Tools and Patterns - 1920 PDF

XV
v
J3
FACTORY MANAGEMENT
COURSE AND SERVICE
A Series of Interlocking Text Books Written for the

Industrial Extension Institute by Factory Man-
agers and Consulting Engineers as Part
of the Factory Management
Course and Service
INDUSTRIAL EXTENSION INSTITUTE

INCORPORATED
NEW YORK
ADVISORY COUNCIL
NICHOLAS THIEL FICKER, PRES., CHARLES P. STEINMETZ,
CMef Consulting Engineer,
CHARLES E. FUNK, SECY., General Electric Co.
CHAS. A. BROCKAWAY, TREAS., JERVIS E. HARBECK,
Vice-Pres. American Can Co.
ALWIN VON Auw,
Gen. Mgr. Boorum-Pease Co. BENJ. A. FRANKLIN,
Vice-Pros. Strathmore Paper
CHARLES C. GOODRICH, Co., Lieut. Col. Ord-
Goodrich-Lockhart Co. nance Dept.
WlLLARD F. HlNE, CHARLES B. GOING,

Consulting Appraisal Engi- Formerly Editor, The Engi-
neer, Chief Gas Engr., neering Magazine, Con-
Public Service Comm. sulting Industrial Engi-
N. Y. neer,
STAFF.
C. E. KNOEPPEL, ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRA-
Pres. E. Knoeppel & Co.,
C. TION.
Consulting Engineers.
MEYER BLOOMFIELD, LABOR AND COMPENSATION.
Consultant on Personnel.
GEORGE <S. ARMSTRONG, PLANNING AND TIME-STUDY.
Consulting Industrial Engineer.
H. B. TWYFORD, PURCHASING AND STORING.
Purchasing Agent, Nichols Cop-
per Co.
NICHOLAS THIEL FICKER, INDUSTRIAL COST FINDING,
DWIGHT T. FARNHAM, EXECUTIVE STATISTICAL CONTROL,
WILLARD L. CASE, THE FACTORY BUILDING.
Pres. Willard L. Case & Co.,
Consulting Engineers.
DAVID MOFFAT MYERS, THE POWER PLANT.
Origgs & Myers, Consulting
Engineers.
JOSEPH W. ROE, THE MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT.
Prof. Machine Design, Sheffield
Scientific School, Yale Univ.
ALBERT A. DOWD, TOOLS AND PATTERNS.
ConsuPing Engineer.
WILLIAM F. HUNT, HANDLING MATERIAL IN FACTOR-
Consulting Inaustrial Engineer. IES.
CHARLES W. MoKAY, VALUING INDUSTRIAL PROPERTIES,
Appraisal Engineer, Cooley &
Marvin.
TOOLS AND PATTERNS
BY
ALBERT A. DOWD
Member A. S. M. E.
Consulting Engineer, Specializing in Machine Shop
Planning and Tool Designing
VOLUME 10
FACTORY MANAGEMENT COURSE

INCORPORATED
NEW YORK
Copyright, 1918, by
INCORPORATED
Copyright, 1920, by
INCORPORATED
PREFACE.
Many factory executives are chiefly concerned with the

commercial end of their business, and yet do not possess the
technical training to enable them to judge of the relative
value of the methods of production used in their own factory.
In this they are at a decided disadvantage. Others, however,
do attempt to obtain a technical training while engaged in
the management of their plant, and profit largely thereby.
A thorough training along mechanical lines may not be neces-
sary, but it is an excellent thing for the executive to familiar-
ize himself at least with the fundamental principles under-
lying mechanical work.

Tool equipment needed to produce a given piece of work
need not be understood in detail, but the executive should
know the difference between a boring bar and a milling cutter,
for instance, and should understand something of the reasons
why one type of tool is more suited to the work in hand than
another. He should also know what reasons there are for
planing a piece of work instead of milling it; or boring and
reaming instead of drilling. He should know what class of
work requires fitting of such a character that the surfaces
must be scraped in order to produce a proper bearing. He
should understand something about the various machining
processes, and also something about grinding. When a turn-
ing operation is indicated and when a surface needs to be
ground to secure accuracy are all essential points regarding
which a progressive executive should be posted. In addition
to these, the production of interchangeable work should be
grasped in its fundamentals. He should further know the
possibilities of gauging work to produce it with a minimum
tn PREFACE
of expense and within the required limits of accuracy con-
sistent with the commercial quality of the product. If the
executive does not understand something of these details he
must depend entirely on his subordinates for information.
In order to assist the progressive man and to enable him
to secure concise data on tool equipment in a single volume,
this book has been written and arranged. The intention of
this treatise hasbeen to take up the points mentioned in
such a way that a non-technical man can readily grasp the
fundamental principles underlying the matters pertaining to
tool equipment. It is the belief of the author that executives
will find themselves vastly benefited in their work by a care-
ful study of its contents; for it is evident that the man who
knows the essential principles underlying the design and up-
keep of his tool equipment will be much more likely to obtain
maximum efficiency in his product than another who is not
so well posted.
ALBERT A. DOWD.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I
HAND AND FORGED TOOLS

PAGE
The Details of Manufacturing 1
Manufacturing Conditions 2
Interchangeable Manufacture . . . 3
Tool Equipment 5
Classification of Hand and Forged Tools 7
Files 8
Hacksaws 10
Cold Chisels 12
Scrapers 15
Forged Tools 19
Grinding Tools 24
Tools for Holders 25
CHAPTER II
DROP FORGING AND BLANKING DIES

Principles of Drop Forging 26
Dies for Drop Forging 28
Blanking Dies 29
Follow Dies 30
Gang and Compound Dies 31
Forming Dies 32
Sub-Press Dies 34
vii
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER III
DRILLING, BORING, AND REAMING

PAGE
Drills 35
Core Drills 38
Counterbores 39
Reamers 41
Inserted-Blade Reamers 43
Taper Reamers 44
Boring Tools 46
Flat-Cutter Boring Bars 48
Adjustable Boring Tool for Tool-Room Work ... 48
Recessing Tools . 50
CHAPTER IV
TURNING, FORMING, AND THREADING
Hollow Mills 55
Turning Tools 57
Adjustable Turning Tools 58
Open-Side Turning Tools 60
Overhead Turning Tools 60
Turning Tools for Vertical Boring Mills 62
Cutting-off Tools 64
Threading Tools 65
Goose Neck Threading Tool 67
Forming Tools 68
CHAPTER V
MILLING AND PLANING
Milling Processes 72
Factors Influencing Machine Selection 73
Milling Cutters 75
Slotting Cutters 78
Angular and Special Cutters 79
TABLE OF CONTENTS ix
PAGE
Gear-Toothed and Form Cutters 81
Miscellaneous Cutters 83
Interlocking Cutters 86
Planing Tools 87
CHAPTER VI
BROACHING
The Purposes of Broaching 89
Preliminary Treatment 90
Broaching a Square Hole 91
Broaching a Round Hole 92
Four-way Keyway Broaches 94
Broaches for Irregular Holes 95
CHAPTER VII
SURFACE AND CYLINDRICAL GRINDING

Grinding Material 97
Grinding- Wheel Shapes 99

Surface Grinding Methods 100
Cylindrical Grinding 104
External Taper Work 106
External Form Grinding 106
Internal Grinding 107
Cylinder Grinding 108
CHAPTER VIII
SHOP EQUIPMENT
Standard Equipment . . . . . . . . . . 110
Surface Plates Ill
Straight-edges and Parallels 112
Hand Vises 114
C-Clamps 116
V-Blocks 116
Bench and Pipe Vises 117
x TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER IX
MACHINE EQUIPMENT
PAGE
Necessity for Proper Tools 119
Drill Chucks and Sockets 120
Tapping Attachment for Drill Press 123
Collets and Chucks 125
Step Chucks 126
Two-Jawed Chucks 127
Geared Scroll Chuck 129
Air-Operated Chucks 130
Four-Jawed Independent Chuck 132
Machine and Manufacturing Vises 134
Taps, Dies, and Holders 136
CHAPTER X
FIXTURES FOR PLAIN AND STRADDLE MILLING
Nature and Variety of Fixtures . . 139
Necessity for Proper Holding 140
Milling Fixture for a Connecting Rod 141
Straddle Milling Fixture Working from a Finished
Surface 143
Gang Milling 145
End Milling a Slotted Bracket 145
Fixture for Angular Milling 147
Fixture for Form Milling 148
Index Milling a Pair of Levers 149
Index Milling Fixture for Quantity Production . . , 150
CHAPTER XI
FIXTURES FOR CONTINUOUS MILLING
The Value of Simplicity 154
Continuous Milling Fixtures for Cylinder .... 156
TABLE OF CONTENTS xi
PAGE
"
Fixture for Becker" Continuous Milling Machine . 158
Spline-Milling Fixture 160
CHAPTER XII
FACE-PLATE FIXTURES
Fixtures for Single Pieces 164
Fixtures for Quantity Production 165
Fixtures for Cutting Packing Rings 166
Face-Plate Fixture for a Hub Flange 167
Self-Centering Fixture for a Rough Casting .... 168
Fixture for Thin Aluminum Castings 169
Fixture for an Irregular Bracket 172
Counterbalanced Fixture for a Connecting Ro$ . . . 173
Fixture with Adjustable Counterbalance .... 175
Eccentric Fixture for a Ring Pot 177
Swinging Eccentric Fixture 178
CHAPTER xni
ARBORS AND MANDRELS
Definition of Terms 181
Arbor with Expanding Shoes . 183
Split Ring Expanding Arbor 184
Expanding Arbor for Automobile Flange .... 186
Expanding Arbor for an Adjusting Nut .... 188
Expanding Arbor for a Bevel Pinion 189
Expanding Pin Chuck for a Piston 192
Threaded and Knock-off Arbors 194
Knock-off Arbor for Threaded Collars 196
Special Arbor for an Eccentric Packing Ring . . . 198
CHAPTER XIV
GENERATING AND FORMING ATTACHMENTS
Generating Curved Surfaces 200
Simple Radius Generating Attachment , . , , . 201
xii TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Radius Forming Attachment for Crowning Pulleys . . 203
Piston Forming and Grooving Attachment .... 206
Angular Generating Cross-Slide 208
Eccentric Turning Device for Packing Rings . . . 209
Bevel Generating Attachment for a Turret Lathe . . 211
Radius Generating Attachment for a Vertical Turret
Lathe 214
Angular Generating Attachment for Vertical Turret
Lathe 216
Internal Radius Boring Attachment 217
CHAPTER xv
VERTICAL BORING MILL FIXTURES
Fundamental Construction Features 220
Vertical Boring Mill for Thin Work 221
Special Fixture with Tapered Plug Locator .... 224
Expanding Arbor and Faceplate for Vertical Boring
Mill 226
Vertical Boring-Mill Fixture for a Fragile Aluminum
Casting 228
Simple Fixture for Machining an Eccentric .... 231
Sliding Fixture for Boring a Pair of Cylinders . . . 233
Threaded Knock-off Arbor for Vertical Boring Mill . . 235
CHAPTER XVI
GRINDING FIXTURES
Adaptability of Cutting Fixtures ....... 238
Magnetic Chucks 240
Grinding Fixture for Universal-Joint Part .... 241
Piston Grinding Fixtures 243
Internal Grinding Fixtures 244
Grinding Fixture for Universal Joint Member . . . 246
TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii
PAGE
Adaptable Fixture for Grinding Spur Gears .... 248

Adjustable Fixture for Grinding a Bevel Pinion . . 250
Grinding Fixture for a Large Bevel Spring Gear . . 251
CHAPTER XVII
OPEN DRILL JIGS
Functions and Operation 253
A Simple Plate Jig 256
Plate Jig with Supplementary Supporting Ring . . 258
Drill Jig for an Oil-Pump Cover 260
Open Jig for a Lever 261
Open Jig for a Lever with Stud Locater 263
Open Jig for a Small Bracket 264
Set-on Jig for a Transmission-case Cover 266
Set-on Jig for a Gas-Control Plate 267
CHAPTER XVIII
CLOSED JIGS
Bushing for an Oil-Pump Shaft 270
Drill Jig for a Rod-Supporting Bracket 272
Jig for Automobile Hand Lever 274
Drill Jig for a Bearing End-Cap 276
Drill Jig for an Eccentric Bushing 278
Drill Jig for a Radius Bracket 280
Drill Jig for a Crooked Lever 283
Large Trunnion Jig 284
CHAPTER XIX
LUBRICATION OF CUTTING TOOLS
Necessity of Lubrication 289
Composition of Cutting Lubricants 291
xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Lubricating Compound for Steel 293

Cooling by Lubrication . 294
Lubricating Stream to Remove Chips 295
Lubricating Through the Spindle of a Turret Lathe . 296
Flood Lubrication 298
CHAPTER XX
CUTTING FEEDS AND SPEEDS
A Careful Study Required 301
Definition of Cutting Speed 301
Formula for Determining Cutting Speeds .... 302
Relation of Speed to Feed 304
Conservative Cutting Speeds 306
Importance of Proper Speeds and Feeds 307
Allowance for Exceptional Cases 308
Effect of Lubricant on Feed and Speed 309
General Rules 310
CHAPTER XXI
PLANNING AND LAYING OUT WORK
Tool Engineering Methods 315
Preliminary Processes 317
Preliminary Layout of Operation ....... 318
Machine-Tool Equipment 319
and Gauges
Jigs, Fixtures, Tools, 322
Laying Out Operation Sheets 323
Free-Hand Sketches 330
Making Layout Sheets 330
Time Study Sheets 332
Machine Tools Required 334
Setting Piece-Work Prices 335
TABLE OF CONTENTS xv
CHAPTER XXII
ESTIMATING COSTS
PAGE
Time Factor in Estimating Costs 337
Broad Experience Necessary 337
Usual Causes of Failure 339
and Unskilled Labor
Skilled 340
No Hard and Fast Rule 341
A Manufacturing Case 342
Overhead Expense Hourly Basis 343
Different Methods but One Principle 344
CHAPTER, XXIII
INTERNAL, EXTERNAL AND THREAD GAUGES
Accuracy Required in Interchangeable Manufacture . 346
Terminology 347
Terms Used in Gauging 349
Setting Limits for Interchangeable Work .... 351
Marking Limits on Drawings 356
Internal Limit Gauges 357
Internal Taper Gauges 359
Male Thread Gauges 362
External Gauges 364
Snap Gauges for Widths 366
Templet Gauges 367
Ring Gauges for Cylindrical Work 368
Receiver Gauges 370
Taper Ring Gauges 372
Master Taper Gauge for Female Gauges 373
Female Thread Gauges 374
xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXIV
PROFILE AND INDICATING GAUGED
PAGE
Gauges for High Accuracy 376
Standard Instruments of Precision 377
Dial Indicator 379
Prestwich Fluid Gauge 380
Flush-Pin Gauges 385
Flush-Pin Gauge for Taper Shafts 388
Flush-Pin Gauge for Contours 389
Flush-Pin Gauge for Indicating Two Surfaces Simul-
taneously 390
Indicator Gauge for Testing Alignment of Connecting-
Rod Bearings . . .,
391
Special Indicating Gauge for an Automobile Cam Shaft 396
Feeler Gauge for an Automobile Crank Shaft . . . 399
Electrical ContactGauge for Cams 401
Profile InspectionGauge 402
Concentricity Indicating Gauge for High Explosive
Shells 404
Johansson Gauges , , , , , , , T ? f , 405
CHAPTER XXV
PATTERNS
The Use of Patterns 407
Form of Pattern 408
Method of Molding 409
Cores and Core Boxes 411
Two-Part Pattern and Method of Molding .... 414
Circular Cover Pattern 416
Pattern Requiring a Three-Part Flask 417
Other Forms of Patterns 418
Tools for Pattern Making 419
TABLE OF CONTENTS xvii
CHAPTER XXVI
PATTERN RECORDS AND STORAGE
PAGE
Desirability of Pattern Records 421

Quality of Patterns . , 422
Economy in Combination Patterns 424
Gear Molding Machines 425
Pattern Record Cards 425
Marking the Patterns 426
Storing the Patterns 427
CHAPTER XXVII
CARE AND STORAGE OF CRUCIBLES
Clay Crucibles 429
Graphite Crucibles 430
Storage of Crucibles 432
TOOLS AND PATTERNS
CHAPTER I
HAND AND FORGED TOOLS

The Details of Manufacturing. Any machine tool
in itself is of little practical use unless furnished with
suitable cutting tools. So also any factory is incom-
plete unless the shop equipment is efficient and the
methods of handling the work are in accord with the
most modern practice. The manufacturer who neg-
lects these vital points and overlooks the many de-
tails connected with his work, or who is satisfied
with antiquated methods and equipment will eventu-
ally find himself distanced in the race of progress by
his more up-to-date competitors. Recent develop-
ments in tool equipment and modern methods of
handling are so far in advance of older methods of
treatment that it is imperative for a successful manu-
facturer to study the details of his equipment more
carefully, so that his own judgment will enable him
to stop the leaks which may be responsible for losses
in production and to apply new principles which will
bring his efficiency up to the maximum.
The purpose of this book, then, is so to instruct
the progressive executive in the various details upon
which his success depends that he may be able to
l
2 TOOLS AND PATTERNS
judge intelligently of his shop equipment, to develop

his methods of handling along the most approved
mechanical lines, and to control economically his en-
tire organization. In order to treat so extensive a
subject logically, it will be necessary to separate it
into several broad divisions, each of which may be
again divided as seems desirable.
Manufacturing Conditions. In any factory the
methods of handling work and the equipment most
suitable for particular cases are largely dependent
upon the product that is to be manufactured. The
quantity produced is a very important factor, for it
is obvious that methods can be developed to produce
interchangeable work on a large scale when there is

little likelihood of a change in design, and yet these
same methods might not prove economical where the
production was small and when there is a strong
possibility of a change in design from time to time.
Methods of handling, tool equipment, special ma-
chines, and many other details must be planned in
accordance with the work to be done. Now while the
small manufacturer can not bring into use the many
labor saving devices of the big producer, he can
nevertheless profit by the other man's experience
and can develop similar processes, frequently, suit-
able to his own work but on a smaller scale. It is
therefore of the highest importance that he should
become familiar with the best methods of manufac-
ture as they have been developed by progressive
people, and that he should study the application of
principles to determine how far they may be applied
to his own work.
HAND AND FORGED TOOLS 3
Many instances are seen where a small manufac-

turer runs along "in the same old rut" year after
year and even makes a comfortable income for a
time, until at last his dwindling profits show him that
something is radically wrong and that he must look
into some of the details of manufacture more closely
or be content with a much smaller profit than
formerly. Evidently a condition of this kind does not
develop at once; it is a gradual process and there-
fore is much harder to combat. When such a con-
dition firstbecomes apparent, a course of treatment
is necessary in order to prevent further losses. In
actual practice, though, it is difficult for a manufac-
turer to realize that he is losing ground, because it
seems to him that he is continuing along the same
lines that he has followed with success for a number
of years.
This state of affairs may be likened to a slow pro-
cess of decay or a lingering disease which becomes
chronic after a considerable period of time. The best
of all remedies for a disease of this kind is knowl-
edge. As the manufacturing world progresses, and
as new methods are developed and applied, the execu-
tive must keep pace with his competitors and profit
by their experience as far as possible.
Interchangeable Manufacture. Strictly speaking
the process of interchangeable manufacture is applic-
able only to high production work when a great
number of parts of the same kind are to be manu-
factured. When
parts are truly interchangeable any
one part can be used in the place of another without
the necessity for hand fitting. In an automobile, for
example, a broken part can be replaced with a new

one with the assurance that the new part will fit as
well as the old. Theoretically an entire machine can
be built by the interchangeable system in such a way
that all the parts can be assembled to make a per-
fect whole without the need of any fitting. Practic-
ally, however, there may be a few parts that must be
"touched up" with a file here or there, or there may
be a hole drilled at assembly in order to complete the
mechanism. But it is an accepted fact that by the
greatest care in manufacturing and by a proper sys-
tem of gauging and inspection, hand fitting and ma-
chining operations at the time of assembling can be
done away with entirely.
When any product is to be manufactured on the
interchangeable system, the gauging of the various
components and the system of inspection are of
supreme importance. The various parts which go to
make up the completed product must be manufac-
tured in such a way that there will be no more
variation in size than the nature of the mechanism
will permit, and this variation must be held within
carefully fixed limits. For this purpose gauges must
be made such that they can not be applied to the
work if the variationis too great.
By means of limit plug gauges for the inspection

of holes and limit snap gauges for outside dimensions
any number of male pieces can be made to fit corre-

sponding female
pieces in the desired manner.
Shoulder distances, flanges, contours of irregular
parts, and many other kinds of fits can be held within
the desired limits of accuracy by a proper system of
gauging. The matter of allowances for fits of vari-

ous kinds must be most carefully worked out accord-
ing to the nature of the product to be manufactured.
Thus, the allowances made for running fits in a piece
of farming machinery would be much greater than
in a high-grade automobile, and yet the parts would
be interchangeable in the one case as well as in the
other.
Tool Equipment. The tool equipment for any fac-
tory may be divided into two broad groups, perish-
able tools and permanent tools. For purposes con-
nected with cost finding these groups can be separated
by a more or less flexible line, but from the mechani-
cal standpoint this grouping by no means specific
is
enough and can not, therefore, be followed out logi-

cally without causing more or less confusion. For
example, it is evident that files or hacksaws are
perishable tools, because they wear out in use and
can only be replaced by new ones as they cannot be
re-sharpened. On the other hand, jigs and fixtures,
surface plates, and other tools of like character may
be classed as permanent tools because their lives are
very long and they can be maintained and put in
good condition at a nominal cost, unless of course
they are accidentally broken. As this book deals with
the mechanical aspect of the tool situation rather
than the cost finding end of it, I shall consider the
mechanical viewpoint in this discussion, keeping in
mind and giving due consideration, however, to the
matter of upkeep in specific cases.
It is doubtless better to consider tools from the
standpoint of the work which they do than in any
other way, although the machine on which the tools
are used will also have a certain effect on the group-
ing. For example, a drill is used for drilling a hole
and it is
frequently used on a drilling machine or
drill press. So also a turning tool is used for turning,
a recessing tool for recessing, a threading tool for
threading, a reamer for reaming, and a file for filing.
It can readily be seen, then, that the cutting operation
on the work has a positive effect on the name of the
tool. Some tools which will be described herein, are
not used in machines but are hand tools, such as
files, scrapers, cold chisels and the like. Other tools,
again, such as surface plates, vises, and so on, can be
readily grouped under shop equipment. Tools such
as chucks, face plates, tool holders, etc., form a part
of the machine equipment, and are therefore classed
in this way. Other tools are grouped according to
the kind of work for which they are intended or by
the machine on which they are to be used.
Anyfactory depends for its success upon the effi-
ciency of its tool equipment, and it is therefore of
the highest importance that these tools should be so
well designed, carefully made, and maintained that
no loss of production can ever be laid to their in-
efficiency. In discussing the purposes and applica-
tion of tool equipment and kindred subjects treated
here, cases will be cited which are for a large part
fundamental in their application. Complicated de-
sign and intricate mechanisms will not be considered.
The executive, who may not be a strictly mechanical
man, will find that the principles involved and the
instances noted are well within Ms mechanical scope.
The superintendent or foreman may discover that

mechanical features are treated in such a way as to
bring out many new points of interest. The shopman
and mechanic will appreciate many practical exam-
ples which are given; and the designer may profit
largely by his technical knowledge which will give
him a more intimate understanding of many interest-
ing points in design treated, perhaps, in an entirely
new way.
Classification of Hand and Forged Tools. Files,
cold chisels, and scrapers are essentially hand tools.
Hacksaws also come under
this grouping, although
they are often driven by power for cutting off stock
from bars. Forged tools are used in so many forms
and shapes and for so many purposes that their
grouping is a difficult proposition. On this account
I have included them in a separate group in this
chapter, regardless of their shape or form or the
class of machine they are to be used with. But be-
cause there are so many shapes of forged tools, the
subject will be treated broadly, with a few general
hints on the theory of cutting, the proper angles of
the tool, and so on.
In the descriptions in this volume of the various
tools I have aimed to give principles and points of
particular value, but I have made no attempt to cite
every variety of tool. Rather my purpose has been
to give a broad general classification which will be
of the greatest value without too technical a treat-
ment. Important points in connection with upkeep
and economy of operation will be noted from time
to time.
Files. In general there are three classes of files in
common use, their classification being dependent upon
the kind of cuts which form the teeth. The three
classes are rasps, single cut, and double cut. The
types or classes are graded according to length and
fineness of the teeth and are specified as rough, coarse,
bastard, second cut, smooth, and dead smooth. The
lengths of the various files are from four to sixteen
inches, and each length of each class has its own
grade determined by the number of teeth to the inch
(or "pitch," as it is sometimes called). The fineness
of the teeth being proportional to the length of the
fileit is evident that the term second cut, for ex-
ample, does not indicate the size of the teeth unless

the length of the file is also known.
Files are of numerous forms to suit various kinds
of work, the flat, half round, round or "rat-tail,"
triangular, and square forms being most commonly
used. Files of these varieties are full tapered or
tapered in both thickness and width for about two-
thirds of their length, the remaining third having
nearly parallel edges. A warding file tapers in width
but not in thickness, while pillar and hand files taper
in thickness but have parallel edges. Saw files and
equaling files are nearly of the same size for their
entire length. The tang of a file is the part to which
the handle is fitted and the heel is the part next to
the tang. When one edge of a file is smooth it is
termed a "safe" edge. The various methods of cut-
ting file teeth are shown in Figure 1 together with
several cross-sectional forms.
Since files are used for a great variety of work in
any factory their cost becomes an item of considerable

importance. It behooves an executive to see not only
that the files ordered are of the proper grades, but
that they are used as they should be and for the work
for which they are intended. It is evident, therefore,
that the selection of a file for a given piece of work
is worthy of a certain amount of attention. For ex-
ample, in selecting files for any work it is necessary
RASP DOUBLE CUT SINGLE CUT
FLAT PILLAR HALF ROUND ROUND TRIANGULAR CR05S
FIG. 1. FILE FORMS AND CLASSES
to know the kind of metal to be cut, whether the

surface to be worked is broad or narrow, whether
the metal is wrought or cast, and whether it is to be
smooth or draw-filed or will be finished in some other

way. A rough-cut or coarse file would be used on a
broad surface if much metal is to be removed, and a
new file would be used rather than an old one if the
material is a casting. A file which has been some-
what worn can be used on wrought work to advan-
tage, but it would not give good results on a casting.
In general, thin files are to be avoided, except in the
hands of a skillful workman, for they are very apt to
produce a rounded surface.
In filing wrought metals a little oil or turpentine
may be used on the face of the file so that the file
will "take hold" better, but cast metals should
always be cut dry. Chalk rubbed on the file teeth
when filing castings will prevent clogging, and the
use of a file card (a wire brush for cleaning the
teeth) cannot be too strongly recommended. When
a file becomes clogged the depth of the cut is reduced
and slower work is the outcome; and on wrought
metals chips will pack into the file teeth and scratch
the work unless the file is kept clean. Again, many
files are ruined by being used on the scale of a cast-
ing; the edge of the file only should be used to get
below the scale and then the flat side can be used to
advantage without injury to the teeth. Proper care
of a file consists in careful handling, suitable selec-
tion, and a thorough cleaning. When oil or turpen-
tine has been used on a file, it can be given several
applications of chalk which will absorb the moisture
and bring out the chips between the teeth, so that it
will be clean and ready for the next job of work.
Hacksaws. Hacksaws are of two varieties, those
used in hand-saw frames and those used on power-
operated sawing machines. A number of years ago
hacksaw teeth were punched, but at present this
method is little used and the teeth are now milled.
The hacksaw blade used in hand hacksaw frames is
little different from the machine saw blade except
that it lighter and not adapted to such heavy service.

