enthusiasts fantasies of ONE OF TA SM A NI AS F I V E NE W
ancient visitations. Few works any- UNE SCO WORLD HERITAGE SIT E S
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on the edge of the world, visit discovertasmania.com

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www.archaeology.org
vk.com/englishlibrary 13
 WORLD ROUNDUP
MEXICO:
The Young
Man of Chan
Hol was
interred in a
cave in the
Yucatn
more than
10,000
years ago,
and there he
stayed, even
as sea levels
rose and the
cave flooded. Three years ago,
divers found his remains 1,800
feet in. After studying them in
situ, archaeologists have methodi-
cally removed the bones, some of
the oldest in North America, for
conservation and additional study.
Physical anthropologists hope
they will provide insight into the
peopling of the Americas.
PERU: Some of the tattoos
on a 1,000-year-old female
Chiribayan mummy might
have been more than decora-
tion. In addition to designs
on her limbs, she had 12
overlapping rings tattooed
on her nape. While most of
the markings were made with
straight carbon soot, the
ones on the neck were done
with partially burned plant
matter. That and the fact that
the neck designs are close to
acupuncture points suggest
they might have been
applied to relieve muscle or
nerve pain.
14
SCOTLAND: Talk about ut Old ENGLAND: At Vindolanda, a Roman
World craftsmanship.. This frontier town, archaeologists found
pocket watch was found und a mystery from the third century A.D.
in the 1990s on the In a shallow grave in the towns bar-
wreck of the Swan, racks were the remains of a girl just
a ship that sank in eight to 10 years
1653 during the Englishish old. In Roman
Civil War. It is covered
d times, burials
with rock-like encrusta-
ta- were done out-
tions, but X-ray computed side settle-
tomographythe same process used to ments, so the
peer into the famous Antikythera find suggests
Mechanismhas now revealed a beauti- someone com-
fully preserved interior. Steel parts cor- mitted a crimi-
roded away, but nal act and then
the intact brass colluded with
holds remarkable other men in the
details, including a barracksthe
makers mark. Nice Fourth Cohort
work, Niccholas of Gauls
Higginson of to bury the
Westminster. evidence.
ITALY: Once thought to be almost
exclusively meat-eaters, Paleolithic
people in Europe may have munched
on flatbread as well. Grinding stones
from Italy, Russia, and the Czech
Republicare embedded with starch
grains, suggesting that 30,000 years
SWITZERLAND: ND: ago people processed roots from
In dreams, a cattails and ferns into flour, a food
door is sup- option for lean hunting times. The
posed to find pushes the first use of flour back
represent by 10,000 years and suggests that
opportunity or a women played a role in food produc-
passage to a new tion at the time. Researchers report
phase in life. The one that simple bread made with cattail
that archaeologists
logists flour doesnt taste so bad.
found under a new parking
garage for Zrichs
richs opera
house represents
ents clever design
and a surprising
i llevell off preserva-
tion. The 5,000-year-old poplar door, in
amazing condition for being one of the oldest
in Europe, has a sophisticated joinery
designunusual and rarely found in wood-
work from the period.
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
 By Samir S. Patel
PALAU: When humans hunt or har-
vest an animal, individuals of that
species often get smaller. Think of a
heavily fished lakefew
efew
fish survive to grow
ow to
full size. Human pres-
ence might have had
the opposite
ISRAEL: Wedding reception. effect on the
Thanksgiving. Natufian burial cere- humped conch, a
mony. Archaeologists found what small sea snail
they believe is the earliest clear evi- that has been
dence for feasting. A concentration eaten for thou-
of butchered tortoises and wild cattle sands of years.
at a mortuary site suggest that the As human pop-
Natufians 12,000 years ago celebrat- ulation has
ed the burial of the dead with large grown, the aver-
communal meals. The behavior marks age size of the
a critical turning point in human cul- conchs hasin defi-
efi-
ture, as the Natufians began the tran- ance of convention-
on-
sition from the isolation and wariness al wisdomcrept
of a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to the upward. This might be caused by
interdependence and sedentism of human activity and agriculture add-
an agricultural community. ing nutrients to the water.
PAPUA NEW GUINEA: Archaeologists
have found the earliest high-altitude
INDIA: Many studies have looked at settlements of modern humans, 1.2
bioturbationhow plants and ani- miles up in the chilly Ivane Valley.
mals alter archaeological sitesbut People used the five camps around
rarely in ground saturated by mon- 49,000 years ago, leaving behind
soons. Researchers working on stone tools and charred nutshells and
Paleolithic sites noticed that water bones. They may have lived there, as
buffalo leave deep, lasting footprints opposed to more temperate areas on
in mud. So they set up an experi- the coast, to take advantage of abun-
ment, creating and placing their own dant high-altitude food resources.
stone tools, wetting the ground, and But they
leading buffalo across it. They found would have
the hooves could push artifacts needed
down by eight inchesthousands of some well-
years in the archaeological record in developed
some placesand noted patterns survival skills
that can help determine if other to thrive
sites have been disturbed by lum- and avoid
bering bovines. hypothermia.
www.archaeology.org
vk.com/englishlibrary
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15
 INSIDER
By Julian Smith
Who Owns the Dead?
A controversial amendment to federal repatriation law complicates the relationship
between Native Americans and archaeologists
I n 1888, Franz Boas, the father of
American anthropology, traveled
to British Columbia to survey
tribes in the region and to build up
his collection of Native American
skulls, in some cases by digging in
historic cemeteries. In June of that
year, the man who would go on to
become famous as the most promi-
nent advocate of anthropology as a
tool against racism wrote, It is most
unpleasant work to steal bones from
a grave, but what is the use, someone
has to do it. In those days, even
the most forward-thinking archae-
ologists and anthropologists didnt
hesitate to ship off boxes of recently
buried Native American bones to
gather dust on the shelves of distant
museums. Its ironic, says archae-
ologist Sonya Atalay of Indiana Uni-
versity. As anthropologists, we know
how much can be learned about a
culture from looking at how they
treat the dead.
In 1990, to redress more than a
century of scientic indierence to
Native American rights and spiritual
beliefs, both houses of Congress
unanimously passed the Native
American Graves Protection and
Repatriation Act (NAGPRA). The
law codied how federally funded
researchers and museums handle
human remains and funerary
objects, and required that bones and
artifacts be returned to descendant
communities that could demonstrate
a link to them. By most accounts,
the law was a positive example of
the political art of compromise,
giving tribes a new voice in the
world of science and fostering new
relationships between archaeologists
and Native Americans.
16
But this year the law was amend-
ed to apply even to the remains of
ancient people that cannot be clearly
identied with a descendent com-
munity. Many archaeologists are
outraged because remains that are
thousands of years old will now be
vulnerable to repatriation to tribes
that have no scientically demon-
divergent world views. On one
Franz Boas, perhaps Americas most
influential anthropologist, admitted his
excavations in the late 19th century felt
akin to grave robbery.
strable link to them. For their part,
some Native Americans, including
scientists, are concerned that the
new rule applies only to remains and
doesnt require funerary artifacts to
be handed over as well.
The ensuing uproar has cast
a shadow over the laws rst two
decades of measured success, and
has cast NAGPRA into new relief,
forcing archaeologists and Native
Americans alike to revisit what the
original legislation got wrong and
what it got right, and to consider
what the future holds.
vk.com/englishlibrary
NAGPRA was passed because a
broad consensus developed that the
time had come for federally funded
institutions to begin a respectful
handover of the 157,000 Native
American and Native Hawaiian
individuals, as well as several
million funerary objects, that lay in
their collections. The law required
all 623 of these institutions to
inventory their collections and
consult with federally recognized
tribes with which the remains might
be culturally linked. If the tribes
chose, they could then request any
aliated remains and objects be
repatriated, or handed over.
NAGPRA struck a delicate
balance between two potentially
side were scientists, curators, and
educators who saw the artifacts and
bones as a unique source of scientic
data and historic information.
On the other were native tribes
troubled by the way the remains of
not just distant ancestors but family
members were being treated. More
extreme positions on both sides
included those Native Americans
who felt anything short of reburial
was sacrilege, and scholars who
predicted entire disciplines would be
paralyzed by paperwork.
The law was aimed at the sizeable
middle ground. Everyone had to
give a little, but it really was a com-
promise, especially at the grass-roots
level, says Vin Steponaitis of the
University of North Carolina, who
helped draft the law. Native Ameri-
cans compromised on the idea of
universal repatriation, and scholars
eventually agreed to consider return-
(Continued on page 58)
ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
 1-800-728-6999 www.scientificsonline.com

Aquitane Sundial Ring Intelliglobe

Replica of Ancient Time Telling Tool Talking Geography Lesson
Almost 900 years ago, in 1152, Eleanor of Travel across the world with this inter-
Aquitaine gave a sundial like this one to King active globe using digital geographic
Henry II of England so that Henry would know technology. A talking wireless reader
when to return from the hunt for their visits. delivers exciting educational facts
Henry had a copy of the dial made for Eleanor about the various continents, countries,
that was inlaid with diamonds and engraved bodies of water, landforms, and more.
with the words Carpe Diem or Seize the Day. Customize your hands-on geography
Today, the Aquitane Sundial Ring, named for Henrys lesson by downloading free online con-
lover, will help you know the time of day. Suspend this replica dial by its black tent onto the wireless reader using your
satin cord, and on sunny days a thin ray of sun shines through a tiny hole to USB port. You can then use it to play
illuminate a number, revealing the time. The signs of the Zodiac are also games, lead trivia review sessions,
shown along the outside edge of the ring. Includes instructions. compare structures, and more. Audio is
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O
ne decade after the world
witnessed the deliberate
dynamiting of Afghani-
stans Bamiyan Buddhas
by the Taliban, another
Afghan heritage site is
under threat. But this time the danger comes
from mining interests bent on getting at whats
underneath the site of Mes Aynak. This dense
cluster of richly appointed Buddhist stupas,
chapels, monastic quarters, storerooms, and
a host of surrounding ancient settlements
faces total destruction. Mes Aynak means
little copper well, and it sits on top of the
worlds second largest copper deposit. With
the blessing of the Afghan government and a
nod from the United States, a Chinese min-
ing company intends to begin extracting the
metal and provide this desperately poor coun-
try with much-needed revenue. The mining
will almost certainly require demolition of
the dozen or more ancient sites covering ve
square miles. What will be sacriced is noth-
ing less than a major part of Afghanistans
Buddhist history. But French archaeologist
Philippe Marquis is determined not to let
that happen.

I n the early centuries a.d., the people

of what are now modern Afghanistan
and Pakistan played a critical role in dis-
seminating Buddhism. Rich kings patronized
monasteries and artisans produced some of
the rst, nest, and largest Buddhist sculp-
tures and paintings known. In the second cen-
tury a.d., Kanishka, the ruler of the Kushan
empire, centered in Afghanistan and Pakistan,

Mining
Afghanistans Past
Will economic pressure destroy the countrys Buddhist heritage?
by Andrew Lawler

18
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
adopted Buddhism. He also held a major council to codify its practices. Images The ancient Buddhist monastic complex
of Buddha, inuenced by Greco-Roman sculptural traditions, proliferated. of Tepe Kafiriat lies atop the worlds
second largest copper deposit. A Chinese
The Afghan Buddhist monasteries were not the isolated retreats they
mining company, whose workers camp
appear to be today. Monastics were sent as far as eastern India for training and can be seen here, plans to begin extracting
also to bring Buddhist teachings to China and southeast Asia. When Bud- copper at the site. As a consequence,
dhism became Chinas ocial religion, Chinese pilgrims ocked to the centers the monastery and many other Afghan
of devotion and learning in Afghanistan and Pakistan.These monasteries had Buddhist sites will be destroyed.
a major inuence on Central Asia and China, says John Huntington, an art
historian at The Ohio State University.
University of Michigan historian Stewart Gordon helped launch an eort
to create a database of all known Afghan Buddhist monasteries that existed
during the period from a.d. 200 to 1200 to provide a fuller picture of this
little-known era. All of us thought that the monasteries were strung along
trade routes like pearls on a string, because traders were the primary patrons,

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says Gordon. But what he and his
colleagues found instead were huge
clusters of wealthy institutions. In
Afghanistan, the centers are found
in Balkh, Bamiyan, and Hadda near
Jalalabad. Recent excavations at
Mes Aynak, whose great prosper-
ity may have come from granting
mining rights to the regions rulers
to support their building programs
and operations, reveal that this
site was one of these important
monastic centers, a fact unknown
until now.

O n a map, getting to
Mes Aynak looks like an
easy half-hour drive from
the center of Kabul. But this is no
normal commute. Stopping along
the way at any one of the small vil- Philippe Marquis, head of the French archaeological as much as 2,500 acres. Marquis
lages in the fertile valley along the delegation in Afghanistan, is a key player in the effort says that there are six to eight sites
Logar River is not an option, since to preserve the monastic complex at Mes Aynak. over seven square miles. During a
the ethnic Pashtuns of this region brief campaign in 2009, archaeolo-
are sympathetic to the Taliban. And The great wealth of the Buddhist monasteries gists excavated 10 percent of Gol
there have been sporadic rocket in this region likely came from copper Hamid. Though the Chinese do
attacks on Kabul from this area. mining. Even the rocks that litter the sites not allow access to the compound
Turning o the main paved road show evidence of the areas mineral wealth. now, archaeologists did nd a well-
onto a bumpy track, there is a vil- preserved building with barrel-
lage half-ruined by the heavy oods vaulted chapels, monks cells, and
that also devastated Pakistan in the storerooms dating from the fth to
summer of 2010, and the rst of a seventh centuries a.d. Painted clay
series of heavily guarded security statues, including a sleeping Bud-
posts. To protect the investment dha and two armored soldiers, were
of China Metallurgical Group, the shipped to the National Museum
Afghan government has deployed in Kabul for conservation. The site
nearly 2,000 soldiers to guard the then was covered up.
copper treasure of Mes Aynak. But these nds cant compare to
Every 500 yards along the rough what is coming out of the ground
road is a concrete guardhouse. just up the road. Marked by com-
Two concentric high fences that manding fortress-like towers and
follow the harsh terrain encircle the walls, the site of Tepe Kariat
perimeter of a vast area. A platoon (Mound of the Unbelievers) was
of Afghan soldiers stands at attention on a parade ground at once a thriving community of Buddhist monks in the cen-
one of several forbidding roadblocks. Mes Aynak is one of the turies preceding the rise of Islam in the seventh century a.d.
most heavily guarded archaeological sites on Earth. Ketab Khan Faizi, director of excavations for the Afghan
At the center of this fenced area is a narrow pass between Institute of Archaeology, and his team began work in late
two steep and barren hills. On one side is a high-walled com- 2009, braving the autumn cold to uncover the delicate terra-
pound for Chinese mine workers that also encloses the Bud- cotta statues and nely worked wall paintings. Much had
dhist monastery called Gol Hamid. At the high point of the been stolen or destroyed by looters who repeatedly raided the
pass looms the mound of Tepe Kariat, the largest monastic site after the American-led oensive of 2001. Faizi says that
complex. Just beyond is the small modern village of Baba some 18 Institute ocials and 90 local workers have been
Wali, which likely sits on another ancient settlement. Cling- digging since late 2009 to expose a rectangular platform
ing to the spine of the adjacent hill is another mound that some 260 feet long by 115 feet wideon top of a stone wall
may have been a mining community. And beyond this are at that still reaches as high as 25 feet. The platform, which is
least a half-dozen tells. The entire archaeological site covers divided into three distinct areas, has rounded towers on each

20
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
end, which are a common feature of forts and caravansaries its volume, archaeologists may be able to calculate how much
of the region, but unusual in a monastery. wood or charcoal was necessary to produce ancient cop-
A pilgrim arriving at Tepe Kariat would rst have per here. Looking out over the relentlessly dry and barren
climbed wide steps to reach the southern terrace, an open landscape, its hard to imagine where the fuel to power the
courtyard where eight stupasceremonial structures typi- furnaces could have come from. Is it possible that deforesta-
cally containing Buddhist relicssurround one large one. tion of the hills may have brought the boom times to a halt?
Each stupa is covered in an elaborate fretwork of dark-gray It is not clear when copper production at Mes Aynak began
stone, and several once had seated Buddhas on small podi- or ended. Marquis also questions how a sophisticated copper
ums. In front of the main stupa, a pair of large feet is all that mining operation evolved. How did they get the technical
remain of a lost Buddha that had stood nearly 10 feet tall. know how? Marquis muses. Perhaps the Chinese brought
Beyond the courtyard, at the center of the rectangle, is it, he chuckles.
a chapel that may have had bright wall paintings and been
lined with statues in various states of repose and meditation.
Some sacred paintings survive, among the only ones left in
Afghanistan in the wake of the destruction at Bamiyan. At
one end of the chapel, the remains of a 25-foot-long sleep-
I n an attempt to drum up support for excavat-
ing Mes Aynak before its slated destruction, Marquis
recently visited Xian in central China, once the countrys
capital, at the far end of the ancient Silk Road. Buddhism,
ing Buddha are covered with protective plastic. Once there
were statues everywhere, but many other gures have been
plundered. Much remains hidden in lower levels in this part
of the mound. During the most recent months of digging,
Faizis team has uncovered stone and wood statue fragments,
gold and silver coins, and clay Buddha heads. One bodhisat-
tva sits next to the representation of a proud donor, who may
have been a prince or wealthy merchant who wanted to be
associated with this gure of a saint. This is a spectacular
intact nd, says Huntington, noting that images of donors
and gods are not typically found together, or are often sepa-
rated by archaeologists during removal.
Behind the chapel is a small plaza, which Marquis specu-
lates may have been roofed with beams held up by standing
Buddha columns. Beyond it is a maze of monks cells, with
arched doorways and windows that now overlook the Chi-
nese mining camp. Adjacent is a section devoted to storing
food and supplies for the winters that begin early here. As
of fall 2010, only half of Tepe Kariats upper levels had
been exposed.

