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Electrical Conductivity in Metals

Electrical conductivity in metals is a result of the movement of electrically charged particles.


The atoms of metal elements are characterized by the presence of valence electrons - electrons in the
outer shell of an atom that are free to move about. It is these 'free electrons' that allow metals to
conduct an electric current.
Because valence electrons are free to move they can travel through the lattice that forms the physical
structure of a metal.

Under an electric field, free electrons move through the metal much like billiard balls knocking against
each other, passing an electric charge as they move.
The transfer of energy is strongest when there is little resistance. On a billiard table, this occurs when a
ball strikes against another single ball, passing most of its energy onto the next ball. If a single ball strikes
multiple other balls, each of those will carry only a fraction of the energy.

By the same token, the most effective conductors of electricity are metals that have a single valence
electron that is free to move and causes a strong repelling reaction in other electrons.
This is the case in the most conductive metals, such as silver, gold, and copper, who each have a single
valence electron that moves with little resistance and causes a strong repelling reaction.
Semi-conductor metals (or metalloids) have a higher number of valence electrons (usually four or more)
so, although they can conduct electricity, they are inefficient at the task.
However, when heated or doped with other elements semiconductors like silicon and germanium can
become extremely efficient conductors of electricity.
Conduction in metals must follow Ohm's Law, which states that the current is directly proportional to
the electric field applied to the metal. The key variable in applying Ohm's Law is a metal's resistivity.
Resistivity is the opposite of electrical conductivity, evaluating how strongly a metal opposes the flow of
electric current. This is commonly measured across the opposite faces of a one-meter cube of material
and described as an ohm meter (m). Resistivity is often represented by the Greek letter rho ().
Electrical conductivity, on the other hand, is commonly measured by siemens per meter (Sm1) and
represented by the Greek letter sigma (). One siemens is equal to the reciprocal of one ohm.
Conductivity & Resistivity in Metals
Resistivity Conductivity
Material
p(m) at 20C (S/m) at 20C
Silver 1.59x10-8 6.30x107
Copper 1.68x10-8 5.98x107
Annealed Copper 1.72x10-8 5.80x107
Gold 2.44x10-8 4.52x107
Aluminum 2.82x10-8 3.5x107
Calcium 3.36x10-8 2.82x107
Beryllium 4.00x10-8 2.500x107
Rhodium 4.49x10-8 2.23x107
Magnesium 4.66x10-8 2.15x107
Molybdenum 5.225x10-8 1.914x107
Iridium 5.289x10-8 1.891x107
Tungsten 5.49x10-8 1.82x107
Zinc 5.945x10-8 1.682x107
Cobalt 6.25x10-8 1.60x107
Cadmium 6.84x10-8 1.467
Nickel (electrolytic) 6.84x10-8 1.46x107
Ruthenium 7.595x10-8 1.31x107
Lithium 8.54x10-8 1.17x107
Iron 9.58x10-8 1.04x107
Platinum 1.06x10-7 9.44x106
Palladium 1.08x10-7 9.28x106
Tin 1.15x10-7 8.7x106
Selenium 1.197x10-7 8.35x106
Tantalum 1.24x10-7 8.06x106
Niobium 1.31x10-7 7.66x106
Steel (Cast) 1.61x10-7 6.21x106
Chromium 1.96x10-7 5.10x106
Lead 2.05x10-7 4.87x106
Vanadium 2.61x10-7 3.83x106
Uranium 2.87x10-7 3.48x106
Antimony* 3.92x10-7 2.55x106
Zirconium 4.105x10-7 2.44x106
Titanium 5.56x10-7 1.798x106
Mercury 9.58x10-7 1.044x106
Germanium* 4.6x10-1 2.17
2
Silicon* 6.40x10 1.56x10-3
*Note: The resistivity of semiconductors (metalloids) is heavily dependent on the presence of impurities
in the material.

https://www.thebalance.com/electrical-conductivity-in-metals-2340117

What is electrical resistivity?