The teeth hacksaws are "set" in different ways
of
to suit different cutting requirements,and the prac-
tice of various manufacturers differs somewhat in
this regard. For example, considering the teeth as
set over an each side of an imaginary center line, one
manfacturer may make a saw blade with every alter-

nate tooth set out from each side of the line; another
may be made with two teeth set out the same dis-
tance from the center line and an intermediate tooth
on the center line; a third variety may have two
teeth on one side, one tooth on the center and then
two teeth on the other side; while still another may
have one tooth set out a certain distance on one side
of the center line, the next tooth set out the same dis-
tance on the other side of the center line, then two
teeth set out not quite as far on each side of the
center line and a fifth tooth set on center. These
variations in the setting of the teeth are not followed
to any great degree by different manufacturers, al-
though certain claims in regard to their value for
different classes of materials may have considerable
value.
Ordinarily hacksaw blades have one tooth set to
the right, the next to the left, and the third one on
the center line. The teeth which are set out from the
center widen and deepen the cut of the saw, while the
straight teeth in the center tend to keep the cut free
from chips. The tooth spacings commonly used vary
from nine teeth to the inch to thirty-two teeth to the
inch. Speaking generally, saws having the coarser
spacing should be used on soft materials, such as
wood, fibre, or soft metal. The finer spacings are
better for hard metal, because they are less likely to
strip." For the average work in the machine shop
' i
for hand work blades having eighteen teeth to the

inch are recommended, while for machine work blades
with twelve to fourteen teeth to the inch are most
14 -TEETH TO THE INCH


9- TEETH TO THE INCH
FIG. 2. TOOTH SPACING IN HACK-SAW BLADES

(Slightly Reduced)
economical. A comparison of the tooth spacings will

be found in Figure 2.
To obtain the best results in using hacksaws,
whether for machine or hand work, the blade should
be well strained in the frame to insure true cutting
and to prevent breakage. The selection of the proper
saw blade for a given class of work makes a great
difference in the efficiency obtained.
Cold Chisels. Cold chisels are made in many forms
and for various classes of work, such as chipping,
key-seating, oil-grooving, cornering, and prick-punch-
ing for correcting errors in drilling and also for lay-
ing out work to be machined. When castings are
received from the foundry, often they will be found
with ragged edges or other inequalities which, unless
removed before machining, would interfere with their
handling. Several methods are used to smooth up

the surfaces; small castings are "snagged" on a
coarse grinding wheel which is mounted on a spindle
in a heavy floor stand; larger work is roughed off
with a smaller wheel, one that may be operated by a
flexibleshaft suitably counterbalanced to facilitate
handling or mounted on a small truck and operated
by an electric motor. Or large work may be chipped
with a cold chisel, usually one operated by compressed
air in a chipping hammer, or by hand in some cases.
Compressed-air chipping hammers are very rapid in
their action and can be made to cover a considerable
amount of surface in a remarkably short time. Hand-
chipping operations are much slower but can be used
for purposes not adapted to machine chipping.
A number of forms of cold chisels are shown in
Figure 3. The tool, A, is known as a flat chisel; B,
a cape chisel; C, a round nose chisel or gouge; D, the
cow-mouth; E, diamond point, and F, a straight-side
chisel. An important point in connection with cold
chisels is the angle of the edges in relation to the
cutting point, as these edges serve as guides in chip-

ping operations. Figure 4 shows, at A and B, the
manner which these edges act as guides when work
in
is being done. Taking the flat chisel as an example
and referring to the diagram shown in Figure 4, it
will be seen that the angle of the edge, as indicated
at A, tends to shear the metal on the upper side and
acts as a guide on the lower surface of the chisel to
prevent too deep cutting. In the example B, the tool
has been ground incorrectly, so that there is no shear-
ing action on the metal and the tendency is for the
F"'
F-''
FIG. 3. DIFFERENT FORMS OF COLD CHISELS
chisel to gouge down into the work and not produce

a good cutting action.
The cape chisel, B, in Figure 3, is made so that the
point is narrow and tappers back slightly to give
clearance when cutting a key way or something of
this kind. This clearance also prevents upsetting the
metal and raising a burr along the edges of the groove.
So also the gouge, C, has a slight amount of back clear-
ance to facilitate the cutting action. This type of
Work. Shearing Angle

Approaching
Guiding Edge A-''
FIG. 4. EFFECT FROM INCORRECT AND CORRECT ANGLES ON

COLD CHISELS
chisel is used largely for cutting oil grooves in bear-
ings, pulleys, and similar work. It will be seen that

this type of chisel is ground at a different angle than
the cape and flat chisels. This is done so as to per-
mit the operator to change the depth of the cut by
raising the end of the chisel a trifle while in use.
The cow-mouth chisel is used for chipping circular
work; while the diamond point, shown at E, is used
for correcting errors when drilling holes, for chip-
ping in the corners of dies, and such work. The
straight-side chisel, shown at F, is commonly used by
die makers for squaring up the sides of punches and
dies and for squaring out holes, cutting shoulders,
and the like.
Scrapers. After a piece of work has been ma-
chined, the eye is deceived into thinking that the
resulting plane surface is smooth and free from
humps and hollows. As a matter of fact, however,
the apparently smooth surface is much like the waves
of the ocean on a small scale; hence, if it is neces-
sary to have a perfectly fitting piece of work, the
' '
high spots" must be removed and the whole sur-

face worked down more nearly level. These high
spots can only be levelled by hand with scraping
tools. It may seem strange to the layman that a
piece of work, if properly clamped, cannot be finished

to a true surface on a high class machine tool, and
if the machine tool itself is in first class working
condition, but even under the most favorable con-

ditions there is bound to be a certain amount of
" " both in the work
spring being machined and in
the tool which is cutting it. Hence, work which has
been machined shows an infinite number of high and
low spots more or less evenly distributed over the
surface. If two moving parts were to be fitted to-
.
gether with these high and low spots still upon them,
it would only be a short time before the wearing
down of the spots would destroy the alignment of the

pieces, seriously impairing their accuracy. As an
example, consider the "ways" of a planer or of a
turret lathe: In the planer, if the ways were not
scraped to a perfect bearing one side would be very
apt to wear more than the other, so that the work
produced would not be accurate it might be taper-
ing, convex, concave, or even a combination of all
inaccuracies mentioned. In the case of the turret
lathe, the center of the turret would not line with the
spindle after a short while, and the holes bored and
surfaces turned would be tapering or otherwise dis-
torted.
be seen from the foregoing that on flat work

It will
it isnecessary to scrape all surfaces which are to be
in moving contact with other flat surfaces. When
their contact is with cylindrical bearings, they may
be scraped, lapped, or ground according to the par-
ticular requirements. The art of scraping requires
practice, a nice sense of touch, and a considerable
amount of judgment. Many people not conversant
with the
necessity of scraping bearing surfaces,
imagine that the mottled effect produced is for orna-
mental purposes, yet it is highly essential on any
well-made machine and serves no other purpose than
that mentioned.
Many varieties of scrapers have been designed
simply to fulfill a need for a tool to get at some par-
ticular piece of work of unusual form on which a
bearing was desired. In Figure 5 is shown a double-
end scraper, A, commonly used on plane surfaces and
broad work. It will be seen that this type has a
broad flat surface and is perfectly square across the
end. Such scrapers are often made single-ended from
an old file, having a wooden handle on one end; but for
heavy work the double-end tool shown is to be pre-

ferred, for it is not likely to spring and its weight
gives an added advantage. It is important that any
scraper of type should be ground perfectly
this
square across the end so that it will not tend to gouge

work when in use.
Scrapers are hardened to as high a degree as fire and
water and the metal itself will permit. The scraper, B,
in Figure 5 is hook shaped, which permits it to be
pulled toward the workman instead of pushed away
PIG. 5. VARIOUS TYPES OF SCRAPERS
from him, as in the case of the double-end scraper. The

triangular form, C, is sometimes made from a three
cornered file from which the teeth have been ground
away. All scrapers are made of high-grade steel, as
the service to which they are put is so severe that no
economy would be found in using low-grade steel for
the purpose. Scrapers of the three-cornered variety
are largely used for scraping bearings of cylindrical
form, such as the crank-shaft bearings in an auto-
mobile, or spindle bearings in machine tools.
When flat surfaces are to be scraped, a "master"
or standard surface plate is used and the parts to be
fitted are rubbed on it to determine the high spots.
In using this master plate a very light coating of
Prussian blue, red lead, or lamp black is spread upon
the machined work which is then rubbed upon the
master plate; the high spocs on the machined piece
show bright and are removed with the scraper. This
performance is repeated until the work shows an
even bearing all over. When completed a series of
high-point bearing spots very close together is ob-
tained over the work, so that it has the mottled

all
appearance previously mentioned.

Forged Tools. All varieties of work on nearly
every class of machine tool require the use of forged
tools. Many shapes and forms are adopted, depend-
ing on the work for which they are intended. Gen-
erally speaking, their construction is such that they
can be ground several times before reforging is neces-
sary. On lathes and planers they are used to a
greater extent than on any other classes of machines,
and many tools of the same general type can be used
on these two machines.
A group of lathe and planer tools, which may be
considered as representative types is shown in Figure
6, although many modifications are required to suit
particular cases. It is unnecessary to take up each

of the tools illustrated and describe its functions, for
the reason that tools of this kind are so well known
that they require little description and can be found
a^
at ^
FIG. 6. A GROUP OF FORGED TOOLS
in every modern factory as well as in those of older
days.
The matter of upkeep of cutting tools, however, is
a subject which should receive most careful attention;
and as the upkeep and productive capacity of any
tool is dependent upon its shape we will consider the
points which are important in regard to cutting
angles and shapes of the several varieties of tools.
It is evident that any kind of cutting tool, to pro-
duce its maximum amount of work, should be so
shaped and ground that it will remove the metal with
the least possible amount of friction. When such a
condition is reached the machine tool is at its best,
and the work is produced with a minimum amount
of labor. Further than this, the life of the tool is
prolonged because the periods of regrinding are
lessened.
The simplest types of tools are used on planer
work, for the reason that the cutting action of the
planer is along a straight line. On the other hand,
a lathe toolis also used on the outside of cylindrical
work, in boring a hole, or in turning a taper, so that

in each case the tool must be differently shaped in
order to clear itself and "turn the chip" to the best
advantage.
A number of factors must be considered in the de-
sign of cutting tools, such as the position of the tool

in relation to the work, the spring of the tool under
the cutting action, the shape of the work, and the
material to be cut. For example, soft and fibrous
materials require an entirely different cutting angle
than do materials having a short-grained structure.
The A, shown in Figure 7, is seen to be im-

tool,
properly designed for planer work, because an excess
of power is required to pull the tool and, further-
more, it really does not cut at all but crowds or
pushes the metal off. If such a tool were used for a
long while under the condition shown it would in
//////////////////////////////s
FIG. 7. THE CUTTING ACTION OF PLANER TOOLS

(A) Incorrect Form of Cutting Tool. (D) Abrasive Action of
Chips on Face of Tool.
time develop a form similar to that shown at D in

the illustration, because of the abrasive action of the
chips against the tool. It would be perfectly logical
to assume, then, that if the tool were ground to this
shape in the first place its form would be more nearly
correct.
The manner in which any cutting tool is supported
determines to a certain extent its shape, because the
spring of the tool holder may tend to carry it into
the work and produce "chatter." An
example of
this kind is illustrated in the planer tool, A, Figure
8. As the work moves in the direction indicated by
the arrow, the tool and tool block together will
spring (if sufficient pressure is applied), radially from
the corner B with a tendency to dig into the work.
10
33
..-c
FIG. 8. PLANER TOOLS

(A) The Digging Tendency of Tools Productive of Chatter.
(C) Tool Springs Away from Work and Does Not Dig in.
For this reason the tool may be made as shown at C,

with the cutting point far enough back so that any
spring action will carry the tool away from the work,
thus obviating
" chatter." The heel
angle of a cut-
ting tool should be of such shape as to resist the
cutting strain to the best advantage. It is obvious,
therefore, that heavy cutting tools, such as those
used on a planer, should have a greater body of metal
and less clearance behind the cutting edge than those
used for a lighter class of work.
The diamond-point tool, shown in Figure 9, is a
common type of lathe tool, but such a tool is limited
in its productive capacity by the width of the cut-
ting face and the strength of the neck. It is not

suited to high-speed work nor to fine finishing, ex-
cept on wiry material such as tool steel or alloy
steels. In work of this nature it may be used for
finishing, providing that a very fine feed is given
FIG. 9. DIAMOND-POINT FIG. 10. SIDE TOOL FOR

LATHE TOOL ROUGHING DOWN WORK
the machine tool and a slight "drag" is stoned just

behind the cutting point so <as to produce a burnish-
ing effect on the work. Many mechanics use a side
tool such as that shown in Figure 10 for roughing-
down bar stock, for the cutting face of the tool is
wide and it can be made to take a very wide chip if
set as indicated in the illustration.
In addition to the points above mentioned, when a
cutting tool is to be used on cylindrical surfaces, as
in the case of a lathe job, the position of the tool
relative to the center of the work is of importance.
Theoretically a tool should be "on center," whether
it is boring a hole or turning <an outside cylindrical
surface. It must be remembered, however, that the
majority of tools are more or less elastic and will

show a certain amount of spring which must be taken
into consideration in setting the tool. Hence, if an
outside diameter is to be turned, for example, the
tool should be set slightly below center so that it
will not dig in under the pressure of the cut but will
rather tend to spring away from the work. Similarly,-
in boring a hole the tool should be slightly above
center so that its spring under the cutting action
will also carry itaway from the work. But as previ-
ously mentioned these points will depend entirely upon
the manner in which the tools are supported and upon
the direction which their deflection will take under the
cutting strain.
Grinding Tools. In past years it has been the
custom for mechanics to grind their own tools to any
particular kind of a shape that they fancied gave the
best results. The natural consequence of a procedure
like this was that one man's work would be much
superior to another's because of a greater knowledge
of tool shaping. At present, however, it is possible
to purchase a tool grinder for forged tools so that
all toolsof any particular variety can be ground to
a predetermined angle, even by an inexperienced man.
The work produced with tools uniformly ground is
much superior to that done by a "hit or miss"
method, and the life of the tool is correspondingly
prolonged. In addition, the amount of time lost in
regrinding tools is greatly reduced and the labor of

a skilled mechanic is not required. In determining
proper angles for cutting tools the aim should be
toward the ideal form which will turn the chip to the
best advantage with the least amount of power and
at the same time to give the longest life to the. tool,
Especial caution should be exercised not to obtain

an angle so sharp that the cutting edge will approach
the wood tool in shape, for a tool with such an edge
would have a very short life and would require fre-
quent regrinding.
Tools for Holders. In order to economize in the
amount of high-speed steel used in forged tools a
number of holders have been devised which require
only small sections of such steel. These holders are
so arranged that they will take stock of standard
sizes and clamp them securely; in this manner they
will answer many purposes of forged tools made from
high-speed steel, or certain clesses of work they are
extremely valuable; but for very heavy cutting forged
tools are still preferred in many factories because
the heavy forged tools have a greater section and
carry away the heat more rapidly than the smaller
sections used in holders, and are therefore capable of
higher speeds and greater production. This fact,
however, does not detract in any way from the utility
and economy of the holders mentioned. These holders
will be described in more specific detail in the dis-
cussion of tool holders.
CHAPTER II
DROP FORGING AND BLANKING DIES
Principles of Drop Forging. Although drop forg-

ing dies may be re-cut when they become greatly
worn, they should still be considered as perishable
tools; a great deal dependsupon the treatment of the
die, both in the process ofhardening and also in its
use. The construction and form of the die itself
makes a great difference in its life, and it is difficult
to estimate the number of pieces upon which any die
can be used on account of the variations in the form
of pieces to be drop forged. When a comparatively
small number of pieces are to be made, it is possible
to make up cast iron dies, but of course these are
not serviceable for any length of time. When only
six or eight similar pieces are to be made cast iron
dies are most economical. But in work requiring a
large production the dies are made of steel containing
from 0.45 to 0.60 per cent carbon, and the blocks from
which they are cut range between 5 and 8 inches in
thickness. Usually the dies are dovetailed, as shown
in Figure 11, to fit the drop hammer in which they are
to be used.
Since the advent of the automobile, drop forging
processes have been greatly perfected, and many
forgings are now made which would have been con-
26
DROP FORGING AND DIES 27
177
PIG. 11. DOVE-TAILED DROP FORGE DIES

sidered impracticable a few years ago. The necessity
for extraordinary strength in certain parts has led
to the adoption of alloy steels for these pieces and
drop forgings are made to suit the conditions.

Comparatively few pieces of work have a form
such that they can be produced in a single pair of
dies. When the diameters do not vary greatly in the
different sections, circular forms can be made in a
single set of dies; but forms of widely varying sec-
tion require a preliminary "breaking down" opera-
tion,and when a heavy boss a is
part of the forging
three or four operations may be necessary before the
piece is completed. When the forgings are small,
several recesses can be made in one set of dies for
breaking down, formation, cutting off, and nicking
for breaking Generally speaking, it is best to
off.
complete a xorging at a single heat if possible, but in

some instances several heats may be necessary. When
work of large size and two or more sets of dies are
is
used, the hammers can be placed near each other, so

that the workman can step immediately from one to
the other without "losing the heat."
In work done on the anvil by hand the smith acts
as an artist and models his work to the form re-
quired, drawing it out here or there as the design may

call for. But when forgings are made in dies, the
amount of metal from which a piece is stamped must
be large enough so that it will overrun the die a
trifle, thus assuring a full die and a forging of proper
shape. The "fin" which is squeezed out between the

dies at the time of forging must be removed by means
of trimming dies. Provision is made in the dies
themselves to take care of this fin, as shown in
Figure 12. A wide and rather shallow groove which
is cut all around to receive the fin is shown at A, and
the manner in which the faces of the dies are some-
times sloped away for the same purpose is shown at
B. Figure 13 shows a forging of a lever which has
the fin, X, still on it, and the trimming die, shown
in the lower part of illustration, shears off the fin
and leaves the forging clean and ready for use.
Cylindrical work can be manipulated by the oper-
ator so that no fin will be left by simply rotating the
work under the hammer during the process of forg-
ing. Drop-forged levers are frequently made with a
A -. - A
FIG. 12. DROP FORGE DIE WITH SPACE FOR RECEIVING FINS
countersunk portion in the center of the bosses in

order to facilitate machining, as shown in "A" of
Figure 14. Other cases when the hole itself can be
punched directly through the work are indicated in
the dies shown at "B" in the same illustration. Oc-
casionally the hole in the boss is taken care of by
the method shown at "C"; this leaves a thin web
at the center of the hole, which is afterwards punched
out without difficulty. So many forms of dies and
forgings for all. classes of work occur that it is
obviously out of the question to do more than out-

line the simple form so as to give an approximation
of the method of treatment.
Blanking Dies. When work is produced from cold
metal the processes used for shaping the forms are
FIG. 13. A ROUGH FORGING AND ITS TRIMMING DIE
very different from those previously described under

the head of drop forgings. Cutting dies should
properly include all types which punch or cut out
various shapes from the metal as it is fed through
the press when the section of the metal itself is not
changed to any extent. Shaping dies on the contrary
include any which change the form of the metal from
its original flat condition to one of a different con-
tour in which the various surfaces are in different

planes. Some dies of the latter class really constitute
a combination of cutting and shaping dies the work
is first punched out to shape and is afterwards
formed.
Follow dies are dies which have two or more cut-
ting portions acting progressively on the work as it
FIG. 14. METHODS OF PROVIDING FOR HOLES IN DROP FORCINGS
is fed through the press, each stroke producing a

finished piece. Dies of this kind are sometimes called
tandem dies. An example of this die is shown in
Figure 15. It will be seen that the work "A" has
three separate operations all performed upon it in
the same die, and yet at each stroke of the press a
completed piece is turned out.
Gang dies, are often used for small parts in order
to save waste metal and, at the same time, to produce
work more rapidly. An example is shown in Figure
16. This illustration shows that several pieces may
be made at one stroke of the press with a compara-
tively small amount of wasted metal.
A compound die is one that is arranged in such a
way that the punch and die portions are not separ-
ated but are combined in such manner that the upper
O
O
O
o'
o
FINISHED WORK
STOCK AFTER BLANKING
PUNCH O
HI I
\/7/7A
DIE
FIRST OPERATION
SECOND OPERATION
PUNCH
DIE
FIG. 16. AN EXAMPLE OF A GANG DIE
forced by the press. Drawing dies are used for much

the same class of work as forming dies; but in the
process of drawing, the flat blank which is being
formed is held rigidly between the surfaces of the
die so that wrinkles will not form during the draw-
ing operation. Curling dies and bending dies are
used respectively for turning over the edges of sheet
metal pieces and for bending the surface of a piece
of work into a partial curve, not, however, a com-
plete circle.
Sub-press dies, strictly speaking, are not a special
class of die except in the sense that the punch and
die are combined in a single unit by means of guides
so that there is no necessity for lining up the lower
and upper dies when setting up. A high degree of
accuracy is assured when this class of die is used,
although the expense of the die itself may be some-
what greater.
CHAPTER III
DKILLING, BOEING, AND BEAMING

Drills. Drills may be considered as one of the
most important factors in producing work in any
manufacturing plant. A drill must not be considered
as a finishing tool, however, although it is possible,
if the drill is carefully ground and the work pain-
stakingly performed, to produce a clean hole quite

close to the size of the tool. For many classes of
work a drilled hole answers every purpose, and if
followed by a reamer a smooth hole of any required
diameter may be readily produced. For bolts or
other fastenings of similar character a drilled hole is
usually considered commercially good.
As in other types of tools, drill shapes and forms
are dependent to a certain extent on the class of
material upon which they are to be used. Almost
any kind of a pointed tool will drill a hole if revolved
under pressure, but in order to produce the work
properly the drill shape must be suited to the material
to be cut. As a preliminary operation in drilling a
long hole, it often advisable to spot the material
is
with a short The stiffness of the short tool is

drill.
an advantage to start the hole in the right place and

not run any chance of the deflection which might take
place if a long drill were to be used first. Further-
35
more, a considerable saving in drill grinding will

result, as the short drill gets through the scale on
the work and leaves the long drill to take a clean
cut under the surface of the scale. This treatment is
of marked advantage in drilling forgings on the
turret lathe.
Drills in common use are shown in Figure 17. The
spotting drill, A, is ground to an angle of 40 degrees
in order that the following drill may commence its
cut on the lips and not on the point; it will then cut
more freely and get a better start in the work. The
manner in which the cutting action takes place with
the following drill is clearly shown in the diagram
at B.
The drill, C, is little used in general manufacturing,
FIG. 17. VARIOUS TYPES OF DRILLS

DRILLING, BORING, FORGING 37
but it is an important item in the equipment of the

blacksmith or metal worker. A drill of this type is
not suited to deep holes, although is particularly
adapted to thin work. It has no twist, and there-
fore does not have a tendency to tear and break the
metal as it passes through the work. The wood drill,
D, is often used by cabinet makers and other wood
workers. This drill also has no twist, but is partly
cylindrical with a groove for chips on each side.
The ordinary type of twist drill, E, is used in
general manufacturing work. The angle at which it
is usually ground, indicated in the illustration, is
about 31 degrees, but the angle of the twist cut varies

in different makes; sometimes it is uniformly twisted
throughought its length and again it may be made
with, what is termed, an increase twist to give greater

strength in a long drill. Twist drills were originally
made by twisting up a piece of flat stock, but the
present method of manufacture is to mill the helical
grooves from a round bar of steel. shank is pro- A
vided in order properly to hold the drill and drive
it through the work, this portion being either straight
or tapering. If straight it may be held in a drill

chuck or in a plain bushing with set screws, but if
the shank tapers, it is provided with a flatened end,
or "tang," which acts as a driver in the drill socket.
A modern twist drill has a slight "back taper" run-
ning longitudinally from point to shank so that it
will work with more freedom. Body clearance is also
provided as indicated in the end view of the tool
shown in the illustration. The purpose of the two
clearances is to avoid the heating of the drill by
friction in the hole and also to make the cutting
action easier.
The cutting angles of the lip of the drill vary from
59 to 76 degrees depending on the material which is
to be drilled; ordinarily a drill for steel and iron is
ground to 59 or 60 degrees, while for brass the angle

may be around 75 degrees. It is of the greatest im-
portance that drill angles should be equal, for unless
this is the case the hole will be cut too large, as
indicated at F, since the tool is working around a
false center which is not the actual center of the
drill stock itself. In such a case the longest lip
governs the size of the hole, as may be readily seen.
Another type of twist drill, G, is known as a flat
twist drill. As made by some manufacturers it has
a flat shank requiring a special form of socket for
holding. The Pratt & Whitney Co. make the form
which an increase of twist is given to
illustrated in
the shank portion to provide additional surface
which is ground to fit the taper in a standard socket,
thus doing away with the necessity for special sock-
ets. The advantages claimed for this type of drill
are that it has greater chip clearance and higher pro-
ductive capacity.
Core Drills. When holes are to be drilled in cast
iron or other cast metals in which the holes have
been cored, another type of drill, often termed a "core
drill," is used. Drills of this kind, H, Figure 17, are
listed by manufacturers as "three-groove chucking
reamers." It may be noted that the end of the drill
does not come to a point, as in the case of the regular
twist drill, but is blunted because it has no work to
do at the center. The three flutes tend to keep the

tool in a central position while drilling. Four flutes
instead of three are sometimes used. In the larger
sizes shell drills, K, are found to be capable of very
severe service. They are held on an arbor like a shell
reamer and are generally four fluted.
An important point in connection with the use of
core drills is that any variation or eccentricity of the
cored portion of the work is likely to affect the tool
to a considerable extent so that the resulting hole is
not true with the remainder of the work. This
trouble can be easily avoided by truing up the hole
for a short distance with a single-point tool before
inserting the core drill, as indicated in Figure 18.
Counter-bores. When a shouldered hole is to be
made, such as that shown in Figure 19, the counter-
bore is generally employed. In order to have the two
holes concentric, two methods are possible: In one the
- Core Drill
FIG. 18. STARTING A HOLE WITH A STARTING TOOL, PRIOR

TO THE USE OF A CORE DRILL
Work
B.
FIG. 19. VARIOUS TYPES OF COUNTERBORES
work is revolved and the cutting tools are held

rigidly without revolving; the holes can then be pro-
duced by two or more cuts of the tools after they are
set out to the required diameters. In the second
method the work is stationary and the tools revolve;
the smaller hole usually made first and a tool called
is
a counterbore, A, like that shown in Figure 19, hav-
ing a pilot, B, which enters the smaller hole, does the
remainder of the cutting on the larger diameter. It
will be noted that the action of the pilot in the pre-
viously drilled small hole tends to steady the action

of the counterbore and produce a concentric hole.
Several varieties of counterbores are in use, the
principles of which are the same as that shown at
A. One type, D, has interchangeable blades or cut-

ting and removable bushings, C, which allow
lips
work to be done in holes of various diameters. An-
other type, E, also has a removable pilot, which can
be provided with cutting heads of different diameters,
but the pilot does not revolve. If work requiring a
high degree of accuracy is intended, the type with a
revolving pilot is advisable. Some cases occur when
it may be possible to extend a pilot somewhat smaller
than the hole, so that it can be guided in a bushing

beyond the work itself. In either of these cases there
is little danger of injury to the finished surface of the
smaller hole.
FIG. 20. (A) HAND REAMER. (ft) PLAIN FLUTED CHUCKING

REAMER. (C) ROSE CHUCKING REAMER
B earners. When a hole is to be accurately finished

to a given diameter it may either be bored to this
size by successive cuts of the boring tool or it may
be reamed. A
reamer, therefore, may be considered
strictly as a tool for sizing a hole. Several types of
reamers are in common use and the selection of the
type for any particular work depends upon the ma-
terial to be cut, the diameter of the work, and the
previous operations which have been done upon it.
As reamers are used entirely as finishing tools, the
amount of metal which they remove is small and is
dependent upon the diameter of the hole and the
nature of the metal.
A group of reamers of various types is shown in
Figure 20; while the types here represented do not
include every variety, they may be considered as rep-
resentative. The simplest type in common use is the
plain fluted hand reamer, shown at A, which has a
squared end to which a wrench or holder can be ap-
plied for the purpose of forcing the reamer through
the hole. Keamers of this kind are sometimes made
with spiral flutes.
The plain chucking reamer, B, in the same illus-
tration, islargely used in drill press or turret lathe

work and is made with either a taper or straight
shank. When used in turret-lathe work it is held in
a floating holder, different types of which are de-
scribed under their proper heading. The type of
fluted chucking reamer shown at B may have the
flutes equally spaced around the periphery of the
reamer or they may be staggered so that no two tooth
spacings are exactly alike. The object of this ar-
" "
rangement is to prevent chatter.
Another type, called a rose chucking reamer, C, is
intended for work of a fragile nature or for thin
work which might be distorted in reaming with an
ordinary coarse-fluted reamer. The rose reamer has
wider " lands " (space between indentations) and is
not lipped like the chucking reamer previously men-
DRILLING, BORING, FORGING
FIG. 21. TYPES OF INSERTED-BLADE REAMERS
tioned. should cut only on the end, and the ob-

It
ject of the wide lands on the flutes is to preserve a

bearing surface and thus tend to produce greater ac-
curacy in the work.
Inserted-Blade Reamers. The simplest type of in-
serted-blade reamer is the tool shown at A in Figure
21. This reamer is never used with a floating holder,
the design being such that the blade, b, floats in the
holder, a. For certain classes of work, especially
vertical work, as on a vertical boring mill, reamers
of this type may be made to do excellent work.
Upkeep is for by means of a tapered
provided
screw and a the blade whereby the blade may
slot in
be expanded and reground. On account of the cost
of high-speed steel later developments in the de-
sign of reamers favor the inserted-blade type so made
that the blades can be removed and replaced at a
nominal expense. By this means the upkeep of the
tool is quite low: a number of styles can be purchased
in the American market.
A good example is that shown at B in Figure 21,
made by the Pratt & Whitney Co. In this type of
reamer the body, d, is provided with tapered slots in
which the blades, e, fit. The clamps, f, in the sec-
tional view, lock the blades by means of the screws
shown. Various diameters within the capacity of the
reamer can be readily made by manipulating the lock-
ing nut shown at g. It is a very difficult matter to
change a reamer adjustment of this kind in such a
way that all the blades will cut equally, but it is a
simple matter to regrind to the desired size after set-
ting the blades slightly oversize to allow for the
grinding.
Another excellent type of inserted-blade reamer
is shown in the same illustration at C. In this type
the body of the tool is cut out, as indicated, to re-
ceive the blades, h. It will be seen that these blades
are so made that each forms two teeth, and are held
in place by the screws shown. When a reamer of this
kind becomes worn so that it does not size the work
properly, the blades may be removed and strips of
paper inserted under them, after which they can be
reground to the desired size.
Taper Reamers. Before reaming a tapering hole,
the first essential is that the bored hole be true and
straight. When the taper is very "shallow" i.e.,
the angle of the taper very slight a single reamer
can be used, as, for instance, in making a taper pin
TAPER SCRAPING
= FLUTED 8= FLUTED
FINISHER TOOL FOR LARGE WORK
ROUGHER
NICKED TO BREAK CHIP PLAIN OR
NICKED
FIG. 22. TYPES OF TAPER REAMERS
hole; but when a more obtuse angle is required sev-
eral tools may be necessary to produce the final taper.