M es Aynaks fate has always been tied to copper.

Above the modern village of Baba Wali, which is
also slated for destruction, there is another mound.
Unlike the two monasteries, this site appears to be strictly
secular. There are no Buddhas here, only practical buildings
and storage facilities.This may have been the center of min-
ing, explains Marquis. Here the rocks themselves have the
telltale bluish-gray cast of copper and the hillside is littered
with thousands of pieces of ancient slag from copper process-
ing. In the 1970s, Russian engineers had dug deep swaths into
the dirt and rock on the ridge above Baba Wali in preparation
for mining operations that were cut short by the 1979 Soviet
invasion. Sturdy stone walls are visible in the cuts, a sign of
activity likely related to ancient mining operations.
The slag itself raises intriguing questions. By estimating

The unusually fine masonry walls surrounding

Tepe Kafiriat confirm the wealth and
importance of this Buddhist monastic site.

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after all, reached China from Afghanistan via this route. In
the meantime, the French mission is paying for a detailed
topographic survey of the area to pinpoint heritage sites.
The World Bank intends to provide funding for an overall
assessment and an excavation plan. Omar Sultan, Afghani-
stans deputy minister of information and culture, says his
oce and the Afghan Ministry of Mines are hammering out
an agreement giving archaeologists extended access to the
gated site. And according to Brendan Cassar, UNESCOs
cultural heritage ocer in Kabul, in September of 2010,
the Karzai government formally asked UNESCO to assist
in coordinating the huge eort. For now, time may be on the
archaeologists side. Via a combination of quiet negotiation
and public criticism, Marquis and Afghan archaeologists
have won a reprieve for Mes Aynak.
We will have three years to excavate the site, says Sul-
tan. The matter is deeply personal for Sultan, who trained
as an archaeologist and who does his job without taking
pay. He was with the joint Afghan-Soviet team that rst
surveyed the site in 1976. Archaeologists agree that three
years may not be enough to excavate a site of this scale and
importance. I will do the best I can, says Sultan, to save
my countrys heritage.
The Afghan archaeologists working at Mes Aynak live
simply in white canvas tents, but long-term excavations will
22
vk.com/englishlibrary
In addition to its impressive architecture, the monastery of
Tepe Kafiriat contains startling 5th-century sculptures,
including this representation of a bodhisattva.
require generators, more permanent shelters, and reliable
and secure transportation to and from Kabul, says Marquis.
Bringing in foreign specialists is a priority as well. Most of the
statues and wall paintings are in fragile condition and require
immediate removal and conservation by experts. And many,
particularly those of unred clay, may not survive the jarring
trip through Kabuls potholed streets. Helicopters may be
the best way to transport them to the museum. Even the
chemicals required for the conservation work must be own
into Afghanistan.
A deluge of material is National Museum Director
Omara Khan Masoudis personal nightmare. From his oce
on the outskirts of Kabul, Masoudi is preparing for a meet-
ing with U.S. embassy ocials to discuss Mes Aynak. He is
also still attempting to restore and modernize the countrys
premier museum, which was badly damaged during the civil
war that raged from the time of the Soviet withdrawal in
1989 until the Taliban won control of Afghanistan in 1996.
The Taliban subsequently smashed many of the statues left
behind. Originally designed as an administrative oce, the
building lacks adequate security systems, climate control,
ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
and storage and conservation facilities.Last week, they sent
eight boxes from Mes Aynak, he says dolefully. We cant Aynak argue that the long-term value of what they recover
accept the artifacts. We just dont have the space. Masoudi
recalls that in the 1970s, an Italian team excavated a massive
Buddhist monastery near the eastern city of Ghazni that
produced huge quantities of high-quality statuary. Mes
Aynak will produce three or four times as many artifacts,
Masoudi predicts. He is pushing to construct a conservation
and storage facility on the site, followed by a museum to
exhibit some of the nds.
An international eort to excavate and preserve Mes
Aynak could also breathe new life into Afghanistans tiny
archaeological community and stop the organized looting
that is as much a part of the Afghan economy as poppy
cultivation. For the past 30 years, there have been no real
excavations here, Marquis says. And now we have a new
generation. At the side of a nearby mound, nine archae-
ology students from the University of Kabul are getting
their hands dirty for the rst time. Some wear city clothes,
button-down shirts, slacks, and black shoes. Marquis hopes
to bring a total of six student teams here for three-day, and,
eventually, one-week stints. One team is all female, though he
says their families are unlikely to allow them to leave Kabul.
It may seem fruitless in a country with a resurgent Taliban,
a weak government, and increasing violence and corruption
to be training archaeologists while attempting to rescue an
This 5th-century painting from Tepe Kafiriat illustrating
a scene from the life of Buddha is one of very few surviving
frescoes that once decorated monasteries across Afghanistan.
www.archaeology.org
vk.com/englishlibrary
ancient Buddhist complex. But those intent on saving Mes
will ultimately be worth it.
T here are other factors in play that may delay
Mes Aynaks destruction. These days, there is no
sign of activity in the Chinese workers camp. There
is still no power plant, no smelter, and, most importantly,
no railroad to transport the tons of copper ore over the
Hindu Kush to China. Though the Afghan government is
counting on near-term revenues from the mine, the eort
seems likely to stall in the midst of a world economic crisis.
According to another Afghan ocial who asked to remain
unnamed, recent publicity about the Buddhist remains at
Mes Aynak spooked the Chinese company, which, though
owned by the Beijing government, is traded on the Hong
Kong stock market.
The drama at this site is likely to be repeated at other
locations in Afghanistan. An iron ore concentration near
Bamiyan is slated for development, as is a silver mine near
the Panjshir Valley north of Kabul. Both are located close to
archaeological sites yet to be fully surveyed, much less exca-
vated. According to Marquis, what takes place here at Mes
Aynak could set a standard for future mineral exploitation.
But to make use of the three-year window, the Afghan
government and international organizations must come
up with as much as $15 million just to
excavatean immense sum in this cash-
strapped country and nearly three times
what has been spent on stabilizing the
remains of the Bamiyan Buddhas and
the damaged wall paintings in adjacent
caves. There is no place yet to conserve
the thousands of delicate statues and
other artifacts certain to come out of
the ground at Mes Aynak, no facility in
which to store them safely once they are
restored, and no certainty that special-
ists will even be able to visit a site that is
o-limits to most foreign visitors because
of local unrest. Heritage ocials such as
Cassar, who believes Mes Aynak will be
one of the most important archaeologi-
cal sites ever dug in Afghanistan, remain
locked in their compounds, unable to visit
the very sites they are there to protect.
But Marquis remains undaunted, and
is almost buoyant about the possibilities
Mes Aynak oers to engage the world in
Afghanistans battle to save its past. This
is a global issue, Marquis says. You cant
replace the Bamiyan Buddhas. And you
dont need to destroy Mes Aynak.
Andrew Lawler is a contributing editor
to Archaeology.
23
 D
ecades from now people may remember 2010 for the BP
oil spill, the Tea Party, and the iPad. But for our money,
its a lock people will still be excited about the years most
remarkable archaeological discoveries, which we explore (along with
one undiscovery) in the following pages.
This was the year we learned that looters led archaeologists to
spectacular and unparalleled royal
tombs in both Turkey and Guatemala.
An unexpected nd brought us closer
to Pocahontas, and an underwater
archaeological survey in the high
Canadian Arctic located the ill-fated
HMS Investigator, abandoned in 1853.
Archaeologists werent just busy
in the eld, though. A number of

breakthroughs happened in the lab, too.

A new radiocarbon dating technique
was perfected this year that will allow
scientists to date artifacts without
harming them. Laboratory analysis of the
bones of a close relative of Lucy revealed
how early hominins walked. And anthropologists in Germany
announced startling news about the Neanderthal genome that might
send you scrambling to submit your own DNA for sequencing.
For the third year, we also highlight ve threatened sites that
remind us of how fragile the archaeological record is. They include an
ancient city in Iraq that is eroding into the Tigris and a painted cave
in Egypt thats being slowly destroyed by well-meaning tourists.
But its not all bad news out there. One of the most alarming stories
this year out of the American Southwest was the news that as part of
a cost-cutting measure the Arizona state government closed Homolovi
Ruins State Park. The closing raised fears that the parks signicant
cluster of Ancestral Puebloan villages dating from a.d. 1260 to
1400 would be left more vulnerable to looters. But at press time we
learned the Hopi Tribe signed an agreement with the state to reopen
the park. An innovative government-tribal partnership will allow
the descendants of the people who once lived at Homolovi Ruins to
safeguard its future. The Editors
24
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
The Tomb of Hecatomnus Milas, Turkey

T urkish authorities have arrested looters

who are suspected of tunneling their way
into one of antiquitys most intriguing tombs.
likely the looters had already sold artifacts from the
tomb on the black marketshelves in the chamber are
now empty.
The looters reached the underground cham-
ber, which lies below a temple to Zeus near the
town of Milas, by digging in from a nearby
house and an adjacent barn. Scholars
believe the tomb belonged to Hecatom-
nus, the fourth-century b.c. ruler of
Caria, a kingdom in what is now south-
western Turkey. Hecatomnus was the
father of Mausolus, who was buried in the
Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, one of the
seven wonders of the ancient world. (The
architectural term mausoleum is derived
from the Carian rulers name.)
The tombs walls are decorated in col-
ored frescos that are in need of immediate
conservation. The chamber held an elabo-
rately carved marble sarcophagus with a
relief of a bearded, reclining man, believed to
depict Hecatomnus. According to journalist
zgen Acar, who has followed the illicit antiq-
uities trade in Turkey for decades, the looters
rst entered the tomb in the spring of 2008
and were looking for a buyer for the sarcopha-
gus this summer when the authorities moved
in. Police arrested 10 suspected looters in a raid
in August. At press time, ve of the defendants
remained in jail awaiting court proceedings. Its
Acar believes that while the drilling equipment
they used to tunnel into the site may have been
sophisticated, the looters were not profes-
sionals. They didnt have any expertise, says
Acar. They were locals. But Turkeys Culture
Minister Ertugrul Gunay believes other-
wise. This is not an ordinary treasure
hunt. Its very organized and its obvious
that they received economic and sci-
entic help, he told the Anatolia News
Agency, adding that Turkey would inves-
tigate the suspects foreign connections.
Due to the ongoing police investiga-
tion, details about both the case and the
discovery are still incomplete. But there
is little doubt that the tomb is potentially
of great importance for understanding
the art and craftsmanship of the Carians,
the greatest example of which was the
Mausoleum of Halicarnassus. Created
by the nest architects and sculptors of the
day, parts of the mausoleum stood until the
late fteenth century. A statue of Mausolus
in the British Museum (left) seems to bear
a family resemblance to the bearded man
depicted on the sarcophagus.
Matthew Brunwasser

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Paleolithic Tools Plakias, Crete

A research team led by Thomas Strasser of Providence

College and Eleni Panagopoulou of the Greek Ministry
of Culture announced the discovery of stone tools at two
sites on the island of Crete that are between 130,000 and
700,000 years old. The tools resemble those ose made by
Homo heidelbergensis and Homo erectus, showing
that one of these early human ancestors boated
oated
across at least 40 miles of open sea to reachch
the island, the earliest indirect evidence off
seafaring. If hominins could move around d
the Mediterranean before 130,000 years
ago, they could cross other bodies of water er
as well, says team member Curtis Runnels s
of Boston University, who helped analyze
the tools. When similar finds on other
islands are confirmed, the door will be
opened to the re-evaluation of every
assumption we have made about early
hominin migrations. Zach Zorich

Royal Tomb El Zotz, Guatemala ala

A deep looters trench led archaeologists to a series

of amazing, macabre nds beneath the El Diablo
pyramid at the modest Maya city of El Zotz. They
discovered, just 10 feet beyond where the looters had
stopped digging, increasingly bizarre caches, including
bowls containing severed ngers, teeth, and a partially
cremated infant. There was mounting evidence of
weirdness there, says Stephen Houston of
Brown University, who co-led the excavation
with Edwin Roman of the Universities of Texas
and San Carlos of Guatemala.
The oerings were adjacent to an Early
Classic Maya tomb containing the remains of a
king dressed as a ritual dancer, complete with a
belt adorned with shell bells and mammal
teeth. This guy would have made
quite a racket, says Houston.
He was buried with
the skeletons of four infants, the skulls of two older
children, textiles, carvings, and an array of ceramics,
including a tamale bowl depicting a peccary (below).
Based on the position, wealth, and date of the tomb
(a.d. 350), researchers believe the king may have been
the founder of a dynasty. The tomb is located in a palatial
complex high above the central part of the ancient
city, next to a spectacular stuccoed pyramid
that would have been visible for miles
around. Were looking at the way in
which the Maya create dynasties, says
Houston. You do it with a loud crash
of cymbals.
The discovery also shows that even sites
hit hard by looters have much to oer. Its
just a miracle this thing wasnt
looted, says Houston.
Samir S. Patel

