EXHIBITION CHEMISTRY

Declan Fleming

Magic beakers
Declan Fleming shows you how to capture your students
imaginations with spectacular demonstrations
When first taught to distinguish between a chemical and a physical change, students are often
asked to watch out for changes that may suggest the creation of new materials. Examples include
a change in temperature, formation of a precipitate, effervescence or a change in colour.

For the latter, chemists often turn to a coloured beakers demonstration in which a series of
liquids are poured one into the other to reveal a succession of impressive colour changes. The
most commonly used is the water into wine demonstration but adventurous teachers can extend
this by adding a few more carefully chosen ingredients. This demonstration is based on one
shown by Catherine Smith at the 2012 Association for Science Education annual conference.

Kit and preparation

8 dry beakers, 500 cm3 each (a large beaker makes it easier to hide the chemicals added to each
in preparation)

Beaker 1: leave empty

Beaker 2: 20 drops of 0.4M NaOH (irritant)
Beaker 3: 10 drops of phenolphthalein (highly flammable)
Beaker 4: 15 drops 1M H2SO4 (irritant)
 Beaker 5: Spatula tip of solid KMnO4 (oxidising, harmful, dangerous for the
environment)
Beaker 6: 40 drops acidified iron(II) sulfate heptahydrate (you can make up a solution by
dissolving 4.76 g in 10 cm3 of 1M H2SO4)
Beaker 7: 15 drops 10% potassium thiocyanate solution
Beaker 8: 10 drops 2% potassium hexacyanoferrate(III)

All beakers should appear empty to the audience. A dark wooden bench top is ideal for masking
the contents. The audience seated with the bottom of the beakers at their eye level helps as well.
When adding the relevant chemical to each beaker, its helpful to swirl it so that the liquids wet
the glass rather than gathering in the middle.

In front of the audience

Fill beaker 1 with about 500 cm3 of tap water so the audience can see there is nothing unusual
about the liquid to begin with. Pour the contents from a height of about 10 cm into beaker 2
this helps mixing as much as possible without splashing. As the liquid is poured from one beaker
to the next, a series of surprising colour changes take place:

Beaker 1: colourless
Beaker 2: colourless
Beaker 3: pink
Beaker 4: colourless
Beaker 5: pink
Beaker 6: colourless
Beaker 7: orange
Beaker 8: blue

Teaching goal
As the water is added to the sodium hydroxide in beaker 2, there is obviously no colour change,
but on addition to beaker 3 the phenolphthalein indicator switches from its leuco form to the pink
form. Weve discussed the role that delocalisation plays in the colour of phenolphthalein before.1
The solution, once added to beaker 4, is neutralised by the acid and phenolphthalein reverts back
to its leuco form. There is a large excess of hydrogen ions in the mixture as described, but with
less I found the change was not instantaneous and this detracted from the spectacle.

As the liquid is added to beaker 5, the potassium manganate(VII) dissolves to give a pink colour
very similar to that of the phenolphthalein. Eagle-eyed observers may spot a slight difference in
hue, but for younger audiences this provides the opportunity to discuss the difference between
dissolution and a chemical reaction.

Younger students will not understand the chemistry in the last few beakers (recognising the
colour change is sufficient) but these are ideal for older students looking at transition metal
chemistry. Initially we see a colour change as the pink MnO4 is reduced to the near-colourless
Mn2+. The [Fe(H2O)6]2+ complex is in turn oxidised to [Fe(H2O)6]3+, both of which are
effectively colourless at this concentration, to provide the Fe(III) needed for the next beaker.

Adding this to the potassium thiocyanate produces the familiar blood red colour (appearing more
orange at this concentration) as the SCN ligand replaces one of the water ligands. The new
International Baccalaureate syllabus requires students to be familiar with the spectrochemical
series. Teachers might be tempted to emphasise the drop in frequency of light absorbed and
corresponding shift in colour from yelloworange to blood redorange, claiming this is due to
the exchange of water for a weaker field ligand.