For this latter work the first two reamers may be
made as indicated, in Figure 22, at A and B. In the
tool, A, the flutes are cut straight but are threaded or
"
nicked to break the chip" and make the cutting ac-
tion easier. In order to overcome the tendency to-
ward "drawing in," a slight left-hand spiral may be
given to the flutes, the angle of the spiral being de-
pendent somewhat on the angularity of the tapered
hole. It is also advisable in some cases to space the
teeth unequally to avoid chatter which is more likely
to occur in taper than in straight reaming. Taper
reamers should be made longer than the holes in
which they are to be used in order to provide for up-
keep. Eoughing reamers should have fewer flutes
than the finishing tool for greater chip clearance.
Taper reamers are occasionally made for large

work with a single inserted blade, such as that
shown at C in the illustration. A tool of this kind
is not, speaking, a reamer, but is more
strictly
nearly a scraping tool. This type of tool is valu-
able for some classes of work, however, as it can be
adjusted to size very readily and can be reground
a number of times.
Vforff .
FIG. 23. SIMPLE TYPES OP BORING TOOLS
Boring Tools. The engine lathe generally used

is
when a hole is to be bored in but one piece of work

which can be revolved. The type of boring tool used
for small holes under these conditions is shown in
Figure 23 at A. Due to its construction, a tool of
this kind is only suited to very light work, and a
number of cuts must be taken to bring the work
to the required size. As such tools are seldom used
to any great extent in manufacturing work, it is
unnecessary to mention their shortcomings. They

serve the purpose for which they are intended-
boring holes in jigs and the like, and therefore
need no further comment. Tools of a similar char-
acter but somewhat heavier are occasionally used
in turretlathe work for boring short holes, al-
though a boring bar is generally used when the
size of the hole will permit. When a boring tool
of this type must be used for manufacturing work,
it is better to make it in the form shown at B in
the illustration. It will be seen that this tool has
a more substantial nose and that it is ground to
a different shape than the toolmaker's tool shown at
A in the illustration. It will give very good results
on short work.
When a turret lathe must be used to bore a hole
and the size of the hole will permit, it is better to
use a bar such as that shown at A in Figure 24.
Single-point tools, or tools having but one cutting
edge, will produce more accurate work than multiple-
cutting tools, although they will not turn out the
work as rapidly. The bar, B, made in a variety of
ways to suit different conditions, is used in many
classes of work. The tool, placed straight across the
bar, is held with a set screw or a taper pin, and may
or may not have the added refinement of a backing-
up screw to make adjustment easier. The bar may
be piloted in a bushing of some kind, or it may be as
shown in the figure. If several diameters are to be
machined at the same time a multiple bar, C, can be
used to good advantage, the general points in con-
struction being much the same.
Flat-Cutter For rapid production
Boring Bars.
flat cutters are frequently used in bars such as
shown
at D, Figure 24. The advantage obtained by the
use of two cutting edges is that the amount of work
performed by each cutter is less than with a single-
point tool, and therefore the feed can be somewhat
increased. The disadvantage lies in the fact that
diameter sizes are soon lost on account of re-grind-
ing, while the single point tool can be re-set to a
given diameter a number of times through a simple
adjustment.
For very heavy cutting a cutter head is made up
similar to that shown at E in the illustration. In
boring automobile cylinders, or other work of similar
character, tools of this kind can be used to advan-
tage, but it is highly important to have all the cutting
points ground to the same diameter and angle so that
they will do an equal amount of work. Bars of other
varieties besides those shown are used in general
manufacturing, but the working principles are much
the same as the ones described.
Adjustable Boring Tool for Tool-Room Work. The
requirements of the toolmaker are somewhat differ-
ent from the requirements in the manufacturing de-
partments. Therefore the type of boring tool which
he is likely to favor will differ from those previously
described and may take the form of that shown in
Figure 25. This tool will probably be provided with
a taper shank, A, which will fit the tailstock of the
lathe. The cutting tool itself is small and is held by
two screws, as shown, in the swinging block pivoted
at B in the body of the toolholder- The two screws,
Work
Pilot*
Work
'/r /////\
-~t.
/(f(/js/\t
r &
Cutter
FIG. 24. VARIOUS TYPES OF BORING BARS

^//////////\ C-j
'
[
_
[
"
Chuck
rSiSl l
n
L m/}///Z\ i
a r-
/ v5/oc/r
FIG. 25. TOOLMAKERS' ADJUSTABLE BORING TOOL
C, C, are used for adjustment, one being loosened

and the opposite one tightened until the desired
diameter is obtained. Other varieties of this tool
may be found in any manufacturers tool room. A
toolmaker will often have one of his own make
which is of course "superior to all others." For
boring bushing holes in jigs, tools of this sort are
almost indispensable.
Recessing Tools. In turret lathe work it is often
necessary to produce a recess or groove in the in-
side of the work. When the work is of medium
size, so that a good-sized tool can be used, no par-
ticular difficulty is experienced, for the work can be
done by a number of different methods. If the work
is done on an engine lathe, a tool may be conven-
iently held on the cross slide of the lathe, as indi-

cated at A, Figure 26, and the carriage can be with-
drawn until the tool has reached the proper depth,
after which it can be fed along the distance re-
Jaw Cross
Slide
Chuck
FIG. 26. A SIMPLE RECESSING TOOL ON AN ENGINE LATHE
quired to produce the work, as shown at B. It must

be remembered, however, that many varieties of tur-
ret lathes do not have a cross-sliding movement to
the turret, nor does the cross slide in some other
have a longitudinal power feed. Hence, it
varieties
isnecessary to design a recessing tool in such a
way that it will be self-contained and have its own
moving parts, irrespective of the turret movement.
Much depends upon the nature of the groove to
be cut. narrow, such as that shown in Fig-
If it is
ure 27, easily possible to build a tool of a very

it is
simple character to be operated by the workman.

In this case the tool consists simply of a body, A,
in which the holder, B, is set eccentrically to the
center line of the spindle and at a sufficient distance
to give the depth of cut desired. The handle, C,
furnishes the necessary feed.
When a recess is cut deeply into the work, and
C/omp
;8olfs
.-Turret
FIG. 27. SIMPLE RECESSING TOOL FOR TURRET LATHE WORK
F-.
Chuck
fa
Turret
o
A
ross Slide
FIG. 28. RECESSING TOOL FOR TURRET LATHE

when the tool extends a considerable distance from

the turret face, a scheme such as that indicated in
Figure 28 can be utilized to good advantage. In
this case the body of the tool, A, is mounted on the
turret and contains a sliding member, B, in which
is mounted the recessing bar, C, having a tool at
"D". Assuming that there are tools on the front

of the cross side, which are used in connection with
the work, and that the rear of the slide is supplied
with a support, E, by means of which the recessing
bar is supported and fed into the work by with-
drawal of the cross slide; it will be seen, then, that
a movement of the slide will carry the tool into the
work as deeply as permitted by the stop screw, F.
The slide carrying the recessing bar is controlled by
a spring, so that when the feeding pressure is re-
leased the spring will return the slide to its normal
position.
Extraordinary cases occur occasionally in ma-
chine shop practice when a number of parts must be
made which call for more elaborate tooling than is
ordinarily required. An example of this sort is
shown in Figure 29. In this case, the work, A, is
a steel casing with two recesses equidistant from the
center line as shown at B. The work is of large size
and requires a 20-inch swing turret lathe to handle
it. It will be seen that the two recesses are in such
positions that they can not readily be machined. As
a support for any tool making this cut is necessary, a
bushing has been inserted in the fixture to hold the
piece so that a pilot can be used on the bar for re-
cessing. This bar has been drilled to receive a rod,
Chucking Fixture .-Wo us
Rack
Ways-
FIG. 29. AN ELABORATE RECESSING TOOL FOR A LARGE

STEEL CASING
C, on which two angular splines have been cut. The

splines engage with the two small tool blocks, D,
which hold the recessing tools. The mechanism is
operated by means of a pinion, E, which engages
with a rack cut on the operating bar, as clearly indi-
cated in the illustration.
It is obvious that any tool of this kind would not
be built unless very many pieces were to be ma-
chined, as it would not prove economical otherwise
because of the high first cost. For the work shown,
however, some thousands of pieces were to be made,
and the elaborate equipment paid for itself many times
over in the saving of time and in the accuracy of pro-
duction. As the depth of the recess on this piece was
rather important, it was essential that the spacing of
the grooves should be symmetrical about the center
line, which also made the tool so much more essential.
CHAPTER IV
TUENING, FORMING, AND THREADING
Hollow Mills. In roughing-down bar stock similar

to the piece shown at A in Figure 30, a hollow mill is
frequently used, but this type of tool is not to be

recommended for accuracy. But as it has several
cutting lips it will remove stock rapidly and can be
used for roughing operations to good advantage.
The ring, B, is used to prevent the lips of the tool
from springing and also to make small adjustments
by drawinig in the lips to a slightly smaller diameter
when necessary, but the adjustment obtainable on
this type of hollow mill amounts to only a few thou-
sandths of an inch. An adjustable type such as shown
at C, is much more expensive but possesses some ad-
vantages. The cutting tools, D, D, are of the in-
serted type and are controlled as to their diameter by
a ring with cams cut upon it which engage with the
cutting tools and force them in or out as desired.
Although a tool of this type can be more accurately
adjusted to a given diameter than the one previously
described, it will not remove stock in as great a
quantity nor has it the desirable features of chip
clearance that the former tool possesses.
Another type of hollow mill designed for excep-
tionally heavy cutting and large stock reduction is
55
PIG. 30. SEVERAL TYPES OF HOLLOW MILLS

shown at E. This tool is of special character and is
designed for a single purpose. It will be noticed,
however, that the cutting tools, F, are adjustable and
that they are heavy in section so as to carry away
heat rapidly. Tools of this sort are designed only
for the most severe service and are not economical
TURNING, FORMING, THREADING 57
unless stock reductions are large and a great number

of pieces of the same character are to be machined.
An important point in connection with all hollow
mills is the back clearance which, on the type shown
at A should be at least an eighth of an inch to the
foot. The cutting edges of hollow mills should be a
trifle ahead of the center for steel work but on center
for brass.
Turning Tools. On turret lathe work tools used
for turning are made up in a different way from
those employed on the engine lathe. On the engine
lathe the tools are held on the cross slide of the ma-
chine in suitably designed tool holders, while in tur-
ret lathework the holders are mounted on the turret
and the tools are held either horizontally or ver-
tically. One of the simplest types of turning tool is
shown in Figure 31, the holders in this case being
Work
FIG. 31. A SIMPLE FORMING TOOL FOR TURRET LATHE WORK

made of cast iron and bolted to the turret face. The
tool is set atan angle and is held in place by two set
screws. Adjustments for diameters can be readily
made within the capacity of the tool. For short
lengths and small diameters, a tool of this kind will
give excellent results; but when the work is long, as
in the turning of bar work on a screw machine, it is
necessary to provide support for the work opposite to
the cutting point of the tool.
A simple type of tool for this latter purpose, usu-
ally termed "box tool", is shown in Figure 32. The
Worh- Tool
V - Bacff ffest '--Turret
FIG. 32. A SIMPLE BOX TOOL FOR TURRET LATHE WORK
tool is in a block opposite to which a V-

mounted
shaped supporting block is so placed that it can be
adjusted to the diameter of the work being cut.
Makers of turret lathes have developed a great va-
riety of tools along these lines to suit the particular
machine which they manufacture. For small screw-
machine work, box tools with two or more adjustable
blocks are frequently made which are extremely use-
ful for automatic and light hand-screw machine work.
Adjustable Turning Tools. For bar work it is very
desirable to have tools which can be adjusted rapidly
ffo/ler Back Rest
Stic/e
-Tool
FIG. 33. ADJUSTABLE TURNING TOOL WITH ROLLER BACK RESTS

Pratt & Whitney Co.
to various diameters within their capacity, and on

turret lathe work several tools of the styles shown
in Figure 33 may be mounted on the turret and con-
trol several diameters on the bar. Such tools are
made with both roller-back and V-back rests, the
back rests being adjustably mounted so that they can
be used either for following or leading. When used
as following back rests, they are set to the diameter
at which the tool is at work and slightly behind a
point opposite the cutting tool. When used as lead-
ing back rests, the material must either be bright
rolled steel or it must have been finished to a given
diameter in a previous operation. Leading back rests
can never be used on rough stock; but following back
rests, as they work directly behind a surface which
has just been finished, are always used in rough
stock turning. The difference between the use of the
V-back rest and the roller-back rest is that the rollers
are less likely to mar the work, while V-back rests
may cause slight abrasions, especially if work is done
at high speed. However, on automatic work of small
diameter the V-rests are commonly used with per-
fectly satisfactory result.
Open-side Turning Tools. The tool shown in Fig-
ure 34 is used for turning short lengths when the
FIG. 34. OPEN SIDE TURNING TOOL

& Whitney Co.
Pratt
work is held rigidly; therefore it does not require
back rest support. A

tool of this nature is adjustable
to different diameters within its capacity, and some-
times possesses an added refinement in an adjustable
stop or an index on the screw so that it can be set
for different diameters for both roughing and finish-
ing cuts.
Overhead Turning Tools. It is important that any
type of turning tool should be held rigidly to avoid
FIG. 35. SPECIAL PILOTED TURNING TOOL FOR RAPID PRODUCTION
the chatter resulting from excessive vibration. For

this reason turret lathe tools for heavy classes of
work such as castings, forgings, and the like
should be so constructed that they will have ample
section to withstand cutting strains without spring-
ing away from the work. For manufacturing work
in large quantities, special tools are frequently built
such as that shown in Figure 35 at A. It will be seen
that this tool is mounted on the turret of the turret
lathe and has additional support from the pilot bar,
B, which enters a bushing in a bracket on the head
stock of the machine. The several tools are remov-
able and adjustable, so that they can be replaced and
reground when necessary. Such tools are not in-
tended for universal use but are specially designed to
meet the requirements of a particular case. It is al-
ways advisable, in making up a tool of this kind,
however, to provide as much latitude as possible, so
that in the event of a change in design the tool can
still be used with slight modifications.
Turning Tools for Vertical Boring Mills. Many

people do not consider that the vertical boring mill is
sufficiently adaptable to handle special classes of
manufacturing work to good advantage, but its
power and stability are such that, if properly tooled,
it will prove a valuable manufacturing machine. The
majority of boring mills in use throughout the coun-
try are not run anywhere near to their maximum effi-
ciency. Only a short time ago, while investigating
conditions in an old factory, I discovered three bor-
ing mills at work continuously, yet only turning
out about one-fifth of the product which they should
have accomplished. When the Superintendent was
asked why these machines seemed to be such small
producers, he informed me that they turned the work
out "as fast as the assembling room could use it,"
so he had no fault to find.
The multiple turning tool head shown in Figure
36 gives an idea of the adaptability of multiple tools
to a vertical boring mill when the product is suffi-
ciently large to warrant a little expenditure for tools.
TURNING, FORMING, THREADING
PIG. 36. SPECIAL TURNING TOOLS ON A VERTICAL BORING MILL

In this case the heavy tool holder, A, contains three
tools, B, C, and D, which all work simultaneously on
the casting. At the same time the two tools, E, and
F, in the left-hand head are at work facing the sur-
faces indicated. It is unnecessary to go into the mat-
ter of turning tools on the vertical boring mill to any
great extent as the more modern machines used in
manufacturing are provided with a side head in ad-
dition to a turret, each containing a number of tools.
When a machine of this type is used, the side head
provides a means of setting up four or more tools to
be operated in sequence, and adjustment of the side
head permits diameter settings to be easily made.
Cutting-off Tools. The ordinary type of tool used

for cutting off work which has been previously turned
or formed is shown in Figure 37 at A. Such tools,
however, are uneconomical, for after grinding a few
times, they must be annealed and reforged, or drawn
out to their former length. The inserted-blade type
FIG. 37. TYPES OF CUTTING-OFF TOOLS
of cutting-off tool, shown at B in the same illustra-
tion, ismuch more economical, for it is so designed

that the blade, C, can be clamped securely in the
holder and adjusted to any desired position without
difficulty. The holder is so made that it will fit sev-
eral different sizes of tool posts, thereby making its
adaptability to different classes of work and different
machines so much the greater. In the holder shown,
the blades can be bought ready-made to slip into the
holders, and only require an occasional grinding to
keep them in condition.
Threading Tools. The simplest form of threading

toolsis the forged tool shown at A
in Figure 38.
Such a tool is used for plain threading on the engine

lathe and needs no particular comment as the nature
of the operation is so well known. In any threading
FIG. 38. THE SIMPLEST FORM OF THREADING TOOL
tool there are two essential points; first the correct

shape of the tool itself, and second, its setting in re-
lation to the work. If a threading tool is ground to
the correct angle on its sides and is set on the center
of the work, it should produce a threaded form of the
correct angle. If, however, it does not come into
contact with the work at the proper point, and if the
cutting face is tipped one way or the other to bring
the point on center, the resulting angle of thread will
not be correct.
Because of these facts, it is evident that the great-
est caremust be exercised both in grinding and in
setting sort of threading tool.
any In turret lathe
work, threading tools of the single-point variety can
not be used unless the machine is provided with a
thread-chasing attachment whereby the lead of the

screw can be properly controlled. There are many
cases, however, when such an attachment is a great
advantage, and it is in cases of this kind that a spe-
cial design of cutting tool is desirable. When the
thread-chasing attachment is applied to the cross
slide of the machine, an ordinary type of tool may
be used for the work if desired; but when the thread-
ing attachment affects the turret slide, another type
of tool may be found necessary.
If the work calls for an interior thread, a bar, such
as that shown at A in Figure 39, can be used with
a tool of the single-point type, as B, or of the chaser
FIG. 39, TYPES OF THREAD CHASING TOOLS

type, as C. This bar must be held in a special

holder on the turret, which provides for quick with-
drawal and a micrometer stop for depth. tool slideA
of this sort can be easily applied to the turret of the
machine and presents no great difficulty in the mat-
ter of design. When the turret itself has cross-slid-
ing features and a micrometer dial adjustment, there
is no necessity for an extra tool holder of the type
mentioned.
Goose Neck Threading Tool. Due to the peculiar
construction of a threading tool it is very likely to
chatter under the cut. As chatter is caused by a
rapidly repeated springing away from the
of the tool
work and by an equally repeated digging in again,
both tool and work should be held so rigidly that
such vibration will not be possible. Such a condition
is difficult to obtain, however, and therefore the tool
may be so constructed that it will never have a

tendency to dig in. A special tool of this nature,
made especially for threading work on the turret
. 40. A GOOSE-NECK THREADING TOOL FOR TURRET LATHE

lathe, isshown in Figure 40. The tool-holder body

is mounted on the bar, A, which is held in the tur-
ret of the machine. The body is drilled at B and
slotted at C to allow for springing action. The
threading tool, D, is locked in position and is ground
to the correct angle for threading.
In use, the posi-
tion of the spring hinge allows the tool to spring
away from the work without digging in.
Forming
1
Tools. When it becomes necessary

to
machine a form a number of more or less irregular
shapes on an engine lathe, turret lathe, or other ma-
chine of similar character, a forming tool of some
sort is indispensible. When only a single piece is to
feemade, the operator can work out the shape a little
at a time on an engine lathe to fit a templet of sheet
steel which has been carefully laid out to the re-
quired dimensions.
There are many kinds of forming tools whose utility
depends to a great extent on the class of work for
which they are intended, as well as the number of
pieces which are to be machined and the accuracy
required in the finished product. The type of tool
selected for any given piece of work, therefore, should
be determined by these factors. For example, in the
work shown at the upper part of Figure 41, a simple
angular groove is to be cut on a lot of 500 pieces.
It would be inadvisable, therefore, to go to any great
expense in the matter of a forming tool. A rect-

angular tool, A, of some standard section should be
formed to the shape shown at B with very little ex-
pense or trouble, and the work may be produced
without difficulty. If such a tool as this, however,
.A
Work
Work
Work
FIG. 41. THREE TYPES OF SIMPLE FORMING TOOLS

were to be used day after day and week after week,
itwould not give good results. Frequent regrinding
would change the shape and size so that it would
soon need to be replaced by another. This is due
to the fact that the clearance as indicated by the
dotted line is increasingly smaller than the part of
the tool doing the cutting, so that as the face is
ground away the tool becomes narrower and does
not cut a groove of the desired width. To avoid
changes in form caused by regrinding, an angularly
set forming tool, such as that shown at C in the
center of Figure 41 can be used to advantage. In
this case a holder F, of special form is provided
on the cross slide of the machine, bolted down in
some approved manner according to the form of slide
on which it is used. The holder is dovetailed at
E to receive the forming tool on which the correct
form, C, has been fashioned. The design of the tool
is such that when it is ground flat across the front
it produce the required form. Clearance is taken
will
care of by the angle at which the tool is set in the
holder. Suitable clamping screws are provided in the
holder so that as re-grinding is done adjustment can
be made to keep the cutting edge always at the center
line. In a tool of this character, which is required
for very wide forms and heavy cutting, a set screw
is sometimes placed in the holder directly under the
tool to provide a firm support and take the thrust
of the cut. When such provision is not made it
may be found necessary to "shim" up the tool to
prevent it from pushing down under the pressure of
the cut. Tools of this kind are largely used on
turret lathe and screw machine work for producing

various form and shapes up to four or five inches
in length.
Smaller work, such as that on automatic and
small hand-screw machines can be handled to ad-
vantage with the circular type of forming tool, H,
shown in the lower part of Figure 41. This type
is tapped out to receive a screw which passes
through a special tool holder on the cross slide of
the machine. If the holder is made for the rear of
the cross slide, the center line of the screw, K, is
from 8 - to i/4-inch below the center of the work.
y
When the holder is designed to be used on the front
of the cross slide, the center is about an equal
amount above the work center, as indicated in the
illustration. This arrangement is for the purpose of
giving a greater clearance to the tool. It will be
seen that a tool of this sort can be ground a great
number of times and still preserve its form. Further-
more, it is a type not difficult to make, as it can be
turned on an engine lathe to the desired form and
then cut out, as at M, to give the cutting lip. Since
the cutting edge of the tool is not on the center on
which the turning of the tool is accomplished, a
suitable allowance for this difference must be made
when shaping it. Formulas for this type of tool
can be found in "Machinery's Handbook."
CHAPTER V
MILLING AND PLANING
Milling Processes. The process of milling a sur-

face or form consists, essentially, in holding the
work to be milled firmly and pushing it against
a revolving cutter which removes the stock at a
very rapid rate. The cutter is held in some ap-
proved manner in the spindle of a milling machine,
or on an arbor, either in a vertical or horizontal
position depending upon the nature of the work
and the type of machine to which it is applied.
Milling machines are of several fundamental types,
each possessing features more or less distinctive
according to the manufacturer and the particular
classof work for which the machine is intended.
Thus we have hand milling machines, plain milling
machines, the Lincoln type of milling machines, uni-
versal milling machines, and so on, all of which are
built with a horizontal spindle. Then there are
vertical, rotary table, multiple spindle, duplex, and
continuous milling machines, some of which have
vertical spindles while others have horizontal spin-
dles or even a combination of horizontal and verti-
cal spindles on the same machine. In fact, the
ramifications in these machines are somewhat diffi-
cult to keep in touch with from day to day on ac-
72
MILLING AND PLANING 73
count of the many developments in rapid produc-

tion processes.
Factors Machine Selection. When
Influencing
any piece of work be machined by milling
is to
processes the proper machine to produce it most eco-

nomically must first be determined. Next, having de-
termined the machine to use, the method of holding
the work must be considered and a fixture designed
for it; finally the type of cutter to be used must be
decided upon. Several factors have an influence on
these points and are of great importance. They in-
clude :
1. Nature and composition of the material to be

cut.
2. Size of the work.
3. Amount of metal to be removed.
4. Accuracy required.
5. Width and shape of cut.
6. Number of pieces to be machined.
It is obvious in considering the nature and com-
position of the material to be cut that for instance,

a heavy piece of alloy steel would require a powerful
machine in order to remove the stock to the best
advantage, while a light piece of aluminum or brass
could be handled more economically on a hand-feed
or plain machine.
The size of the work
an effect on the ma-
also has
chine to be used, for not infrequently happens
it
that a light piece ofwork of large size must be

machined on a heavy machine- solely on account of
the range required. In machining heavy forgings
of alloy steel, milling machines of great power must
be used, and the fixtures in which the work is held
must be of the most massive design in order to hold
the work securely and prevent vibration or chatter.
The amount of metal to be removed affects the
selection of the machine tool on account of the
power needed to pull the cut. At the same time
it influences the design and form of the milling cutter
adapted to the work.
Speaking generally, surfacing cuts on castings are
best handled by a face mill or end-milling cutter ar-
ranged to cut either horizontally along the side of
the work, if used on a horizontal milling machine, or
vertically on top of the work if used on a vertical-
spindle machine. Steel work, on the contrary, can
more profitably be handled with a spiral milling
cutter, the cut being taken in a direction parallel
with the center line of the axis of rotation. The
accuracy with which a piece of work must be finished
determines whether a single roughing cut will be suffi-
cient or whether both roughing and finishing cuts must
be taken. For the general run of work which does not
require a high degree of accuracy, a single cut may be
taken with success, but when interchangeable work
within close limits of accuracy is to be manufactured
it is usually advisable to take two cuts.
The width and shape of the cut determine both the

class of machine to be used, the kind of cutters neces-
sary, and the fixture required. In modern practice, a

milling machine having both vertical and horizontal
spindles often selected for a piece of work of large
is
size and the fixtures are designed so that several pieces

may be machined simultaneously. There are machines

on the American market today having as many as
seven spindles, all of which may be working simul-
taneously on a certain piece of work. Furthermore,
the work may be roughed and finished in the same
machine, one "bank" of cutters serving for the rough-
ing cuts and the others for the finishing operations.
Obviously, machines of this character are very expen-
sive, but for high production work they are great
money savers. Here it will be seen that the number
of pieces to be machined is an important factor in
regard machine used. Another point
to the type of
in this connection which should not be overlooked is
the type of fixture which is used, but this matter
will be dealt with in greater detail under a later head-
ing.
Milling Cutters.The milling cutter, A, Figure 42,
is an end mill of the ordinary variety with straight
flutes. This type of cutter can be used for milling
the edges of a surface on either a vertical or hori-
zontal machine, and is provided with a taper shank
to fit the milling machine spindle. The form, B, is
of the center-cut type. It can be fed directly into the
work if necessary, the teeth being so cut on the end
as to permit this. With the type A, the form of
tooth on the end does not permit such a cut to be
taken.
The an end mill of the same general
cutter, C, is
type as that shown at A, except that the flutes are
cut spirally. The cutting action on the side of this
on the straight fluted mill, A,
mill is better than that
because the entire width of the flute is not all in
FIG. 42. GROUP OP STRAIGHT-FLUTE, SPIRAL, AND SHELL

END MILLS
contact with the work at one time. The action, there-

fore, is a shearing cut instead of a pushing cut. This
mill, also, requires less power to drive it and is less
likely to produce chatter.