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Early Pyramids Jaen, Peru
P erus towering burial mounds, with their
underground chambers and layers upon
layers of history, had long been thought to be a
distinctive feature of the countrys arid coast.
But the discovery of two ancient pyramid
complexes near the town of Jaen, on the western
edge of the Amazon lowlands, shows that
monumental architecture had spread across the
Andes and well into the jungle thousands of years
before the Spaniards arrived. The largest mound,
over an acre at its base, was overgrown with
vegetation and used by modern townspeople as a
dump and latrine before Peruvian archaeologist
Quirino Olivera, of the Friends of the Museum
of Sipn, began excavating there. He soon found
evidence of construction on a massive scale
walls up to three feet thick, ramps, and signs of
successive building phases stretching back at least
2,800 years.
People had assumed monumental architecture
never reached the jungle. This discovery shows
it did, says Olivera. To build these structures,
people must have had knowledge of engineering
and design, and a large, stable work force. Until
now, it was assumed they lived in huts made of
tree trunks and leaves.
At the same pyramid he found the tomb of
HMS Investigator Banks Island, Canada
T hey found the old British ship exactly where it was
supposed to be. It hadnt drifted out to sea, been salvaged
by American whalers, or broken up by waves, as various
theories had suggested. HMS Investigatorthe first ship to sail
the westernmost leg of the Northwest Passagewas found
last July in Canadas Mercy Bay under 30 feet of water, but
otherwise right where its crew left it in 1853.
The crew, abandoning the ship when it became trapped in
pack ice, spent three winters in the area before being rescued
and returning to Britain, which made them the first people to
travel the passage (by ship, foot, and sled) from end to end.
Given the remote location outside Canadas Aulavik National
Park, the ease of the discovery was quite unexpected.
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a high-status man who, at his burial
around 800 b.c., was decked out with
the shells of some 180 land snails. A
layer of snails covered the mans torso,
and more shells adorned his head and
limbs. The man was probably a healer
or priest of some kind, says Olivera. He
found marine mollusk shells in another
tomb nearby, testament to the busy
trade ties from the coast over the Andes
to the jungle. The nds suggest that,
along with sophisticated architecture,
complex worship had spread far from
the coast centuries before once believed.
Roger Atwood
We came prepared to search for
16 hours a day for two straight weeks,
says Ryan Harris, an underwater
archaeologist with Parks Canada who
led the team. We actually found the
ship in just under three minutes.
Harris used side-scan sonar towed
from a 19-foot inflatable boat to locate
the well-preserved wreck. At the
same time, two more archaeologists
documented the remains of the crews
caches (believed to have influenced
the material culture of the local Inuvialuit people) and located
the graves of three unlucky seamen who died of scurvy before
rescuers arrived.
The crew of Investigator never found the two lost British
ships, Erebus and Terror, they were sent to find. Harris plans to
return to Mercy Bay with
dive gear in summer 2011
to take a closer look at
Investigator. And to keep
an eye out for whatever
else might be in those
Arctic waters.
Krista West
27
Decoding the Neanderthal Genome Leipzig, Germany
T his past year will always be
remembered as the year we found
out that the Neanderthals survived and
they are us. Following years of tantalizing
announcements from the Max Planck
Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology
in Leipzig, a research group led by
genetic anthropologist Svante Pbo
completed a first-draft DNA sequence of
a Neanderthal. Although this sequence
includes only 60 percent of the
Neanderthal genome, it does provide
some interesting insights into the biology
of this distinctive human species. The
sequence showed that variations in just one gene might
account for the differences in the shape of the skull, rib cage,
and shoulder joint between Neanderthals and modern humans.
Child Burials Carthage, Tunisia
A team led by University of Pittsburgh physical anthro-
pologist Jerey Schwartz has refuted the long-held
claim that the Carthaginians carried out large-scale child
sacrice from the eighth to second centuries b.c. The
researchers announced their results this year after spend-
ing decades examining the cremated remains of 540
children from 348 burial urns excavated in the Tophet
(below), a cemetery outside Carthages main burial ground.
Schwartz determined that about half the children were
prenatal or would not have survived more than a few days
beyond birth, and the rest died between one month and
several years after birth. Only a very few children were
between ve and six years old, the age at which they begin
to be buried in the main cemetery. The mortality rates
vk.com/englishlibrary
A major insight came when researchers
compared the Neanderthal DNA to the
DNA of three modern people (one French,
one Han Chinese, and one Polynesian).
The team found that all three had
inherited between 1 and 4 percent of
their DNA from Neanderthals. They also
compared the Neanderthal sequence to
two African individuals (one Yoruba and
one San) and found no indication that they
had inherited genes from Neanderthals,
who are known to have evolved outside
Africa. The research supports the idea that
Neanderthals interbred with Homo sapiens
between 100,000 and 80,000 years ago as our anatomically
modern ancestors left Africa and spread across the globe.
Zach Zorich
represented in the cemetery are consistent with prenatal
and infant mortality gures found in present-day societies.
There is a credible medically and biologically consistent
explanation of the Tophet burials that oers an alternative
to sacrice, says Schwartz. While it is possible that the
Carthaginians may have occasionally sacriced humans,
as did their contemporaries, the extreme youth of the
Tophet burials suggests [the cemetery] was not only for
the sacriced, but also for the unborn and very young,
however they died. And since at least 20 percent of them
werent even born when they were buried, they clearly
werent sacriced.
Schwartz also has another type of evidence to support
his claim that the Tophet children died of natural causes.
In many societies newborns and very
young children are not treated as indi-
viduals as older children and adults are,
he says, suggesting that they wouldnt be
considered appropriate for sacrice. A
clue that the Carthaginians didnt view
these children as distinct entities comes
from Schwartzs analysis, which shows
that in many urns, there are remains of
several dierent individuals. There can
be four or ve of the same right or left
cranial bone in the same urn, but there
would not be enough other bones to
reconstruct the same number of indi-
viduals, says Schwartz. The remains
of multiple children were gathered up,
perhaps even from dierent cremations,
and sometimes mixed in with charcoal
from the small branches of olive trees
used for the funeral pyre.
Jarrett A. Lobell
Kadanuumuu Woranso-Mille, Ethiopia

F or the last 35 years, the short-legged Lucy skeleton

has led some scientists to argue that Australopithecus
afarensis didnt stand fully upright or walk like modern
Kadanuumuu (right)
would have towered
over Lucy (below).
humans, and instead got around by knuckle-walking
like apes. Now, the discovery of a 3.6-million-year-old
beanpole on the Ethiopian plainschristened Kadanuu-
muu, or Big Man in the Afar languageputs that tired
debate to rest. The new fossil demonstrates these early
human ancestors were fully bipedal.
Many dozens of A. afarensis fossils have been uncov-
ered since Lucy was discovered in 1974, but none as
complete as this one. Kadanuumuus forearm was rst
extracted from a hunk of mudstone in February 2005,
and subsequent expeditions uncovered an entire knee,
part of a pelvis, and well preserved sections of the thorax.
We have the clavicle, a rst rib, a scapula, and the
humerus, says physical anthropologist Bruce Latimer of
Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio, one
of the co-leaders on the dig. That enables us to say some-
thing about how [Kadanuumuu] was using its arm, and
it was clearly not using it the way an ape uses it. It nally
takes knuckle-walking o the table. At ve and a half feet
tall, Kadanuumuu would also have towered two feet over
Lucy, lending support to the view that there was a high
degree of sexual dimorphism in the species.
Brendan Borrell

1608 Church Jamestown, Virginia

A rchaeologists searching for a mens

barracks at Jamestown, Virginia, site
of the first permanent English colony in
the New World, have found instead the
remains of the earliest Protestant church
Pocahontas
in North America. Led by Bill Kelso, Historic
Jamestownes director of archaeology, the team
exposed five deep postholes spaced 12 feet
apart. Records indicate the wooden church,
built in 1608, was 60 feet long. It didnt take a
mathematical genius to figure out
that we had found it, says Kelso.
The most prominent building
at Jamestown, the church would
have been a statement about how
important the colonists considered
religion, says Kelso. Several
notable events in the colonys early
history took place there, including
Pocahontass 1614 marriage to
tobacco farmer John Rolfe. Kelso
also found that at least six high-
status colonists were buried in the
churchs chancel, an area near the
altar where important rites would
have been performed. Now we can
actually point to the spot where
Pocahontas got married, says
Kelso. How often does something
like that happen in archaeology?
Eric A. Powell

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Nondestructive Radiocarbon Dating College Station, Texas

P recisely dating archaeological artifacts is not as easy or

harmless as it might seem. The most common method,
radiocarbon dating, requires that a piece of an organic object
be destroyedwashed with a strong
acid and base at high temperature to
remove impurities, and then set aflame.
The resulting release of carbon dioxide
is fed to an accelerator mass spec-
trometer, which measures the decay
of radioactive carbon 14the more the
carbon 14 has decayed, the older the
object is.
Over the past 20 years, chemist
Marvin Rowe of Texas A&M Univer-
sity has developed a nondestructive
method for carbon dioxide extraction.
In his process, an object is placed in a
vacuum chamber and a supercritical
fluida hybrid gas/liquidis applied
as a solvent (as in dry cleaning). Next,
Rowe passes plasmaan electrically
excited ionized gasover the artifact,
which selectively strips carbon from
the sample. Its essentially like slowly
burning the sample, so we can just
oxidize a little off the surface and collect that carbon dioxide,
explains Rowe. This year he further refined the method so it
will work on objects coated in sticky hydrocarbons, such as
the resins that cover Egyptian mummy gauze.
Thus far, hes dated samples of wood, charcoal, animal skin,
bone from a mummy, and ostrich eggshell. Everything so
far that weve tried to do with the nondestructive technique
has agreed statistically with regular
A 1,350-year-old radiocarbon dating, Rowe says, and
Egyptian weaving
you basically dont see any change in
before dating...
the sample.
R. E. Taylor, a radiocarbon expert
at the University of California, River-
side, says Rowes technique may have
limitations, as items older than 10,000
years will have impurities that the
technique may not be able to purge.
Archaeologists, meanwhile, are hail-
ing the discovery as one of the most
...and after important in decades, particularly for
issues surrounding the repatriation of
human remains from Native American
burials, which modern tribes dont
want to see harmed.
Rowes refinement of carbon
dioxide extraction dovetails with an
update to the radiocarbon calibration
curve, which increases the accuracy
of radiocarbon dating by accounting
for past fluctuations in carbon 14. According to researchers at
Queens University of Belfast, the new curve doubles the accu-
racy of dating as well as the age of artifacts on which it can be
used, from 25,000 to 50,000 years. Nikhil Swaminathan

Artists rendition of a Undiscovery of the Year

comet striking the earth. Clovis Comet North America

I ts commonly believed that North Americas Clovis culture came to an

end around 12,900 years ago, when their characteristic spear points
disappeared from the archaeological record. At the same time a number of
large animal species such as mammoths and saber-toothed tigers became
extinct. In 2006, a team led by geologist Richard Firestone of Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory put forth a theory that a comet struck the
Earth around this time, engulng the continent in forest res and caus-
ing the mass extinctions as well as the demise of the Clovis culture. They
deduced this from the existence of a one-millimeter-thick soil layer at sev-
eral Clovis sites that contains a high concentration of particles that appear
to have extraterrestrial origins.
This year archaeologists Vance Holliday of the University of Arizona
and David Meltzer of Southern Methodist University oered a point-by-
point refutation of this premise, saying that evidence of the extraterrestrial
particles does not show up at many Clovis sites, and that a careful exami-
nation of the archaeological record shows that the population in North
America did not drop at the time of the purported comet impact. As for
the Clovis culture itself, Holliday and Meltzer think a new interpretation
of radiocarbon dates indicates the people gradually stopped making the
spear points they are associated with and simply began making another
kind. Perhaps they didnt disappear at all. Zach Zorich

30
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Sites Under Threat
Hunter-Gatherer Landscape California or erect a wall protecting the entire site have been ignored

C onstruction of
vast solar farms
in the deserts of south-
by the government, which chose instead to cover the
remains in sand. Scholars, however, worry this measure
wont adequately protect the sites well-preserved second-
eastern California is century a.d. architecture.
threatening to perma-
nently erase prehistoric Cave of the Swimmers Egypt
Native American sites.
Critics charge that
while the need for new
T he Neolithic rock art at the Cave of the Swimmers,
made popular by the 1996 lm The English Patient,
is being admired to death by tourists who feel compelled
sources of renewable to touch the 10,000-year-old paintings. Visitors are
energy is a clear national priority, the rush to build solar
infrastructure in order to qualify for tax breaks has led to
inadequate archaeological testing and evaluation of sites
in the way of planned solar arrays. The regions famous
Blythe Geoglyphs, still a destination for Native American
pilgrims, will not be directly aected by the development,
but the rich archaeological landscape of which they are a
part will be altered forever.
Underwater Shipwrecks Massachusetts Bay

H istoric shipwrecks
all over the world
are severely damaged
by bottom trawling, a
shing method that also coming in such numbers that their breath and
involves hauling huge perspiration have altered the caves climate, causing severe
nets across the ocean deterioration of the artwork. The site is one of many
oor. In the Stellwa- in Egypts remote deserts that are being compromised
gen Bank National by unsupervised visits. The Supreme Council of
Marine Sanctuary, Antiquities and the Ministry of the Environment have
nearly all known begun outreach programs to the desert drivers who
shipwrecks have been ferry visitors to the sites. Ocials hope the drivers can
damaged by shing, including the coal schooner Paul encourage tourists to behave appropriately around fragile
Palmer, which sank in 1913 and is on the National Reg- archaeological remains.
ister of Historic Places. Not only does the initial impact
of trawl gear damage the vessels, but the nets can become Ashur Iraq
entangled with the sites, making it dangerous for archae-
ologists to work there. Federal ocials are considering a
proposal to create a heritage preserve around certain ship-
A section of the
Assyrian capi-
tal of Ashur in cen-
wrecks to prevent damage from shing. tral Iraq is gradually
eroding into the
Allianoi Turkey Tigris River. Dating

A reservoir created
by a new hydro-
electric dam in west-
to 2500 b.c., the
site, now known as
Qalah Sharqat, or
ern Turkey will soon Earthern Castle,
permanently ood the was partially exca-
ruins of the Roman- vated in the early twentieth century. But since then no
era bath complex of signicant archaeological work has been done on this
Allianoi. International important Mesopotamian city. Press reports indicate local
proposals to relocate antiquities ocials are trying to raise funds to build a wall
Allianois thermal spa to protect the site from the river.

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 R
text and photographs onald Lamilami rst came to Djulirri ( JUH-lih-ree) in the early
1960s, when he was three years old. On foot and by canoe, his father,
by Samir S. Patel Lazarus, showed him the route that their Aboriginal ancestors had
used for thousands of years, following food and shelter inland from
Australias north coast. Each wet season, those ancestors spent several
months at Djulirri, a well-concealed rock shelter in a horseshoe-shaped
valley. I remember paintings on rocks, Lamilami says.
In 2010, Lamilami sits in the passenger seat of an o-road vehicle driven by archaeolo-
gist and rock art specialist Paul S. C. Taon of Grith University in Gold Coast, Austra-
lia. The narrow track through Lamilamis clan estate isnt so much rutted as corrugated,
and Taons strategy is to keep up his speed and skip across the surface, except when it
winds around fallen trees or through soft, sandy washes. The Aborigines here have six
seasonsit is the end of Wurreng (the early dry) and the start of Gurrung (the hot dry).
During any of the wetter seasons, the road would be waterlogged and impassable.
The landscape of stringybark eucalyptus, pandanus palms, and spiky spinifex grass
is studded with sandstone outcrops that form part of the Wellington Range on the
edge of the Arnhem Land plateau. This is the remote hump on Australias back, the
tip of the Northern Territory, a place of ghost stories, sandies, burning brush, termite
mounds, and saltwater crocodiles. Before long the road peters out, so Taon and Lami-
lami proceed on foot.
Australias native people rst arrived on the continent around 50,000 years ago.
Before English colonization, which began in the 1780s, the Aborigines were semi-
nomadic hunter-gatherers, a diverse collection of regional cultures that spoke some 200
dierent languages. Among their most enduring shared cultural traditions, practiced
for tens of thousands of years, is rock art. All over the continent Aboriginal groups
created engravings, drawings, stencils, and paintings using natural pigments mixed
with spit, animal fat, or tree resin. Their works served as everything from signposts
to teaching aids to painted histories, and there are at least 5,000 rock art sites in the
Wellington Range alone. But theres nothing in Arnhem Land, Australia, or the rest
of the world, quite like Djulirri.
Lamilami and Taon make an unusual pair. Lamilami is short, stout, and darkhis

face and body made entirely of curves. Taon is tall, with hooded gray eyes, a white
beard, and the pallor of someone who knows his way around a tube of sunblock.
Joined by Aus
Australian National University archaeologist Peter Veth, some graduate
Djulirri
students, an
and a two-man lm crew, they tromp through the underbrush for 30
minutes before
be Lamilami stops to call out to his ancestors in Maung, his native
languag
language: Strangers are approaching, but theyre friends, so please could
you kkeep the wild things away while theyre here? Taon then guides the
gro
group, his voice so slow and soft that its sometimes drowned out by
rrustling grass, to a small slot canyon.
They duck under a low arch and squeeze between boulders to
rreach the shelter, a large open space weathered deep into the cli face.
OOn its back wall is Djulirris central panelmore than 160 feet long
an
and 10 feet high. First one sees the colors, a complex tableau of reds
and yellows and black and white that looks almost abstract but rewards
close study. A large, recently painted red-and-white emu dominates one
end of the composition, and from behind it peek at least four kangaroos,
hundre
hundreds or even thousands of years old, painted in the anatomically reveal-