Electrical resistivity is a measure of a materials property to oppose the flow of electric current. This is
expressed in Ohm-meters (m). The symbol of resistivity is usually the Greek letter (rho). A high
resistivity means that a material does not conduct well electric charge.
Electrical resistivity is defined as the relation between the electrical field inside a material, and the
electric current through it as a consequence:
in which is the resistivity of the material (m),
E is the magnitude of the electrical field in the material (V/m),
J is the magnitude of the electric current density in the material (A/m2)
If the electrical field (E) through a material is very large and the flow of current (J) very small, it means
that the material has a high resistivity.
Electrical conductivity is the inversion of resistivity, and is a measure of how well a material conducts
electric current:

in which is the conductivity of the material expressed in Siemens per meter (S/m). In electrical
engineering often (kappa) is used instead of .
Electrical Resistance
Electrical resistance is expressed in Ohms, and is not the same as resistivity. While resistivity is a
material property, resistance is the property of an object. The electrical resistance of a resistor is
determined by the combination of the shape and the resistivity of the material. For example, a
wirewound resistor with a long, thick wire has a higher resistance then with a shorter and thinner wire.
A wirewound resistor made from a material with high resistivity has a higher resistance value then one
with a low resistivity. An analogy with a hydraulic system can be made, where water is pumped through
a pipe. The longer and thinner the pipe, the higher the resistance will be. A pipe full with sand will resist
the flow of water more than a without sand (resistivity property).

Hydraulic analogy of electrical resistance


Wire Resistance
The resistance value of a wire depends on three parameters: resistivity, length and diameter. The
formula to calculate wire resistance is as follows:

in which R is the resistance ()


,
is the resistivity of the material (m),
l is the length of the material (m),
A is the cross-sectional area of the material (m2)
The resistance value of a wire is dependent on three parameters; its resistivity, cross-sectional area and
length.
As an example, consider a wirewound resistor with a wire of Nichrome with a resistivity of 1.10106
m. The wire has a length of 1500 mm and a diameter of 0.05 mm. With these three parameters the
resistance value is calculated:

Nichrome and Constantan are often used as resistance wire. Look in the table for material resistivity for
commonly used materials.
Sheet resistance
The resistance value for a sheet is calculated the exact same way as for wire resistance. The cross-
sectional area can be written as the product of w and t:

For some applications like thin films, the ratio between resistivity and film thickness is called sheet
resistance Rs:

in which Rs is in ohms. The film thickness needs to be uniform for this calculation.
Often resistor manufacturers increase resistance by cutting a pattern in the film to increase the path of
the electric current.

Electrical resistance of a sheet depends on length, width, film thickness and resistivity. The resistance
can be increased by cutting a pattern in the sheet.
Resistive properties of materials
The resistivity of a material is dependent on the temperature and is normally given for room
temperature (20C). The change in resistivity as a result of temperature change is described by the
temperature coefficient. For example thermistors make use of this property to measure temperature.
On the other hand, in precision electronics this is usually an unwanted effect. Metal foil resistors have
excellent properties for temperature stability. This is reached not only by the low resistivity of the
material, but also by the mechanical design of the component.
Many different materials and alloys are used for resistors. Nichrome, an alloy of nickel and chromium, is
often used as resistor wire material because of its high resistivity and it doesnt oxidize at high
temperatures. A disadvantage is that solder doesnt adhere to it. Constantan, another popular material,
is easily soldered and has furthermore a low temperature coefficient.
Temperature coefficient
Material (m) at 20C (S/m) at 20C
(1/C) x10^-3
Silver 1.59108 6.30107 3.8
Copper 1.68108 5.96107 3.9
Gold 2.44108 4.10107 3.4
Aluminum 2.82108 3.5107 3.9
Tungsten 5.60108 1.79107 4.5
Zinc 5.90108 1.69107 3.7
Nickel 6.99108 1.43107 6
Lithium 9.28108 1.08107 6
Iron 1.0107 1.00107 5
Platinum 1.06107 9.43106 3.9
Tin 1.09107 9.17106 4.5
Lead 2.2107 4.55106 3.9
Manganin 4.82107 2.07106 0.002
Constantan 4.9107 2.04106 0.008
Mercury 9.8107 1.02106 0.9
Nichrome 1.10106 9.09105 0.4
Carbon (amorphous) 5104 to 8104 1.25 to 2103 -0.5

Read more http://www.resistorguide.com/resistivity/

1)
Note! - the resistivity depends strongly on the presence of impurities in the material.
2)
Note! - the resistivity depends strongly on the temperature of the material. The table above is
based on 20oC reference.