The special form of cutter shown at D is made on

the same principle as that shown at
C, except that it
is intended to cut only on the side. The spiral in
this case is much more abrupt, so that the shearing
action is very pronounced. A cutter of this kind
gives excellent results on steel and produces a su-
perior finish by virtue of its shearing cut. The flutes
may be nicked to break the chip; this makes the cut-
ting action easier and is an advantage on very tough
and wiry material.
Whenan end mill of a greater size is required, it
is evident that it would not be economical to make
both tool and shank of high speed steel; hence the
shell end mill, E, has been devised. It can be seen
that such a mill is easily attached to a stem or taper-
ing arbor which fits the conical hole in the mill. The
end of the arbor is threaded so that the mill can be
forced back onto the taper by means of a nut applied
to its face.
Shell end mills are made in a variety of ways to
suit different conditions; in the larger sizes, for in-
stance, the body of the tool may be made of cast iron

or steel with the cutter blades inserted. When in-
serted blades are used it is evident that the cost of
upkeep is much than when the mill is cut from
less
the solid metal, for a broken tooth can be readily
replaced with a new one; furthermore, an entirely
new set of blades can be substituted for a worn out
set at comparatively small expense. Ordinarily, mills
up diameter are made from a single
to five inches in
piece of high-speed or carbon steel, while those above

this size are made with inserted blades.
Slotting Cutters. If a straight slot, open at the

ends, is to be cut in a casting or other piece of work,
a plain end mill such as that shown in Figure 42 at
A or B can be used. But if the slot is I-shaped,
another type of cutter, A, Figure 43, must be used.
PIG. 43. (A) TEE-SLOT CUTTER. (B) FISHTAIL CUTTER

(C) TWO-LIP SLOTTING CUTTER
This cutter is commonly spoken of as a tee-slot cut-

ter. It will be noted that the neck of the tool is
smaller than the cutter, so as to permit under cut-
ting the work, or getting the tool down into a slot,
etc. This same type of cutter is also used for cutting
the circular slot in a shaft when a Woodruff key is
to be inserted.
In many kinds of manufacturing work it is neces-
sary to cut a narrow slot with rounded ends, as for
example a slot, or "spline" as it is more frequently
called, in a shaft in which a key of rectangular sec-
tion to be fastened to act as a driver for a pulley
is
or a gear. There are several ways to cut such a

spline, but such cutters as shown at B or C, Figure

43, are most useful. The cutter, B, is termed a fish-
tail cutter from its resemblance to a fish's tail. The
cutter, C, is a two-lip slotting cutter or routing cut-
ter. Both types are used for the same work, but the
latter is used more frequently on cast iron to cut
directly into a piece of work to the depth desired;
then the work is fed along to the required distance.
The fishtail type is more useful for steel work since
it has better chip clearance. These tools are com-
monly used on the spline-milling machine or on a
milling machine with a spline-milling attachment for
cutting slots and splines in general manufacturing
work.
Angular and Special Cutters. Various types of
cutters have been developed for different kinds of
work, the shapes being dependent upon the form to
be cut and the manufacturing conditions governing
the production. In making up reamers, drills, and
special tools of different kinds, special cutters are a
necessity in developing the required forms. Eefer-
ring to Figure 44, the sectional views shown at and A
B indicate respectively the shape of the cutting edges
of the milling cutters used for cutting flutes in
reamers and taps. C and D are used for fluting twist
drills and other work of similar character. F and G
are respectively single and double angle cutters used
largely for cutting spiral mills or other work when
one or more of the surfaces to be milled lies at an
angle to the axis of the work. E, H, and K are cor-
nering, concave, and convex cutters respectively.
They are used for a variety of purposes on special
TWIST DRILL CUTTERS

REAMER AND TAP CUTTERS
S
E
fiighf Hand 'Right Hand Cutter

Cutter ANGULAR CUTTERS WITH THREADED HOLES
FIG. 44. ANGULAR AND SPECIAL TYPES OF MILLING CUTTERS
work, the radii of the cutters being made up to suit
any particular piece of work for which they are to
be used.
When a piece of work is to be machined which
does not permit a cutter to be held on an arbor ex-
tending on both sides of the cutter, it may be neces-
sary to make up the types shown at L and M. II
is obvious that as such a cutter must be screwed on
to an arbor, as indicated, it must have either a right-

hand or left-hand thread according to the direction
of rotation of the spindle. These cutters can be made
up in any form to suit the class of work on which
they are to be used.
GOULD AND EBERHARDT

PATENT
A rbor
Cutter
FIG. 45. GEAR-TOOTH CUTTERS AND FORMED CUTTERS
Gear-Tooth and Formed Cutters. In cutting the

teeth in spur gears the cutter, A, Figure 45, is fre-
quently employed. This cutter, patented by Gould &
Eberhardt, Newark, N. J., is so made that each tooth
is of slightly different form than the one preceding
it and progressively removes metal left by the pre-

ceding tooth. The value of this method of cutting
lies in the fact that the stock as it is removed is
broken up into a great number of small chips instead
of a comparatively small number of wide chips.
The obvious advantage is that the cutting action is
much easier and it requires less power than other
forms of cutters. With this type, used for roughing
only, the gear tooth is cut to its correct shape, leav-
ing only a small amount to be removed by the finish-

ing cutter, as shown at B in the illustration. The
manner by which the chip is broken up by the cutter
is indicated at C. The ordinary type of roughing-out
or stocking cutter for gear teeth is of somewhat
similar shape, butit makes a cut like that shown at
D, Figure 45, which, it will be seen does not leave

an equal amount of stock all around for the finishing
cutter to remove, for this reason it is not as effective
in itswork as the other type.
In some manufacturing work unusual shapes may
be required cut from a flat surface or strip of metal,
and when the quantity demanded is sufficient to war-
rant it the form can be milled to advantage by a
cutter formed to the correct shape, as indicated at E,
Figure 45. Let us suppose that a number of blocks
are to be made from blocks 2 inches long to have a
form like that indicated. In order to produce a num-
ber of pieces of this kind it is only necessary to make
up a cutter of the required form and to mill a num-
ber of long strips on the milling machine. The strips
can afterward be sawed up into short pieces each of
which 2 inches long.
is
All milling cutters are "relieved" at the back of
the tooth, in order to provide chip clearance for chips
removed from the work by the cutting action and
also to prevent the back of the tooth from rubbing
on the work during the operation. Formed cutters
.ike the one shown

at D, however, are given a differ-
ent kind of relief, called an eccentric relief, which
permits the cutter to be re-ground a number of times
after it becomes dull without changing the shape of
the piece milled.
Miscellaneous Cutters. It is
obviously impossible
to describe and every type of cutter without
illustrate
entering into a lengthy discussion of the subject of

milling. Such a discussion is unnecessary here. The
descriptions show that varieties to meet every con-
dition can be made. Figure 46 shows a group of
common cutters used for various purposes in the
average factory. The cutter, A, is generally termed
a "hob." used for milling the teeth in a worm
It is
gear, the work being held on an arbor either on a

milling machine or a gear hobber. In making such a
cutter the shape first produced is very similar to a
worm gear and the teeth are formed by cutting longi-
tudinal grooves. Each of the teeth is then relieved,
and the cutter is hardened and ground ready for
work. A hob cutter, when used for a worm gear,
must always be made up specially for any piece of
work. Gear teeth of the spur variety, however, are
cut with so-called generating hobs on regular gear-
hobbing machines, which can be bought in stock
sizes according to the pitch of the teeth and the kind
of machine on which they are to be used. Each hob,
however, is made for a specified pitch of tooth and
can be used only for this pitch.
In this connection an amusing incident occurred
some years ago in a New England factory where
there were a number of apprentices. One of the ap-
FIG. 46. (A) WORM HOB CUTTER. (B) SIDE OR STRADDLE MILLr
ING CUTTER. (c) PLAIN MILLING CUTTER. (D) IN-
SERTED-BLADE CUTTER. (E) INTERLOCKING
MILLER CUTTER
prentices was sent to the tool room by the tool maker

for whom the boy was working, who told him to get
"the hob used for the big gear on Machine No. 1272.
"
On the way to the tool room the boy forgot the num-
ber of the machine, but nevertheless he asked the
tool crib man to "give me a hob for a big gear."
"What machine is it for?" the man asked him. "Oh,
I don't remember the number
of the machine, but you
better give me the biggest one you've got 'cause it's
a big gear." Needless to add, he was told to "beat
it, and get the machine number."
The cutter, B, Figure 46, is a side-milling cutter
used as a single cutter for side milling or for facing
a piece of work. It is also frequently used in gangs
of two or more spaced the required distance apart
for "straddle milling." For example, if a boss on
the end of a lever needs to be faced on each side,
two side-milling cutters would be properly spaced on
an arbor in the milling machine so that the distance
between the cutters would be the same as the width
of the finished boss on the lever. Given the proper
kind of fixture for holding the work, then, a great
number of pieces could be machined one after the
other with perfect uniformity until the cutters were
so worn as to require readjustment.
For heavy work of large diameter inserted-tooth
facing-mills, D, Figure 46, are used both singly and
in groups for the same purpose as the side cutter, B.
Cutters of this kind are largely used for making
heavy facing cuts on both cast iron and steel. They
produce good results on aluminum or brass.
will also
On vertical milling machines and multiple spindle
machines this type of cutter is extensively used for
general manufacturing.
The plain millingcutter, C, is intended only for
surfacing or milling broad flat surfaces. It is most
frequently used for milling steel. Frequently this

cutter is set up with two or more side-milling cutters
to mill a flat surface and at the same time to straddle
mill both sides. be noted that the teeth on the
It will
cutter are milled spirally in such a way that as the
cutter revolves each tooth engages the work progress-
ively with a shearing cut, thereby producing a very
fine finish with little likelihood of chatter. It is well
to state at this point that no matter what style of
cutter may be used on any piece of work some chat-
ter may result. Loose gibbing (loose attaching) on
the table of the machine is a frequent cause, the
remedy for which is apparent. Another cause is a
poorly designed fixture for holding the work or an
inefficient method of clamping the work in the fixture.
Still another the use of an incorrect speed or im-
is
proper feed, or a combination of both, which will be

discussed in a later chapter.
Interlocking Cutters. In many processes of manu-
facturing occasions arise when it is necessary to mill
a slot in the work to a specified size within close
limits of accuracy. The
ordinary type of side-
milling cutter, B, Figure 46, if used for this work
soon becomes so worn on the sides that, after grind-
ing a few times, it is a trifle under size and does not
cut the slot to the required dimensions. When such
a condition as this arises, therefore, an interlocking
cutter, E, Figure 46, should be used. This illustra-
tionshows that the cutter is really a double cutter,

made up of two parts which fit into each other in
such a manner that every other tooth laps over an
imaginary center line drawn around the circumfer-
ence of the cutter. By arrangement the teeth
this
of the cutter may be adjusted by placing a disc of
thin paper between them when they become slightly
worn, the paper disc being made thick enough to
compensate for the wear caused by hard usage and
frequent regrinding. Such a cutter can be kept up to
accurate size, and will always produce a piece of
work within the required limits.
Planing Tools. Surfaces requiring the greatest ac-
curacy are often planed instead of being milled. This
is particularly the case with heavy castings such as
machine beds and heavy fixtures, or parts of ma-

chines which are a sliding fit on each other such as
the cross slide on a turret lathe, the carriage on an
engine lathe, the table of a milling machine and other
work of similar character. In large manufacturing
work thebuilding oflocomotives, steam engines,
compressors, or printing presses the planer is a valu-
able adjunct; but for smaller manufacturing the mill-
ing machine is much more largely used, not only on
account of its superiority in the matter of rapid pro-
duction but also because it does not require so experi-
enced an operator as the planer.
The tools used in planing are generally single
forged tools of a nature similar to those used on the
engine lathe. There is a little difference in the shapes
of the tools, however, since in the one case the work
is revolving, while in the other the work is moving
along in a horizontal direction. Except for the fact

that planer tools are somewhat heavier than lathe
tools, there is so little difference in them that it is
rather unnecessary to go into an extended description

of them. It should also be remembered that the
planer is not used to any great extent in interchange-
able manufacture, so that the tools are not so highly

specialized but, more frequently, are ground in a
slightly different way to suit the particular case.
CHAPTER VI
BEOACHING
The Purposes of Broaching. The process of broach-
ing holes, either round or rectangular, is by no means
new, but modern methods differ from those in use a
few years ago. In present-day practice the broach
is pulled through the hole as a rule, while the former
method favored a pushing action in forcing the tool

through. Strictly speaking the broaching of a hole
is a shaving operation produced by a number of cut-
ting edges on a tool of suitable form. The teeth on

the broaching tool are so arranged that progressively
they come in contact with the work as the tool is
forced through. Each tooth is set out beyond the
preceding one a few thousandths of an inch, the
amount being dependent upon the length of the
broach, the kind of material which is being cut, and
the amount of stock which is to be removed.
The design of broaches therefore must take into
consideration the points mentioned and also the mat-
ter ofupkeep re-grinding and replacement when
worn. For example, it would not be economical to
design and make up a broach which was to be used
only for a couple of hundred pieces in as painstaking
a manner as though the work consisted of several
thousand pieces. It would be the part of wisdom to
make up the tool as cheaply as possible consistent
with good workmanship; but if several thousand
pieces were to be broached refinements in design
could be made so that replacements could be made as
easy as possible.
Preliminary Treatment. The preliminary require-
ments in broaching a hole are that the work shall have
been previously drilled or bored, or that an opening of
some sort in the piece is large enough to permit the
entry of the small end of the broaching tool. It is
also necessary to ensure that the work can be prop-
erly held and so located that the broaching operation
will be done in the correct location on or in the work.
Sometimes a previously drilled or reamed hole can
be used for locating the work precisely by slipping
it onto a stud on the face plate of the machine. In
some cases the broach itself acts as the locating
medium.
In order that the process of broaching may be
more readily understood by the reader, let us assume
that a gear blank has been drilled, bored and reamed,
and that it isdesired to cut a keyway through it, as
in X, Figure 47. In this case the face plate of the
broaching machine is provided with a "pull-bush-
ing," as it is called, in which a slot is cut to allow

the broach, A, to pass through it. This pull-bushing
then acts as a guide for the broach and at the same
times locates the work properly for the operation.
This broach, A, is called a "keyway" broach and
may be purchased cheaply in standard sizes from the
makers of broaching machines, or it may be made up
in the tool room of any factory at comparatively
BROACHING 91
/ rsrsrxrwv
- FOUR-WAY KEY-WAY BROACH
FIG. 47. SEVERAL VARIETIES OF BROACHING TOOLS
small expense. One end of the tool is slotted, so that

a pin can be used to couple it to the feed-screw mech-
anism of the machine. The teeth on the broach, start-
ing at the end where the slot is, are graded in such
manner that the first tooth cuts a very shallow
groove the work, the next tooth increases the
in
depth slightly, and the remainder of the teeth act in

like manner progressively. The last four or five teeth
in the broach cut the full depth of the slot, for the
purpose of assuring the accuracy of the work in the
event that some of the teeth become worn.
Broaching a Square Hole. As a broaching cut of
any kind requires a powerful machine, it is evident
that the wear on the broach is very severe. There-
for to relieve the machine as far as possible and also
to provide for long life in the broach itself, it is
customary in broaching a square hole to drill the
work out previously to a diameter slightly larger
than the distance across the flat surfaces of the
square, as shown at Y, Figure 47. The broach, B, is
the type used for a square hole. The slotted end is
cylindrical and a trifle smaller in diameter than the

previously reamed hole so as to act as a pilot in
guiding the square portion of the broach into the
hole. Broaches of this variety are made of a single
piece of carbon steel, machined to the shape indi-
cated, and carefully hardened and ground before
being used. The teeth also cut progressively as in
the instance previously mentioned, the amount cut
by each tooth being slightly in excess of that taken
by the tooth just ahead of it.
In broaching steel, the teeth of the broach are
usually well lubricated at the moment before they
enter the hole, thus reducing the friction of the cut
and carrying away the heat generated. The proper
lubricantis determined by the material which is to
be cut. The various important matters connected

with the subject of lubrication, however, will be
found in Chapter XIX.
Broaching a Round Hole. Formerly, the proper
method of obtaining a cylindrical hole to a given
dimension was by the reaming process. The ordinary
procedure was to bore the hole with roughing and
finishing boring tools, leaving a few thousandths of
an inch of metal to be removed by the reamer.
Recent developments, however, have shown that a
BROACHING 93
round broach can be used to better advantage. The

finish in the hole produced by a broach is superior
to that made by a reamer, and the required size can
be easily obtained. In the matter of upkeep, also, the
broach is superior to the reamer, although its first
cost may be somewhat higher. As to accuracy, the
modern broaching machine can be fitted with fixtures
for holding the work and locating it so exactly that
center distances can be precisely maintained. As a
matter of fact the broaching process may be con-
sidered as a precision operation.
When it is desired to broach one hole in a piece
in a definite relation to another, it is only neces-
sary to locate a stud on the face plate of the machine
at the proper distance from the center hole and pro-
vide a broach of suitable form. It will be under-
stood that when the hole is a single one and not
located accurately with relation to some other one
in the work the broaching machine centers the broach
in the work by the previously reamed or bored hole.
In such a case no special fixture is needed.
In the case illustrated in Figure 48, a very accurate
location is necessary between the two centers, A
and
B, in the work, C, an automobile connecting rod.
Prior to the operation shown, the hole, A, has been
drilledand broached to the proper size, no fixture
being used in the operation and the hole itself acting
as a locating point. For the operation shown the
work is located on a stud on the face plate by the
hole, A, which is located the correct distance from
the other hole, B, the latter being the center line of
the broach itself. For work of this nature the broach-
FIG. 48. METHOD OF BROACHING A CONNECTING ROD
ing machine must be furnished with supplementary

equipment in the nature of a support table and slide
The slide, D, sup-
as indicated in the illustration.
ports the end of the broach and centers it correctly
as it is pulled through the work. Most excellent

work can be done with such equipment. The broach,
C, Figure 47, isused for round holes, and differs from
B only in shape. Naturally the teeth are formed by
a series of progressive rings instead of squares.
Four-way Keyway Broaches. In automobile and
machine tool work it is sometimes necessary to cut
four keyways in a piece of work which may be either
a sliding fit or a close fit on a shaft, four keys being
set into it for the purpose of providing an efficient
method of driving. When such a broaching job is
to be done the broach is made up in a somewhat dif-
ferent way than those previously described. In Fig-
ure 47, D, the cutting blades, F, are made up separ-
ately and are fitted to the body of the broach, E, by
some approved method, such as the screws indicated
BROACHING 95
FIG. 49. EXAMPLES OF IRREGULAR HOLES THAT CAN BE

BROACHED
in the drawing. Other methods of fastening are also

used, and, generally speaking, a method should be
adopted which permits adjustment and holds the
blades firmly.
Broaches For Irregular Holes. Irregular forms,
such as internal gears of some kinds, ratchet teeth,
and many other varieties of holes, can be broached
to advantage providing that the production is large
enough to warrant the necessary expense of procuring
the broaches. A few shapes which can profitably be
broached are indicated in Figure 49. The form, A,
is an internal cam, i/^-inch thick, made of steel. Sev-
eral of these pieces are generally broached at one
time without the use of a fixture, the broach being
formed to the required shape. The form, B, is out
of the ordinary and serves to show the variety of
work which can be done on a broaching machine.
The four rectangular holes are made concentric with
the center hole, the material being steel. An internal
spur gear is shown at C, and a sprocket with an in-
ternal ratchet is indicated at D. Both of these
broaches are of the solid variety, formed to the cor-
rect shape and the teeth cut in the same manner as
those previously described.
CHAPTER VII
SUEFACE AND CYLINDRICAL GRINDING
Grinding Material. Many persons take an errone-

ous view of the process of grinding and consider that
it is adapted only to the truing up of parts which
have been hardened and which, therefore, cannot be

cut by the ordinary type of tool. As a matter of fact
the up-to-date factory employs grinding for many
parts which have not been hardened at all. When
parts have been hardened they are likely to be more
or less distorted and out of and these distorted
true,
parts can be corrected by grinding with a wheel com-
posed of emery, carborundum, alundum, or other
abrasive.
Manyof the compositions used for making grind-
ing wheels are produced by artificial means, but the
chief natural abrasives are emery and corundum, the
latterbeing used to a greater extent than emery. The
abrasives produced artificially are composed princi-
pally from carbide of silicon and bauxite fused at a
high temperature in the electric furnace. The vari-
ous trade names of the artificial abrasives and their
composition and uses are as follows:
Adamite is used in wheels for grinding materials
such as steel either soft or in a hardened state. It
is an artificial abrasive made in Austria, and is com-
97
posed of aluminum oxide with certain other materials

fused together in an electric furnace at a high tem-
perature.
Aloxite used in wheels for grinding the same
is
mentioned above. It is a
class of materials as that
product of the Carborundum Co., and is made by a

special process from aluminum oxide crystals pro-
duced by fusing mineral bauxite in an electric fur-
nace.
Boro-carbone is a trade name for another product
of bauxite, as manufactured by the Abrasive Material
Co. This abrasive is used for grinding materials
which possess high tensile strength.
Carbide of Silicon is used for grinding brass, cast
iron, and other materials which possess low tensile
strength. It is a composition of coke and sand fused
in the electric furnace. This material also is a prod-
uct of the Abrasive Material Co.
Carbolon is used for materials having a low tensile
strength. It is made by the Vitrified Wheel Co., from
coke and sand fused in the electric furnace.
Carborundum is a very well known abrasive which
is a chemical combination of carbon and silicon fused
at a temperature of 7000 degrees Fahrenheit.

Crystolon is an artificial abrasive made by the Nor-
ton Co. It is particularly suited to the grinding of
cast iron, brass, and other materials of low tensile
strength. The chief ingredients of this abrasive are
carbon and silicon.
Corundum is a mineral derived from native alumina
and is the purest of all the natural abrasives. It is
also produced by artificial means in an electric fur-

GRINDING 99
nace and, next to the diamond, it is the hardest of all

known materials^ In reality it is nothing more than
crystallized aluminum oxide, whether obtained by
either natural or artificial means. The artificial
product can be obtained in many grades suited to
many varieties of work.
Emery is used for obtaining a fine finish on bearing
surfaces, ball races, and the like; but as an abrasive
in manufacturing grinding processes emery has been
largely superseded by some of the other materials
mentioned in the foregoing list. While it is unex-
celled for certain kinds of work, it does not possess
the hardness nor does it have the free cutting quali-
ties of some of the other abrasives.
Grinding- Wheel Shapes. Grinding wheels are made

in a variety of sizes and in shapes of every kind for
cylindrical work, shouldered work, forming, internal
work, surfacing, and so on. Some of the more com-
mon forms are shown in Figure 50, although these
are but a very few of the many kinds and forms in
use. In selecting a wheel shape for any piece of
work, it is obvious that several things must be con-
sidered the kind of machine to be used on the work,
for instance, or the form to be ground, or the method
of presenting the wheel to the work itself. So many
factors affect the shape of the wheel to be used, in
fact, that it is out of the question to illustrate and
describe the various kinds in a work of this kind;
moreover such a description would be of no material
value to an executive for it would entail so great an
amount of descriptive matter as to be confusing
rather than enlightening. For the specific cases of
PIG. 50. VARIOUS SHAPES OF GRINDING WHEELS
grinding illustrated in this book the style of wheel

shown in any particular case may be considered as
the ordinary shape used for the work.
Surface Grinding Methods. When a plane surface
which has been hardened or which, unhardened, needs
careful finishing, it is frequently desirable to grind
the surface to the required finish. Some machines
*
which are used for surface grinding are adapted
principally to light work requiring a high degree of
accuracy, such as die blocks and other tool room
work, while others are intended for general manu-
facturing. When work is to be ground on a surface
it isof the highest importance that it should
grinder
be held in such a way that there can be no "spring"
or distortion arising from an improper method of
clamping. Magnetic chucks that is, magnetized
GRINDING 101
plates are largely used for holding work which is

to be finished in this way, although there are cases
which require some more positive clamping action.
The description of fixtures for holding work during
grinding operations is dealt with in Chapter XVI.
Several methods can be employed when a piece of
work is to be finished accurately to a plane surface,
and the one selected depends only upon the accuracy

required in the finished product. Thus for a moder-
ately good commercial job, two milling cuts one
roughing and the other finishing may be taken with
satisfactory results; this method is suitable for com-
paratively narrow surfaces, such as the flanges on a
transmission case in automobile construction or other
work of similar character. For the surfacing of a
machine bed or the finishing of the plane portions
of locomotive cylinders, the planing operation will be
most suitable. But for accurate die work and for
gauges and the like a surface grinding operation or
even a lapping operation* may be necessitated.
Also for many operations in general manufacture
where surfaces require a high finish within very close
limits,the surface grinding operation offers many
inducements; for example, in the finishing of rifle
hammers over a hundred pieces may be laid on a
magnetic chuck and ground both accurately and
quickly.
* not usually a manufacturing process.