32
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
ing X-ray manner that shows muscles, organs, and bones. Detailed sh and plants Griffith University rock art expert
lie behind white stick gures acting out various scenes, such as a boxing match. Paul S. C. Taon and Aboriginal elder
Ronald Lamilami discuss indigenous
A panel of shipsfrom modern ocean liners to WWI destroyers to British tall
rock art traditions in the rock shelter at
shipsdominates one area, but a wider view shows that theyre painted atop a Djulirri, which features 1,100 separate
massive crocodile and sea turtle. There are paintings of a bicycle, a dugong hunt, and paintings, including the overlapping
pipe-smoking Europeans. On the ceiling is a twisted, malevolent spirit gure. spirit figure and kangaroo above them.
There are 1,100 paintings on this panel aloneand certainly more that have
been washed away or painted overin 20 discernable layers, dating from 15,000
to just 50 years ago. Its hard to argue with Taons take: Djulirri is among the top
handful of rock art sites in the world, and in its layers of pigments and stained rock
is an abundance of information about Aboriginal culture and how it dealt with the
sweeping changes of the last few centuries.
The initial English colonization of Australia was followed by the mission
period, which severed many native people from their seasonal rhythms. Lamilami
was educated in a mission school, where traditional ceremonies were considered
sinful and restricted to brief bush holidays. He lost touch with places like thisa
common aiction of his generation, when traditional knowledge was overwrit-

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Djulirri, Arnhem Land, Australia
The central panel at Djulirri spans 160 feet and
15,000 years of Aboriginal history, up to and
including contact with Europeans. This section
of it contains many of these post-contact works,
offering insights into the Aboriginal experience
during this time of great change.
1 This detailed red-and-white emu may be the most recently
painted work at Djulirri. Thought to be just 50 years old, it
lies atop a number of X-ray depictions of kangaroos. These
paintings, hundreds or perhaps thousands of years old, are
akin to scientific diagrams, displaying muscles, organs, nerves,
and bones. The presence of kangaroos, which are no longer
common in the area, indicates the climate was once drier.
ten by Western thought, and his culture slowly became the
province of archaeology.
Djulirri had been documented and photographed before,
during brief visits from Anglo-Swedish photographer Axel
Poignant and Australian rock art expert George Chaloupka
in the 1950s and 1970s, respectively, but neither conducted
detailed studies and the location was lost until 1998. At that
time, archaeologist Daryl Guse was conducting a survey of
culturally signicant sites in the region before mining compa-
nies came in to look for uranium deposits. He and Leonard
Lamilami, a ranger and one of Ronalds sons, rediscovered
the shelter on the southern side of the familys traditional
land. Eventually, in 2007, they brought Ronald back, and
the next year Taon and Sally K. May, of the Rock Art
Research Centre at Australian National University, began a
detailed study, documenting and photographing the art for
comparison with the historical record and examples from
other parts of the country. The last visit [before 2007] was
with my dad, says the elder Lamilami. When I came back,
my dad wasnt here with me, but I had my son. So I was my
dad and my son was me.
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2 After contact with Europeans, paintings at many sites
take on a rushed quality, as indigenous people were pulled
away from their traditions. This collection of white figures
acts out a variety of scenes, including a boxing match and a
man climbing a long pole, perhaps to reach inaccessible sites
for painting. Despite the disruptions, the Aborigines tried to
maintain their traditions of art and documentation.
This time, Taon has brought Lamilami to show him art
beyond the central panel. Seemingly around every corner in
the maze of sandstone that surrounds the valley are more
paintingsa ying fox, more tall ships, extinct animals, a
stencil of a boomerang. In less than ve acres, there are 52
panels containing 3,000 pieces, making it the largest painted
rock art site in Australia. Some of these panels include unique
pieces, such as stencils of singing honeyeaters, birds no longer
common in Arnhem Land, and what might be a Thylacoleo,
or marsupial lion, thought to be extinct for 30,000 years. (If
thats, in fact, what it is, the time lines for extinction and/
or Australian rock art will need to be rethought.) Poignant
and Chaloupka never saw the full extent of the complex.
Im quite convinced Im the rst non-indigenous person to
see some of those things, says Taon. I just couldnt believe
my eyes. In some ways, I still cant. Maybe thats why I keep
bringing other people back herefor them to pinch me and
conrm Im not dreaming.
Walking through Djulirri is much like touring the gal-
leries, alcoves, halls, and great rooms of a massive outdoor
museum. But in practice, it seems to have functioned more
ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
 4
3 Painted over many older works, this portion of the panel
features depictions of several 20th-century vehicles, including
sailing vessels, a World War I destroyer with guns, a biplane
from the same period, and a modern ocean liner. Forms of
transportation are common motifs in contact-period artwork.
To Aborigines, ships were both intimidating symbols and
sources of novel goods.
like a library or newspapera chronicle of Arnhem Lands
native people and what mattered to them over the last 15,000
years. All the stories are here in the rock art, says Lamilami.
Each year, a new concept would be drawnwhat happened
the year before that. Its a time lapse. The art reects envi-
ronmental shifts, cultural developments, and the catastrophic
disruption that came with contact from the outside world.
Other rock art sites, such as Lascaux in France, capture only
a narrow period of time, and even the deepest archaeological
deposits arent willful creations like this. Djulirri might be the
longest continuously updated human record in the world.
T he rock art of Arnhem Land allows researchers
to track the Aboriginal approach to their world over
thousands of years. The oldest art dates to between
13,000 and 15,000 years ago, and is characterized by large,
naturalistic depictions of signicant animals, such as a large
yellow snake on Djulirris main panel. Then the artists began
what is called the dynamic gure phase (9,000 to 12,000
years ago), which featured stylized depictions of humans and
animals in action scenes, suggesting a shift toward narrative.
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4 This painting of a British tall ship is an X-ray depiction,
showing the vessels interior and cargo holds. It is a
representation of a new subject in a traditional way, and it
also shows that the Aborigines knew these vessels intimately,
perhaps from working in them. The arm above the ship
belongs to a crocodile (spanning the page), and behind the
ships rigging on the left is the head of a massive sea turtle.
And between 4,000 and 6,000 years ago the art diversied
and ourished. Large naturalistic paintings of human gures
emerged, stick gures were used to depict larger scenes such
as battles, and the paintings of animals showed a growing
interest in anatomythe X-ray depictions.
That suggests to me they were keen naturalists, says
Taon,scientists who made the equivalent of scientic draw-
ings. They were interested in forms of record-keeping that
we attribute to advanced civilizations.
The rst images of mythological beings, such as the
Rainbow Serpent or the spirit gure on Djulirris ceiling,
appeared at this time, as well as stylized, sexualized depic-
tions of women. The art also reects environmental changes.
Early paintings of kangaroos and stencils of honeyeaters
neither common in the area todaysuggest a drier climate,
and then give way to sh, illustrating a wetter climate and the
emergence of freshwater wetlands. Art also became highly
regional, as environmental changes pressed groups together
and motivated them to distinguish themselves.
Its through the rock art record that we can see changes
in their material culture, changes in their spiritual culture,
35

changes in their society, as well as responses to changes in
their environment, says Taon.
The greatest of all these changes was contact with the
outside world, which impacted every facet of Aboriginal
life. Following a time of great detail and sophistication in
the art, the contact period brought crude, more rushed
artistry. The art has been called casual paintings, doodles
that lack the value of the more sophisticated traditional
work. Were trying to show they have extreme value, not
just in terms of aesthetics, but in that theyre loaded with
information, says Taon. They present, according to him
and his colleagues, a previously unacknowledged, alternate
native history.
The Wellington Range in general, and Djulirri specically,
oer a great opportunity to study rock art from this crucial
period of change. Its actually the most
dense and varied area for contact-period
rock art anywhere in the world, let alone
Australia, says Taon. Theres nothing
else like it.
Contact rock art consists of depictions
of both traditional and introduced sub-
jects, such as ships, knives, and monkeys,
and even bicycles, planes, and Winchester
ries (as an X-ray, bullet in breach).
At Djulirri, as at other sites, ships are a
common subject. They were the largest
physical manifestations of the new arriv-
als, both imposing and sources of goods
Archaeologist Peter Veth, Ronald
Lamilami, and Paul Taon discuss a
mysterious painting at Djulirri. It might
depict a Thylacoleo, or marsupial lion,
thought to be extinct for 30,000 years.
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Stylized, sexualized paintings of
women adorn a hard-to-reach ceiling
next to Djulirris central panel.
and foods. Some of these paintings, such as
the British tall ship high on the central panel,
are X-ray depictions, with remarkable internal
detail. This shows more than a simple interest
in the ships; it says something about the nature
of Aboriginal interaction with the new arriv-
als. They were familiar with the ships inner
workingseither from being shown them or
working in the holdsand illustrated this in
a way that was already part of their artistic
practice. They took the most interesting bits
of the new happenings and incorporated them
into their long-standing traditions, says Taon.
The new is grafted onto the old.
The Aboriginal depictions of Europeans
themselves are just as telling. At Djulirri, as at
sites all over the country, Europeans are most
often depicted with comically tall hats and large pipes, and
very distinctively shown with their hands on their hipsa
domineering posture that would have been entirely foreign
to the natives (and that Lamilami recalls from his child-
hood). Contact rock art that depicted traditional subjects
was also inuenced by the new arrivals. For example, the
large crocodile and another one like it at a nearby site called
Malarrak may have been painted to express and strengthen
identity and attachment to country in a time of great change,
according to Guse.
I think of them as rock documents, says Alistair Paterson,
an archaeologist from the University of Western Australia.
Paterson is studying the engraved contact rock art of a region
called the Pilbara for comparison with Djulirri and contact
art in other parts of the country, as part of a larger project
ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
called Picturing Change. We start This painting of an Indonesian prau,
a vessel with a distinctive tripod
to get an indigenous counterpoint to mast, was datable because of the
a fairly white perspective of a frontier later beeswax works that sit atop it.
of contact and conict. Maybe its
trying to make sense of things in a
period of greater change than people haps not widelythat the Aborig-
had experienced in 40,000 years. ines had early contact with the
Macassans, Indonesian seafarers

W hen the English

first arrived in the late
eighteenth century, they
considered the Aborigines to be an
isolated, lost culture of primitives.
However, Taon and others believe
that interaction between the outside
world and the Aborigines of Arnhem
Land was quite long-lived, rather ami-
cable, and began much earlier than
was previously thought, and theyre
looking to the rock art to prove it.
Over the last 1,000 years and
perhaps longer, the seas of Southeast Asia have been home
to a tradition of maritime trade to rival that of the Mediter-
ranean. Northern Australia seems to have been left out of
this picture prior to the arrival of the English, even though
the Dutch, who had a strong colonial presence in Indone-
sia, made maps of the coast more than 100 years earlier.
But there are tantalizing hints that there was interaction
between Aborigines and outsiders much, much earlier. The
canines that would eventually become dingos, for example,
were introduced to Australia around 4,000 years ago. Rock
art believed to be up to 2,000 years old has patternssuch
as hatching and lozengesstrongly reminiscent of Asian
fabric. The oral traditionsome combination of history
and mythspeaks of the Baijini, a people who came from
the north. A Portuguese jar found in Darwin Harbor might
date to around 1500. Excavations at
rock shelters show that there was a
surge in population in the Welling-
ton Range around 600 years ago
as if some new development were
drawing people closer to the coast.
It may well be that small groups
of people were arriving on Australias
northern shores sporadically for thou-
sands or even tens of thousands of
years, but archaeologically or geneti-
cally we just dont have the technology
to pick that up, says Taon.
It is already knownthough per-
from the Dutch company town of
Macassar (now Makassar) on South
Sulawesi. The Macassans had a clear
linguistic and cultural impact on the
Aborigines, who adopted Macassan
words and technologies, including
the dugout canoe. But the precise
date of their earliest visits hasnt been
nailed downcould they have had
regular contact with Aborigines well
before the Europeans arrived?
The study of rock art would
seem an unlikely candidate for set-
tling this questionit is usually nearly impossible to date.
For this reasonand because rock art is often subject to
whimsical interpretationssome archaeologists arent
particularly keen on it. But this is another way in which
Djulirri is unique. High up in one corner of the central
panel is a depiction of an Indonesian prau, a vessel with a
distinctive tripod mast and square sails. With the prau is
another piece, an 11-foot-long snake rendered, connect-
the-dots-style, in small plugs of beeswax, a form native
to part of northern Australia. Some of the beeswax lies
directly atop the praus painted lines, and can be radiocarbon
dated to provide at least a minimum age for the arrival of
Macassans on Australian shores. We want to use rock art
as datahistorical data, archaeological data, says Taon.
(continued on page 68)

The men on this steamship at Djulirri

have the domineering, hands-on-
hips posture that often distinguishes
Europeans in Aboriginal art. A loading
ramp is visible at right.

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The Carthaginianssay that [they] fought with the Greeks in Sicily from dawn until late in the day
and that during this time Hamilcar remained in camp and made sacrices for good omens, oering
entire carcasses on a great pyre. Then, seeing his troops routed as he was pouring libations on the
sacrices, he cast himself into the re. Thus he was completely consumed by re and disappeared.
Herodotus ..

The Fight for

ANCIENT SICILY
Rewriting one of the ancient worlds
most dramatic battleeld accounts
by John W. I. Lee

I
t was one of the ancient worlds greatest battles, pitting a Carthaginian
army commanded by the general Hamilcar against a Greek alliance for control
of the island of Sicily. After a erce struggle in 480 b.c. on a coastal plain out-
side the Sicilian city of Himera, with heavy losses on both sides, the Greeks
eventually won the day. As the years passed, the Battle of Himera assumed
legendary proportions. Some Greeks would even claim it had occurred on the
same day as one of the famous battles of Thermopylae and Salamis, crucial contests
that led to the defeat of the Persian invasion of Greece, also in 480 b.c., and two of the
most celebrated events in Greek history.
Nonetheless, for such a momentous battle, Himera has long been something of a
mystery. The ancient accounts of the battle, by the fth-century b.c. historian Hero-
dotus and the rst-century b.c. historian Diodorus Siculus (the Sicilian), are biased,
confusing, and incomplete. Archaeology, however, is beginning to change things. For
the past decade, Stefano Vassallo of the Archaeological Superintendency of Palermo
has been working at the site of ancient Himera. His discoveries have helped pinpoint
the battles precise location, claried the ancient historians accounts, and unearth new
evidence of how classical Greek soldiers fought and died.