[Fe(H2O)6]3+ + SCN [Fe(H2O)5SCN]2+ + H2O

In reality, this and the colour in the next beaker are due to charge transfer processes, which are
often associated with vibrant colours even at low concentrations. Here, most light is absorbed as
an electron is transferred from the ligand to the metal ion rather than between split d sub shells
on the iron itself. Charge transfer also accounts for the surprisingly strong colour of the highly
oxidised MnO4 ion seen earlier as well as other classic examples such as the colour of sapphires
and brown glass.

Declan Fleming

The final reaction is, to me, the most intriguing as we generate Prussian blue, Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3. The
blue mixed-oxidation state complex of Fe(III) and Fe(II) with cyanide ligands was one of the
earliest synthetic pigments; its blue colour inspired Gay-Lussac when naming cyanide, and gave
the cyanotype process its name. In the latter, visible light is enough to reduce some Fe(III) to
Fe(II) in a mixture of potassium ferricyanide and ferric ammonium citrate, resulting in the
formation of the bright blue pigment. Once again, we see a transition metal compound whose
strong colour arises not from crystal field effects but from charge transfer (intervalence in this
case); light is primarily absorbed as electrons are exchanged between the Fe(III) and Fe(II) ions
rather than between split d levels within either metal ion.

See how to perform this demonstration at http://rsc.li/EiC215ec

References
1 Education in Chemistry, July 2014, p11 (http://rsc.li/EiC414ec)
CPD

Using models in the classroom

Dorothy Warren discusses some of the difficulties with
teaching scientific models in school science and warns about
using easily accessible resources blindly
With the introduction of Working Scientifically1a,b into the national curriculum in England comes
a greater emphasis on using models in science teaching and an opportunity for teachers to think
through some of the difficulties students encounter in chemistry. It is well known that students
find it very difficult to make connections between what they observe in the world around them
(macroscopic properties) and the sub-microscopic world of particles, atoms and subatomic units.
Yet in order to make sense of the macroscopic properties, chemists switch to the sub-
microscopic scale where they use explanatory models to try and explain their observations (fig
1). The model used must relate both to the microscopic and macroscopic behaviour of matter
observed, and as new data becomes available chemists evaluate the models they are using and if
necessary go on to refine them by making modifications.

Figure 1: How models link macroscale and microscale properties (based on the work of Brian
Lewthwaite)
Model challenges
Using models in the classroom to explain ideas comes with its own set of challenges as the
model needs to explain the behaviours as understood by students at a particular stage in their
learning. As students experience of macroscopic phenomena expands, the model needs to
become more complex as well. For example, the model of an atom as understood by pre-16
students will explain most of the phenomena met at this stage but a more complex model is
needed later. That does not invalidate the usefulness of the simple model at that stage, but
students need to be aware of the progression so they do not dismiss early ideas as incorrect but
see them as part of a development, just as our historical understanding of the atom has developed
(fig 2).

Figure 2: The development of the model of the atom over the last 2000 years

The history of the atom is a great example to use with students in class to show how scientific
models develop over time, but students often see it as a series of discrete individual models,
rather than appreciate the subtleties of how a single model has developed over time as
technological advances gave access to further data. The student activity The atom detectives2
tries to address this issue as groups of students carry out some research, make models and finally
put their work together to create their own timeline.