Lapping is Primarily
it two surfaces cylindrical or plane together
consists of rubbing
with an abrasive such as flour emery between the surfaces. Fine
gages are lapped to produce absolutely accurate work. Lapping is a
hand operation and does not enter into the ordinary processes of
manufacture,
Wheel
Spin die
Magnetic Chuck
fl ^ Tfr*/*
flr^
c a
m?r/r 5-.
Spindle
cl; I ^ C^ W^ffe/
Work C.
^%|.
Magnetic Chuck
FIG. 51. SURFACE GRINDING METHODS

GRINDING 103
Referring to Figure 51 the upper illustration shows

a piece of work, A, with a flat surface, such as a die,
which is to be ground after it has been hardened. In
such work a machine having a horizontal spindle is
employed and a thin wheel is used. The work table
reciprocates moves back and forth under the wheel
and feeds transversely at the end of each stroke, so
that the entire surface of the work is ground in a
series of parallel cuts. The wheel spindle is so ar-
ranged that it can be raised or lowered by a screw
with micrometer adjustment, thus very accurate work
is easily produced. Strictly speaking, a piece of work
which is to be ground on this type of machine is
more often found in the tool room than in general
manufacturing, although the machine can be adapted
to certain classes of high-grade manufacture.
The work, B, gives an excellent example of grind-
ing, the work involved being a cast iron ring which
is to be accurately ground to a uniform thickness.
In this case also a magnetic chuck is used to hold

the work and a rotary table is employed. The spindle
of the machine moves back and forth over the surface
of the ring as indicated by the arrows in the illus-
tration. The wheel used for this class of work is
similar to that used in the previous example, and also
this kind of grinding is used principally with work
which has been previously finished to within a few
thousandths of an inch of its required size. It is well
suited to the finishing of packiing rings for steam
engines, automobiles, compressors, and the like.
For heavier manufacturing and more severe cuts
on larger work, a machine of a different type is more
frequently used, which has the spindle nearly vertical

but with a very slight inclination to provide for clear-
ance behind the cutting edge of the wheel. In an
example of this kind, it will be noted that the wheel
is shaped like a cup, usually called a cup wheel. The
work, C, may be held on the table of the machine by
means of a magnetic chuck or by clamps, depending
upon its shape and the material from which it is
made. For long work a machine having a reciprocat-
ing table is often used, and it is often possible to
have several pieces on the table at the same time.
For this kind of grinding the wheel should be of suffi-
cient size to cover the entire width of the work. The
speeds and feeds at which different kinds of grinding
are done will be considered in Chapter XX.
Cylindrical Grinding. In cylindrical grinding the
work is frequently held on centers when it is of such
a nature that one end can be dogged* for the purpose
of driving. But it is not always that centers can be
used on cylindrical work, and the chuck is frequently
used for the purpose. In such cases it is of extreme
importance to arrange the holding device in such a
way that it will not distort the work. As in surface
grinding the pieces to be ground may have been
hardened previously or they may be soft, but in
either event the operation of grinding and the method
of presenting the work to the wheel are identical.
The shape of the wheel used for cylindrical grind-
*A is a simple sort of clamp used for cylindrical work to

dog
act as a means of driving. Several types of dogs can be found in
every machine shop. Dogs are usually provided with a setscrew to
hold the work firmly and a tail which enters a slot in the faceplate
and acts as a driver.
GRINDING 105
ing usually like that shown in Figure 52 at A, al-

is
though variations of the shape occur to suit different

conditions. Let us suppose, for example, that a piece
of work
of cylindrical shape is to be ground, and that
" fillet "
at the end of the ground surface there is a
which is also to be ground. In such a case the wheel
which would come in contact with the fillet would be
Infernal
Attachment
FIG. 52. CYLINDRICAL AND INTERNAL GRINDING METHODS

so shaped that it would finish the form at the end of
the stroke.
If there are several diameters to be
ground and a
greatnumber of pieces are to be finished, it is com-
mon to make a separate operation for each diameter.
The reason for this is that the diameter stops and
indicating dial on the machine can be set for repeti-
tion work to better advantage if a single diameter is
handled at one time.
When cylindrical work is to be ground up to a
shoulder and leave a sharp corner, it is customary
to provide a nick close to the shoulder so that the
wheel can "run out" at this point, as shown at B,
Figure 52.
External Taper Work. When a piece of taper
work is to be ground the process is practically the
same as for straight cylindrical work, except that
the machine carriage is swung to the proper angle to
generate the correct taper. The form of the wheel
is the same as that shown at Figure 52, and the
method of dogging and centering the work is also
the same.
External Form Grinding. For some work where
a form of a prescribed shape is to be ground on the
outside of a cylindrical piece, the wheel is fed di-
rectly into the work until the proper depth is reached,
as indicated in Figure 52, C. The process of form
grinding has lately been developed to a great ex-
tent in the grinding of such forms as shrapnel, rifle
barrels, and other forms which have to do with muni-
tion-making and small arms. In grinding a shrapnel
shell, for example, the wheel for one operation is
GRINDING 107
formed to take the curve on the end of the shell,

while in the operation of grinding the straight por-
tion of the body a wide wheel is used for one portion
and a narrow wheel on another part. In grinding
rifles, the barrel is usually ground at an approxi-
mately central location on the length of the barrel
to provide a smooth surface for the steady-rest; the
tapers are then ground with a formed wheel accord-

ing to their variety and shape, and the cylindrical
surfaces are handled in the usual manner. If there
are any tapered surfaces on the barrel, these may be
either ground with a formed wheel or the grinding-
wheel carriage can be set over to the required angle
for generating the taper.
Internal Grinding. The process of internal grind-
ing applicable to either straight or tapered sur-
is
faces, but the work must be performed with an in-

ternal attachment, such as that shown at E, Figure
52. The wheel, D, in this case is of much smaller
size than the type of wheel used for external grind-
ing, although it is practically the same shape. The
process of internal grinding is particularly useful in
the making of bearing bushings and other work of
similar character. The work may be either straight
or tapered; both kinds can be handled with equal
facility providing that the angle of the taper is not
too great for the carriage to accommodate it.
In the example shown, the work has been previ-
ously machined and a sufficient allowance has been
made for grinding before the hardening operation.
The work is held in a special form of chuck as indi-
cated, and the wheel, D, passes back and forth in the
work until the desired diameter has been ground.
Suitable adjustments for diameter can easily be made
on the machine, and it is entirely possible to keep
manufacturing work within a limit of 0.00025 inches
on the diameter. Many varieties of chucks are used
for this class of work and some of these are of par-
ticular interest in the provision made for locating,
holding, and driving the work without distortion.
These will be dealt with more specifically in Chapter
XVI.
Cylinder Grinding. In automobile
manufacture,
and also in the manufacture of compressors and other
work of this kind, the process of grinding the inside
of the cylinders is extremely important. For this
purpose a cylinder grinding machine has been de-
veloped by the Heald Machine Co., which operates
on a different principle from those used in ordinary
internal cylindrical grinding. It may be noticed that
in the preceding example of internal grinding, the
work revolves around its own center and different
diameters are ground by re-setting the wheel spindle.
In the Heald cylinder grinding machine, however,
the work is so arranged that does not revolve but
it
the wheel spindle is given a double movement that

is, a rapid turning movement of the wheel on its own
center and an eccentric rotary motion of the spindle
itself. The spindle is so arranged that it can be set
sufficiently eccentric to the center, within the capacity
of the machine, to describe a circle equal to the
diameter to be ground. Pieces such as an automobile
cylinder, especially cast "en bloc," can be arranged
on the carriage of the machine so that one hole can
GRINDING 109
bo ground to size and the carriage set over the cor-

rect center distance to grind the other cylinders.
Other data in regard to the grinding of automobile
cylinders will be found in Chapter XVI, Grinding
Fixtures.
CHAPTER VIII
SHOP EQUIPMENT
Standard Equipment. Any factory which is in-

tended to produce work at a minimum expense must
be properly equipped in its various branches. The
tool crib must be well supplied with all standard
sizes of drills,
counterbores, reamers, boring tools,
taps and dies, and all the other implements which
may be assumed to be a part of the tool crib equip-
ment. Such tools as milling fixtures, drill jigs, bor-
ing fixtures, and the like, also form a part of the
equipment, but these are so varied that they can-
not be considered as standard equipment. Cutting
tools which lose their cutting properties when dull
must be taken care of by resharpening, and the tool
crib should be provided with the necessary grinding
machines for drills, reamers, cutters, and forged tools.
In addition to the above, there are certain other
tools which may be considered more nearly a part
of the actual shop equipment. These tools are in
the nature of surface plates, straight-edges, parallels,
V-blocks, C-clamps, vises, etc. Also, certain other
instruments, such as surface gauges, micrometers of
large size, calipers, special gauges such as gauges for
taper sockets, thread gauges, and other instruments
for determining standard shapes, tapers, and so forth,
should be provided.
no
SHOP EQUIPMENT 111
The toolmaker ordinarily considered to have an

is
uipment of tools of his own, such as small size

micrometers, calipers, surface gauges, squares, and
protractors; and although some of these tools may be
included in the shop equipment, they are more in the
nature of special instruments sued for checking pur-
poses and for testing. Omitting tools of this kind
from the discussion, then, we have as a part of the
shop equipment the tools that are in daily use and
kept in the tool crib strictly for the use of the work-
men in producing work to the best advantage. We
have also the tools which are fastened in place, such
as vises which are bolted to benches all around the
shop.
Surface Plates. Referring to Figure 53, the upper
A, shows a form of surface plate which
illustration,
should be considered as a part of the standard equip-
ment of any factory. Plates of this kind are made of
.-Rib S
//
w D
FIG. 53. SURFACE PLATES AND STRAIGHT EDGES
cast iron, well ribbed so that they will not easily
get out of alignment. The surface of the plate, B,
has been planed and scraped to a perfect plane, so
that it can be used for testing other surfaces or for
the fitting of parts. Several of these plates of dif-
ferent sizes can be found in any toolroom set up here
and there on the workmen's benches. When a piece
of work is to be tested or laid out with a scriber or
surface gauge, surface plates are essential. Also in
fitting another plate or piece of work which must be
a perfect plane, the surface plate, rubbed with a little
Prussian blue, can be brought in contact with it in
such a way that the "high spots" will show a blue
mark from the contact. These blue marks can then
be scraped off with a hand scraper, as described in
Chapter I. A plate of this kind is more often used
in the toolroom than in any other department, al-
though every department in the shop should have one
or more for testing purposes, and for gauging and
laying out work.
Straight-edges and Parallels. It is often necessary
to determine whether a surface is straight or not, and
this determination is also a valuable adjunct in set-
ting up. The ordinary
straight-edge, C, Figure 53, is
generally kept in the toolroom and taken out by a
workman when he needs it. It is usually made of
cast iron, with a face, D,which has been scraped to a
perfect plane. In order to lighten the tool and make
it more convenient for a workman to handle, a num-
ber of holes are pierced through it as indicated in
the illustration. Straight-edges are made in lengths
from 18 inches to 15 feet, according to the work for
SHOP EQUIPMENT 113
which they are intended; special sizes can be obtained

to order. These straight-edges are not commonly
used for the smaller varieties of work nor for the
very finest class of work.
Another type of straight-edge, E, Figure 53, usually
called a toolmaker's knife-edge straight-edge, may oc-
casionally be found in tool cribs, although it is more

often a part of the toolmaker's personal tool kit.
These straight-edges are used for work that requires
extreme accuracy. Hence, they are made from the
best quality of steel treated with the utmost care to
insure that they will be straight and true. In the
finest kind of toolmaking work these straight-edges
are extremely valuable, and the workmen who use
them take the greatest care to see that their accuracy
is not impaired through springing or injured by be-
ing dropped.
Parallels, F, Figure 53, are found in great variety
and in numerous sizes in the tool crib. They are use-
ful for setting up work of more or less irregular
shape when the work has been previously machined
on one side and can not possibly be clamped to the
table of the machine for a succeeding operation.
Parallels may be made of steel or of cast iron, de-
pending on their size; the smaller parallels are usu-
ally made of steel and the larger sizes of cast iron.
Frequently a piece of work may be set up and
clamped to a pair of parallels and machined when it
might otherwise be very difficult to hold the piece
without a special fixture of some sort. In fact, the
uses of parallels in any factory are so many and their
application is so varied that it is difficult to mention
all of their uses. Itbe said, however, that no
may
factory can be called complete without having as a
part of its shop equipment a great number of paral-
lels of different sizes and sections.
Hand Vises. One of the most important things in
machining any piece of work is to hold it firmly. As
the shapes which are to be held are of so many
varieties, shapes, and sizes, it is obvious that there
must be numerous types of holding devices which
can be applied to the work. The importance, there-
fore, of the various clamps which are used for hold-
TIG. 54. HAND VISES, C-CLAMPS, AND V-BLOCKS

SHOP EQUIPMENT 115
ing work, locating two pieces in definite relation to

each other, and so on, in all kinds of operations, can-
not 'be overestimated.
A group of small tools which can be considered as
a part of the standard equipment of any factory is
shown in Figure 54. The hand vise, A, may be used
for a variety of purposes by the toolmaker or other
workman. It will be seen that the jaws of the vise
are kept in a state of parallelism by the equalizating
cross, B. When the thumb-nut is operated, the jaws
open or close according as the nut is loosened or
tightened. For holding a small piece of work on
which a filing operation is to be done, for example, a
hand vise of this kind is very useful; and for numer-
ous other operations which require the holding of a
piece of small work in a certain fixed position this
tool is almost indispensable. As a general thing this
tool is more frequently found in a toolmaker 's kit
than in the tool crib.
It is often necessary to hold two pieces of work
together when some machining operation is to be
performed on them for example, when two pieces
are to be drilled and reamed together. In such work
the toolmaker 's clamp, C, Figure 54, is an important
accessory to the tool crib. This clamp is really a
type of hand vise in which the two jaws, C, C, are
tapped to receive the thumb screws, D. The two
jaws are operated by means of the thumb screws, and
can be tightened by the fingers upon a piece of work.
If additional pressure is needed, a pin hole in the
end of the screw can be used as a holder for a small
lever. Ordinarily this clamp is used for holding fin-
ished pieces together, not those which are in a rough
state.
C-Clamps. When rough work is to be held firmly,

or when a piece of work is to be clamped down on a
machine or clamped against a parallel, the C-clamp,
shown at E, Figure 54, is generally used instead of
the toolmaker's clamp previously mentioned. This
C-clamp is provided with an anvil, F, and a screw,
G, by means of which the necessary pressure can be
exerted. The body of the clamp is usually a drop
forging which is capable of withstanding consider-
able pressure. C-clamps should be found in the tool
crib in great variety, both as to size and also in re-
gard to the depth or throat opening which determines
the sizes of work that may be held. For holding:
large work on the planer or milling machine and for
a variety of other purposes in connection with manu-
facturing, the C-clamp used to a great extent and
is
must certainly be included in the shop equipment.
V-Blocks. When a piece of round work is to be
held so that it can be drilled or otherwise machined
and no fixture has been designed for the work, one
or more V-blocks, H
and K, Figure 54, can be used
to make up a temporary fixture. The particular type
illustrated has a groove along the side to which a
special form of clamp can be applied, as indicated at
M. The arrangement shown in the illustration is
used for holding a tube, N, to locate it properly for
machining operations drilling, milling, or cutting a
key-slot. The bases of the V-blocks are parallel with
a centerline of the V-shaped cut in the block, so that
when the work is set up on the machine it will lie
SHOP EQUIPMENT 117
parallel to the surface on which the blocks are

clamped.
V-blocks are often used for straightening a piece
of work. In this case the work is clamped by two of
the blocks in such manner as to bring the bent por-
tion between the blocks where it can be struck with
a hammer or straightened under an arbor press. The
application of the V-block principle to many forms of
mechanical work will be further described in Chap-
ters XVII and XVIII.
PIG. 55. BENCH AND PIPE VISES
Bench and Pipe Vises.attempt to describe

Any
the shop equipment of the factory without mention-
ing the bench vise would be very much like a dinner
without dessert or a roast of beef without salt. The
bench vise, A, Figure 55, is an ordinary type of
machinist's vise which is bolted to the workmen's
bench at frequent intervals in every department. The
type shown is equipped with a swivel jaw, B, by
means of which a piece of tapered work can be firmly
held without slipping. A
pin, C, is provided to lo-
cate this swivel jaw in a fixed position parallel to the
movable jaw, D. A
tapered piece of work, E, is
shown clamped in position in the vise. It is evident
that vises of this kind are an absolute necessity in
any factory, no matter what the product or how large
the factory. There are so many operations which need
the assistance of a vise that it would be out of the ques-
tion to attempt to describe all of its uses.
When a bench vise is to be used for holding a piece
of finished work or something which must not be
marred, it is often provided with a set of soft jaws,
F, usually made of babbitt metal or copper, but some-
times made of sheet brass or tin. Babbitt metal jaws
are very short lived and crush or break very easily,
so that they become useless in a comparatively short
time. Copper jaws or those made of heavy brass
will last almost indefinitely if carefully used. The
vises in many shops are provided with false soft jaws
for general use, and babbit molds for making jaws
of this kind are in common use.
The pipe vise, G, Figure 55, is frequently found
in shop equipments, although its principal use is in
plumbing work and pipe fitting. It is a convenient
accessory for shop use, however, although one vise in
a department is usually considered sufficient. The
type shown is provided with a set of V-shaped corru-
gated jaws which grip cylindrical work and prevent

it from turning while a thread is being cut. The
upper jaw is operated by means of the screw and
handle shown, and the latch, H, allows the entire
upper part of the vise to be backed out of the way,

CHAPTER IX
MACHINE EQUIPMENT
Necessity for Proper Tools. A

man may purchase
a machine at considerable expense and may find, after
it has been in use for a while, that he is not getting
as much out of it as he expected to.

This may be
for one of several reasons: may Itbe that the oper-
ator is inclined to loaf on the job; it may be that the
cutting speeds and feeds are not correctly deter-
mined; or it may be that the tool equipment is in-
adequate. Disregarding for the time the first and
second cause, it is certain that any machine to per-
form its functions in a satisfactory manner must
have a proper equipment of tools.
When work is of the interchangeable variety
the
the matter of tool equipment needs most careful con-
sideration. And even for the ordinary machine equip-
ment certain tools are indispensable if the work is
to be turned out in good style and with a minimum
expenditure for labor. The equipment of the tool

crib for standard machines in any factory, therefore,
should be very complete, so that the workman will
never be obliged to use a "make-shift" method in
preparing to do any piece of work.
When boring out a drill jig for bushing holes, or
something of this kind, the toolmaker, naturally, is
119
obliged to use a certain amount of ingenuity when

he "sets up" work on the machine. However, this
display of ingenuity should not be considered in the
line of a make-shift, because in such work each job
is a special one and needs special care in the setting
up.
In this chapter I will consider only the type of
tools which may be considered as a part of the
standard equipment and those which should be kept
in the tool crib as a part of such equipment. Tool
equipment for various machines has been or will be
taken up in this book, under their proper headings,
but the types I will describe at this time, although
they may be similar in some respects to the others,
are decidedly ranked as standard equipment.
Drill Chucks and Sockets. Referring to Figure 56,
the drill socket, A, is tapered on the outside to fit
the spindle of the drill press, and the tang, B, acts
as a driver. A"taper shank" drill is used in a
socket of this kind, the tang of the drill being driven
into the slot, C. These sockets form a part of the
equipment of any tool crib. They are made up in
various standard sizes for different kinds of tapers.
These tapers are slightly different for various ma-
chines, and are known as Morse taper, Brown &
Sharpe, Jarno, etc. They are designated by number
and name, and are all slightly different, both in sizes
and also in the angle of the taper. For instance,
if a drill press, having a No. 4 Morse taper hole in
the spindle,is to use a comparatively small drill hav-
ing a tapered shank of No. 2 Morse taper, a socket

having a No. 4 taper outside and a No. 2 taper inside
MACHINE EQUIPMENT 121
Hardened bushing in
each p/nion hole
FIG. 56. DRILL CHUCKS, SOCKETS, AND TAPPING ATTACHMENTS
would be The No. 4 taper would fit the

selected.
spindle of the machine and the inside of the socket

would fit the shank of the drill to meet the condition
required.
An excellent socket for drill press use possessing
many advantages is shown at D, Figure 56. This is
known by the trade name, " magic chuck, " and is
made by the Modern Tool Co. When a number of

sizes of drills or other tools are to be used in succes-
sion in manufacturing work, a socket of this kind is
extremely valuable, for tools can be changed with

great facility while the machine is running. The

socket proper has a tang that fits the spindle of the
drill press. On the outside of the socket a sliding
and is prevented from dropping
sleeve, E, fits loosely
off by the small retainer, F, which rests in a groove
cut around the chuck. The lower part of the sliding
sleeve is bored out to the diameter of the two steel
balls,G, lying normally in opposite drilled holes in
the chuck. A
special form of adapter for the drill,
shown at H, has a tapered hole and a slot in the end
for driving the tang of the drill.
The action of the chuck when in use is as follows:
The operator has the tool drill or other tool in its
socket but not in the chuck proper. In order to place
it in position while the spindle is revolving, he grasps
the sleeve, E, and lifts it with his left hand. This

allows the balls, G, freedom to run out into the an-
nular groove, K, so that the socket, H, can be pushed
up into the hole. When the socket is pushed in to
its full depth, the sliding sleeve, E, is released, and
the balls, G, are forced back thereby into their
grooves on the outside of the socket where they act
as drivers for the tool. If, for instance, several holes
of different sizes are to be made on a one-spindle
drill press and an equipment of Magic sockets is
available, it is easily possible for an operator to
substitute one tool for another and complete the hole
in very short order without stopping the machine dur-
ing the process of the work. Chucks of this kind are
very useful as a part of the tool crib equipment.
When small drills of the straight shank variety are
to be held, another type of chuck is generally used.
If they are of the smallest sizes, not requiring any
great pressure to drive them, the type of chuck, L,

is commonly employed. This chuck consists of a
sleeve, M,threaded to the outside of the body of the
tool and having an inside tapered portion which
draws in on the three jaws, N. The jaws, in turn,
grip the drill and center it at the same time. A
chuck of this type is very common and should be
found in every tool crib.
Another type of chuck for drills which are a little
heavier but have straight shanks is shown at 0,
Figure 56. This chuck is made by the T. R. Almond
Mfg. Co. The upper end fits a shank which is tapered
to go into the drill press spindle. The three jaws, P,
are controlled and moved in or out by the action of
a bevel gear and threaded nut which is operated by
a special wrench having a bevel pinion, Q, at the end.
This chuck also is a very useful adjunct to the tool
crib.
Tapping Attachment for Drill Press. When it is
necessary to tap a hole or series of holes in a piece of

work, and it is desired to perform the operation by
means of a machine instead of by hand, a tapping

attachment may be used for the work, applied to
a drill press of the ordinary variety. The attachment,
R, Figure 56, is made by the Braden Mfg. Co. This
mechanism is so arranged that the spindle of the
machine, when raised after the bottom of the hole
has been reached, automatically reverses the direction
of rotattion of the tap so that it backs out of the
hole.
The operation of the mechanism is as follows: The
FIG. 57. COLLETS AND CHUCKS
spindle is raised and lowered with the right hand

while the work is inserted with the left hand, so that
the operation of the mechanism is almost continuous.

The reversing gears are enclosed in a dustproof case,
S, and need practically no attention. The gauging
of the depth of the liole can "be taken care of by
means of the adjustablestop, T. Several mechanisms

of this kind are on the market, each of which has
some feature to prevent the breaking of taps and
also to make it unnecessary to reverse the spindle
of the machine when in operation.
Collets and Chucks. Collets, sometimes known as
; raw-in chucks, are used on many types of machines.
Probably the use to which they are most often ap-
plied is in the holding of bar stock on the screw
machine. They are also employed to a considerable
extent on toolmakers' lathes, bench lathes, jewelers'
lathes, screw shavers, and the like. As a part of the
shop equipment, however, their application is gener-
ally to the toolmakers' lathes and the screw machine.
Several types of collets are used for these ma-
chines, but for stock of small size the mechanism is
most frequently like that shown at A, Figure 57. In
this case the spindle is fitted with a nose piece, B,
having a tapered hole in the forward end. A spring

sleeve, C, is split in several places around the peri-
phery in such a way that it will draw in or contract
as it is pulled back into the tapered end of the
nose piece. The method of pulling the collet back
differs with the machine to which it is applied. In
the case of a bench lathe or toolmaker's lathe the
mechanism is usually operated from the end of the
spindle by means of a handwheel. When the device
is applied to a hand screw machine, the draw-in
mechanism is usually operated by means of a handle

at the rear end of the spindle, but the action of the
collet jaws in gripping the work is identical to that
shown in the illustration.
Several other types of collets are made for work
of larger size, but these are more in the nature of
chucks, and the jaws of the collet are loosely held
and have no forward or backward movement. An
example of a collet chuck of this kind is shown at D,
Figure 57. In this case the nose piece is screwed to
the end of the spindle and the jaws, E, are operated
by a closer which slides forward on the tapered por-
tion of the jaws when the sleeve indicated is pushed
forward through the spindle. A particular advantage
of this type of chuck is that there is no longitudinal
movement to the jaws as they contract and expand.
They can be used, therefore, for second operation
work (that is, work which has previously been par-
tially machined) with the assurance that the longi-
tudinal position will come the same in every case.
Step Chucks. After a piece of cylindrical work
has been machined in a previous operation and other
work is to be done on it which will be true with
that previously done, it is frequently held by the
previously finished surface in either a collet, such as
that noted in the preceding illustration, or by means
of a step chuck such as that shown at F. Or an ex-
panding arbor may be used when the work pre-
viously done has consisted of boring and reaming a
central hole in the piece. The step chuck principle,
as shown at F, is extremely useful for finishing work
of this character, G. The step chuck body, H, is
operated by means of a mechanism same man-

in the
ner as the collet jaws previously mentioned. The
chuck itself, however, in this case is made of soft
material, so that it can be machined to the proper
size to hold the work while it is in the machine on

which be used.
it is to
Taking the case shown as an example, the method

"
of stepping out" the chuck would be to place a
piece of round stock of small diameter in the jaws
and set up the closing mechanism. This work would
be done on the machine. While in this condition,
the chuck would be bored out to the diameter re-
quired for holding the blank, G, after which the
cylindrical piece would be taken out of the chuck
which would then be ready for use. It will be seen
that this mechanism is exactly similar in action to
the collet shown at B, except that it is of larger
diameter and, consequently, has a greater latitude.
Two-Jawed Chucks. Two-jawed chucks form a
very usefulpart machine equipment, par-
of the
ticularly on small hand screw machines in the hold-
ing of irregular work or pieces which cannot easily
be held in a three-jawed scroll chuck. A chuck of
this kind is shown at K, Figure 57, the small end
being screwed directly to the end of the spindle.

This chuck is commonly operated by means of a
wrench, although various applications are made
which provide a means of operating that is quicker
than the wrench method. Sometimes compressed air
operating on a plunger through the spindle is used,
and at other times a wedge or a rack-and-pinion is
used, depending on the type of chuck and the method
advocated by the manufacturer.
In the type shown, the mechanism is controlled by
means of a right- and left-hand screw, L, which is
journaled at M
in the body of the chuck in such
manner that has no crosswise movement.
it The
jaws, 0, are tongued to fit a slot, P, running across
the chuck, and the lower portion of the jaw is tapped
out to receive the body of the right- and left-hand
screw, L, previously mentioned. It will be seen that
as the screw is operated, the jaws move in or out,
according as the screw is turned to the right or left.
Jaws of this kind are frequently provided with a
dovetail into which sub-jaws, Q, can be inserted.
This is done so that the same chuck can be used for
a number of different pieces by simply making up a
set of sub-jaws or inserted jaws of the desired form.
In the instance shown in Figure 57, the work, E,
which being held, is of rectangular form, and the
is
chuck provided with two locating plates, S, to

is
give the sidewise location while the jaws center the

work in the opposite direction.
Whena two-jawed chuck is to be used for holding
an irregular piece of work, the inserted jaws are gen-
erallyformed to the desired shape, after which they
are hardened and set in place in the chuck. Jaws
of this kind are very useful for small, irregular-
shaped forgings or castings, and also, when applied
to the larger variety of chucks, they can be used for
heavier work of irregular form. For example, a
lever having a long hub and a crooked arm, could be
nicely held in a two-jawed chuck, with jaws shaped
to fit the hub and so arranged that the lever arm
would act as a driver. Such jaws may also be
formed out to a radius to fit thin brass or bronze
bushings which are to be bored and reamed; when
formed in this way the bushings can be held so that
there is very little distortion caused by excessive

pressure in holding.
Geared Scroll Chuck. The ordinary chuck used for
centering work on either a lathe or turret lathe is a
three- jawed geared scroll chuck of a variety similar
to that shown at A, Figure 58. Chucks of this kind
have an excellent centering action, as the jaws are
spaced at 120 degrees apart and all are moved radi-
ally toward the center with an equal movement.
This type of chuck can be mounted on a faceplate,
as indicated at B, which is screwed to the end of the
spindle of the machine, or the chuck can be so de-
signed that it screws directly onto the end of the
spindle. In either case the internal mechanism is the
same, and is practically like that shown in the illus-
tration. An
annular ring, called the scroll, lies in a
recess as shown at C. This recess runs entirely
around the chuck and the scroll portion engages with
the bottom of the three jaws, D, which are also
tongued on their sides into radial slots in the body
of the chuck. The
face of the jaws is tongued to
receive special jaws of different form, like that shown
at E in the figure. These jaws are fastened by the
two screws shown and can be replaced by others at
any time with very litle trouble on the part of the
operator.
The chuck is provided with three pinions of the
bevel type, F, which mesh with a bevel gear cut on
the back of the scroll ring. When any one of these
pinions is turned, by means of a socket wrench pro-
vided with the chuck, the scroll, C, revolves in its
bed and carries the chuck jaws radially inward or
outward, according as the pinion is operated to the

right or left.
Air-Operated Chucks. The advantages of com-

pressed air and the many uses to which it can be ap-
plied in the factory are becoming more and more
appreciated by the progressive manufacturer. Some
years ago considerable interest was shown when a
machine-tool builder of international reputation de-
signed and built a very large fixture for use in his
own plant, which had a series of clamps by means
of which the work was held, the clamps being oper-
ated by compressed air. An additional refinement
was supplied by the designer in the introduction of a
pressure valve so arranged that the amount of pres-
sure applied to the clamp could be adjusted to provide
the same amount of pressure under any condition.
As the work was of large size and peculiar shape,
there was danger of distortion if Tom, Dick or Harry
were permitted to exercise his judgment in regard to
clamping the work, but the application of compressed
air and the pressure valve made the matter of hold-
ing an absolutely safe proposition.
In the past few years methods of chucking or hold-
ing work on the turret lathe or screw machine have
received a great amount of attention, and the prin-
ciple of holding by means of compressed air has
been made use of by several manufacturers. A very
successful type of air chuck, made in a number of
varieties by the Hannifton Mfg. Co., is shown at G,
Figure 58. In the type shown the jaws are three in
number, as shown at H, and on these jaws an adjust-
able jaw, K, is mounted. By means of the screw, L,
FIG. 58. THREE VARIETIES OF CHUCKS
these adjustable jaws, K, can be set in or out in a

radial direction toward the center of the chuck to
provide for holding pieces of different diameter, or
they can be set eccentrically at different distances
from the center to suit any particular case. On the
adjustable jaws the work-holding jaw, M, is located

by means of the tongue shown.
The operation of the mechanism is as follows: The
chuck is slotted in three places to receive the oper-
ating levers, N, each of these levers being provided

with an arm which enters a slot on the rear side of
the jaws, H. A plunger, 0, runs back through the
spindle and connects with the air cylinder at the rear
of the spindle. The front end of the plunger is so
grooved that it engages with the three lever arms as
indicated at P. When desired to operate the
it is
chuck jaws, a conveniently located two-way valve is
opened, allowing the air to enter the cylinder at the
rear of the spindle and pull back upon the plunger,
0, which in its turn, operates the lever arm, N, that
moves the jaws inward in a radial direction to grip
the work firmly. The amount of pressure used can
be regulated by means of a pressure valve if desired,
depending upon the work which is to be held, so that
a delicate pressure or a powerful clamping action can
be readily obtained.
Air chucks of this kind are extremely useful for
chucking work of various kinds on turret lathes and
screw machines, and they can be obtained in a num-
ber of sizes and shapes to suit the most fastidious
customer. It is evident that special jaws can be
adapted without difficulty to chucks of this kind, so

that they can be made to handle a variety of work.
Four-Jawed Independent Chuck. In the course of
general manufacturing, or for work in the tool-room,
it happens occasionally that a piece of irregular
shape needs to be held. In a case of this kind the
three-jaw chuck cannot be used to advantage since

it is adapted only for work which can be centered.
For tool-room work an independent chuck is frequently

used for holding irregular shapes, the workman set-
ting up the piece in the jaws approximately to the
center which is to be bored or drilled and then using
an indicator on the work to indicate the exact center.
Such a chuck is shown at Q in Figure 58. It will be
seen that this chuck is indispensable both in the
tool-room and for general manufacturing for holding
irregularly-shaped pieces on the turret lathe or on the
boring mill. When a number of pieces of the same
kind are to be chucked one after the other, and when
these pieces cannot be held by the -ordinary three-
jawed, geared, scroll chuck, it is customary to set
two of the jaws, or more if possible, to the proper

center to act as a vee in locating the teeth. The
work is then placed in the chuck with the proper sur-
faces against the two fixed jaws, and the other jaws
are brought up independently. The construction of
this -chuck is clearly indicated in Figure
58. The
jaws are moved radially by the screws, S, which in
their turn are controlled by a socket wrench (not
shown in the illustration). The body of the chuck
is generally fastened to a faceplate, as shown at T,
which is screwed to the nose of the spindle. The

face of the jaw is provided with a series of notches,
so that a special jaw of any particular kind can be
easily attached to it. As ordinarily furnished, the
chuck is supplied with one or more sets of jaws
stepped out at different diameters, so that a variety
of work can be held without recourse to special jaws.
FIG. 59. MANUFACTURING AND MACHINE VISES
Machine and Manufacturing Vises. The impor-

tance of the proper way of holding a piece of work
to be machined cannot be overestimated. Hence,
vises are used on many classes of machines for hold-
ing work during the process of machining. They are
particularly useful on the milling machine and the
drill press; and recent developments along these
lines have developed a particular type of vise called
a manufacturer's vise. This vise is more or less
adaptable, and suitable stops can be applied and
locating pins put in for the purpose of locating a
small number of pieces and holding them securely.