B eginning in the middle of the eighth century b.c., when the Greeks founded
their rst colonies on the island and the Carthaginians arrived from North
Africa to establish their presence there, Sicily was a prize that both Greeks and
Carthaginians coveted. The Greek city of Himera, founded around 648 b.c., was a key
point in this rivalry. Himera commanded the sea-lanes along the north coast of Sicily
as well as a major land route leading south across the island. In the rst decades of the
fth century b.c., the competition to dominate Sicily intensied. Gelon of Syracuse
and Theron of Akragas, both rulers of Greek cities on the island, formed an alliance
not only to counter the power of Carthage, but also to gain control of Himera from
their fellow Greeks. They soon achieved their goal and exiled the citys Greek ruler,
who then appealed to Carthage for help. Seeing an opportunity to seize the upper
hand in the struggle for Sicily, the Carthaginian leader Hamilcar mobilized his forces.
The stage was set for the battle of Himera.
The fullest account of what happened next comes from Diodorus Siculus. The his-
torian claims that Hamilcar sailed from Carthage with a huge army of some 300,000
troops, but a more realistic gure is probably around 20,000. Along the way, Hamilcars

38
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eet ran into a storm that sank the transports carrying his
horses and chariots. Undeterred, the general set up a forti-
ed seaside camp on the shore west of Himera to protect
his remaining ships and built walls to block the western land
approaches to the city. The outnumbered Greek defenders
sallied out from the city to protect Himeras territory, only
to lose the rst skirmishes.
Before Vassallo began his excavations, scholars had
been unable to pinpoint the location of these clashes. In
2007, however, he uncovered the northwestern corner of
the citys fortication wall. He also found evidence that the
coastline had shifted since ancient times, as silt carried from
the streams above Himera broadened the plain. These two
discoveries clarify Diodorus account. The ghting must
have occurred in the coastal plain between the wall and the
ancient shoreline, which in the fth century b.c. was closer
to the city than it is today.
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Although the Greeks received reinforcements, they were
still outnumbered. In the end, they got lucky. According to
Diodorus, scouts from Gelons camp intercepted a letter to
Hamilcar from allies who promised to send cavalry to replace
the losses he had suered at sea. Gelon ordered some of his
own cavalry to impersonate Hamilcars arriving allies. They
would blu their way into Hamilcars seaside camp and then
wreak havoc. The ruse worked. At sunrise the disguised
Greek cavalry rode up to the Carthaginian camp, where
unsuspecting sentries let them in. Galloping across the camp,
Gelons horsemen killed Hamilcar (although the historian
Herodotus says Hamilcar killed himself ) and set re to the
ships drawn up on the beach. At that signal, Gelon advanced
from Himera to meet the Carthaginians in pitched battle.
Scholars have long questioned Diodorus description of
these events, but in 2008 Vassallos team began to excavate
part of Himeras western necropolis, just outside the city
Archaeologists uncovered the remains of
dozens of soldiers who fought in the Battle of
Himera. Evidence for mass burials of war dead is
extremely rare in the ancient Greek world.
wall, in preparation for a new rail line
connecting Palermo and Messina. The
excavations revealed 18 very rare horse
burials dating to the early fth century
b.c. These burials remind us of Diodo-
rus account of the cavalry stratagem the
Greeks used against Hamilcar. Were
these perhaps the mounts of the horse-
men who blued their way into the
Carthaginian camp?
At first the Carthaginian troops
fought hard, but as news of Hamilcars
death spread, they lost heart. Many were
cut down as they ed, while others found
refuge in a nearby stronghold only to
surrender due to lack of water. Diodo-
rus claims 150,000 Carthaginians were
killed, although the historian almost
certainly exaggerated this number to make the Greek victory
more impressive. The Carthaginians soon sought peace. In
addition to surrendering their claim to Himera, they paid
reparations of 2,000 talents, enough money to support an
army of 10,000 men for three years. They also agreed to build
two temples, one of which may be the Temple of Victory still
visible at Himera today.
I n the summer of 2009, Vassallo and his team con-
tinued excavating in Himeras western necropolis. By
the end of the eld season, they had uncovered more
than 2,000 graves dating from the mid-sixth to the late fth
centuries b.c. What most attracted Vassallos attention were
seven communal graves, dating to the early fth century b.c.,
containing at least 65 skeletons in total. The dead, who were
interred in a respectful and orderly manner, were all males
over the age of 18.
At rst Vassallo thought he might have found victims of
an epidemic, but seeing that the bodies were all male and
that many displayed signs of violent trauma convinced him
otherwise. Given the date of the graves, Vassallo realized that
Archaeologist Stefano Vassallo (below) has been
excavating the site of ancient Himera for many years.
This soldiers remains (right) were found with a
spearblade still embedded in his left side.
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Buried near the soldiers were the remains
of 18 horses that likely died during the
battle, including this one that still has a
bronze ring from its harness in its mouth.
these could be the remains of men killed
in the battle of 480 b.c., which would be
highly signicant for reconstructing the
Battle of Himera. Their placement in the
western necropolis strongly suggests that
the main clash between the Greek and
Carthaginian armies took place near the
western walls of the city. Since bodies
are heavy to move, its likely they were
buried in the cemetery closest to the
battleeld, especially if there were many
dead to dispose of. (In contrast, Himeras
eastern necropolis on the far side of the
city, which Vassallo had previously excavated, contains no
communal graves.) Vassallo also has a hypothesis about the
soldiers origins. They were probably not Carthaginians, for
the defeated enemy would have received little respect. Dead
Himeran soldiers would likely have been collected by their
families for burial. Instead, Vassallo believes many or all of
the dead were allied Greeks from Syracuse or Akragas. These
warriors, who died far from home, could not be taken back
to their native soil for burial. Instead, they were honored in
Himeras cemetery for their role in defending the city.
T he bones of Himera have more stories to tell. For
all that has been written about Greek warfare by
poets and historians from Homer to Herodotus and
Diodorus, ancient literature tends to focus on generals and
rulers rather than on how ordinary soldiers fought and died.
Until Vassallos excavations, only a handful of mass graves
from Greek battlessuch as those at Chaeronea, where
Philip of Macedon defeated the Greeks in 338 b.c.had
been found. These graves were explored before the develop-
ment of modern archaeological and forensic techniques.
In contrast, Vassallos team worked with an on-site group
of anthropologists, architects, and conservators to docu-
ment, process, and study their discoveries. Thanks to their
careful methods, the Himera graves may represent the best
archaeological source yet found for classical Greek warfare.
Further analysis of Himeras battle dead promises to oer
much about the soldiers ages, health, and nutrition. It may
even be possible to identify the mens military specialties by
looking for bone abnormalities. Archers, for example, tend
to develop asymmetrical bone growths on their right shoul-
der joints and left elbows. Hoplites, the armored spearmen
who constituted the main infantry forces of Greek armies,
carried large round shields weighing up to 14 pounds on
their left arms. The burden of carrying such a shield may
have left skeletal traces.
Studying Himeras dead is also
revealing the gruesome realities of
ancient warfare. Initial analysis shows
that some men suered impact trauma
to their skulls, while the bones of oth-
ers display evidence of sword cuts and
arrow strikes. In several cases, soldiers
were buried with iron spearheads
lodged in their bodies. One man still
carries the weapon that killed him
stuck between his vertebrae. Analysis
of the types and locations of these
injuries may help determine whether
Scholars analyzing the bones from
Himeras soldiers hope to learn
more about Greek warfare, such as
the extent of stress injuries caused
by carrying heavy bronze-covered
shields, as depicted on this black-
figure vase found at the site.
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In addition to the soldiers graves, Vassallos team has
uncovered more than 2,000 burials dating from the sixth to
fifth century in Himeras massive necropolis.
the men fell in hand-to-hand combat or in an exchange of
missiles, while advancing or in ight. The arrowheads and
spearheads uncovered with the men can also provide other
important evidence. Ancient soldiers typically employed the
distinctive weapons of their home regions, so archaeologists
may be able to discover who killed the men buried at Himera
by studying the projectiles embedded in their remains.
Although they won the rst battle of Himera, the
Greeks would not have the upper hand forever. In 409 b.c.
Hamilcars grandson Hannibal returned to Himera, bent
on revenge. After a desperate siege the city was sacked and
destroyed forever. In the western necropolis, Vassallo has
discovered another mass grave, dating to the late fth century
b.c., which contains 59 burials. He believes these may be
the graves of the Himerans who fell
protecting their city against this later
Carthaginian assault.
Vassallo is careful to emphasize that
more study of the skeletal remains,
grave artifacts, and topography is
required before definitive conclu-
sions can be drawn. Nonetheless, it is
already clear that his recent discover-
ies will be of major importance for
understanding the history of ancient
Himera, the decisive battles that took
place there, and the lives and deaths
of the ordinary Greek soldiers who
fought to defend the city.
John W. I. Lee is a professor of
history at the University of California
at Santa Barbara. His research
specialty is classical Greek warfare.
41

How archaeologists
are documenting the
silent migration that is
transforming America
by Heather Pringle
In a secluded part of the Arizona
wilderness, illegal immigrants
have made a shrine where they
pray for safety on their journey
into the United States. Among
the artifacts they leave behind
are prayer cards (above), which
honor the Virgin of Guadalupe
and Santo Toribio Romo, the
saint who watches over migrants.
42
O
n a sweltering June morning, Jason De Leon shrugs o his pack
in a rugged gorge in Arizonas Coronado National Forest. He hunches
down over a scattering of water bottles, checking for dates, and asks
a student to take the sites GPS coordinates. Above his head, along
the rock face, travelers have transformed a small, secluded hollow into
a shrine lined with oerings: rosaries, crucixes, candles, scapulars,
and small pictures of saints, each bearing a printed prayer in Spanish. Take care of me
in dangerous places, reads one card. Protect me from thieves and in evil times, entreats
another. Nearby, a small engraved plastic pendant oers a more direct prayer: The other
side, Tucson, Arizona, 2010.
The shrine, says De Leon, an archaeologist at the University of Michigan-Ann Arbor,
is archaeological evidence of a large and nearly invisible migration. Over the past decade,
The Journey to
El Norte
mmillions of migrants from Mexico, Guatemala, and other Latin American countries have
rrisked their lives attempting to cross the waterless expanses of the Sonoran Desert to secretly
eenter the United States. The Department of Homeland Security estimates that 10.8 million
iillegal migrants were living in the U.S. in 2009. Although this is down from 11.6 million in
22008, these migrants are following a trend that has persisted throughout human history.
PPeople move to the place where they can make the best living possible. Last year alone, U.S.
CCustoms and Border Protection authorities apprehended some 540,000 would-be migrants
aalong the Southwest border. Statistics gathered by the U.S. Border Patrol and local coroners
ooces suggest that this migration route is growing more dangerous.
Already De Leons growing database is providing answers. By mapping and dating
m
migrant sites, his team has revealed a strong correlation between recent American govern-
m policies and the increasing perils faced by migrants. As the Border Patrol has stepped
ment
u its surveillance along the Southwest border, migrants are crossing through ever more
up
i
isolated and dangerous terrain in hopes of avoiding capture.Its getting harder and harder
to cross all the time, says De Leon. The migrants are having to walk longer and go into
more remote areas.
Understanding the process of making the journey across the border has been dicult
because researchers are unable to accompany the migrants on their trips. But two years ago,
De Leon decided to look at the issue in a new waythrough archaeology. Trekking remote
corners of what Border Patrol ocials call the Tucson Sector (262 miles of border running
west from the New Mexico state line to the Yuma county line), De Leon and a small team
are now mapping and dating migrant sites, analyzing artifacts, and gathering detailed eth-
nographic data on the journey from those who were apprehended.There are just so many
myths about what is going on out there in the desert, says De Leon. This is a scientic
attempt to ground the process in reality, to get as complete a picture as possible.
Archaeologists not aliated with the project call De Leons work in the desert both
impressive and groundbreaking. He hasnt drawn a conclusion for which he now wishes
to gather data, says Fred Limp, an archaeologist at the University of Arkansas, Fayette-
ville, and president-elect of the Society for American Archaeology. Hes really trying to
understand this migration and the sites hes got.
In a shallow ravine just a few miles outside the small town of Arivaca in southern Ari-
zona, De Leon surveys a site his team has named Busters Wash. All along the ground, as
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vk.com/englishlibrary
far as the eye can see, is a tangle of trash: water bottles, jeans,
T-shirts, photos, childrens toys, toothbrushes, pill packets,
hair-gel jars, andmore than any other itembackpacks.
Its one of thousands of such sites in the Southwest where
migrants led by human smugglers known as coyotes rested
on their journey northward. Most Arizona residents, says
De Leon, see these sites as garbage dumps.
But De Leon sees the trash heaps dierentlyas archaeo-
logical sites packed with data. So the 33-year-old archaeolo-
gist and his students are scouring the backcountry around
Arivaca, recording these sites and collecting artifacts before
local citizens clean them up.
Migrants stop at sites such as Busters Wash to change clothes
and discard any evidence of their illegal border crossings.
they track in order to determine which trails are active, which
arent, and where water is most needed.
The Samaritans bottles often end up in the migrant rest
sites, and therefore the bottles would tell archaeologists
where the migrants had been and when they had been there.
As De Leon walked some of the sites on that initial trip, he
spotted other important temporal cluesdated bus tick-
ets, deportation slips, time-stamped photographs. All this
information, he realized, would help an archaeological team
study changes in the migrants routes and behavior over time,

D e Leon is the grandson of an undocumented

Mexican migrant, but he rst became interested
in the archaeology of illegal immigration during
the 2007 excavation of an Olmec site in Mexico where he
was working as a graduate student. All the local workmen,
something no one had ever done before.

A t Busters Wash just outside Arivaca, the heat

pours down like molten metal. Mopping his brow
with a handkerchief, De Leon reaches for his water
he explains, had either migrated at one point, or were get- bottle. As migrant sites go, Busters Wash is small enough
ting ready to migrate. So I began talking to them about the that De Leon asks the team to collect everything lying on
things that had happened. The workmens stories stuck the grounda 100 percent sample that eectively erases
with De Leon. So he began looking around for a way to the site and goes against accepted archaeological protocols.
study this migration.
Archaeologist friends had told him
about all the refuse in the Sonoran Desert.
Intrigued, De Leon contacted a local humani-
tarian group, Samaritan Patrol, in Tucson,
and arranged to accompany volunteer Bob
Kee on a hike. The migrants, Kee told him,
are never able to carry enough water to see
them through a crossing. So the Samaritans
and other groups leave bottled water along
high-trac routes, hoping to save lives. They
also scrawl the date and GPS coordinates of
the drop site on the sides of the bottlesdata

De Leons team maps the location of each

artifact left behind by migrants as they stop to
rest on their way to the U.S.