Electrical Resistance in a Wire

The electrical resistance of a wire is greater for a longer wire and less for a wire of larger cross
sectional area. The resistance depend on the material of which it is made and can be expressed
as:

R=L/A (1)

where

R = resistance (ohm, )
= resistivity coefficient (ohm m, m)

L = length of wire (m)

A = cross sectional area of wire (m2)

The factor in the resistance which takes into account the nature of the material is the resistivity.
Since it is temperature dependent, it can be used to calculate the resistance of a wire of given
geometry at different temperatures.

The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity and can be expressed as:

=1/ (2)

where

= conductivity (1 / m)

Example - Resistance in an Aluminum Cable

Resistance of an aluminum cable with length 10 m and cross sectional area of 3 mm2 can be
calculated as

R = (2.65 10-8 m) (10 m) / ((3 mm2) (10-6 m2/mm2))

= 0.09

Resistance

The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defined as the ratio of the voltage
applied to the electric current which flows through it:

R=U/I (3)

where

R = resistance (ohm)

U = voltage (V)

I = current (A)

Ohm's Law

If the resistance is constant over a considerable range of voltage, then Ohm's law,
I=U/R (4)

can be used to predict the behavior of the material.

Resistance and Temperature

For most materials the electrical resistance increases with temperature. Change in resistance can
be expressed as

dR / Rs = dT (5)

where

dR = change in resistance (ohm)

Rs = standard resistance according reference tables (ohm)

= temperature coefficient of resistance (oC-1)

dT = change in temperature from reference temperature (oC, K)

(5) can be modified to:

dR = dT Rs (5b)

The "temperature coefficient of resistance" - - of a material is the increase in the resistance of


a 1 resistor of that material when the temperature is increased 1 oC.

Example - Resistance of a Copper Wire in Hot Weather

A copper wire with resistance 0.5 k at normal operating temperature 20oC is in hot sunny
weather heated to 80 oC. The temperature coefficient for copper is 4.29 x 10-3 (1/oC) and the
change in resistance can be calculated as

dR = (4.29 x 10-3 1/oC) ((80 oC) - (20 oC)) (0.5 k)

= 0.13 (k)

The resulting resistance for the copper wire in hot weather will be

R = (0.5 k) + (0.13 k)

= 0.63 (k)

= 630 ()
Example - Resistance of a Carbon Resistor when Temperature is changed

A carbon resistor with resistance 1 k at temperature 20oC is heated to 120 oC. The temperature
coefficient for carbon is negative -4.8 x 10-4 (1/oC) - the resistance is reduced with increasing
temperature.

The change in resistance can be calculated as

dR = (-4.8 x 10-4 1/oC) ((120 oC) - (20 oC)) (1 k)

= - 0.048 (k)

The resulting resistance for the resistor will be

R = (1 k) - (0.048 k)

= 0.952 (k)

= 952 ()

http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/resistivity-conductivity-d_418.html

2.6.1 Electrical resistivities

The electrical resistivity or specific resistance is the resistance between the opposite faces of a
metre cube of a material. The values given below are in ohm metre units ( m). The reciprocal
of is the electrical conductivity.

The electrical resistivity is readily influenced and usually increased by factors such as impurity
content, porosity, cold work, irradiation, etc. The values given in the main table relate to samples
for which such effects are usually minimal. For similar reasons values are not given below
78.2 K, since the effects of impurities, etc., become increasingly important the lower the
temperature and finally determine the so-called residual resistance eventually attained for many
metals. Certain metals, however, become superconducting below a certain temperature (see
section 2.6.4), and for such metals the transition temperature is entered after the name of the
metal. For the influence of magnetic fields upon resistance, see section 2.6.6.