Attachments provide for drill bushings of different
sizes, and drill plates to hold the bushings can be
applied with little trouble. The Graham Manufac-

turing Co. makes a useful tool of this kind, as shown
at A, B, and C, Figure 59. The upper figure, A,
shows the vise supplied with special jaws, D, and a
drill plate of an adjustable type, E, which can be
moved to any desired location over a piece of work
held in the vise jaws. The figure, B, shows another
plate applied to the same type of vise; the work, F,
is held between the vise jaws and obtains its endwise
location against the stop, G, which is likewise adjust-

able. A third application of this vise is shown at C,
where a set of special jaws of V-type are used to
center a piece of round work, and the drill plate is
set centrally so that the vise can be used as a cen-
tering jig.
An excellent type of machine vise employing a cam
as the locking principle is shown at H, Figure 59.
This vise, made by the F. C. Sanford Manufacturing
Co., is an excellent example. It can be used as an
ordinary vise and adapted to special conditions with
standard jaws, as shown at K, or these jaws can be
made up in special form to suit particular cases.
Approximate location of the jaws is obtained by
means of the screw, L; after the location has been
obtained the entire locking movement is made by the
lever, M, which is eccentrically placed with relation
to the link, N, by means of which the jaw is locked.
Manufacturing vises of this type are coming more

and more into use and several varieties are on the
American market. They are made in a number of
styles and sizes to suit different conditions.
The ordinary machine vise commonly found on the
milling machine, also useful in drill press work, is
shown at 0, Figure 59. This type of vise is operated
by a sliding jaw, controlled by a screw which, in
turn, is manipulated by the handle, P. This vise is
made by the Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co., and can be
provided with false jaws to hold special forms of
work, as indicated at Q. A vise of this sort is found
in every tool crib, usually in several sizes.
Taps, Dies, and Holders. The ordinary method of
cutting a thread on the outside of a single piece of
" chase" it on an
cylindrical work is to engine lathe
with a single-point tool, gearing up the lathe to the
proper pitch, or number of threads per inch, and
taking several cuts successively upon it until the
desired depth has been reached. When a hole of odd
size is to be threaded in a piece of work, the same
method may be employed, but the type of tool used
is one adapted to internal cutting. Both procedures
may be used with success, but they are uneconomical
unless the work is of particular accuracy and difficult
to get at with some other types of threading tools.
A properly equipped tool crib should be provided
with complete sets of taps, dies, chasers, and suitable
holders for them, so that any type of standard thread
can be cut without difficulty. If the thread to be cut
is difficult of access, the lathe method may be the only
one possible.
Figure 60 shows, at A, a standard type of hand
tap which is commonly used in connection with a
FIG. 60. TAPS, DIES, AND HOLDERS
wrench, B, for tapping out a hole by "man power."

The tap itself is squared on one end so that it can
he readily held in the adjustable jaw, F, by a turn
of the threaded handle, G. The same taps are also
used in a releasing tap holder when used on a turret
lathe or a hand screw machine. The ordinary type
of spring threading die, shown at C, in the same
illustration, is commonly used in a die holder such
as that indicated at D. Such a die is used for thread-
ing screws, studs, or other cylindrical work, either
by hand or by a screw machine; the holder, D, being
used when the work is done by hand. A
special type
of holder is used on the screw machine, which is of
the releasing variety such as that used for holding
a tap on the same machine.
If the taps and dies mentioned are used on a screw
machine or turret lathe, it is necessary to reverse
the machine in order to back off the tap from the
work after the thread has been cut. So also, the
spindle on the engine lathe must be reversed in cut-
ting a thread and the tool run back out of the way.
'
(The more modern varieties of engine lathes are

provided with a form of indicator which makes a
reversal of thespindle unnecessary.) Naturally a
considerable loss of time is entailed by this oper-
ation, and in order to overcome it another type of
die head, called an opening die, can be used, whereby
it isunnecessary to reverse the spindle. An opening
die of this sort, E, Figure 60, is made by the Geo-
metric Tool Co. It can be supplied with chasers, K,
which may be made for any form or pitch of thread
within the capacity of the die head. The chasers
accurately fit slots cut to receive them in the face of
the die head, as indicated in the illustration.
In operation, when used on a turret lathe or hand
screw machine, the shank, L, is held in the turret
and the open end, containing the chasers, is fed onto
the work until a predetermined stop has been reached,
at which time the chasers fly open and permit the
die head to be drawn back out of the way. These die
heads are extremely useful in manufacturing work.
Although their first cost is high, the fact that a single
size of holder can be used for many sizes and varieties
of threads by the simple substitution of a different
set of chasers, makes it an economical proposition in
the machine equipment.
CHAPTER X
FIXTURES FOE PLAIN AND STRADDLE
MILLING
Nature and Variety of Fixtures. The process of

milling has taken the place of planing to a great
extent in the general processes of interchangeable
work, except in cases where the size of the piece is
too large to be handled to advantage on a milling
machine, or when the accuracy required, or the shape
of the piece is such as to make it impossible to mill
the surface. There are a number of different types
of machines which are adapted to the milling process
and it naturally follows that the type of milling fixtures
which are used on the various machines must be so de-
signed that they will apply to the particular type on
which the work is to be done. Thus, if a piece of
work is to be handled on a milling machine having a
horizontal spindle, the fixture will be so designed as
to present the work to the cutter revolving in the
same way that a carriage wheel turns. Or again, if
a fixture is to be used on a milling machine having a
vertical spindle, the fixture must be so designed as
to present the work to the cutter revolving in a hori-
zontal plane, like a top.
The two most important types of milling machines
used in manufacturing are those having a horizontal
139
spindle and those with a vertical spindle. Variations

of these types are found in those that have more than
one spindle, such as duplex machines and multiple-
spindle machines. In the duplex type, the spindles
are opposed and can be adjusted towards each other
until the ends of the cutters strike. The multiple-
spindle machines have from four to seven spindles,
some of which are arranged horizontally and others
vertically.
It is evident that in the design of any milling fix-
ture, the first point to be taken into consideration is

the nature of the work and the material to be cut.
The next point the type of machine which is best
is
adapted to the work; and the third point is the

method of holding the piece when it is being machined.
Necessity for Proper Holding. The most important
point in connection with the design of milling fix-
tures is the proper holding of the work; for it must
not be distorted by the pressure of the clamp used
in holding it in place and, at the same time, the
method of clamping must be so rigid that there will
be no possibility of "chj&tter" which would result if
the work were allowed to swing out of position under
pressure of the cut. In this matter of holding, the
ingenuity of the tool designer is the important fac-
tor, also, the or dragging action of the cutter
lift
while it is engaged with the work must be considered.

A piece that has previously been partially ma-
chined, with either holes, slots, or other finished sur-
methods
faces, will naturally require different holding
than those used for rough castings or forgings. For
in performing a second or third operation on a piece
FIXTURES FOR PLAIN AND STRADDLE MILLING 141
of work, is essential that the location should be

it
positively determined by one of the finished surfaces.

Which surface is to be used as a locating point must
be determined by the nature of the work and the
sequence of the various operations upon it. Let us
assume, for instance, that a lever having a boss at
each end has been drilled and reamed at one end
through the boss, and that the other end is to be
"straddle-milled." It is obvious, then, that in order
to locate the piece properly so that the second milled
surface on the boss will be at right angles to the hole,
the work must be located by a stud in the hole, and
must be set up on the fixture in such a way that the
clamps will not spring it out of alignment.
In work that has not been previously machined and
is still in the rough state, the locating points must
be so placed as to center the work in relation to the

cut which is to be taken for the greatest degree of
profit.
Milling Fixture for a Connecting Rod. An excel-
lentexample of a milling fixture designed to handle a
drop forging of an automobile connecting-rod is shown
in Figure 61, the work being shown at A, and the sur-
face which to be milled being the small end-boss, B.
is
In this milling operation, which is called straddle

milling, two cutters of the side-milling type, C, are
setup on an arbor, D, and are properly spaced with
a collar between them so as to make the distance
between the cutting edges of the two cutters the
same width as the thickness of the boss to be milled.
In the example shown, the boss, B, is located in a
V-block, E, the angular surfaces of which tend to
FIG. 61. SIMPLE STRADDLE-MILLING FIXTURE FOR A

CONNECTING ROD
center the boss correctly. The large

end, F, is
dropped down upon a locating pin, G, in the base of
the fixture, and two side stops in the form of pins,
H, are set into the lug, K, which is a part of the
fixture base. The upper portion of this lug is pro-
vided with a set-screw, L, which acts upon the small
boss, B, to hold it firmly down in the V-block. A
cam lever, M, works against the side of the connect-
ing rod and throws the piece over against the two
pins, H, which give the work its location.
A fixture of this kind may be manipulated very
rapidly; the design is extremely simple and can be
made cheaply. In addition to this, the method of
holding the work and supporting it under the cut is
so rigid that there is no likelihood of chatter. Such
a fixture can be made up to hold a couple of pieces
if desired, in which case two gangs of milling cutters
Table
FIG. 62. DOUBLE-STRADDLE MILLING FIXTURE FOR AN AUTOMOBILE

CONNECTING ROD
would be required. All milling fixtures are provided

with keys such as those shown at N, and are also
slotted, as at 0, so that they can be held down on the
table of the milling machine by means of T-bolts.
Straddle Milling Fixture Working from a Finished
Surface. The connecting-rod shown in Figure 61 is
an excellent example of another type of fixture. Let
us assume that after the first operation has been
done, a hole is drilled and broached to size in the
boss, B. After this operation it becomes necessary
to mill the other end of the connecting-rod, using the
hole in the smaller boss as a locating point. In this
manner the large boss, F, can be milled accurately at
right angles to the hole. Eeferring to Figure 62, the
method of setting up for this operation will be clearly
understood. The plan view above shows two connect-
ing rods, the small bosses of which have been milled
with holes drilled and broached in the manner just
described.
In the the bosses, B, in the small end
first place,
have plugs, Q, inserted in them which snugly fit the
holes. These plugs rest in two pairs of V-blocks, E,
for purposes of alignment, and the V-blocks are fin-
ished on the surfaces, P, so that the sidewise location
isassured. The other end of the work which is to be
machined drops down upon the finished pad, E, on
the base of the fixture. When the connecting-rods
are to be clamped in place on the fixture, the strap,
S. is placed across the two rods and the nut, T, is
tightened, thus securing the work firmly. coil A
spring, U, placed under the clamp in order to
is
assist in raising it when the work is being removed

from the fixture.
It will be seen that this method of locating from a
finished hole, and also the method of clamping with a
strap across both pieces, makes it possible to set up
the work without any fear of distorting it or throw-
ing it out of alignment. Fixtures of this kind are in
common use on many varieties of work and can be
applied to other instances in which the same prin-
ciple is involved. Both of the fixtures shown in
Figures 61 and 62 are adapted for use on a horizon-
tal type of milling machine.
Gang In milling several surfaces of vary-

Milling.
ing depths on any piece of work, if the production
is sufficient to warrant the work being done in a
single operation with a gang of special cutters, a

fixture should be designated so that the cutters may be
mounted on an arbor to obtain the proper spacings
and depths. A good example is shown at A, Figure
63.
In this case the work has several shoulders and
several plane surfaces of different heights, as shown
in the illustration. The milling fixture is of ex-
tremely simple type, and is nothing more nor less
than a cast-iron block, B, grooved and finished at
C and D to give the proper location to the work in
relation to the table. A set-screw, E, or several set-
screws, according to the length of the work, is used
to clamp it against the surface, D. An important
feature in the design of any sort of milling fixture
in which the work is located against finished sur-
faces, is the groove, F, the purpose of which is to
allow any dirt or chips which might accumulate in
the fixture to be swept out of the way and passed
down into the groove so that they will not interfere
with the location of the work. The cutter gang,
shown H, I, J, and K, is so arranged that it
at G,
will give the proper spacing and depth. Many varie-
ties of work can be handled with a set of cutters of
similar character to these, and the work can be pro-
duced at a rapid rate and within good commercial
limits of accuracy.
End
Milling a Slotted Bracket. It is frequently
necessary in the process of manufacturing to cut a
PIG. 63. FIXTURES FOR VARIOUS KINDS OF MILLING OPERATIONS
slot in a casting or forging which will bear a certain

relation to some other finished surface. An example
is shown in Figure 63 at L. In this example the
bracket, M, has been previously machined at the side
and base, and it is now necessary to cut the slot, N,
in a certain relation to these two surfaces. The
method of setting up the work in this case is very
simple, as the fixture itself consists of an angular

plate, 0, which is fastened down to the milling ma-
chine table in the usual manner. The work is located
on the finished pad at the base and against the side
surface, being clamped in position by means of the
two bolts shown. The cutter which is used for this
work is a spiral end mill, P, which is clearly shown
in the fixture. In operation, the table feed of the
milling machine is started and the work is run di-
rectlyby the cutter at the position indicated.
Fixture for Angular Milling. Taking as an ex-
ample the same bracket shown at L, let us assume
that an angular surface, Q, is to be milled upon it in
another operation, bearing a certain relation to the
previously finished surfaces. A
piece of work of this
kind may be handled in three different ways, but in
order to make the application of the milling machine
more clearly apparent, let us assume that in this case
a horizontal type of machine is used which has a
vertical milling attachment that can be swung to any
desired angle. The procedure then would be to set
over the vertical attachment to the desired angle of
the finished surface, Q, and to locate the work hori-
zontally as in the preceding instance, using a type
of fixture shown at E, with suitable locaters and
clamps. A
milling cutter of the spiral end-mill type
isinserted in the milling attachment as indicated at
S, and the machine table is fed under the work while
in the position indicated.
Another method of handling the same piece of work
would be to build the fixture itself on an angle with
the table, so that the surface, Q, which is being milled.
would lie parallel to the table itself. In such a case,
an ordinary type of plain milling cutter would be
used, the cutter having straight cutting edges parallel
to the surface of the table. The work could also be
performed in the same fixture as that shown by
swinging the vertical milling attachment to another
angle and using the end of the mill for making the
cut, instead of the side of the mill as indicated in the
drawing.
Fixture for Form Milling. Let it be assumed that
a piece of work, T, is to be formed to the contour
shown. The work has been previously machined
along the base, U, but has not been surfaced on the
edges. It is necessary to reduce the form that is
parallel to the lower surface and approximately in

line with the edges of the work.
In this case the fixture, V, is of U-section, bolted
to the table in the usual manner, and located by
means Two adjust-
of tongues in the table T-slots.
able studs, W, are furnished
along the side, and
against these studs the rough side of the work is
located, being clamped firmly against it by means of
the thumb-screws, X. It is customary, in work of
this kind, either to build a fixture which will take a
number of pieces of the same kind, or else to make
the work in a single strip and cut it up into pieces
of the desired length after it has been machined.
Naturally, the process which is to be used determines
the methodof holding and clamping. The formed
milling cutters, Y, and side milling cutters, Z, are
made up to suit the contour of the work to be manu-
factured.
PIG. 64. DOUBLE INDEXING FIXTURE FOR STRADDLE MILLING

LEVERS
Index Milling a Pair of Levers. When rapid pro-

duction is desired on a piece of work it may be pos-
sible and profitable to arrange a fixture similar to
that shown in Figure 64. Here we have two levers
of identical size, but the bosses on the ends are of
two different widths. They can be machined in a
single setting by a suitable arrangement of the fix-
ture and cutter. In the case shown the levers have
a boss at one end, as at A, and at the other end r as
at B. The fixture is built so that it will hold the two
levers in such a way that a large and a small end are
successively presented to the cutters at A
and B, and
these cutters are spaced so as to mill different widths
according to the thickness of the bosses.
The fixture locates the work in each case against
the small set-screws, C, to give sidewise location
against the sides of the lever, and suitable V-blocks,
D, hold the bosses centrally. The V-blocks are at one
150
*
TOOLS AND PATTERNS
end only, the other ends rest against the angular sur-
face, E. Thumb-screws, F, are provided on each side
of the fixture to hold the work against the set-screw,
C. A rocking clamp, G, on each of these set-screws
equalizes any variation in the forging and makes the
clamping action positive. An ordinary strap clamp,
H, holds the work down on the fixture.
The method of using the fixture is to mount it suit-
ably on a base, such as that shown at K, centering it
by means of a central plug, L. The base is fastened
down to the table of the milling machine, but the
upper portion, M, can be swung around through an
arc of 180 degrees so as to present the opposite ends
of the levers to the cutters in sequence. Indexing is
usually performed manually by the operator with
some type of locating pin which gives the correct
location when indexing from one position to another.
A scheme for accurately indexing a piece of this kind
will be described under the next heading. The fore-
going fixture mills two ends of two bosses at the

same time and is then indexed to mill the two oppo-
site ends, so that four ends of the two levers have
been machined at a single setting. But it must be
recalled that a fixture of this kind is not economical
unless a number of pieces are to be machined.
Index Milling Fixture for Quantity Production. In
work that is being put through a shop on the inter-
changeable system, as in automobile production or
other manufacturing where a number of pieces of the
same sort are to be successively machined to a given
size, a number of pieces are usually found which re-
quire some sort of an indexing fixture for milling

FIG. 65. SIMPLE INDEX-MILLING FIXTURE
slots,clutch teeth, and the like. The progressive de-

signer of tools, therefore, usually designs some sort
of universal milling fixture which has sufficient flexi-
bility that it can be adapted to such a variety of
work.
For example, while supervising the work on a large
automobile plant equipment for a Eussian corpora-
tion, I used recently the type of fixture shown in
Figure 65 over twenty times on as many different
cases. The indexing mechanism and the base of the
fixturewere practically the same in every case; the
only differences were in the number of points of in-
dexing and in the adapters which were used to hold
the different shapes to be milled. A
particular ad-
vantage in this type of fixture is its adaptability to
different conditions, and also to the fact that it is
practically impossible to destroy the correct indexing

of the fixture, as the mechanism is so well protected
from chips and dirt that no trouble can be caused
thereby. As
this fixture is so notably flexible, it is
worth while to describe it in greater detail than
might otherwise be deemel necessary.
The base of the fixture, A, is fastened to the milling
machine table by the bolts shown, being located in
the usual manner by keys in the table T-slot. A
revolving table, B, is suitably mounted on a stud, C,
in the center of the base. On the under side of the
table a hardened tool-steel indexing ring, E, is se-
curely fastened by means of screws, and is provided
with angular slots, F, around its periphery, as many
in number as the indexing points which are to be
made. A
sliding block, G, is located radially in rela-
tion to the index plate and is tapered on the end
which the angular slot in the index plate, thus
fits
determining the radial indexing points on the fixture.

The movement of this sliding block is controlled by
a handle, H, and it is drawn back into position by
the spring, K, when the proper indexing point has
been reached. It will be seen that the location of the
slots in the index plate is such that it is practically
impossible for any chips or dirt to interfere with
the proper location of the table. The upper part
of the fixture can be fitted with adapters of different
kinds to hold various shapes or forms which are to
be milled.
The work shown in the illustration is a cylindrical
piece, L,which is squared up at the upper end by the
two milling cutters, M. This piece of work is located
1
on a spring stud, N, expanded by means of the bolt,

[FIXTURES FOR PLAIN AND STRADDLE MILLING 153
0, so that all chance of vibration is taken up and

there is no possibility of chatter during the progress
of the work. A hand lever, P, is provided on the
table to index it from one positionto the other; but
this feature is unnecessary in many cases as the
workman can use the work as a lever for indexing
the table. However, a series of holes around the per-
iphery of the table allow the pin to be inserted at
different points to provide for a circular indexing
movement when needed. This type of fixture is prob-
ably one of the most useful that can be made to
handle a great variety of work, and although its first
cost is fairly high it should not by any means be con-
sidered an expensive fixture.
CHAPTER XI
FIXTUEES FOR CONTINUOUS MILLING
The Value of Simplicity. It is an economical

proposition, when a great number of pieces of the
same kind are to be machined by the process of mill-
ing, to make the fixtures wherever possible in such a
way that there will be as little lost time as possible
caused by taking out and putting in the work. It is
most advantageous to arrange a milling fixture in
such a way that the cutters will be working as nearly
continuously as possible. Several methods can be
employed, depending upon the class of work to be
done and the machine which is used for the work.
On the regular type of horizontal milling machine
some classes of work can be handled in an almost
continuous manner; although the cutting action will
not be absolutely continuous, there is very little lost
time between cuts and it is unnecessary to stop the
machine at any time.
A special type of milling machine, called a con-
tinuous miller, is made by the Becker Milling Ma-
chine Company. This machine uses a revolving table
and a series of fixtures arranged radially on the table.
The Potter and Johnston Company also make a con-
tinuous milling machine having an indexing table on
which the work can be set up on one side of the table
154
FIXTURES FOR CONTINUOUS MILLING 155
FIG. 66. SIMPLE TYPE OP CONTINUOUS MILLING FIXTURE
while another piece is being machined on the oppo-
site side. The Beaman and Smith Company make a

large machine with seven spindles which can be used
for continuous milling on large work. These various
machines require somewhat different types of fixtures
because of their different arrangement of spindles.
In selecting the simplest of continuous milling fix-
tures, let us look at the one shown in Figure 66,
which is made for a horizontal milling machine. The
work in this case is a bracket, A, shown in the upper
part of the illustration. The bracket is to be straddle
milled by a gang of cutters, as shown at B, which
are used to face the sides of the bosses as indicated
in theupper part of the illustration. The fixture base,
C, is locatedon the table of the milling machine in
the usual manner and has at each end a simple type
of locating and clamping device in which the work
islocated and held. A sectional view of the arrange-
ment is shown at the left-hand portion of the figure.
The other end is identical with it. The work is
placed in the position shown, resting against the stop
pins, D, and is clamped in place by means of the
screw, E, at the top of the fixture and by the clamp,
F, at the bottom. The latter clamp is operated by
means of the thumb nut, G, and is released by the
coil spring, H.
In operation, the work is placed in position and
clamped on one side of the fixture; the table is then
moved inward close to the revolving cutter, and the
feed in operation. While the table is moving
is set
forward and the piece in position is being milled, the

operator places another piece of work in position and
clamps it at the other end of the fixture. Then, after
thework at one end has been completed, the table is
moved over to machine the other piece; the first piece
is removed from the fixture and another one is in-
serted in its place. By this description it will be

seen that the process of milling is nearly continuous,
and for certain classes of work this fixture can be
used to good advantage.
Continuous Milling Fixture for Cylinders. The
Beaman & Smith continuous milling machine makes
possible the machining of surfaces of large size in
such a way that the action of the cutters with prop-
erly designed fixtures, is practically continuous from
the time the machine starts in the morning until the
factory closes at night. The construction of the
machine is such that there are a number of tables
similar to, but somewhat shorter than, a planer
FIG. 67. CONTINUOUS MILLING FIXTURE FOR AUTOMOBILE

CYLINDERS
table,and each of these tables can be equipped with

a similar set of fixtures. These fixtures can be
loaded one after the other and placed in engage-
ment with the feed mechanism of the table, one fix-
ture following the other closely with very little space
between. The fixtures pass through the machine
from one end to the other, the finished work is then
taken off and is replaced by other pieces, after which
the entire table with the fixtures mounted on it is
carried around to the original starting point and
started again on its journey through the machine.
For some classes of work four or five of these tables
may be required, each with the same type of fixture
upon it. In milling the cylinders, transmission cases,
and crank cases of automobiles, as well as in other
work of similar character, the production which can
be obtained from a machine of this kind is extremely
high. Under favorable circumstances from 300 to 400
automobile cylinders of 41^-inch bore can be produced
in a ten-hour day.
A good example of a continuous milling fixture
for automobile cylinders is shown in Figure 67. The
cylinders, A, are to be milled on the surfaces, B and
C. They have been previously machined on the end
D, and in the bore. The cylinders are located on
plugs, E, shown dotted in the bore of the cylinder.
Each fixture is capable of holding six cylinders at
one time. The fixtures are held down on the table
by means of clamps and T-bolts in the T-slots, and
the work is held down on the fixture by means of
the clamps shown at F and G. In the case shown
two milling cutters operate on the upper part of the
cylinders and two more opposed to each other are
used to machine the surfaces on the sides.
Fixture for "Becker" Continuous Milling Machine.
The Becker type of continuous milling machine uses
a revolving table which is in continuous operation
after the first pieces have been set in place on the
fixture. The fixture, shown in Figure 68, is built
to accommodate twelve wall bearings, as seen at A.
These bearings are located in position by the fixed
studs, B, which act as a vee, into which the pieces
are forced by means of the sliding V-block, C, oper-
ated by the thumb-screw, D.
After the first pieces have been placed in the fix-
ture, the operator simply removes the finished work
and continues to place new pieces in the position
FIG. 68. CONTINUOUS MILLING FIXTURE FOR BECKER MILLING

MACHINE
occupied by those just finished. It will be seen that

as the cutter, F, is in continuous movement, it has a
contact with several pieces at the same time. In the
case illustrated the work is of such nature that there
is very little "dead time," when the cutter
or time
is not in contact with the work.
This example, there-
fore, is an excellent one to show the value of con-
tinuous milling and how it can be applied to manu-
facturing work. However, when the shape of a piece

of work such that it cannot be set up on a cir-
is
cular fixture without leaving wide spaces between

the pieces, it is not advisable to attempt to mill it
by the continuous milling process; but with work
that can be set close together, it is usually highly
profitable.
Spline-Milling Fixtures. Some years ago the cus-
tomary method of cutting a slot in a shaft for a key-
way was to drill a hole at each end of the slot and
then mill from one hole to the other. This process, nec-
essarily, was somewhat slow, and it has been largely
replaced by some form of spline-milling machine or a
spline-milling attachment applied to a plain milling
machine.
The machine that manufactured by the Pratt
is
& Whitney Co. forpurpose consists of two

this
opposing spindles arranged in such a way that they

feed automatically towards each other during the
process of the work. The table is reciprocated, with
the work in position on it, to a specified length of
stroke determined by the length of the key-slot. The
fixtures used for this machine may be those which
hold a single piece for cutting two slots opposite
to each other, or it may be arranged to hold several
pieces in which one or more slots are to be cut.
Spline-milling machines are well adapted for all
kinds of rectangular key slotting, unless the work

to be done is of such a size as to be prohibitory. For
all kinds of shafting, arbors, and similar work, it
can be arranged without the necessity for any elab-
orate fixture. In some cases, however, in order to
PIG. 69. DOUBLE SPLINE-MILLING FIXTURE
increase production, fixtures may be made to suit

particular cases.
A spline-millingattachment for a hand-milling
machine, made by the Standard Engineering Co. to
apply to one of their hand milling machines, is also
very useful for milling key-slots, although but one
cutter is used at a time. The attachment is pro-
vided with automatic features which make it val-
uable for many kinds of manufacturing. In the at-
tachment mentioned, the spindle is vertical in rela-
tion to the table of the machine. On the spline-
milling machine, however, the two spindles lie in a
horizontal plane.
Let it be supposed that a piece of work, such as
that shown at A, Figure (J9, is to be splined or cut
on the end with four keyways, as indicated at B in
the end view. This piece having the four slots at 90
degrees apart on the periphery, requires some sort
of indexing fixture in order that the various slots
may be cut in their proper relations to each other.
The illustration shows the method of holding used
for this fixture when applied a Pratt
to & Whitney
spline-milling machine. The fixture base is fastened
to the milling machine table by means of bolts
through the slot, C, at each end of the fixture, and is
aligned by means of keys entering the table T-slot.