44
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My rationale for doing this, he says,
is if we dont take it, someone else
will, and it will go straight into the
trash. He is more selective, however,
at larger sites, taking only essential
data: clothing that indicates the gender
of migrants, new types of gear that reveal
shifting patterns in migrant behavior,
and backpacks that yield a rough count
of the number of migrants at a site.
I think one backpack equals one
person, De Leon says. He looks
around. Id say theres a couple
of thousand here.
The site brims with telling
details about the journey. In
places strewn with empty
food tins and black plastic
sheets used for bedding, Nearly everyone who makes an illegal border
people clearly slept for a crossing carries a backpack. De Leons team
counts them to estimate the number of people
few hours and prepared who occupied the sites he studies.
simple meals of tortillas and
refried beans. Here you see a full range of things, says De
Leon, because its close to a road. At smaller sites next to
cattle tanks, they stopped briey to ll up their water bottles.
But at Busters Wash, he says, migrants changed out of dirty
travel clothes and into something clean. They combed and
xed their hair, brushed their teeth, and discarded torn and
stained packs that could mark them as migrants. Then they
waited in the wash for someone to come pick them up and
drive them into Tucson.
S ince the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Ameri-
can government has more than doubled its budget
for border protection and immigration enforcement,
from $7.5 billion to $17 billion, and tripled the number of
Border Patrol agents. It has constructed nearly 150 miles
of steel fencing and concrete vehicle barriers along the
Mexican border, largely in urban areas, purchased drones for
aerial surveillance, and built a virtual
fencea string of towers bristling
with radar, thermal imaging, and
other sensor technologiesto detect
migrants moving along 28 miles of
the Arizona border. Weve got more
technology than ever before watching
the border, says Agent Colleen Agle, a
public information ocer in the Tuc-
son Sector of the Border Patrol. And
in her view, the increased surveillance
has deterred large numbers of would-
The U.S. Border Patrol is increasing its
use of technology such as radar and
thermal imaging to apprehend people
crossing the border illegally.
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be migrants.People know that when they
try to cross the border, they are going to
get apprehended, she says.
What De Leons research provides
is a nuanced picture of the migrants
response to this strategy. Before the
stepped-up border surveillance, most
migrants crossed through border cities
a relatively safe proposition. But after
2001, says De Leon, the U.S. govern-
ment greatly boosted the number of
Border Patrol agents in the cities along
the Mexican border, eectively sealing
o the old urban routes. So migrants
began crossing, instead, through the
Sonoran Desert. And De Leon has
discovered a disturbing trend in his
data: the more recent the migrant site
is, the smaller and more remote it tends
to be. To evade detection by drones
and virtual fences, coyotes are leading
smaller parties through increasingly
isolated and dangerous terrain. Now these guys are scaling
rock clis, says De Leon.And it hasnt always been like that.
It used to be much easier.
Randall McGuire, a Binghamton University archaeologist
who has worked along the Southwest border since 1985, says
this data ts well with hundreds of conversations he has had
with returned migrants in northern Mexico. In 1985, says
McGuire, people had to walk just a few hours to get across
the border. In 2006, people were walking for three days
through the Sonoran Desert. Now, due to increased enforce-
ment, they are walking ve days. And theres just no physical
way to carry water enough for even a three-day trip.
Colleen Agle says that the Border Patrol is doing
everything it can to assist migrants who fall into trouble
on these long treks. It has specially trained Border Patrol
Search, Trauma, and Rescue teams for medical emergen-
cies in the desert and has placed them in every sector along
the Southwest border. Their entire
mission is to go out and save people,
particularly during the hot summer
months, Agle says.
Increasingly, says De Leon, evi-
dence shows the ways in which the
migrants are adapting to the perils.
In sites dated to 2007, De Leon found
an abundance of high-heeled shoes,
blow-dryers, and other heavy, bulky
items, suggesting that the trekkers
had little idea of the type of journey
they were taking. But few of these
items are found at later sites. By 2009,
migrants were carrying little extra
weight and were dressing in more
suitable clothing, including hiking
45
White water bottles are easily seen at night,
so migrants often put covers on them. Some
bottlers have begun manufacturing black
bottles to appeal to migrants.
boots and camouage gear. Moreover,
many were dispensing with clear plastic
water bottles that could reect the head-
lights of Border Patrol trucks. A year or
so ago, they began carrying a new type
of plastic water bottle manufactured in
Mexico: its solid black, to help them hide
at night.
For De Leon, the artifacts clearly reveal
how migrants and their Mexican suppliers
are constantly adapting to the harsh new
realities of the journey to El Norte. I think everyone knows
that this is going to be a really bad experience, he says. But
a lot of people are wondering, How can I be smarter during
the whole process?
The whole notion of regarding and classifying water
bottles and blow dryers as archaeological artifacts can initially
seem like something of a stretch. But, in fact, the evidence
of mass migrations, in more traditional terms, can reside in
the artifacts that are brought along and shared. The clash
and blending of cultures is often documented by nding the
blending of artifact stylesfrom that of the local inhabit-
ants and that of the migratory population. To document
this current migration we need to look at artifacts from our
own time.
W hile De Leons work in the Sonoran Desert
exposes the deadly consequences of sealing o
the old urban migration routes, it does not reveal
much about the experiences of individual migrants. To record
these experiences, De Leon has been traveling to the Mexi-
can border town of Nogales to interview newly returned
deportees. On a quiet summer evening there, he chats with
Hilda Irene Loureido, one of the founders of Albergue San
Juan Bosco, a former church turned migrant shelter. For
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more than a quarter of a century, Loureido and her husband,
Juan Francisco, have strung meager funds together to keep
the facility open. Its a modest operation, but the shelter is
immaculate, with clean bunks and bedding, scrubbed-out
toilets, and a hot meal for newly deported migrants, each of
whom is allowed to stay three days.
Tonight is relatively quiet, says Loureido. As a rule,
American authorities deport migrants to the nearest Mexi-
can border city. But during the summer, they y those they
catch to Mexico City, 1,000 miles to the south, as an addi-
tional deterrent to a future crossing attempt. Tonight, just
30 to 40 migrants have arrived at the shelter, a far cry from
the 250 or so who typically crowd into its beds. But its still
early, only 10 p.m., and American authorities have a habit of
deporting people in the early morning hours, a dangerous
time of day to drop o exhausted migrants in crime-ridden
Nogales. De Leon suspects that this is a deliberate strategy
one more deterrent to a future crossing.
The migrants, who are unwilling to divulge their names to
a journalist, have varying reasons for undertaking the journey
to the United States. Some people do this for money, some
do it to buy a big car, says a small man with dark shadows
under his eyes and a rueful smile.But I have a large family to
support in Mexico and thats a burden I will have to carry all
my life. To make more money for his family,
he explains, he followed a sister to Wisconsin
where she had opened a small restaurant.
Living there quietly, he managed to escape
detection until he was apprehended on a
driving charge and subsequently deported.
Last week, he says, he attempted to cross
the desert, an experience he found terrifying.
Unless youve tried to do it, he says grimly,
youll never know what its like out there.
But I have to try again. I have three kids in
the United States.
Outfitting migrants for their journeys through
the desert has become a booming business in
towns on the Mexican side of the border.
ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
 Migrants who are caught by the U.S. Border Patrol
are sometimes deported in the early morning hours
and dropped off in border towns such as Nogales.
Migrant safe houses have sprung up there.
First-time migrants, says De Leon, often make arrange-
ments ahead of time with known coyotes in their home vil-
lages in Mexico and Central America, paying thousands of
dollars for a crossing. But those who have been apprehended
and deported sometimes head back out on their own or hire
cut-rate smugglers operating out of Mexican border towns.
The migrants making the journey again prepare as best they
can, shopping in Nogaless small street kiosks lined with spe-
cialized gearcamouage packs, dark clothing, and bottles
of Electrolt, the Mexican equivalent to Gatorade.
Some migrants barely make it out of the border towns
before criminals known as bajadores descend on them,
demanding their money and often physically and sexually
assaulting them. They lined us up and had us ll a plastic
bag with all of our valuables, one migrant told De Leon.
They had cuernos de chivos (literally translated as goats
horns, an expression meaning machine guns). It was clear
the coyote knew this was going to happen. For others, the
most harrowing ordeal begins farther north. The coyotes
insist that migrants move as quickly as possible, and to
keep their exhausted charges on the march, they hand out
ephedrine-based pills. The drug boosts the metabolism
and heart rates of the slowest walkers, but the end result is
dehydration, prompting migrants to empty the water bottles
they are carrying.
For the lucky ones who make it through the desert, how-
ever, there is little freedom from worry. The Border Patrol
has a large and visible presence in most Southwest cities. If
you ask the migrants where they are going, its never Tucson
or Los Angeles, says De Leon. Its always Eugene, Oregon;
Spokane, Washington; or Sheboygan, Wisconsin. There,
many gravitate to jobs in rendering plants and other undesir-
able work in the food processing industry that pays $11 to
$14 dollars an hour.
The hope of nding employment remains a powerful
incentive for migration, particularly among rural Mexicans
whose family incomes have been devastated in recent years
by forces beyond their control. In 1994, Mexico entered into
the North American Free Trade Agreement with the United
States and Canada. The treaty permitted American farmers
to ship cheap, federally subsidized corn and wheat into the
Mexican market.
All this has left rural Mexicans poorer than ever. Many of
their homes fail to meet even minimum standards of sanita-
tion, according to statistics compiled by the World Bank and
other nongovernmental organizations, and their children
spend fewer than four years in school. Many young Latin
Americans feel as if they have little to lose by attempting to
migrate to the United States.
The nancial downturn that began in 2007, says Robert
Topel, an economist at the University of Chicago, has made
www.archaeology.org
vk.com/englishlibrary
jobs much harder to nd north of the border and probably
given many would-be migrants pause. According to the
Department of Homeland Security, a combination of the
declining economy and tougher enforcement eorts has
caused the number of illegal migrants apprehended by the
Border Patrol to drop from 1,189,000 in 2005 to 724,000
in 2008. But even so, the prospect of a new life in the United
States remains attractive. It goes beyond the wages they
can earn [here], says Topel. They can probably get decent
educations for their kids. They get access to health care, and
even just with emergency rooms, its probably much better
than what they can get back home in a poverty-stricken
Mexican village.
For those who have studied earlier waves of migration
to the United States, the situation sounds all too familiar.
Stephen Brighton, an archaeologist at the University of
Maryland, College Park, has been examining the massive
nineteenth-century Irish migration to the United States.
Between 1845 and 1850, explains Brighton, blighted
crops of potatoes left tenant farmers with few options except
selling o their livestock to support their families. With
no livestock, the farmers ended up destitute and facing a
choice between starving in Ireland or migrating to America.
Most of the Irish who landed on American shores at that
time were desperately poor and uneducatedmuch like
the Mexican migrants of today. There are a lot of parallels,
says Brighton.
But as these Irish immigrants sank roots in American
society, their descendants prospered and became part of
the essential fabric of American life. De Leon thinks the
very same thing will happen to the undocumented Mexican
migrants of today. At some point, Mexican-Americans will
want to say to their children, this is what I went through.
This is how I got here, he says. And when that day nally
comes, the backpacks, the clothing, the childrens toys col-
lected from Busters Wash, will preserve this shadowy history
of migration, reminding the future of what has been.
Heather Pringle is a contributing editor at
Archaeology.
47
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 LETTER FROM VIRGINIA
This Old Colonial Coffeehouse
Reconstructing a long-lost eighteenth-century building in Williamsburg
A rchitectural historian
Edward Chappell moves
slowly through the empty
attic of the Charlton Coeehouse,
inspecting thick wooden rafters and
admiring modern workmanship that
draws on techniques and traditions
that go back more than 250 years. The
wood-frame house is one of some 500
reconstructed eighteenth-century
buildings in the historic district of
Colonial Williamsburg, the seat of
Virginias government from 1699 to
www.archaeology.org
by Eric A. Powell
1780, and now famous for the his-
torical reenactments that have drawn
generations of road-tripping families.
As director of architectural and
archaeological research at Williams-
sive archaeological and architectural
investigations began at the site in
1996 and produced an extraordinary
amount of data about the structure,
in large part thanks to modern tech-
burg, Chappell oversaw the recon- niques like the use of microscopy to
struction of the Coeehouse, which reveal the smallest of details.
was torn down in the late nineteenth
century. It is the rst major structure
to be rebuilt on the districts main
Duke of Gloucester Street in 50
years, and went up in an era of new
T he hum of the crowd of
tourists outside waiting their
turn to enter the house is
just barely audible in the attic, a war-
ren of small rooms that wont be
delity to historical accuracy. Inten-
vk.com/englishlibrary 49
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archaeology
50
Architectural historians
Edward Chappell (right)
and Matthew Webster
examine bricks dating
to 1750 that were
reused in the house
built at the site of the
Coffeehouse in 1890.
ready for visitors any
time soon. Its a kind
of ghostly space, and
the level of the build-
ing historians know
the least about.
Archaeologists and historians have
been able to discover a great deal
about the Coffeehouses genteel first
floor, where in the 1760s proprietor
Richard Charlton served his guests
coffee, tea, chocolate, and a rich array
of food amid furnishings aimed at
creating as refined an atmosphere as
possible this far from London.
The dense archaeological deposits
around the building also allow them
to reimagine the world of the cellar,
where slaves and possibly Native
Americans would have spent hours
cooking for Charltons clients. But its
hard to say what happened here in
the cramped quarters of the attic. Its
possible Charlton let rooms out here
to travelers or longer-term guests, or
perhaps to representatives who came
to the capital for legislative sessions.
Were on the margins of gentility up
here, Chappell says in a soft Virginia
drawl as he descends a winding stair-
case to the richly appointed world of
the Coeehouse below.
S itting above a small
ravine just a few yards
from the capitol, the building
that eventually became Charltons
Coeehouse was rst described in
a 1750 deed as a Store house. In
1755, records indicate a merchant
named John Mitchelson was
using it as a shop, possibly selling
furniture. By 1765, a recently arrived
immigrant from northern England,
Richard Charlton, a wigmaker by
trade, had transformed the building
into a bustling coeehouse, a place
vk.com/englishlibrary
where politically active Virginians
gathered to engage in caeine-
fueled conversation and debate.
Coeehouses were extremely popular
in England at the time as gathering
places for men of all social ranks
(about 2,000 were in business in
London during the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries). But Charlton
seems to have catered to an upper-
class crowd. Both Thomas Jeerson
and George Washington record visits
to a Williamsburg coeehouse in the
1760s, and it seems likely this was
the establishment they patronized.
The Coeehouses big moment,
however, came when it served as
the scene for the colonys most vivid
demonstration of resistance to taxa-
tion without representation. In 1765,
the British Crown levied a direct tax
on printed materials in the colonies.
The so-called Stamp Act required
that these materials, from attorneys
licenses to pamphlets, be produced
on ocial stamped paper, which was
much more expensive than untaxed
paper. The act met with outrage, and
distributors of the stamps in the col-
onies were not greeted warmly. Vir-
ginias Lieutenant Governor Francis
Fauquier wrote that on October 30,
1765, an angry crowd chased Virgin-
ia stamp distributor George Mercer
down Duke of Gloucester Street,
To the Coee house, in the porch of
which I had seated my self with many
of the Council and the Speaker who had
posted him self between the Crowd and
my self. After some little time, a Cry
was heard let us rush in upon this we,
ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
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Actors at Colonial Williamsburg reenact a moment from 1765 when an angry mob
pursued a government agent to the porch of the Coffeehouse.
that were at the Top of the Steps know-
ing the advantage our Situation gave
us to repell those who should attempt
to mount them, advanced to the Edge
of the Steps. The Crowd did not yet
disperse, it was growing dark and I did
not think it safe to leave Mr. Mercer
behind me. We accordingly walked
side by side through the thickest of the
people who did not molest us; tho there
was some little murmurs.
Its a scene that begs to be reen-
acted and one that had repercus-
sions throughout Williamsburg
society. The Coeehouse is known
to have been the site of violent
political quarrels after this incident,
some involving members of the Mer-
cer family, who fought with those
who questioned their patriotism.
As a place that catered to politically
engaged Virginians unburdened by
the expectations of proper behavior
that existed in the capitol, churches,
and other ocial buildings, its pos-
sible the Coeehouse was a place
where discord and ungentlemanly
behavior may have been frequent,
despite Charltons best eorts to cre-
ate a sophisticated environment.
By 1770s, the Coeehouse had
been sold and was once again a store.
The capital moved to Richmond in
1781, and Williamsburg entered
a long period of slow decline that
saw it transformed from an impor-
52
tant political center to an obscure
county seat. In 1890, the former
Coeehouse, now dilapidated,
was demolished to make way for
a Victorian home, known as the
Armistead House after its owner.
That building was still standing in
the 1920s when John D. Rockefeller
began to purchase property in Wil-
liamsburg with the aim of protect-
ing the town and transforming the
historic district into a destination
for heritage-minded tourists. Today,
Colonial Williamsburg is maintained
by a private foundation that seeks
to preserve the town as it was in the
mid-eighteenth century, when the
Coeehouse would have been one
of the capitals most active gathering
places. Over the years, the founda-
tion has also developed a robust
program in historical archaeology,
thanks in large part to the leadership
of pioneering British archaeologist
Ivor Nol Hume, who began work in
Williamsburg in the 1950s.
When the Amistead House was
moved to a new location in 1996,
the Coeehouse became the latest
site on the foundations 301 acres to
receive the kind of detailed, years-
long archaeological attention that
has become the rule since Humes
excavations made Colonial Wil-
liamsburg the countrys premiere
laboratory for historical archaeology.
vk.com/englishlibrary
C happell squeezes him-
self against a wall on the
rst oor of the Coeehouse
to allow a swarm of tourists to follow
an interpreter from the elegant front
parlors into the sparer back rooms.
Once the crowd is gone, he explains
that after the Amistead House was
moved, investigation of the Cof-
feehouse focused on two fronts,
archaeological and architectural.
It turned out that the original
building had not been so much
demolished as deconstructed and
recycled. Wooden elements like
rafters, doors, and shutters were
either used in the Amistead House,
or taken to the basement for stor-
age. Recyclers and packrats are
very helpful to us, says Chappell.
The parts they salvaged and saved
turned our job into a giant puzzle.
Dendrochronological analysis shows
the oldest wood was cut during
the winter of 174950, conrming
the date of the buildings original
construction. Much of the original
brick foundation also survived,
while other bricks were recycled to
construct walls and a new chimney.
The team used microscopic analy-
sis to discover starch paste or glue
between layers of paint in a surviving
original section of the structure. The
glue suggests the Coeehouse was
wallpapered. Wed rather nd the
paper, says Chappell, but nding
this glue in an almost archaeological
context makes it pretty likely they
used wallpaper to enhance the status
of the space during the period the
building was a coeehouse. Now
richly textured wallpaper created
with eighteenth-century techniques
decorates some of the rooms on the
main oor.
The architectural details hidden
in the Armistead House greatly
aided the actual physical reconstruc-
tion of the Coeehouse (which
nally happened in 2009 as a result
of a donation from the Mars Foun-
dation). These elements made it
clear that the structure was a one-
and-a-half-story frame building with
ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
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54
A room in the
Coffeehouse is
decorated with
wallpaper, evidence
of which was
discovered between
paint layers from the
original building.
high-style nishes,
but archaeology
was also able to ll
in some details.
As Chappell
exits the building
by the front door he takes a moment
to point out the dimensions of the
eight-foot-deep porch made famous
by the Stamp Act protest. We know
its size because excavations revealed
the porchs brick footings, he says.
They also found an ash shadow in a person who is piecing together a
the front of the house that was cre-
ated over the years as soot was swept
o the porch into the front yard.
This layer of soot allowed the archi-
tects to piece together the porchs
dimensions.
But archaeologyy may
have come in mostt
Blue-and-white
tin-glazed
ceramics known
as delftware were
found in the trash
heap behind the
Coffeehouse.
handy by showingg
nished
how Charlton furnished
his coeehouse. Luckily for research-
ers, Charlton left plenty of evidence
for this by keeping an enormous
trash dump in the backyard that
extended 40 feet from the rear of the
house. Of the some 70,000 artifacts
originally excavated from this mid-
den, Chappell thinks a large number
of ceramics were the most important.
The evidence from sherds shows
that Charltons customers probably
drank mostly tea, and that he was
not using high-status serving pieces
that were in vogue at the time. He
was using relatively old-fashioned
ceramics, says Chapell, like blue-
and-white dishes known as delftware.
vk.com/englishlibrary
Large amounts of the unglazed, plain
earthenware known as colonoware
were also found in the trash. And yet
there is also evidence for at least one
fancy glass pyramid used for serving
desserts. I think the artifacts suggest
genteel environment for customers,
but with a real concern for cost, says
Chappell. Its an interesting look at
the balancing act of the economy of
genteel trade.
In addition
a to the
ceram archae-
ceramics,
olo
ologists recovered
cop
copious numbers
of w wine bottles,
an
and some 30,000
aanimal bones that
w
were deposited
d
during the period
C
Charlton operated
the Coeehouse.
Joann
Joanne Bowen, Wil-
liamsburgs zooarchaeolo-
gist, found that the bones showed the
guests at the Coeehouse were eating
meals that reected their elite status.
She discovered that there was more
variety of sh, birds, and mammals
at the Coeehouse than at any other
elite site in Williamsburg at the time,
and that the clients consumed mut-
ton and lamb, which were relatively
rare, as well as calf s head, an elite
dish that seems to have been a house
favorite. Most intriguingly, Bowen
identied a peacock ulna and femur
among the bones. The femur seemed
to have been butchered, which sug-
gests the peacock was cooked for
some prosperous Coeehouse guest.
ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011