In the main table, values given in italics are for the liquid phase. All other values are for a
polycrystalline solid sample. For some non-cubic metals, a separate table indicates the degree of
electrical resistivity anisotropy reported for single crystals at normal temperature. A similar
degree of anisotropy can be expected throughout the temperature range of the particular crystal
form.

Semi-conducting elements are also listed separately, and again only for normal temperature.
Since the electrical resistivities of these poor conductors are so strongly dependent on the small
amounts of impurity that may be added intentionally or be present inadvertently, the published
values differ considerably, as may the value for any specific sample. The table indicates an
approximate value or a likely range of values.

Other elements which are solid at normal temperature and do not conduct electricity are dealt
with under electrical insulators (see section 2.6.2). These include boron, carbon in the form of
diamond, iodine, phosphorus and sulphur. Elements which are gases at normal temperature and
pressure are also omitted.

Values are also given for a few typical alloys. These are mainly the alloys for which thermal
conductivity data were given and further compositional details will be found in section 2.3.7.

Resistivities of metallic elements

Metal
(108 m)

Temperature/K
1473.2 (or
78.2 273.2 373.2 573.2 973.2
other)

Aluminium (1.17 K) 0.229 2.42 3.57 5.83 25.5 33.1 (1500 K)


123.5 (1273
Antimony 8 39 59 114
K)
Arsenic 5.5 26
Barium 6.65 30.2 46.5 90.8
5.9
Beryllium 0.72 3.02 12.2 26.5
2
Bismuth 35 107 156 129 155 172 (1273 K)
36.3 (873.2
Cadmium (0.54 K) 1.6 6.8 9.8
K)
4.7
Calcium 0.63 3.11 7.8 20
5
Cerium 73 80 92 110 123 (1053 K)
Caesium 4.06 18.8 44.5 67.3 128 338 (1500 K)
Chromium 0.5 12.7 16.1 25.2 47.2 80
Cobalt 0.9 5.6 9.5 19.7 48 88.5
3.5 6.5 21.3 (1356
Copper 0.204 1.54 2.22
9 5 K)
Dysprosium 26 89 103 124 156.5 184
Erbium 41 81 103 135 183 216
Europium 60 89
Gadolium 20 126
Gallium (1.1 K) 2.75 13.6 27.2 31
Gold 0.468 2.05 2.88 4.61 8.59 33.4 (1500 K)

6.55 30.4 44.3 126


Hafnium (0.35 K) 74.6 164 (1500 K)
34 90 105 175
Holmium 134 203

Indium (3.35 K) 1.8 8.0 12.1 36.7 47 55 (1273 K)


Iridium (0.14 K) 0.9 4.7 6.8 10.8 22 33.5
Iron 0.64 8.57 14.4 30.2 85.7 118 (1400 K)
Lanthanum (4.71 K) 54 66 83 105 126 (1173 K)
Lead (7.2 K) 4.7 19.2 27 50 108 126 (1273 K)

8.5
Lithium 0.93 12.4 28.5 39.0 53 (1500 K)
3
Lutetium 16 54
4.0 28.7 (1173
Magnesium 0.53 5.74 9.0 15.4
5 K)
Manganese 132 143 147 152
630
Mercury (4.12 K) 5.8 94.1 103.5 128 214
0.45 38.4 (1500
Molybdenum (0.92 K) 4.85 7.34 12.5 23.3
4 K)
138 (1183
Neodymium 61 74 93 120
K)
121.3 (811.2
Neptunium 119.3
K)
57 (1600
Nickel 0.51 6.16 10.5 23.1 40.7
K)
Niobium (9.1 K) 3.0 15.2 19.2 27.1 43 59
Osmium (0.65 K) 8.1 11.4 17.8 30.4 46
43 (1600
Palladium 1.67 9.8 13.5 20.2 31.3
K)
Platinum 1.96 9.81 13.6 21.0 34.3 48.3
~
Plutonium 146 142 109
150
~
Polonium
40
165 (1500
Potassium 1.30 6.49 15.8 27.7 64.7
K)
134 (1123
Praseodymium 65 78 96 118
K)
Promethium 50 64 89 126
Protactinium (1.4 K) 6.1 17.7
Rhenium (1.7 K) 2.62 17.2 24.9 39.7 63.5 84.4
Rhodium 0.46 4.3 6.2 10.2 20 33
250 (1500
Rubidium 2.59 11.5 27.3 45.1 93
K)
Ruthenium (0.49 K) 1.34 7.1 10.0 15.6 27.8 44.4