The method of locating the work on this fixture is
out of the ordinary, and is therefore worthy of a
detailed description.
The two shafts, shown at Dand E, are laid on the
finished surface of the fixture. They are held by the
clamp, F, the angular portion of which grips and
pulls in on the cylindrical part of each shaft. As the
clamp screw is set up, the two shafts approach each
other until they strike against the finished surfaces
or shoulders on two inserted pieces, G and H, which
locate and align the work. The first cut on the key-
ways is made with the pieces set in the position
shown, after which the clamp is released sufficiently
to permit the two shafts to be turned with the slot
downward. A positive method of locating from the
first slot which has been cut is provided in the bed
of the fixture; and as the shaft is revolved after the
first cut and stands with the slot downward on the
fixture, this locater engages with the slot and gives

positive location. The locaters are controlled by the
set-screws, L.
It will be seen that a repetition of the indexing

process will produce the four slots at 90 degrees
from each other without the need of expensive fix-
tures ordinarily used for this work. Other examples
of spline-milling fixtures will be given, but as they
are usually of a simple form which can be made up
at minimum expense, it is unnecessary to go into the
matter more completely here.
CHAPTEE XII
FACE-PLATE FIXTUEES
Fixtures for Single Pieces. In the general process

of manufacturing, and also in tool-making, many
pieces of work to be machined on an engine or tur-
ret lathe cannot be satisfactorily held in any of the
various forms of chucks previously described. For
such cases either a face-plate of standard form is
used, as that shown in Figure 70, or, if a number of
pieces are to be machined, a special face-plate with
suitable lugs and clamps may be made up. When
required for toolmaking, or for a single piece of
work, the standard style of face-plate in Figure 70
is commonly employed. This type is made of cast
iron and is screwed to the end of the spindle of the
machine.
If the toolmaker has a certain piece of work to
bore, and the work is of such size that it can be
clamped upon the face-plate, he would set up the
work against the face of the plate, A, and apply
suitable clamps through several of the slotted holes, B,
so that the work could be held in the desired posi-
tion formachining the hole. In setting up a piece
of work of this kind he would use an indicator on
the work to determine when it was in the correct
position for machining. The T-slots, C, can be used

164
FACE-PLATE FIXTURES 165
FIG. 70. STANDARD FACE PLATE FOR AN ENGINE LATHE

both to hold the work and to fix steel blocks in cer-
tain locations on the face of the plate when several
pieces of the same kind are to be machined. Such
a face-plate is seldom used in general manufacturing
except for the work just described.
Fixtures for Quantity Production. We now come
to the class of manufacturing known as quantity pro-
duction, where many pieces of the same kind are

produced. If a number of pieces are to be machined,
it is obvious that the face-plate fixtures to be used
can be made up with quick clamping attachments

which require a minimum amount of time and labor
to set up. They can also be made with simple clamp-
ing arrangements which answer every purpose for

holding the work but which take a little longer in
setting up. The latter fixtures are, of course, some-
what cheaper than the more elaborate, and if the
output is to be comparatively low, they will answer
every purpose,
FIG. 71. TWO SIMPLE FACE-PLATE FIXTURES

The A, Figure 71, is shown holding the
fixture,
work, B, a flanged collar which has previously been
machined on its inside surface, C. As it is neces-
sary to cut out the recessed portion, D, of the collar
in a subsequent operation, the work is located on the
stud, E, and is clamped in place on the locating stud
against the face of the fixture by means of the
clamps, F, three in number arranged equidistantly
on the face of the plate. In a fixture of this kind
the revolution of the work around the axis of the
spindle, G, is perfectly true, so that when the recess,
T), is cut it will be concentric with the previously
machined surface, C.
Packing Rings. The other
1
Fixtures for Cutting

example of a face-plate fixture, H, Figure 71, is de-
signed to handle a ring pot, K, from which packing
rings are to be cut. The ring pot has previously
been faced on the end shown against the face-plate
and three holes have been drilled in the flange for
locating and driving purposes.
The work is set up
on the face-plate fixture, locating on the pins, L, one

of which is shown in the illustration. The work is
clamped back against the face of the fixture by means
of three hook bolts, M, having an angular end which
engages with the angular flange at N, thus holding
the work back firmly against the face of the plate.
This face-plate is provided with a bushing, 0, in
which the pilot, P, of the boring bar is guided. The
boring bar is used to bore out the inside of the pot,
as indicated. When a number of packing rings are
to be made up a fixture of this kind can be used to
advantage or the flange of the pot can be made so

that it can be gripped in chuck jaws of special form.
The latter method is more common at present and is
superior to that shown, due to the fact that no pre-
liminary operation is necesary on the work before
this machining operation.
Face-Plate Fixture for a Hub Flange. The face-
plate fixture shown inFigure 72 is somewhat similar
to that noted at A, in Figure 71; but in this case
the work is located by an outside surface which also
has been previously machined, shown at A in this
illustration. The face-plate, B, is screwed to the end
of the spindle as indicated, and is recessed to allow
the shoulder, A, to fit into it, thus giving the correct
location. The flange, C, has been drilled in several
places, as indicated at D, and these drilled holes are
used for driving against the pressure of the cut, by
means of the pins indicated. The clamps, E, three
in number, hold the work back against the face of
the plate, and are slotted to allow them to be drawn
off the flange when
setting or removing the work
FIG. 72. FACE-PLATE FIXTURE FOR A HUB FLANGE
from the fixture. The coiled springs, F, are pro-

vided in order that the clamps will always stand
away from the work when it is being placed in position.
Fixtures of this kind, largely used in the general
process of manufacture, can be adapted to many
kinds of turret lathe work.
Self-Centering Fixture for a Rough Casting. It is
sometimes desirable to machine a piece of work, a
ring pot, for instance, whose shape is such that it
is not readily held in chuck jaws. A fixture for this
purpose shown at A, Figure 73. The casting, B,
is
is somewhat thin in section, and is to be bored and
turned by means of the tools, C and D. As no

previous machining has been done on the casting, it
is necessary to center it from the rough surface in
some way and to clamp it firmly on the fixture.

For the purpose of centering the work, a spring
tapered plug, E, is located in the fixture in such a
FIG. 73. SECTION THROUGH A SELF-CENTERING FIXTURE FOR A

RING POT
way that automatically centers the work from the

it
inside. The spring at the base of the plug permits

the clamps, F, to be tightened down upon the face
of the flange, so as to grip the work securely. While
the spring plunger centers the work, it does not in
any way prevent the tightening of the clamps, and
also it is bored out and ground to the size of the
pilot, G, of the boring bar in which the cutter, D, is

located. The principle used in this fixture can be
applied to a variety of work on turret lathes and
boring mills.
Fixture for Thin Aluminum Castings. The in-
stances which have been previously noted have all
been pieces of cylindrical section, but it frequently
FIG. 74. FACE-PLATE FIXTURE FOR A THIN ALUMINUM CASTING
happens that the work which is to be machined is of

irregular form requiring special arrangements for
locating and holding it. One point in the design of
face-plate fixtures for such work, is that the piece
shall be held in such a way that it will be firmly
secured and will not be distorted in any way by im-
perfect clamping. An example is shown in Figure 74,
where the work is an aluminum casting, A, of more
or less rectangular shape.
The V-principle, so-called, in locating work on fix-
tures of various kinds, is based on the fact that a
piece of work can be put into a V-shaped block or
its equivalent in such a way as to act as a locater
whether the piece is a rough casting or one that has
previously been machined. It might almost be said
that the basic principle of jig and fixture design is that
of locating by means of a form that resembles the
FACE-PLATE FIXTURES * 171
capital letter V
generally written, vee. This vee
form is often obtained by means of a series of pins
arranged in proper formation to receive the work.
In the instance noted in Figure 74, the work, A,
is placed on the fixture, B, in such a way that it
locates against the fixed steel pins, C, on one side

of the fixture and the pin, D, on the other which
form a sort of vee. The work is forced over against
the pin, D, in one direction by means of the screw, E;
while the location in the other direction is performed
by means of the swinging clamp, F, operated by the
hollow set-screws, G. It will be seen that the swing-
ing clamps, F, have a knife edge and that the locat-

ing pins at C and D are similarly arranged. The
purpose of this arrangement is to sink these
clamps
and pins into the surface of the casting slightly, so
as to keep it from being pulled out while the piece
is being machined. As the bottom of the casting is
also rough, it must also be supported, so that the
work will not be pushed inward toward the face of
the fixture by the pressure of the cut. This is taken
care of by means of the spring pins, H, which adapt
themselves to the rough surface of the casting and
are firmly locked in position by the set-screws, K,
in the outerrim of the face-plate. In addition to the
spring pins, H, the work is given a positive location
on the fixed pins, N, at three corners of the piece.
The work which was done upon this casting after
it was located and clamped, was the facing of the
surface, L, the turning and sizing of the interrupted
circular tongue, M, and the boring and reaming of
the center hole with the reamer, 0. The machine on
FIG. 75. PLAN AND SECTION OF A FIXTURE WITH SAFEGUARDING

DEVICES
which this work was done was a horizontal turret

and the equipment for producing the work was
lathe,
of a special nature. The principles shown in this
fixture may be applied to many other examples of
turret lathe work.
Fixture for an Irregular Bracket. The protection
of workmen engaged in
manufacturing is often
neglected in the design of fixtures for turret lathe
work and other work that requires similar handling.
It should be the purpose of every designer to make
any fixture upon which he is engaged so that it will
be impossible for a workman to become injured by it.
It happens occasionally that a piece of work with
projecting arms or lugs is to be held on a face-plate

fixture, and when such cases of this kind arise the
designer should exercise the greatest care to make
the fixture in such a way that the workman will be
protected from these projections as they revolve.
An example of this kind is shown in the piece of
work, A, in Figure This piece has been previously

75.
machined by milling the surface, B, and cutting the
tongue, C. It will be seen that the bracket has three
projecting arms, D, which, if unprotected, might
strike a workman when machining the piece. The fix-
made up with a protecting rim, E,
ture, therefore, is
of such height that the arms do not extend beyond
it. The extra cost of making a fixture like this is
very slight, and in addition to the safety feature,
the rim, E, also acts as a counterpoise and makes
the fixture run more smoothly.
The work is located on the fixture against the fin-
ished pads, D, and the tongue, C, lies in a groove

provided for it. The work is clamped by means of
the four straps, F, which are slotted so that they can
be moved back to allow the work to be set up and
removed. As in the preceding instance, the body of
the fixture, G, is screwed to the nose of the spindle,
as indicated. The work to be done in this case is

the boring of the hole, H. This work is performed
by means of the tool, K, mounted on a bar whose
forward end is by a bushing, L, in the face-
piloted
plate fixture. This method of piloting a boring tool
or other cutting tool assists greatly in producing ac-
curate work, as the bushing acts as a guide for the
bar and keeps it always in a certain relation to the
work.
Counterbalanced Fixture for a Connecting Rod.
For a piece of work that is very much off center
and is to be bored or otherwise machined at high
speed, it is often necessary to provide a counter-
balance on the fixture in order to prevent excessive
Sfuef
FIG. 76. COUNTERBALANCED FACE-PLATE FIXTURE FOR A

CONNECTING ROD
vibration from the unevenly balanced rotation of the
work and fixture. An example is shown in Figure
76. The fixture here is designedfor boring and ream-
ing the hole, A, in the connecting rod, B. The con-
necting rod has been previously drilled and reamed
at the small end, C, and it is necessary to locate it
for the remaining operation in such a way that the
hole, A, will be in a fixed relation to the previously
reamed hole, C. The face-plate fixture, therefore, is
made up with a stud on which the portion, C, locates.
This portion of the work is drawn back against the
face of the fixtureby means of a nut. The large end
is then correctly located by means of a V-block, D,
which centers the boss at C. This V-block is under-
cut, as indicated in the sectional view, so that it
tends to draw the work back against the face of the
plate, when it is then set up by means of the screw,
E. This screw is mounted in a swinging latch and
can be thrown back to allow the workman to hook

his finger into the recess, F, and pull the block away
from the work.
As the fixture is considerably heavier on one side
than on the other, provision is made for counter-
balancing it by means of the lugs, G. These lugs are
a part of the cast-iron face-plate and are made heavy
enough and thick enough to more than balance the
mechanism on the opposite side of the fixture.
In balancing a fixture of this kind, the work is
placed in position and all clamps are set up as if the
machining was about to be done. The fixture is
then placed on an arbor and allowed to swing as it
will. Naturally, the heaviest portion will hang down-
ward. The workman then drills out a portion of
the stock from the lug, as indicated by the holes, K,
and tests the fixture again, continuing the operation
until a proper balance is obtained. Sometimes so
much stock has been added as a counterbalance that
it becomes necessary to mill off a portion of the
counterpoise in order to bring the fixture into

balance.
Fixture with Adjustable Counterbalance. A fix-
ture for turret lathe work or for the engine lathe
may be needed which will enable several pieces of
similar character to be machined upon it by making
slight modifications. An irregularly-shaped piece of
work which has a counterbalanced portion, will per-
mit the counterbalance to be shifted radially on the
plate so that it will balance whatever piece is being
held upon it. An example of this fixture is shown in
Figure 77.
FIG. 77. SECTION AND PLAN OF A FIXTURE WITH ADJUSTABLE

COUNTERBALANCE
The work in this case is a worm-gear sector, A,
which has been previously bored and reamed at B,
and now is to be machined as indicated at C. The
work is located on a fixed stud at the center of the
fixture, and is clamped back against the finished
pad by means of the nut, E. A "C-washer," F, is
used with the nut so as to permit the work to be
removed rapidly. By using such a device it will be
seen that the nut can be slightly loosened, the C-
washer slipped out through the slot, and the work
immediately released without removing the nut, E.
In order to provide the portion of the work, C,
with a rigid support, it is swung around against the
stop pin, H, and is clamped by the screw, K. As
this side of the fixture, then, is so much heavier
than the other, it is necessary to provide a counter-
balance at L. This counterbalance is in the form of
a segmental block with two bolts through it, as indi-
cated at M, which pass through the two slots, and
allow the counterbalance to be radially adjusted to

compensate for pieces of different size. An applica-
tion of this principle of a movable counterbalance
can be made to many types of lathes, turret lathes,
and other machines of similar character. In cases
where the work to be machined is of comparatively
large diameter, so that the work runs at slow speed,
itis not usually necessary to counterbalance it.
Eccentric Fixture for a Ring" Pot. In making up

packing rings for automobile motors, compressors,
and the like, an eccentric ring is frequently desir-
able. The ordinary process of machining one of
these by means of an eccentric turning device
is
which will be described in Chapter XIV. As an

eccentric device of the character mentioned is some-
what expensive, however, the small manufacturer
frequently dispenses with such a device and handles
the work in a slightly different manner. But when
the device is employed, the work turned eccen-
is
trically by means of the device and

is also bored
concentrically at the same time, thus saving a con-

siderable amount of time in the process.
When an attachment of the kind mentioned is not
used, it is customary to bore the work in one opera-
tion. The outside eccentric is then turned in an-
other operation, either by means of an eccentric arbor
or by placing the pot from which the rings are to
be made on a fixture which can be set eccentrically
after the hole has been bored.
In Figure 78, the ring pot, A, is located on the face
of the fixture by meansof the lugs and clamps shown
at B. The face-plate consists of two parts, one of
FIG. 78. ECCENTRIC FIXTURE FOR A RING POT
which, C, is screwed to the end of the spindle, and

the other, D, is fastened to it by means of the bolts,
E, which enter slotted holes in the plate, D, to allow
for a slight movement of the upper plate on the
lower. The plate, C, is grooved at F, directly across
its face; and the plate, D, is provided with a tongue
to slide in this groove.
In operation, the hole, G, is first bored by a boring
bar piloted in the bushing, H, in the movable plate.
After this operation has been done, the nuts at E are
loosened and the plate is set over the amount indi-
cated by the line at K. The correct distance is de-
termined by pins and bushings at L and M.
This type of eccentric fixture is very simple and
answers all purposes for work of this character. It
is unnecessary to counterbalance the fixture unless
the eccentricity is so great that the fixture runs out

of balance when it is set over.
Swinging" Eccentric Fixture. A fixture may be
required that will permit a slight amount of adjust-
ment so that it can be set to give two or three eccen-
FIG. 79. PLAN AND SECTION OF A SWINGING ECCENTRIC FIXTURE

FOR A PACKING RING POT
tricities.In order to provide for a contingency such

as this it is necessary to make the fixture so that
the stops which limit the throw of the eccentric are
adjustable. An example of such a fixture is shown
at A, Figure 79. The fixture is designed for a hori-
zontal turret lathe for boring and turning eccen-
trically the work, B. The ring pot, B, which is
to be turned and bored, is held on the plate, C,

in practically the same way as the pot shown in the
previous illustration. The mounting of the plate on

the body of thefixture, however, is arranged in a
differentway. In this case, the plate is pivoted so
as to swing from the stud, D. The lower portion
of the body plate, A, is provided with a stop ex-
tending out through a slot in the plate, as indicated
at E. Adjusting screws, F, on the surface of the
fixture at E, provide for lateral movement of the
plate, and suitable clamping bolts, G, on each side
of the fixture hold it in place.
When it is desired to set over the work to produce
the eccentric, the bolts, G, are loosened and the plate
swung over until the stud, E, strikes against the set-

screws, F. The amount which these set-screws per-
mit the plate to move, govern the amount of eccen-
tricity. The spacing of the stop, E, is twice the
distance from the pivot point, D, to the center of
the work, so that the amount of movement at F is
exactly twice the eccentricity produced. Fixtures of
this kind can be used with success on a great variety
of work, and as they are cheaply made and very
serviceable they may be considered as excellent types
of eccentric turning and boring equipment.
CHAPTER XIII
ARBORS AND MANDRELS

Definition of Terms. The term arbor is applied to
the cylindrical piece used for mounting cutters upon
a milling machine. It is also applied to the device
used to center a piece of work by a previously bored
or reamed hole so as to bear a distinct relation to
the hole. The term mandrel is almost synonymous
with the term arbor as applied to holding work.
For example, the expressions, "an arbor for a 3/4-inch
hole," or "a mandrel for a /4-inch hole," are used
3
interchangeably. The term mandrel, however, is not

used synonymously with the term arbor when applied
to the device for holding cutters in a milling ma-
chine. These would always be referred to as "cut-
ter arbors."
Arbors are of several kinds plain arbors, threaded
arbors, expanding arbors, and cutter arbors. The
last mentioned is generally used in the milling ma-
chine for holding one or more cutters in position.
This type of arbor is quite simple and is variously
made as a part of the standard equipment for a mill-
ing machine. Such an arbor is shown in Figure 80
at A. The tang end, B, is tapered to fit the milling
machine spindle, and may be used in an adapter
when the spindle taper and that of the arbor do not
181
FIG. 80. ARBOR FOR MILLING MACHINE, ABOVE, AND FOR PLAIN
LATHE, BELOW
FIG. 81. EXPANDING SHOE TYPE OF ARBOR

W. H. Nicholson & Co.
ARBORS AND MANDRELS 183
correspond. The cutters, C, are placed on the arbor

with one or more spacing collars, D, between them
to space the distance, E, correctly for the work re-
quired. There is little to be said about milling ma-

chine arbors as their design is so extremely simple.
A plain arbor or mandrel, indicated at F, Figure
80, is usually found in the tool crib in all standard
sizes. It is made up for standard sizes of holes,
usually with a taper of about 0.006 inch per inch of

length. When a piece of work, such as that shown
at G, is to be turned on its surface by the tool, H,
after it has been reamed in a previous operation,
it is placed under an arbor press and the arbor, F,
is forced into it under pressure. As the arbor is

tapered, it will wedge firmly into the work so that
there will be no slipping when the pressure of the
cut is applied. Arbors of this kind are usually de-
signed to be dogged to the face-plate, as indicated in
the drawing.
Arbor with Expanding Shoes. It is often neces-
sary to hold a piece of work that is slightly over or
under a standard size on an arbor, to perform some
operation upon the piece which will be absolutely
concentric with a previously finished hole. Two
methods of holding are possible. The toolmaker or
machinist can make up, in comparatively short time,
such an arbor as that shown in Figure 80, of such
a size as to suit the hole in the work. Or, if the tool
crib is well equipped with expanding arbors, it may
not be necessary to make up a special one for the
job.
Expanding arbors are of several types, but perhaps
the most useful type is that shown in Figure 81.
Such an arbor can be purchased in various sizes to
suit any given conditions. The body of the arbor
is hardened and ground to cylindrical form. It is
furnished with four slots, A, into which are fitted
the shoes, B. It will be noticed that the slots are
cut on a slight longitudinal taper, so that when a
piece of work is placed on the shoes, they may be
adjusted along the tapered slots to the required
diameter. The retaining ring, C, at each end of the
shoes are slotted to receive the shoes and hold them
on the arbor when not in use. This type of expand-
ing arbor should form a part of the tool crib equip-
ment and should be bought in a sufficient range of
sizes to cover the requirements of the class of work
which is being done. This same type is also largely
used in general manufacturing, and its adaptability
suits it for an infinite number of pieces.
Split Ring Expanding Arbor. It is sometimes nec-

essary to refinish the outside of a piece of work and
make sure that it is absolutely concentric with the
center of the hole that has been previously machined.
A common type of arbor for this purpose is shown
in Figure 82 at A. Let it be supposed that the work,
B, is to be held by the hole previously finished in it,
and that the work is to done on an engine lathe. A
steel arbor, C, is then made up with a slight taper
along its length. A sleeve; D, is split along its length

at E, and is tapered on the inside so as to fit the
taper on the arbor, C. When the work, B, is placed
in position and forced onto the arbor over the split
ring, the ring expands slightly as it is forced up on
FIG. 82. SPLIT-RING EXPANDING ARBORS
the taper until it grips the work securely, thus hold-

ing it so that it can be machined readily. This type
of arbor is not exceptionally good, as it is sinlply
split longitudinally. When opens up, the ring, D,
it
therefore, is slightly elliptical and does not expand

evenly all over. As a cheap arbor that can be used
for a few pieces, such a device will answer the pur-
pose in many instances, but it should not be used
for work requiring great accuracy.
A much better type of arbor, shown at F, can be
used for work requiring great accuracy. Eoughly,
the principle of the two arbors is the same, except
that in the instance previously mentioned the ring
is split in one direction only, while in the example,
F, the ring, G, is split longitudinally into three slots,

running from one almost to the other and spaced 120
degrees apart, as indicated at H. There are also
three other slots starting from the other end of the
ring, spaced equidistantly between the slots men-
tioned, and also running nearly to the end of the
ring. It will be seen that this arrangement allows
the ring to be expanded equally all over, making
a much better construction than that previously
described.
An additional requirement on this arbor is seen
in the nut, K, and washer, L, by means of which
the ring is forced back on the taper, M, so that it
expands and holds the work. In the example shown

at A, it is necessary to use an arbor press to force
the work on, or else to drive it on with a piece of
babbitt or wood. For finishing the outside of collars,
small blanks, and other work of similar character, the
type of arbor shown at F is very useful, and is fre-
quently found among the tools used for general
manufacturing.
Expanding Arbor for an Automobile Flange.
Special arbors may be made up to suit a particular
case when a number of pieces are to be manufac-
tured. One such is shown in Figure 83. In this
case the work, A, an automobile flange which has
is
been previously bored and reamed at B and C. As

it is necessary to finish the end, D, and the flange,
E, the method of holding by the inside surface was

devised.
The machine to whicharbor was applied is
this
a horizontal turret lathe. The method of holding
was by means of the collet mechanism with which
the turret lathe is furnished, the stem of the arbor,
F, being held as indicated in exactly the same
FIG. 83. SECTION THROUGH EXPANDING AKBOB FOR AN

AUTOMOBILE FLANGE
manner as that used to hold a piece of bar stock.

The work then was placed on the portion, G, which
made a nice fit at this point. After the work was
so placed, the tapered screw, H, was set up, thus
expanding or opening up the arbor to grip the points,
C. A shoulder was also provided on the arbor to
give longitudinal location at K.
When making use of the collet mechanism to hold
an arbor for manufacturing purposes, it is necessary
to make sure that the collet
perfectly true; other-
is
wise the arbor might run out of truth and work

might be produced which would not be concentric.
An
arbor of this kind must be made of tool steel,
tempered slightly in order that it may expand prop-
erly and come back to place again when the tapered
screw is released. It will be understood that the
portion of the arbor which is controlled by the ex-

pansion of the tapered screw, is slotted into three
sections, so that it can be opened up slightly by
the action of the screw mentioned.
Expanding Arbor for an Adjusting Nut. Occa-
sionally several pieces of similar character but
slightly different in size may be machined by the
same or similar equipment on a turret lathe. An
example is shown in the pieces A
and B, Figure 84.
These pieces are bronze adjusting nuts in two sizes,
slightly different both in outside diameter and in the
location of the spanner holes shown at C.
Several thousands of these parts were to be made,
and as it was desirable to make up the equipment
as cheaply as possible, the arbor was so designed
that it could be used for both pieces by the aid of
an adapter. A special nose piece, D, was screwed

to the end of the spindle, as indicated, shouldered at
E to receive the ring, F, which was used for the
piece, A, and also could be fitted with the ring, G,
for use with the piece, B. In each case the rings
were provided with pins, H and K. These pins
entered the spanner holes, as indicated, and assisted
in driving the work an essential point in connection
with an arbor on which any heavy work is to be
done. The outside of the nut in each case was to
be threaded with an opening die, so that the pulling
action of the cut was rather severe.
A
split ring, similar to the one shown at G, Figure
82, was used to center the work. This ring, of course,
was Very much smaller than the one previously men-
tioned, but the method of splitting was the same.
FIG. 84. EXPANDING ARBOR FOR AN ADJUSTING NUT
In this arbor, it will be observed, expansion was
procured by means of the tapered plug, L, which

had a generous bearing, M, in the nose piece. The
threaded portion, N, was somewhat loose in order
that the centering action might not be governed by
the threaded portion, but might be absolutely de-
termined by the cylindrical part, M. The thread was
simply used as a means of drawing in on the plug
and thus expanding the ring at L.
Applications of this principle may be made to
many kinds of narrow work when it is necessary to
do heavy cutting on the outside. It occasionally
happens that one or more holes are drilled in a piece

of work in order to provide a means of driving. In
the particular mentioned, the spanner holes,
case
fortunately, made this
unnecessary.
Expanding Arbor for a Bevel Pinion. It is par-
ticularly necessary to machine a bevel pinion in such
PIG. 85. SECTION THROUGH EXPANDING SHOE ARBOR FOR A