An alternative approach is through black box activities,3 where students work in the dark as
they collect their own data and go on to formulate theories and put forward their own models (fig
3). This hands-on approach will help students to appreciate that all theories or models put
forward are equally valid until new evidence appears that the model cannot explain.
Figure 3: Black box activities are a good way to learn about scientific theories as students cant
see inside the tube and must piece the data together

Particle model of matter

A good understanding of the particle model of matter lays the foundations for further study in
chemistry as it helps to explain the properties and behaviour of materials by providing a model
that enables us to visualise what is happening on a very small scale inside those materials. This
model is often introduced to students in upper primary or lower secondary school and taught
through the classification of solids, liquids and gases. Starting with the familiar is often very
helpful at first but it can lead to difficulties further down the line when students are asked to use
the particle model of matter to explain changes of state, mixing and chemical reactions. Philip
Johnston describes an alternative approach to introducing particle theory in chapter two of
Teaching secondary chemistry4 in which theory is taught through substance. The concept of
substance is something that students need to learn, but without substances particles have no
identity. The simple particle model used to explain changes of states such as freezing and
melting falls over when you introduce the extra data that different substances have different
melting points (fig 4). Our simple model has reached its limitation and must now be extended to
show that there must be something different about the particles in different substances.

Figure 4: Our simple particle model has reached its limit

Childrens ideas about the particle theory have been the subject of educational research for many
years and common misconceptions such as matter is continuous or particles can change form
are well documented.5

Misconceptions
Unfortunately textbooks and websites sometimes show images that help to reinforce these ideas
and introduce further misconceptions; images of particles in the liquid state often being the most
problematic, where particles are shown with large spaces between them implying, for example,
that a liquid can be compressed. Diagrams showing particles in the gaseous state often show the
particles too close together, creating the impression that there is not much difference between the
observable properties of liquids and gases.

As teachers, it is important we are aware of the commonly held misconceptions and are ready to
challenge students ideas. We must also critically review the resources students have access to
including animations and simulations.

Simulations and animations

Using simulations and animations can really help students to visualise some of the abstract ideas
and help them to understand the model put forward. For example the animations used in
Particles in motion6 help to overcome some of the difficulties of drawing particle diagrams, as
well as being able to show that particles are in constant motion.

So when planning to use a simulation or animation it is important to review it before use by

asking the following questions:

What learning outcome does the simulation/animation meet?

How does it support student learning?
What are the strengths and limitations of the simulation/animation?
With whom and how would you use this simulation/animation?

At first glance it might appear to be just what you want but then on closer examination it may not
meet your learning outcomes or even worse it could actually introduce further misconceptions!

Dorothy Warren is an independent science education consultant based in the UK

References
1a Department for Education, GCSE subject content for biology, chemistry and physics. April
2014 (http://bit.ly/15P7kph)
1b Department for Education, Science programme of study: key stage 3. National curriculum in
England. September 2013 (http://bit.ly/1EucPZl)
2 D Warren, Chemists in a social and historical context, p3. Royal Society of Chemistry, 2001
(http://rsc.li/18CnR1i)
3 D Warren, The nature of science, p3. Royal Society of Chemistry, 2001
(http://rsc.li/1yL1L1x)
4 K Taber (ed.), Teaching secondary chemistry (2nd ed.). Hodder Education, 2012
(http://amzn.to/1HrvlUp)
5 V Kind, Beyond appearances: Students misconceptions about basic chemical ideas (2nd
ed.). Royal Society of Chemistry, 2004 (http://rsc.li/IE15II)
6 Particles in motion http://bit.ly/1zGlpCX

7 E Lewthwaite, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2014, 15, 35 (DOI: 10.1039/C3RP00122A)

Working scientifically
GCSE: Development of scientific thinking1a
Use a variety of models such as representational, spatial, descriptive, computational and
mathematical to solve problems, make predictions and to develop scientific explanations and
understanding of familiar and unfamiliar facts.

Key stage 3: Scientific attitudes1b

Understand that scientific methods and theories develop as earlier explanations are modified to
take account of new evidence and ideas, together with the importance of publishing results and
peer review.

More CPD
This topic is covered in one of the Royal Society of Chemistrys Developing Expertise in
Teaching courses, designed to support you throughout your teaching career. It is available as
both an online course and a face to face workshop.

To find out more about the CPD for Teachers courses on offer, visit
www.rsc.org/careers/cpd/teachers