Samarium 66 91.4
198
Scandium 50.5 75 115 167
0.27 18.7 (1400
Silver 1.47 2.07 3.34 6.10
8 K)
Sodium 0.76 4.33 9.51 17.4 38.9 88 (1500 K)
Strontium 3.55 12.3 16.7 25.5
Tantalum (4.48 K) 2.53 12.2 16.9 26.3 43.2 63 (1500 K)
Technetium (11.2 K) 22.6 33.3 51 65
Terbium 27 113
88 (1073
Thallium (2.37 K) 3.7 15 22.8 38 85
K)
Thorium (1.37 K) 3.9 14.7 20.8 32.5 53.6 68
Thulium 31 67
Tin (3.69 K) 2.1 11.5 15.8 50 60 72
Titanium (0.39 K) 4.6 39 58 90 142
Tungsten (0.01 0.57 40.3 (1500
4.82 7.19 12.3 23.7
K) . . . . . . 3 K)
Uranium (0.68 28
11 35 47
K) . . . . . .
Vanadium (5.03 18.1 89 (1500
2.30 25.9 39.5 63.1
K) . . . . . K)
Ytterbium . . . . . . . . 27.7
13
.
Yttrium . . . . . . . . 55
15.5
.
Zinc (0.85 5.48 37 (873.2
1.04 7.96 13.3
K) . . . . . . . K)
Zirconium (0.55 K) 38.8
6.36 55.9 87.7 128 120 (1500 K)
. . . . . . .


Estimated values based on R. K. Williams and D. L. McElory, USAEC, ORNL-TM-1424,
1966.

Resistivities of semi-conducting elements at normal temperature

Carbon /( m) Other elements /( m)


Amorphous ~ 6 105 Germanium (1 500) 103
Graphite (360) 106 Selenium ~ 0.1
Pyrolytic graphite, along planes ~ 5 106 Silicon (1 600) 101
,, ,, normal to
~ 5 103 Tellurium ~ 3 103
planes

Resistivities of single crystals of some non-cubic metals at normal temperature

Metal /(108 m) in direction of

c-axis a-axis b-axis

Antimony . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.6 42.6


Beryllium . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.58 3.13
Bismuth . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 109
Cadmium . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.79 6.54
Dysprosium . . . . . . . . . . . 77.4 98.2
Erbium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47.0 87.6
Gadolinium . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 135
Gallium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55.5 17.3 7.85
Holmium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.9 101.2
Lutetium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.0 75.6
Magnesium . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.78 4.53
Mercury (at 227.7
17.7 23.5
K) . . . . . . . . . .
Tellurium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 000 15 400
Terbium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 122
Thulium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 87
Tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1 10.0
Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.05 5.83