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 In eighteenth-century Virginia, pea-
cock would have been considered
the height of ne cuisine.
Other nds oer tantalizing hints
of how gentlemen may have amused
themselves at the Coeehouse
beyond reading newspapers and
debating the ner points of Virginia
politics. In the midden, archaeolo-
gists recovered a human nger with
a copper wire though it, as well as
several human vertebrae with marks
that could be dissection traces. This
suggests that a human skeleton
might have been on display at the
Coeehouse at some point, per-
haps used as a visual aid for a lec-
ture, which were popular among
the upper class at the time.
Among the artifacts in the back-
yard was a small furnace and 17
crucibles containing traces of silver,
gold, and copper, which suggests thee
presence of someone who assessed
the metal content of coins. Finally, a
large number of wig curlers means
that Richard Charlton likely never
entirely retired from the wigmaking
game, and perhaps ran a wig busi-
ness out of the back of the Coee-
house to supplement his income.
T o enter the cellar,
Chappell walks down a
steep grade in back of the
building that would have been a
topographical nightmare for the
owners. Construction of the build-
ing that became the Coeehouse
caused massive erosion of soil into
the nearby ravine. Excavations have
shown that the owners erected a
retaining wall in an attempt to con-
trol the runo.
Before entering the cellar, Chap-
pell points out its casement win-
dows, which have diamond-shaped
panes of glass held in place with lead
frames. These frames date to the
1750s, and were recovered during
the course of excavations, he says,
shaking his head at the improbable
level of detail.
Excavations showed that the ceil-
ing of the cellar was well over six feet
56
tall during the Coeehouse period,
enough room for it to be a viable liv-
ing and work space in the eighteenth
century. The main oor is like the
stage, says Chapelle as he examines
the reconstructed cellars replace.
It represents gentility for rent or
sale. This is the backstage, where
servants and slaves would have made
Nearly 50 wig curlers were found in the
deposits behind the Coffeehouse.
coee and done the work to keep
the business going, and where they
would probably have lived. After the
Revolution, working areas and living
quarters became separate, but before
then, servants and slaves usually
lived where they worked.
Though unmistakably direct evi-
dence of life in the Coeehouses cel-
lar is not plentiful, its likely the ser-
vants or slaves who labored here ate
o some of the colonoware found in
the midden. Excavation also revealed
a partition that separated the cellar
into multiple rooms.
Sometime in the future, Chappell
would like to see an in-depth plan
for interpretation of the cellar devel-
oped. Visitors are now allowed into
the space on a limited basis, mainly
to cope with overow from the main
oor of the Coeehouse. And Wil-
liamsburgs curators have outtted
the basement with period kitchen
equipment, so it has a distinct
eighteenth-century feel. But a sense
of what life was like for those who
worked here beneath the provincial
vk.com/englishlibrary
glamour of the Coeehouse, the
people who were the establishments
backbone, is missing for now.
R ecent excavations
in the ravine next to
the Coeehouse led by
Williamsburg archaeologist Mark
Kostro have revealed a rich array of
m
mid-eighteenth century artifacts,
in
including rare examples of Spanish
ol
olive jars. The collection is still
be
being studied in the lab and there
ar
are plans to continue excavating in
th
the back of the Coeehouse in the
n
near future, especially along the
w
western boundary, to investigate
ho
how Charlton maintained his
pr
property line.
Now that the reconstruction is
co
completed the Coeehouse is being
vis
visited by hundreds of tourists a day,
bu
but archaeologists are still trying to
lll in the blanks about the landscape
su
surrounding the building. This focus
on the context of colonial lives is
characteristic of the approach of
modern architects and archaeolo-
gists at Williamsburg, who are now
busy aiding the reconstruction of the
colonial Armoury, a block west of
the Coeehouse.
The pace of reconstruction at
Colonial Williamsburg is much
slower than it was in the early days.
It has been more selective and
more tightly linked to good archae-
ology since 1980, says Chappell.
As the Coeehouse shows, careful
archaeological work and architec-
tural research means even the most
casual visitors today have a chance
to experience the past in increasingly
vivid detail, right down to the wall-
paper. Our predecessors would have
scraped through paint on wood-
work, and would never have found
the evidence for glue and wallpaper,
says Chappell. Were able to use
microscopes and discover evidence
for things that would have been
missed only a generation ago.
Eric A. Powell is deputy editor
at Archaeology.
ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
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 (Continued from page 16)
ing the remains of individuals even if
they could not be personally identi-
ed. At a minimum, institutions and
tribal communities sat down together
to determine the nal disposition of
the thousands of artifacts and remains
covered by the law.
By 2009, museums and federal
agencies had aliated and/or
returned the remains of roughly
40,000 individuals and a million
funerary objects. It was a start,
but a slow one, in part because
the process was still driven almost
entirely by the collection-holders,
who have the nal say in questions
of cultural aliation as long as they
consult with tribes and follow the
correct procedures. (Aliation is
established by a preponderance of
evidence including geographical,
biological, and anthropological
data and kinship, folklore and oral
history.) Tribes can take disputes
to a review committee established
under the law, but it has no
enforcement authority.
James Riding In, a professor of
American Indian studies at Arizona
Archaeology Travel Adventures State University and a NAGPRA
EXCEPTIONAL SCHOLARS consultant for the Pawnee Nation and
other tribes, says leaving museums
and agencies at the wheel was one of
the fatal aws of NAGPRA. In 20
years, only a quarter of all the human
Bolivias remains have been culturally aliated
Andes & Altiplano or repatriated. To me thats a very
Archaeology, Geography, & Culture dismal record.
with optional trip extension to Peru Now, with the 2010 amendment
Scholar: Dr. Axel Nielsen in play, the even bigger question is
April 2-17, 2011 the fate of the 115,000 culturally
Civilizations of unidentiable human remains (CUI)
Central Mexico that havent been connected with a
The Aztecs & Their Predecessors particular group under NAGPRAs
Scholars: Dr. David Carballo & Jennifer Carballo
detailed guidelines. In March, after
years of consultation with museums,
June 818, 2011
tribes, and the review committee,
and multiple drafts and rounds
of comments, the Department of
Discover the Past, Share the Adventure the Interior (DOI) published the
controversial nal rule.
CST 2059347-50
The new ruling is reopening all
the old wounds that were beginning
to heal, says anthropologist John
OShea of the University of Michigan,
800.422.8975 a former NAGPRA coordinator. It
www.crowcanyon.org/travel has undone a lot of good.
58
vk.com/englishlibrary
U nder the new rule, institu-
tions that receive federal
money must try to link the
CUI in their collections with tribes
whose ancestors lived where the arti-
facts were found, with the ultimate
intention of turning them over. Any
tribe whose historic territory passes
the test can claim ownership, even
without the sort of demonstrable
cultural connection the original law
required.
Few people dispute the new rule
streamlines the CUI repatriation
process. About 9,000 CUI had
already been aliated or repatriated
before the ruling, but that required
82 separate agreements between
The new ruling
is reopening all the
old wounds that were
beginning to heal,
says anthropologist
John OShea. It has
undone a lot of good.
tribes and museums, each individually
approved by the Secretary of the
Interior. The whole process could take
up to a year or two. Now the process
for CUI is the same as it has always
been under NAGPRA for aliated
remains: after reaching an agreement
with a tribe, researchers publish a
notice in the Federal Register, wait 30
days for any counterclaims, and then
are free to hand them over.
Among scientists, the most vocal
response to the rule came in a num-
ber of letters to the Secretary of the
Interior signed by members of the
National Academy of Sciences, the
Society for American Archaeology,
the American Association of Muse-
ums, and other major institutions.
Among other things, the letters call
the rule a tragic choice that favors
speed and eciencyat the expense
of accuracy and will result in an
incalculable loss to science.
ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
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 The concern is that shifting a large
fraction of CUI to tribes, who will
likely rebury them, could mean losing
an enormous amount of untapped
data held in the bones and artifacts,
especially as new research techniques
are developed. Since NAGPRAs
passage, techniques such as DNA
and stable isotope analysis have come
into widespread use, oering radically
new ways to study prehistoric peoples.
Tribes have also used scientic data
from remains to establish land claims,
ght for water or hunting rights,
protect sacred sites, and petition
for federal recognitionand thus
NAGPRA protection. One letter
signed by 41 members of the National
Academy of Sciences warned that as a
result of the new rule North Americas
indigenous cultures could become
one of the worlds least known and
least understood populations, while
others around the world continue to
yield more and more information.
Steponaitis maintains that the new
amendment goes far beyond what
Congress authorized the DOI to do
under NAGPRA. Issuing a rule on
such thin legal ice is an invitation to
litigation, he says, pointing out that
one of the worst things to happen
under NAGPRA was the legal
ght over Kennewick Man. The
9,200-year-old skeleton, called The
Ancient One by native groups, was
discovered in Washington State in
1996. At issue was whether scientists
or Native Americans could take
possession of his remains. Scientists
won the right to study the remains,
but sacriced plenty of good will in
the process. Litigation brings out the
worst in everyone, Steponaitis says.
Since tribes no longer have to show
a cultural link to the unidentied
remains, but instead a less precise
geographical relationship, anybody
can potentially make a claim, says
OShea. He maintains this puts
universities and other collection-
holders in the awkward position of
having to decide which of multiple
claims is most validand exposes
them to new legal risks. Its returning
us to the pre-NAGPRA days, with
everyone distrusting everyone else.
Once remains are aliated and
60
reburied, he says, they might as well
never have existed. Its like destroying
the evidence in a cold-case crime.
Even though the rule applies
only to remains found on current or
historical tribal territory, says Keith
Kintigh of Arizona State University,
its denition of aboriginal land is so
drastically expanded over the original
laws that it eectively applies to
all culturally unidentiable human
Among Native
Americans,
both scientists and
non-scientists, the
debate isnt about the
rules legitimacy, but
how much further it
should have gone.
remains in museums. This could
mean soaring consultation and
inventory costs in an already strained
economy.
Fundamentally, says Steponaitis,
the rule could destroy the delicate
balance Congress designed into the
original law. It represents a purely
tribal point of view and tilts the play-
ing eld so much that the outcome
is essentially foreordained. No real
negotiation is possible.
Kintigh puts it more bluntly: The
goal of the rule is to empty museums
of human remains. It is illegal, and it
is a disaster.
A mong Native Americans, both
scientists and non-scientists,
the debate isnt about the
rules legitimacy, but how overdue it
was and how much further it should
have gone. It does streamline things,
says Indiana Universitys Sonya
Atalay, a member of the Ojibwe tribe.
She believes it should encourage
future collaboration, assuming people
take the opportunity.
Atalay acknowledges it will mean
more work for museums that arent
vk.com/englishlibrary
currently in compliance with the law,
whether due to a lack of motivation
or funding or, in some cases, the active
desire to subvert the NAGPRA
process through the CUI loophole.
On the other hand, some institutions
were already proactively engaged in
inventorying and repatriating CUI.
As for fears of a wild scramble of
claims, she says, Its not as if native
communities want to bring back any
remains out there that have nothing
to do with them.
At the heart of the matter may
well be the elementally dierent
perspectives on kinship held
by archaeologists and Native
Americans. While European cultures
tend to feel strongly only about
the remains of recent generations,
says Atalay, to Native Americans it
doesnt matter how old the remains
are. We have the responsibility to
care for all of our ancestors. Where
would we draw the line?
Another area in which these
dierent attitudes clash is the
rules handling of funerary objects
associated with CUI. It recommends
transferring control of grave
goods to tribes along with human
remains, but doesnt require it.
This is a gaping hole, says Atalay.
Whats missing is the cultural
understanding of how important
those items are and that they remain
with individuals. They were buried
with those items for a reason.
Riding In calls the separation of
funerary objects from bodies nothing
less than a human rights violation.
Its very troubling. Scientists
have a vested interest in retaining
control of artifacts for study. Some
archaeologists have a missionary
attitude, he says. Theyre hoping to
convince Indians they need to open
their graves for study. If Indians accept
that, its another form of cultural
erosion, a step toward total cultural
assimilation. Even the terminology
can be a form of colonialism. These
arent archaeological sitestheyre
Indian burial sites.
Were already seeing some
resistance about returning associated
funeral objects, Atalay says. We
hate to see tribes put in the position
ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
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of having to ask: Do we get back our though many will be reburied without thats not necessarily a bad thing.
ancestors bodies without the items? study, the loss of scientic data needs Good science is always open to new
to be kept in perspective. Human ideas, to being questioned. Incorpo-

I n spite of these tensions,

some academics are guardedly
optimistic about NAGPRAs
future in light of the new rule. Its
not perfect by anyones standards, but
all in all, yes, it has improved things,
says Chip Colwell-Chanthaphonh,
a NAGPRA officer at the Denver
Museum of Nature and Science.
Museums are now compelled to
address the issue of CUI that many
have ignored for two decades, and
more than 60 institutions have
already begun the process. In 2009,
the Denver Museum of Nature
and Science held video conferences
with 27 tribes across the country to
discuss the disposition of CUI. The
year before, the Museum of Cultural
and Natural History at Central
Michigan University started talks to
repatriate the remains of 144 Saginaw
Chippewa ancestors.
Some tribes may still permit
research on repatriated remains, says
Colwell-Chanthaphonh. But even
interest in science is limitedas
it should beby other human
interests. He reasons that critics
might do well to ask how taking
20 years to aliate just a quarter
of the remains in collections is a
balanced approach, or how allowing
researchers to dene how and why
the remains are useful to society is
evenhanded.
Wendy Teeter of the Fowler
Museum at UCLA agrees that
the issue goes far beyond facts and
gures. In the U.S., we give a decent
burial to the pauper who dies on the
sidewalk in front of the 7-Eleven.
Even people who donate their bodies
to science are cremated. Its not fair
to treat ancient Native Americans
dierently, she says. Theyre still
people. Compared to other academic
disciplines with strict review boards,
archaeology has been given a free
rein, as if it doesnt aect people.
One thing is clear: theres no quick
x. Colwell-Chanthaphonh thinks
rating Native American viewpoints in
the study of material culture means
not just more ethical and respectful
science, but better science. He points
to work at On Your Knees Cave in
southeastern Alaska as perhaps the
best example of this kind of coopera-
tion. When 10,000-year-old remains
were found there in the mid-1990s,
archaeologists chose to work closely
with local Tlingit groups, consulting
with them throughout the project.
Native American interns excavated
at the site, and the Tlingit not only
shared oral history with the research-
ers, but even donated DNA so
archaeologists could study the rela-
tionship between the remains and the
contemporary tribe. As a result of this
kind of close collaboration, says Col-
well-Chanthaphonh, scientists had
a much more intricate and complex
story to tell.
Julian Smith is a contributing editor
to Archaeology.