Resistivities of some typical alloys

Alloy /(108 m)
Temperature/K
273.2 373.2 573.2 973.2 1473.2

Alpax gamma . . . . . . . . . 3.5 5.0 7.85


Alumel . . . . . . . . . . . 28.1 34.8 43.8 53.2 65.1
Brass . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3
Bronze . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6
Chromel P . . . . . . . . . . . 70.0 72.8 79.3 89.3 100.1
Constantan . . . . . . . . . . 49
German
40
silver . . . . . . . . . .
LoEx . . . . . . . . . . . 3.95 5.45 8.55
Manganin . . . . . . . . . . . 41.5
Monel . . . . . . . . . . . 42.9 50.1 52.5 63.3
Nichrome . . . . . . . . . . . 107.3 108.3 110.0 110.3
RR 59 . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 4.9 7.6
RR 77 . . . . . . . . . . . 3.95 5.2 7.8
Steel, Carbon . . . . . . . . . . 17.0 23.2 39.8 93.5 123.1
,, 18/8 . . . . . . . . . . 66.3 74.3 89.1 109.4 124
,, Era ATV . . . . . . . . . 98.0 102.7 111.0 122.0
,, NiCr . . . . . . . . . . 27.7 33.7 48.7 99.4 122.2
,, Silicon . . . . . . . . . . 41.9 47.0 60.1 105.7 127.1
,, Stainless . . . . . . . . . 55.0 63.4 80.2 114.1
Pt 90%, Ir 10% . . . . . . . . . 24.8 28.0
Pt 90%, Rh 10% . . . . . . . . . 18.7 21.8
Ti 92.5%, Al 5%, Sn
155.6 165.6 179.4
2.5% . . . . .
Ti 96.0%, Al 2.0%, Mn
110.0 123.1 149.5
2.0% . . . . .
Zr 93.2%, Sn 6.7%, C 0.1% . . . . . 132.8 139.5 148.3
Zr 97.6%, Sn 2.3%, C 0.1% . . . . . 91.5 105.2 123.9

http://www.kayelaby.npl.co.uk/general_physics/2_6/2_6_1.html

Electric Resistance
Discussion
introduction

Yech! What a mess this is.

Conduction: S. Gray, 1729 Resistance: Georg Simon Ohm, 1827.

Regular version
IV

V V
I= V = IR R =
R I

Variableogy

quantity: resistance R
unit: ohm [] Georg Ohm (17871854) Germany

Fancy version (the magnetohydrodynamic version?)

JE

1
J = E = E = J

Welcome to symbol hell

Electrical properties

quantity symbol unit symbol property of

resistance R ohm
objects
conductance G siemens S

resistivity ohm meter m


materials
conductivity siemens per meter S/m

Ohm's law isn't a very serious law. It's the jaywalking of physics. Sensible materials and devices
obey it, but there are plenty of rogues out there that don't.

resistors

Bad Booze Rots Our Young Guts But Vodka Goes Well.

Better Build Roof Over Your Garage Before Van Gets Wet.

Resistor color code


first & second bands third band fourth band
(first & second digits) (multiplier) (tolerance)

black 0 black 100+ none 20%

brown 1 brown 101+ silver 10%

red 2 red 102+ gold 05%

orange 3 orange 103+

yellow 4 yellow 104+

green 5 green 105+

blue 6 blue 106+

violet 7 silver 102

gray 8 gold 101

white 9

materials

Resistance and resistivity. Factors affecting resistance in a conducting wire.


R=
A

Conductors vs. insulators

Best electrical conductors: silver, copper, gold, aluminum, calcium, beryllium, tungsten

Resistivity and conductivity are reciprocals.

Conductivity in metals is a statistical/thermodynamic quantity.

Resistivity is determined by the scattering of electrons. The more scattering, the higher the
resistance.

ne2
=
mevrms
Where

= electrical conductivity [S/m]

n= density of free electrons [e/m3]

e= charge of an electron (1.60 1019 C)

me = mass of an electron (9.11 1031 kg)

vrms = root-mean-square speed of electrons [m/s]

= mean free path length [m]

Graphite

Where does this idea belong? Nichrome was invented in 1906, which made electric toasters
possible.

Conducting polymers.

Resistivity of selected materials (~300 K)


(Note the difference in units between metals and nonmetals.)