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 Photo Credits
COVERSamir S. Patel; 1Pasquale
Sorrentino; 2Courtesy Quirino Olivera
Nez/Asociacin Amigos del Museo de Sipn,
Educational Voyages Barges Michael Wells, Samir S. Patel; 8Courtesy
Expeditions Small Ships Patricia Crown, from the collections of the
Sailing Ships River Boats American Museum of Natural History,
Cruise Ships Freighters
Save with TravLtips Rates photograph by Marianne Tyndall; 9Christies
-Vi Images Ltd. 2010, Courtesy Daniel Pett,
Portable Antiquities Scheme; 10Courtesy
>V
 
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Photography; 12Courtesy David Grant
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67

(continued from page 37)
The Macassans didnt come to
Australia to colonize or trade, but
to nd trepang, also known as sea
cucumbers or bche-de-mer. The
slimy marine invertebrates became
a prized delicacy and aphrodisiac in
China in the eighteenth century. At
the northern end of the Lamilami
clan estate is Anuru Bay, where eets
of Macassan praus visited each year to
catch and process trepang.
Trepang was the rst thing any-
one found in Australia to make money
on the global market, says Campbell
Macknight, a visiting fellow at Aus-
tralian National University, who rst
excavated at Anuru Bay as a student in
the 1960s. The question of its inu-
ence on Aborigines is interesting.
Dutch trade records show a spike
in the trepang trade around 1780.
Macknight believes this coincides
with the Macassans nding the fertile
waters at Anuru Bay, after having vis-
ited other parts of the coast sporadi-
cally in the preceding decades. Guse
has returned to Anuru Bay to look for
more evidence of Macassan-Aborigi-
ne interaction and nd some reliably
datable material. Macassan archaeo-
logical sites are processing facilities
the oldest known industrial sites in
Australiawhere the Macassans
boiled, buried, and smoked the
trepang, leaving behind distinctive
68
lines of stone replaces and white
ash. Where Macknight looked at the
interaction from the Macassan point
of view, Guse is approaching it from
the Aboriginal perspective. Hed like
to sort out when and how the Macas-
san presence inuenced Aboriginal
culture, perhaps by drawing more
outlying groups closer to the coast for
trade or out of curiosity. There was
a great level of complexity in the way
Aboriginal people responded to this
contact on the coastline, says Guse. Rock art was no longer easily prac-
Guse has excavated some promis-
ing materials, but so far Djulirri has
provided the rst hard evidence of
the earliest Macassan arrival. Taon,
who collected samples of the bees-
wax with Lamilamis permission and (many young artists visit rock art sites
help, has dated the painting of the
prau to at least 1664, and he thinks it
could be much older. The date places
Macassans in Australia around 100
years before it was thought they had
arrived, and makes the prau the earli-
est known piece of contact rock art.
In a way, this date also lends credence
to the Aboriginal oral history, which
is often dismissed as a poor historical
sourceit distinguishes their experi-
ence historically and provides some of
the rst concrete hints of a narrative
of contact that can be told, reliably,
from their side.
It tells such an amazing story, a
narrative of cultural interaction and
vk.com/englishlibrary
Archaeologist Daryl Guse (standing)
oversees excavations at Anuru Bay,
where Indonesian seafarers encountered
Aborigines many years before European
arrival. The site is helping show that
Aboriginal culture was more dynamic
and connected than once thought.
exchange, says Sue OConnor, an
archaeologist from Australian Nation-
al University who is overseeing Guses
doctoral research at Anuru Bay. For
gods sake, if we didnt have the rock
art, we wouldnt have a clue, really.
The history of Australia, as most
Australians know it, is a European one.
But the rock art of Arnhem Land is an
alternate history that puts to rest the
idea that Aboriginal culture was iso-
lated and static. Well before the English
arrived, they were interacting regularly
with Macassans, tangentially participat-
ing in a global trade network through
Indonesia and into China. Taon
expects to nd more solid evidence of
pre-Macassan contact between Aborig-
ines and other seafarers in the region
going back thousands of years.
In some ways, this history is still
being recorded, though nothing has
been painted at Djulirri for decades.
The arrival of Europeans ended the
seminomadic indigenous lifestyle that
had been in place for generations.
ticed, so the art became exclusively
portable, drifting toward a tradition of
painting on bark that itself goes back
thousands of years. Aboriginal paint-
ings, in recognizably traditional forms
for inspiration), hang in tourist shops,
galleries, homes, and museums across
the country. They dont serve the same
role as the rock art, but they do main-
tain a cultural tradition and provide
an Aboriginal narrative of a world still
in ux. Several of the Lamilami sons
are painters.
If you keep this in the back of
your mind, you can know what your
ancestors knew, saw, and did. But if
you lose this connection, says Lami-
lami, who knows from experience,
you sort of lose the plot.
Samir S. Patel is a senior editor
at Archaeology.
ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011
 www.archaeological.org EXCAVATE, EDUCATE, ADVOCATE

Early Americans in Texas

I
n April , the AIA awarded
its fth Site Preservation Grant to
the Gault School of Archaeologi-
cal Research (GSAR) in central
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The Gault Site is widely regarded
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standing theory that early Americans
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water source, edible native plants, and liest known human artifacts found in conferences around Texas. Wernecke
one of the largest chert sources in North America. points out that people, particularly
North America made it an excellent Unfortunately, the sites proximity in the United States, believe that
location for these early settlers. to current population centers has left archaeology is something that hap-
Specialists at Gault have had great the site vulnerable to looters and col- pens elsewhere. Here we have an
success in determining the uses of lectors. The grant from the AIA will internationally famous site right in
many of these stone tools by analyz- help GSAR Executive Director D. peoples backyards. GSAR wants to
ing markings on the stone under a Clark Wernecke educate local people, make sure that people learn about
microscopeoften determining if the especially educators and students, this incredible archaeological resource
tool was used to cut grasses, scrape about the signicance of the site and and the AIA is helping them achieve
wood, process hides, or for some raise awareness of the need to protect that goal.
other task. In the coming years the our past. As Wernecke notes, it is The AIA Site Preservation Pro-
Gault Site will continue to advance more eectiveand certainly more gram emphasizes outreach, education,
our knowledge of early peoples in cost-eectiveto enlist hundreds sustainable development, and the
the Americas. of pairs of eyes (to protect the site) spread of best practices in site pres-
The site is also helping archaeolo- rather than erect fences, cameras, and ervation. The Institute also supports
gists understand the Clovis culture. other security systems. preservation projects in Belize, Cam-
The Clovis people are known for a The expanded programming bodia, Chile, Cyprus, Jordan, Peru,
particular style of stone projectile includes workshops for teachers, and Turkey. The program is made
points, dated to about 13,500 years the creation of a teachers guide to possible through donations to the
ago. These artifacts were rst discov- accompany a wonderful informational AIA. To learn more, please visit
ered near Clovis, New Mexico, in the movie that was created by GSAR in www.archaeological.org/sitepreservation.

69
 Rome Wasnt Built in a Day
Excavate, Educate, Advocate

E
ach year, the Archaeological
Institute of Americas Lecture
Program provides over 300 free
public lectures to AIA Local
Societies in the U.S. and Canada.
Lecture topics address the most
recent eldwork and research being
conducted around the world and are
presented by the archaeologists and
scholars involved in these projects.
The Charles Eliot Norton Memorial
Lectureship established in 1907 and

named after the AIAs rst president

and founding member is one of the
Dispatches from the AIA

highest honors that the AIA can

bestow on a scholar. The 103-year list
of Norton Lecturers is a virtual whos
who of the worlds eminent archaeol-
John Peter Oleson has sought out the secrets of
ogists. The 2010/2011 Norton Lec-
ancient Roman building techniques and maritime
turers include John Peter Oleson of technology as co-director of many projects,
the University of Victoria, British including the Caesarea Ancient Harbour Excavation
Columbia. in Israel (above), and by diving the submerged port
Specializing in ancient maritime city of Alexandria in Egypt (left).
technology and Roman building tech-
niques, John Peter Oleson has been
co-director of the Caesarea Ancient
Harbour Excavation in Israel, direc-
tor of the Humayma Excavation
Project in Jordan, and co-director of
the Roman Maritime Concrete Study. Incompetent Architects, and Con- gests that ancient Roman architects
He has received numerous awards for struction Fraud in Ancient Rome. were quite competent in their trade.
his work, and has published 11 books During its tenure as a major world Yet those buildings that remain are
and over 75 articles and chapters. power, the Roman Empire was but a small percentage of the total
Starting in spring 2011, Oleson responsible for many impressive number that the Roman Empire
will travel around the U.S. lectur- architectural works, some of which built throughout its territory. What
ing on Harena Sine Calce (Sand still stand to this day. For a structure caused some buildings to disappear
Without Lime): Building Disasters, to survive as long as 2,000 years sug- while others remained? Were the
Romans really such good construc-
tion engineers after all? Using Roman
Upcoming AIA Events literary, epigraphical, and legal texts
as primary sources, Oleson reveals
Join us at the 112th AIA-APA Joint Annual Meeting, instances of fraudulent contracting,
January 69, 2011, San Antonio, TX. To learn more about cost overruns, and construction disas-
this event, visit www.archaeological.org/annualmeeting. ters, as well as misjudged urban plan-
ning and a disregard for regulations
AIA 11th Annual Archaeology Fair, co-sponsored by the that sometimes resulted in loss of life
Witte Museum, will be held on January 7 and 8 at the Witte, and property. Apparently, some things
during the AIA Annual Meeting. For more information about never change.
this program, go to www.archaeological.org/events/fairs. Visit www.archaeological.org/
lectures for a full listing of the 2011
Did you know? The AIA maintains a list of outside Lecture Program, and contact your
funding opportunities related to preservation at local AIA Society or call 617-358-
www.archaeological.org/sitepreservation/outsidefunding. 4184 (lectures@aia.bu.edu) for more
information on events near you.

70
 $5&+$(2/2*,&$/,167,787(2)
$0(5,&$72856www.aiatours.org
The itinerary was excellent. The number of
ancient sites visited was impressive. 2G\VVHXVPRVDLF%DUGR0XVHXP7XQLV

Experience North Africa with the AIA

Ultra-luxurious AIA Cruises Value-Priced AIA Cruises
aboard Corinthian II or Callisto aboard Aegean Odyssey
Those who expect the very best With prices starting at less than
travel aboard the elegant 17-cabin $235 per day, including airfare,
yacht Callisto or the 57-cabin, excursions and gratuities, the
all-suite Corinthian II. More like 198-cabin Aegean Odyssey offers
private yachts than cruise ships, the best value in educational
they provide small-ship grandeur cruising.
and intimacy.

Featured Voyages Featured Voyages

Lost Cities of Libya aboard Callisto Athens to Alexandria,
October 29-November 10, 2011 with AIA lecturer including Sicily, Malta, Tunisia and Libya
C. Brian Rose March 25-April 9, 2011 with AIA lecturer Jenifer Neils

North Africas Mediterranean Coast: Alexandria to Malta,

Egypt to Morocco aboard Corinthian II including Libya and Tunisia
November 2-17, 2011- AIA lecturer TBA November 25-December 10, 2011 - AIA lecturer TBA

Featured Land Tour

Splendors of Libya
March 16-30, 2011 &
October 19-November 2, 2011
with AIA lecturer Susan Kane (Director of
the Cyrenaica Archaeological Project)

7HPSOHRI=HXV&\UHQH/LE\D 7KHDWHUDW6DEUDWKD/LE\D 0RQXPHQWDO$UFK/HSWLV0DJQD/LE\D

For Detailed Information:

Call: 800-748-6262 Toll: 603-756-2884 Email: aia@studytours.org
To view itineraries, photos, lecturer bios and to download brochures please visit:
www.aiatours.org
 ARTIFACT

S
ince the beginning of the twentieth century, many mingqi WHAT IS IT?
Model of a seven-story
(a word that literally means visible objects, used to mean all manor house and tower
DATE
types of grave furnishings) have been discovered in Han Dynasty Early rst century a.d.
tombs in Henan Province, but few are as impressive as this six- MATERIAL
Pottery
foot-tall model of a multi-story manor house. DISCOVERED
1993, Tomb no. 6 at
Actual remains of ancient Chinese domestic architecture Baizhuang, Jiaozuo,
Henan Province
are rare. Scholars, however, are still able to glean the
SIZE
appearance of some types of houses from pottery 6.2 feet
CURRENT LOCATION
models, such as this one, that reveal a higher level Henan Museum,
China
of architectural achievement than had previously
been imagined.
From the carefully
constructed main house
and tower with its brightly
colored exterior, to the enclosed
courtyard with its model dog, the
level of detail shown in this mingqi
is impressive. The artist even
inscribed small markings on the
homes exterior, both to sign his
work and to help him assemble
the model.
Many Han Dynasty tombs
were equipped with the necessities
of everyday life including furniture, cooking utensils, and even fooditems thought to
provide comfort and ease the souls transition to the afterlife. Mingqi as elaborate as this,
however, would only have been buried with the wealthiest members of Han society.

72 ARCHAEOLOGY January/February 2011

 Archaeological Tours
led by noted scholars
Invites You to Journey Back in Time
Ancient Rome (12 days)
Examine the monuments of each historical
period as a unit with Prof. Myles McDonnell,
Baruch College, CUNY. Covering Republican
Rome, Rome of the Caesars, the Early Empire,
High Empire and Christian Rome, we spend a
day at the ancient port, Ostia Antica, and another
visiting Hadrians Villa at Tivoli, and end with
the Imperial Palaces of the Later Empire.
Ancient Capitals of
Indonesia (20 days)
Explore the lush tropical islands of Java,
Sulawesi and Bali with Prof. Richard Cooler,
Northern Illinois U. Highlights include legendary
Borobudur and Panataran, Indonesias largest
temple complex, Solos old Javanese culture,
the distinctive architecture and rituals of Tana
Toraja, the magical ambiance of Bali and the
musical and dance performances throughout.
Scotland (17 days)
Study Scotlands prehistoric and early
Christian sites with Dr. Mattanyah
Zohar, Archaeologist. The tour begins
with the Early Christian monastic
settlement on the Island of Iona and
the intriguing Neolithic sites in the
Kilmartin Valley. Tour highlights
include the enigmatic megalithic
Stones of Callanish on the Isle of
Lewis, Edinburgh, the Bronze Age
burial cairn at Cairnpapple Hill,
China (17 days) fascinating carved Pictish menhirs
with an Optional and a fairy-tale castle. The tour ends
Yangtze River Cruise on the Orkney and Shetland Islands
Visit the major capitals visiting Neolithic and Viking sites such
of Imperial China, as Maes Howe and Skara Brae.
including Beijing, Xian,
Luoyang, Zhengzhou
and the garden city of
Suzhou with Prof. Robert
Thorp, Washington U.
Tour highlights are the
Forbidden City, Great
Wall, Longmen Buddhist
caves in Luoyang, the
famous terra-cotta warriors
near Xian and the world- Korea (16 days)
class museum in Shanghai. Explore Koreas 5,000 years of history with
This tour is a must for Prof. Donald Baker, U. of British Columbia.
those who have never Beginning in Seoul, tour highlights include
visited China. the royal tombs of the Baekje and Silla
dynasties, Buddhist grottoes, exceptional
museums, ancient temples, colorful traditional
Korean music and dance performances plus
a day trip to the Demilitarized Zone.

2011 tours: Libya Etruscan Italy Sri Lanka Syria & Jordan Caves & Castles Turkey Malta, Sardinia & Corsica Egypt
Sudan Israel Cyprus & Crete Burma In-Depth South India Greece Peru Bhutan & Ladakh Provence...and more
Journey back in time with us. Weve been taking curious travelers on fascinating historical study tours for the
past 35 years. Each tour is led by a noted scholar whose knowledge and enthusiasm brings history to life and adds
a memorable perspective to your journey. Every one of our 37 tours features superb itineraries, unsurpassed service and
our time-tested commitment to excellence. No wonder so many of our clients choose to travel with us again and again.
For more information, please visit www.archaeologicaltrs.com, e-mail archtours@aol.com, call 212-986-3054,
toll-free 866-740-5130. Or write to Archaeological Tours, 271 Madison Avenue, Suite 904, New York, NY 10016.
And see history our way.
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