metals (n m) nonmetals ( m)

aluminum 26.5 aluminum oxide (14 ) 1 1014

brass 64 aluminum oxide (300 ) 3 1011

chromium 126 aluminum oxide (800 ) 4 106

copper 17.1 carbon, amorphous 0.35

gold 22.1 carbon, diamond 2.7

iron 96.1 carbon, graphite 650 109

lead 208 germanium 0.46

lithium 92.8 pyrex 7740 40,000

mercury (0 ) 941 quartz 75 1016

manganese 1440 silicon 640

nichrome 1500 silicon dioxide (20 ) 1 1013


nickel 69.3 silicon dioxide (600 ) 70,000

palladium 105.4 silicon dioxide (1300 ) 0.004

platinum 105 water, liquid (0 ) 861,900

plutonium 1414 water, liquid (25 ) 181,800

silver 15.9 water, liquid (100 ) 12,740

solder 150

steel, plain 180

steel, stainless 720

tantalum 131

tin (0 ) 115

titanium (0 ) 390

tungsten 52.8

uranium (0 ) 280

zinc 59

temperature

The general rule is resistivity increases with increasing temperature in conductors and decreases
with increasing temperature in insulators. Unfortunately there is no simple mathematical function
to describe these relationships.

The temperature dependence of resistivity (or its reciprocal, conductivity) can only be truly
understood with quantum mechanics. In the same way that matter is an assembly of microscopic
particles called atoms and a beam of light is a stream of microscopic particles called photons,
thermal vibrations in a solid are a swarm of microscopic particles called phonons. The electrons
are trying to drift toward the positive terminal of the battery, but the phonons keep crashing into
them. The random direction of these collisions disturbs the attempted organized motion of the
electrons against the electric field. The deflection or scattering of electrons with phonons is one
source of resistance. As temperature rises, the number of phonons increases and with it the
likelihood that the electrons and phonons will collide. Thus when temperature goes up, resistance
goes up.

For some materials, resistivity is a linear function of temperature.


= 0(1 + (T T0))

The resistivity of a conductor increases with temperature. In the case of copper, the relationship
between resistivity and temperature is approximately linear over a wide range of temperatures.

For other materials, a power relationship works better.

= 0(T/T0)

The resistivity of a conductor increases with temperature. In the case of tungsten, the relationship
between resistivity and temperature is best described by a power relationship.

see also: superconductivity

miscellaneous

magnetoresistance

photoconductivity

liquids

electrolytes

gases

dielectric breakdown

plasmas

microphones

A carbon microphone is a backward nothing

Microphones and how they work

sounds produce which cause which result in


type
changes in changes in changes in

carbon granule density resistance voltage

condenser plate separation capacitance voltage

dynamic coil location flux voltage

piezoelectric compression polarization voltage


http://physics.info/electric-resistance/

Electrical resistivity

The electrical resistance offered by a homogeneous unit cube of material to the flow of a direct
current of uniform density between opposite faces of the cube. Also called specific resistance, it
is an intrinsic, bulk (not thin-film) property of a material. Resistivity is usually determined by
calculation from the measurement of electrical resistance of samples having a known length and
uniform cross section according to the following equation, where is the resistivity, R the
measured resistance, A the cross-sectional area, and l the length. In the mks system (SI), the unit
of resistivity is the ohm-meter. Therefore, in the equation below, resistance is expressed in ohms,
and the sample dimensions in meters.

()

The room-temperature resistivity of pure metals extends from approximately 1.5 10-8 ohm-
meter for silver, the best conductor, to 135 10-8 ohm-meter for manganese, the poorest pure
metallic conductor. Most metallic alloys also fall within the same range. Insulators have
resistivities within the approximate range of 108 to 1016 ohm-meters. The resistivity of
semiconductor materials, such as silicon and germanium, depends not only on the basic material
but to a considerable extent on the type and amount of impurities in the base material. Large
variations result from small changes in composition, particularly at very low concentrations of
impurities. Values typically range from 10-4 to 105 ohm-meters. See Electrical resistance,
Semiconductor

The temperature coefficients (changes with temperature) of resistivity of pure metallic


conductors are positive. Resistivity increases by about 0.4%/K at room temperature and is nearly
proportional to the absolute temperature over wide temperature ranges. As the temperature is
decreased toward absolute zero, resistivity decreases to a very low residual value for some
metals. The resistivity of other metals abruptly changes to zero at some temperature above
absolute zero, and they become superconductors.

Metals, and some semiconductors in particular, exhibit a change in resistivity when placed in a
magnetic field. Theoretical relations to explain the observed phenomena have not been well
developed.

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