BEVEL PINION
a way that the outside of the gear is in perfect con-

centricity with the hole. In order, therefore, to pro-
vide a means by which such an effect may be secured,
it is necessary at times to design an arbor of small
dimensions with adjustable features to provide for

self-centering.
Occasionally, also, the kind of tooling which is to
be used on a piece of this kind has a certain effect
on the design of the arbor. Such an instance is
shown in Figure 85. This is an unusual type of
arbor for it is somewhat delicate in construction.
Its mechanical features, however, are of considerable
value, and the principle shown may be applied to
other work of similar character.
This arbor was made up for use on a horizontal
turret lathe in connection with a special taper at-
tachment for generating the angular surface of the
pinion, A, which had previously been bored and
reamed on another machine. At the same setting
of the work, the face, B, was to be machined. Pre-
vious to the operation shown and after the hole had

been reamed, a keyway, C, was cut in the pinion in
order to provide an efficient means of driving while
the heavy cutting was taking place at A. The
spindle of the machine was provided with an adapter,
D, which had a tapered hole, E, where the stem, F,
of the arbor was located. A key driver, G, was also
added to make the driving positively certain.
As will be seen from the illustration the work
located on the cylindrical surface, H, which was
made 0.002 of an inch under the size of the hole in
the pinion. There are three slots cut in the arbor to
receive the shoes, K, which were beveled slightly on
their internal faces so as to fit the taper on the oper-
ating rod, L. This operating rod was pushed back
into the arbor by means of the screw, M. The por-
tion, N, is ground to fit a shell mill held in the tur-
ret and used for facing the angular surface, B. As
the operating rod was pushed inward by means of
the screw, M, the three shoes, K, were forced out-
ward against the inside of the hole in the pinion,
thus providing an efficient centering action. A sec-
tional view, taken directly across the arbor and
through the slots, is shown at 0, and a correspond-
ing section of the operating rod is indicated at P.
Although an arbor of this kind is fairly expensive
and rather delicate in its construction, it may be
used in a number of cases where the greatest accu-
racy isnecessary. The equipment mentioned is
really the "last word" in the design of an accurate
expanding arbor. An additional refinement is found
in the knurled nut, Q, which is used to start the
work after it lias been machined in the event that
it might stick slightly.
Expanding Pin Chuck for a Piston. Automobile
pistons, A, Figure 86, and certain other classes of
work, are made in such form that the inside portion
' ' " A
is cored. core, if of large size, but not extend-
ing completely through the work, always shows
a tendency to sag more or less while the casting is
made, so that the resulting work is not absolutely
concentric. This is particularly true of automobile
pistons. Therefore, such work must be held in such
a way that when it is machined on the outside, the
surface will be very nearly concentric with the in-
side rough-cored surface, no matter whether the cast-
ing is true when in the rough state or not.
hold such work for the machining
It is logical to
processes from the inside core, so as to be sure of the

concentricity. This method of holding makes neces-
sary a rather elaborate arbor. Arbors made for this
purpose are of various forms, each having some par-
ticular claim for its existence. The example shown
in Figure 86 is one'of the best for this class of work,
and has been built to suit numerous cases with the
most satisfactory results. It is by no means a cheap
arbor, and it requires the greatest care in design
and the most careful workmanship in machining. Yet
its so satisfactory that in the event of a
action is
large number of pieces to be machined, the first cost

of the arbor may almost be neglected.
The arbor, shown
screwed to the end of
at B, is
the spindle, as is made of machine

indicated. It
steel, carbonized, hardened, and ground in its essen-

FIG. 86. PLAN AND SECTION OF EXPANDING PIN CHUCK FOB A

PISTON
tial parts. Six pins are so spaced as to be equi-

distant around the periphery at C, while at D
they
are arranged in such a way as not to interfere with
the wrist pin bosses shown in the upper sectional
view at E. The lower ends of the pins are beveled
to rideon the two cams, F and Gr. These cams are
threaded right and left hand to fit the screw, H,
which is provided with a slot, K, for operating pur-
poses a pair of bevel pinions, at L and M, being
used as the operating means. It will be seen that
when the pinion, L, is revolved by means of a special
socket wrench, the motion is transferred to the
pinion,M, which turns the threaded shaft, H, and

causes the cams, F and G, to approach or recede
from each other according to the direction of rota-
tion.
A valuable point in connection with this piece
of mechanism is the fact that the pressure exerted
on the pins C and D is equalized, so that the amount
of force exerted on all six pins is the same. This
equalizing action is caused by the "float" in the two
cams. As the shaft, H, is free to move slightly
longitudinally, the
pressure is on the
distributed
two cams in an equal ratio. The cams are prevented
from turning by means of the set-screws, 0.
Threaded and Knock-off Arbors. Tapping out a
piece of work in such a way that the threaded por-
tion will be in perfect concentricity with the out-
side and with the ends of the work, is a difficult oper-
ation. It is, therefore, necessary to provide some
means of re-finishing the outside of the work or the
ends, using the threaded portion as a locating point.
The simplest type of arbor which can be devised for
holding a piece of threaded work is that shown at A,
Figure 87. In this arbor a portion, B, is threaded
to receive the work, which is screwed upon it and
makes up against the shoulder, D.
This arbor is held on centers in an engine lathe
and is driven by means of a dog in the usual man-
ner. While it will give satisfactory results, it is
by no means a convenient type to use, for the reason
that the pressure of the cut in finishing the outside
of the work is such that it causes the piece to
"freeze" up against the shoulder, D, so that it is
FIG. 87. THREADED AND KNOCK-OFF ARBORS
difficult to remove it without the use of a pipe wrench

or special clamps.
A much better type of arbor and one which over-
comes this trouble, is shown at E
in the lower illus-
tration. This arbor is threaded in the same manner
as the upper one in Figure 87, except that the work,
F, does not make up against the shoulder, G, but
rather against the flange, H. This flange, however,
fits against a shoulder, K, on the arbor, so that the
longitudinal location of the work always comes the

same.
Provision for removing the work without difficulty
is as follows: The arbor is threaded, at L, with a
coarse left-hand thread on which the flange, H, is
screwed until it strikes against the shoulder, K. The
flange is provided with two lugs, M, on opposite sides
in order to make the matter of releasing easy. When
the work has been finished, it is only necessary to
strike either of these lugs a sharp blow with a bab-
bitt hammer or piece of wood and the work is at
once released, because the end of the work is backed
away from the flange, H. It is an easy matter, then,
to release the piece from the arbor without the aid
of any tools except the workman's hands.
Knock-off Arbor for Threaded Collars. An excel-
lent example of a knock-off arbor designed for
handling a number of pieces of threaded work of
different sized threads and pitches is shown in Figure
88. There were a number of collars such as those
shown at A, B, and C; the manufacturing require-
ments of which made it necessary to have the ends
square with the thread. An equipment was designed,
therefore, so that by means of adapters, such as those
shown at D, E, and F, and with threaded arbors
as that shown at G, a number of different sizes could
be handled with little trouble. A master bushing,
H, was inserted in the spindle of a turret lathe, as
indicated. In it the adapters, G, were located by
means of the taper at K, and were drawn by a bolt,
L, provided with a spherical washer, M, in order to
equalize any strain caused by the action of the bolts
in drawing the work back into the taper, K. The
master bushing was provided with a threaded por-
tion, N, and a shoulder, 0, against which a plate, P,
gave the correct location to the work. The threaded
D.
FIG. 88. KNOCK-OFF ARBOR FOR THREADED COLLARS
portion was made left hand, as in the preceding

instance. A knock-off flange, Q, was made with a
finished pad, E, so that a spacing collar, F, could
be used in connection with the work.
In operation, the threaded flange is screwed up
until it makes against the shoulder at 0; the spacer,
F, is inserted, and the work, C, is screwed onto the

arbor. Then, after the machining has been done,
the lugs, S, are given a sharp blow with the hammer
or a block of wood, and the work is immediately
released so that can be removed from the arbor.
it
I made up an equipment of this kind to handle

twelve pieces of different diameters and different
threads, and its operation was very satisfactory.
Moreover, the same principle may be applied in many
other cases where threaded work is to be machined.
Special Arbor for an Eccentric Packing Ring.
The packing ring, shown at A, Figure 89, is a type
commonly used for compressors and automobile
motors. The operations on a ring of this kind are
as follows: A pot casting is first made up and held
in such a way that it can be turned eccentrically
and bored at the same time. In the same operation
the rings are cut off from ^-inch to %-inch wide.
After they have been cut off they are ground to the
correct thickness, and are then cut with a diagonal
cut, as indicated at B, and from 5/32 to 3/16 of an
inch of metal is taken off of each.
When one of these rings is closed up so that the
edges at B are in contact, it will be found that the
ring is slightly elliptical. To counteract this ellipse
and to make
the ring true once more, it must be
turned or ground on the outside. A special arbor
of an unusual type is used for this purpose, the con-
struction being practically the same whether it is
used for turning or grinding. The arbor, C, is ar-
ranged so that it can be dogged at one end and held
on centers in an engine lathe or on a cylindrical
grinder. A locating flange, D, and a sliding sleeve,
E, fit snugly on the portion, C.
The particular type of arbor shown in this illus-
tration is intended to take two packing rings, F.
ARBOES AND MANDRELS 199
FIG. 89. SPECIAL ARBOR FOR AN ECCENTRIC PACKING RING
These are held firmly against the shoulder by means

of the threaded piece, G, which is hexagonal so that
a wrench can be used upon it. In using this arbor,
the hexagonal nut, H, is removed and the rings, F,
are set into the sleeve; the threaded nut is then
screwed up upon them until they are firmly held
against the shoulders at D. The sliding sleeve is
now pulled back out of the way, until the detent
pin, K, snaps into the groove, L, which keeps it out
of the way of the tool while the work is being done.
An air hole isprovided at M, in order to relieve the
suction and allow the sleeve to be pushed back
away from the work without difficulty. Were it not
for this provision it would be practically impossible
to pull back the sleeve.
Arbors of this kind are in very common use in
automobile factories throughout the country. Prac-
tically all are made on the same general style, al-
though refinements are sometimes found tending
toward more rapid manipulation and quicker hand-
ling. However, the type shown is an excellent ex-
ample of an arbor for work of this character.
CHAPTER XIV
GENERATING AND FORMING ATTACHMENTS
Generating Curved Surfaces. A cylindrical piece

of work may be formed to a prescribed shape by
means of a tool itself shaped to the correct contour,
or the shape may be generated by a single tool used
with a special attachment on an engine lathe, a turret
lathe, or a vertical boring mill. If the work to be
formed is not cylindrical, a suitable forming attach-
ment can be applied either to a planer, a shaper,
or a milling machine in such a way as to produce
the desired shape, either with a cutter of special
form or with a forming plate that controls the move-
ment of the cutting tool.
Attachments for the planer, shaper, and milling
machine are rarely used, except on special work, and as
they are highly specialized and the design is gen-
erally developed to suit the particular pieces to be
machined, it is not necessary to describe them here.
For some very large work, a radial attachment
can be applied to a planer and used to generate a
curved surface. It is also possible to apply a taper
attachment to a planer, but this is not usual as the
work can frequently be set at such an angle that the
tapered surface to be machined will be in the same
plane as the top of the table. Special forms can be
200
GENERATING AND FORMING ATTACHMENTS 201
machined on a planer by means of a forming attach-

ment which controls the movement of the tool on the
rail. In milling machine work it is seldom that an
attachment to produce contours is required. The
form of the piece to be milled can be easily generated
on a profiler by suitable forming plates. It is en-
tirely possible, however, to generate simple forms on
a milling machine by the application of a proper
fixture and a suitable forming plate. These several
machines are so seldom used for forming that we
have only the proposition of forming as applied to
the engine lathe, turret lathe, and vertical boring
mill to consider. Therefore, as these three machines
are most commonly used for work of a cylindrical
nature, the attachments described are particularly
applicable to this class.
Simple Radius Generating Attachment. The en-
gine lathe is frequently used either by the applica-
tion of a forming attachment at the back of the lathe
or by some special arrangement applied in a suitable
manner. The construction of any such attachment
depends somewhat upon the work to be machined.
Standard forming attachments applied to the rear
of the machine can be obtained from manufacturers
of certain engine lathes; but as these attachments
are generally designed to operate longitudinally along
the work, other arrangements are necessary when it
is desired to generate a form on the end of a cylindrical
piece.
An
example of the latter is shown in Figure 90,
where an arrangement for generating a radius on
the end of the piston is seen at A. It will be noticed
FIG. 90. RADIUS GENERATING ATTACHMENT FOR AN ENGINE LATHE
that the end of the work is formed to a perfect

radius, and also that the surface is so large that it
coula not properly be formed with a single tool. The

application of the attachment to the lathe made it
possible to generate the radius shown in a short
time; furthermore the attachment itself was compar-

atively inexpensive. The design was such that con-

siderable flexibility was possible, both in the length
of the radius and in its position with relation to the
center of the spindle.
The construction of the attachment is simple; a
special block, B, is supplied with a swivel top, C,
the upper part of which was dovetailed at D. The
tool-block, L, was furnished with a tool, E, for cut-
ting the correct form. A
special form of bracket, F,
is fastened to the carriage as indicated, and a T-slot,
G, is cut in it to provide for transverse adjustment

of the pivot, H. The arm, K, swings on this pivot,
and is attached to the tool-block, L. Thus it will
be seen that as the cross feed of the carriage is
operated, the tool, E, will be constrained to follow
the path indicated by the dotted line, M; except that
it can be moved radially as permitted in the tool-
block so as to obtain radii of different lengths, if

desired, and also to compensate for re-grinding the
tool when it becomes worn.
The attachment shown was designed by me a num-
ber of years ago for an automobile plant in Massa-
chusetts, and since that time I have used the san^e
idea in several other cases to good advantage. The
principal value of this attachment is that it can joe
made up so cheaply. In addition, it does the work
required of it with practically np attention on the
part of the operator, and the results produced give
excellent satisfaction.
Radius Forming Attachment for Crowning Pul-
leys. The ordinary cast-iron pulley, so largely used
in machine work, has a " crown'' or radius on the
face to which the belt is applied, the purpose of
which is to keep the belt from running off. The
metal in the pulley at the point which is crowned
is usually thin, and consequently cannot be formed
with a wide tool of the proper shape to good advan-

tage. In machining these surfaces it is therefore
necessary to generate the form by means of a form-
ing attachment.
In the instance shown in Figure 91, the attachment
was so made that two pulleys could be crowned at
the same time with the two tools indicated at A in
the upper part of the illustration. The work, B,
shown in the lower part of the figure, is held on an
arbor, C, and driven by means of the driver, D, ex-
tending through the face-plate and between the
spokes of the pulleys, as indicated. This attachment
was applied to an old-style lathe, and the necessary
movement was imparted to the tool-block, E, by
means of the rod, F, passing completely through to
the back of the lathe as shown. A roller, G, made
contact with the forming plate, H, and was held in
place by means of the spring, K. The bracket, L,
was fastened to the back of the lathe carriage and
was simply used to form a thrust surface for the
spring. It will be seen that as the carriage is trav-
ersed longitudinally, the two tools will follow the
form indicated at H, thus generating the desired
surface.
If an engine lathe is furnished with a forming
attachment, work of the character shown in Figure
91 can be more easily handled by the application
of a suitable forming plate to the forming slide at
FIG. 91. PLAN AND ELEVATION OF A RADIUS-FORMING ATTACH-

MENT FOR CROWNING PULLEYS
the rear of the machine. But the general construc-

tion of attachments of this kind is similar to the
one shown. Many varieties of forms can be generated
by means of forming attachments on the engine
lathe; it is only necessary to provide a plate to suit

any given case.
Piston Forming and Grooving Attachment. As
automobile pistons are produced in large lots, every
effort is made to design the various tools used in
the manufacture, so as to provide maximum produc-
tion. And as the piston of an automobile is a vital
part of the motor, the greatest care is used in the
manufacture to insure uniformity and accuracy.
Turret lathes are largely used for work of this
character, and attachments are frequently applied for
combining several operations in one. An excellent
example of a forming attachment which is combined
with two equipments for grooving the piston, is
shown in Figure 92. A plan view looking down upon
the machine is shown in order to make the manner
of operation more apparent.
The turret of the machine is used simultaneously
with the tool shown in the plan view, but as the
turret have nothing to do with the forming
tools
attachment, would be confusing to show them here.
it
The piston in this case is held on a special chuck,

A, this chuck being somewhat similar to that de-
scribed in Chapter XIII, Figure 86. The work to
be done is the forming of the ends of the piston, B,
to the required radius, and simultaneously to make

the annular grooves, C and D.
In the first place, the cross-slide is furnished with
a special block, dovetailed to receive the sliding
member which is carried under the block that holds
the grooving tool for the surfaces C and D. The

dovetailed slide, E, has a roller at F, which is guided
FIG. 92. PISTON FORMING AND GROOVING ATTACHMENT
by the forming plate at G and H, so that the proper

form is described on the end of the piston, B. It will
be seen that as the cross-slide feed, is engaged, the
tool for turning the ends of the piston at B travels
across the lathe carriage in the path directed by the
forming plates. At the same time, the grooving tools
are slowly moving forward, until they reach the
outside of the piston and begin to cut. At this time
the operator changes the feed to a very slow o'ne, so
that the grooving tools cut only a little at a time
and do not have any tendency to chatter. The feed
for a cut of this kind on any kind of a job must be slow,
to produce good results, as the cutting action of a
grooving tool is not very good.
It is obvious that any such equipment as the one
described herewith would only be warranted when
high production is desired. Attachments of this
kind, however, are applicable to many varieties of
work, and combinations of tools can be made to cover
many different cases. The number of pieces to be
machined must always be considered when designing
any sort of special equipment, in order that the ex-
pense may be proportional to the production.
Angular Generating Cross-Slide. For finishing the
faces on large ring gears, the angular cut across the
face of the gear usually requires a special forming
attachment or special equipment of some character.
It is entirely possible to machine work of this kind
by means of a forming attachment similar to the one
indicated in Figure 92, but, of course, it would be
necessary to make the forming plates to the correct
angle of the bevel on the face of the gear.
A more convenient attachment for either an engine
lathe or a turret lathe can be made up, as shown in
Figure 93. This is a special swivel cross-slide, and
is designed to take the place of the regular cross-
slide on the machine, which must be removed to
allow the swivel slide to be put in position. The
particular advantage of a cross-slide of this char-
cater is that it can be swung radially about the cen-
ter, A, to any angle within its capacity. The ring
gear, shown at B in this instance, is to be machined
along the face, C. The tool-block, D, on the swivel
cross-slide is furnished with two tools, as indicated,
for roughing and finishing this angular plate, which
are set far enough apart so that the roughing tool
FIG. 93. SPECIAL SWIVEL CROSS-SLIDE FOR A TURRET LATHE
completes its work before the finishing tool starts

on the face of the gear.
A not by any means a cheap
swivel cross-slide is
attachment, but its usefulness and flexibility is such

that it can be used advantageously on many kinds
of work requiring an angular generating device.
Even though the attachment is rather expensive,
the construction is simple and it is not likely to get
out of order. The feed screw which operates the
slide is controlled by a pair of bevel pinions at the
center which are always in mesh no matter what the
angle of the slide may be. A suitable knock-off can
be easily provided to stop the cutting action at any
desired point.
Turning Device for Packing Rings.
Eccentric
Packing rings for automobile motors are frequently
FIG. 94. ECCENTRIC TURNING DEVICE FOR PACKING RINGS
made eccentric, and a decided advantage to be

it is
able to bore the inside of the ring and turn it eccen-

tric at the same time. For this purpose, several
manufacturers of turret lathes have developed equip-
ment to apply to their own product. One such is
shown in Figure 94 the eccentric turning and bor-
ing attachment for a turret lathe, manufactured and
patented by Pratt & Whitney Co.
The work, A, in the drawing, is held by chuck
jaws, B, in a three-jawed gear scroll chuck, the face-
plate of which forms a ring gear at C, and drives
another gear of equal size, D. The latter gear is
mounted on a shaft, splined at E, and carried by a
GENERATING AND FORMING ATTACHMENTS 21 \
bracket, F, on the spindle cap of the machine. A

supplementary bracket, G, is mounted on the turret
and carries a H, in which the tool, K, is
slide,
mounted. This tool is used for turning the outside
of the casting, A, eccentric to the inside. The slide,
H, is held by the pressure of a stiff spring against a
cam, shown at L. As the work revolves, the shaft
on which the cam, L, is mounted revolves at exactly
the same speed. And cam
revolves, it bears
as the
against a small roller, M, mounted
in the slide, so
that it moves the tool, K, continually in and out to
form an eccentric on the outside of the work. Simul-
taneously with the turning of the outside of the pot,
a boring bar, .N, having a tool, 0, is used to bore the
inside of the ring. Coincident with the action of the
boring and turning tool, the tool-block, P, moves
transversely, so that the gang of tools mounted on it
cut off the packing rings one by one.
This an excellent example of the application of
is
special attachments to a turret lathe, and indicates

the possibilities of this class of machine in manu-
facturing processes.
Bevel Generating Attachment for a Turret Lathe.
The possibilities of the horizontal turret lathe are
little appreciated by the average manufacturer, and
it remarkable how poor a showing some of these
is
high-capacity machines are making in many factories

simply because tool designers are not as bold in de-
signs as they might be. For bevel pinions, and other
angular work of similar character in which the angle
is less than 40 degrees on one side of the center line
of the work, a generating attachment for a hori-

FIG. 95. BEVEL GENERATING ATTACHMENT FOB A TURRET LATHE
zontal turret lathe may be made that will handle a

wide variety of work. Such an attachment is shown
in Figure 95. The work, A, is held on a special form
of arbor where the pilot, B, enters a bushing, C, in
the face of the attachment and makes the probabil-
ity of chatter very remote. The turret of the ma-
chine furnished with a bracket fastened against
is
one of the turret faces, as shown at D. This extends
out and overhangs the turret and has a steel pilot,
E, at its forward end, which is guided in a bushing,
F, supported by the bracket, G. This bracket in turn
is fastened to the spindle cap, or to some part of the
head construction which is sufficiently massive to
permit its
being used as a support. This portion of
the design depends largely upon the type of turret
lathe to which it is to be applied.
The bracket, B, that is fastened to the turret face,
is furnished with a special slide, H, to which tool-

blocks, such as that shown at K, can be readily ap-
plied. These tool-blocks may have one or more tools
in them according to the work for which they are
intended. The slide itself is free to move up and
down as held by the straps, L. The back of the slide
is furnished with a block, M, that is free to swivel.
A powerful spring, adjusted by means of the screw

shown at M, holds the entire slide up until the swivel
block strikes the bevel indicated at 0. This bevel
is cut on a long rectangular bar of steel, P, properly
fitted to a slot in the fixture. The angle of the bevel
ismade according to the work to be done, but any
number of bars may be made up for different bevels,
and they can be replaced and substituted one for the
other in a moment's time.
The action of this device is extremely satisfactory,
and its adaptability is such that it can be applied
to a wide variety of work.In operation, the end
of the tapered bar (which guided in the bracket
is
on the headstock) comes against a stop (not shown)

before the cutting action of the tool, Q, commences.
As the tapered bar does not move after it has been
brought to the stop, it is obvious that the entire
taper-turning device moves forward along the taper
bar, and that the swivel block, M, follows the angle,
0, on the tapered bar as it is constrained to do by
the swing at the back of the slide. The tool, there-
fore, follows the same angle, and generates the cor-
rect taperon the work.
After the work has been finished, the entire mech-
anism is withdrawn by a backward movement of the
turret, and any other tools which are on the turret

in other positions can be brought into action. After
the work has been done on one piece, another one is
put in position on the arbor, and the turret is in-
dexed to its original position. After this has been
done, the lever, E, is pulled forward to throw the
tapered bar ahead into its original position ready
for the new job of work.
An equipment of this kind may be made up with
two attachments, one of which can be used for rough-
ing and the other for finishing. These two attach-
ments can be on opposite sides of the turret and may
be tied together by means of a suitable tie-bracket,
such as that shown at S. I have designed several
equipments of this kind for bevel gear work and
other angular work, and have found them very satis-
factory in action.
Radius Generating Attachment for a Vertical Turret
Lathe. The Bullard vertical turret lathe is adaptable
in many ways: By the aid of forming attachments
almost any kind of shape may be generated, and the
machine is of such rigidity that the heaviest cut can
be taken with impunity. Incidentally, in regard to
the power of the machine, the story is told that upon
being asked by a prospective customer, "How many
machines can be handled by one man/' Mr. Bullard
replied, "It takes two men to operate one machine,
one to handle the machine and the other to carry
away the chips."
The simple attachment for this type of machine,
shown in Figure 96, is for forming or generating
a radius on the surface of the large pulley, A. The
FIG. 96. RADIUS GENERATING ATTACHMENT FOR FACING A PULLEY

ON THE BULLARD VERTICAL TURRET LATHE
forming or generating is accomplished by means of<

the side head with the tool shown at B, and attach-
ments, consisting of a couple of brackets, C and D,
are attached to the column of the machine. These
brackets support a slotted plate, E, by means of the
bars, F and G, which are adjustable vertically. The
side head is provided with a T-slot, H, in which a
link is pivoted, as shown at K. The radius of the
link determines the radius to be generated by the
tool at B, and as the link is of the very simplest
construction it will be seen that different radii can
be readily established by simply providing an extra
link of the desired length. The plate, E, being
slotted at L, allows the link to be fastened at any
desired point in the slot, so as to determine the exact
center from which the radius is to be described.
There is little cost connected with the manufacture of
an attachment of this kind, and its usefulness and
adaptability is quite evident.
Angular Generating Attachment for Vertical Tur-
ret Lathe. To machine an angular surface, such as
that shown at A, Figure 97, on work of large size,
a Bullard vertical turret lathe may .be supplied with
an angular generating attachment. Let it be sup-
posed that the bevel ring gear shown is to be ma-
chined along the surface, A, with an attachment
such as that indicated in the illustration. The tool,
B, in this case held in the turret of the side head,
is
and angular motion is obtained by means of the

roller, D, which bears against the angular plate, C.
The angular plate is fastened to the side-head ram
and is adjustable along the T-slot, X. The roller, D,
is also adjustable up or down in the slot shown in
the vertical plate, E. Provision for quick removal
of the roller is made in the large holes at each end
of the slot. The slotted plate is supported in much
the same manner as that shown in Figure 96. By
means of a forming plate in place of the angular
plate, this attachment may be used for forming differ-
ent shapes if desired, and the entire attachment is
sufficiently flexible to handle work with quite wide
variations. When the vertical turret lathe is used
for heavy manufacturing in quantities, an attachment
FIG. 97. ANGULAR GENERATING ATTACHMENT
of this kind may be applied with excellent results.

Internal Radius Boring Attachment. It is occa-
sionally necessary to machine an inside radius on a
piece of work, and although conditions requiring
such an operation are rather rare, "it is the unex-
"
pected that always happens.
FIG. 98. INTERNAL-RADIUS BORING ATTACHMENT
Let us assume, then, that the work shown, A,

Figure 98, is to be machined to the shape indicated,
and that the work is to be done on a vertical turret
lathe. The attachment shown, made up for the work
of the nature indicated several years ago with ex-
cellent results, is entirely self-contained in the bar, B.
This bar is located in the turret of the machine and
is of massive proportions so that it may be rigid
enough for the work. The bar is slotted to receive

a swiveled toolholder, carrying at eacli end the tools,
C and D, set to cut the same radius from the center

of the bar. A link motion allows the lug at the end,
E, to travel radially when it is pushed downward
by the sliding block, F, operated by a special rec-
tangular piece, G, in the side-head turret of the ma-
chine. It will be seen that when the side-head down-
feed is started, the action of the sliding block causes
the cutting tools, C and D, to describe an arc, thus

generating the inside radius. Kigidity of the bar is
assured by the pilot, H, which enters a bushing in
the center of the table as indicated.
This attachment is decidedly special, and was con-
structed for a particular piece of work requiring con-
siderable accuracy. It is not to be supposed that
such an equipment will be frequently called for, but
conditions may arise in any factory which may neces-
sitate some arrangement for internal radius boring,
in which event an equipment of this kind would be
of the greatest use.
CHAPTER XV
VERTICAL BORING MILL FIXTURES
Fundamental Construction Features. Fixtures de-

signed for vertical boring mills are naturally much
heavier in construction than those used on a hori-
zontal turret lathe or on the engine lathe. This is
perfectly logical, because the work done on a ver-
tical boring mill requires heavier speeds and feeds
than the class of work done on the smaller and
lighter machines. While a vertical boring mill, or
a vertical turret lathe equipped with a side-head, is
used for machining many of the same styles of
pieces as those handled on a horizontal turret lathe,
the difference in the work, however, is one of size;
there is comparatively no difference in the method
of holding.
One thing, however, must be mentioned in connec-
tion with work on the vertical boring mill. That is
that the work is revolved in a horizontal plane, and
it is not necessary, therefore, to counterbalance any
fixture made for an odd-shaped piece, as it would be
if the work were to be done on a horizontal ma-
chine, where the work revolves in a vertical plane.

That is to say, the work spindle on a vertical boring
mill has the center line or axis of rotation in a ver-
tical plane, and the work revolves horizontally;
220
VERTICAL BORING MILL FIXTURES 221
while on the horizontal turret lathe the center line

or axis of rotation is in a horizontal plane, and the
work revolves vertically.
In vertical boring mill practice, therefore, the
work may be laid down on the table of the machine
and can readily be clamped down to it. The weight
of the piece really assists in holding it; and the only
thing necessary in the clamping device is that pres-
sure enough be applied to keep the work from slip-
ping under the pressure of the cut. It must also
be remembered that the cuts taken on these heavy
boring mills, are greatly in excess of those used on
horizontal machines.
For many kinds of heavy manufacturing work the
vertical boring mill or vertical turret lathe can be
used to great advantage, and the massive construc-
tion of these machines permits work to be done
within close limits of accuracy. Furthermore, ma-
chines of this type can be easily set up with a com-
paratively small outlay for tool equipment, so that
although the first cost of the machines is rather large,
the productive efficiency is extremely high.
Vertical Boring Mill Fixture for Thin Work.
The problem of holding and machining a piece of
thin work is always more or less difficult, because
it is not easy to hold the work without distorting it,
and in addition, the work is likely to be sprung out

of shape by the pressure of the cut in machining.
It is necessary, therefore, in designing a method
for holding a piece of thin work, to strive to prevent
both distortion from the holding device and distor-
tion from the pressure of the cutting tool.
PIG-. 99. METHOD OF HOLDING THIN WORK ON A VERTICAL

BORING MILL
Anexcellent example of a piece of work of thin

section to be machined on the vertical boring mill
is shown in Figure 99. The method used for hold-
ing this piece and -supporting it while machining,
can be applied to a number of cases of similar char-
acter with slight variations. The work is large in
diameter, and it is necessary to machine it on the
surfaces A, B, C, and D. Since the web, B, is very
thin, it is necessary to support this portion of the
work to keep it from swinging downward while the
cutting tool is in action. The direction of the cut
is indicated by the arrows; and the tool which is
used on the portions B and C, is shown at E in the

side-head of the machine. The work is laid down
upon a special cast-iron locating ring, F, which is
held down by lugs, indicated at G, in the table key-
slots. The work is centered by means of the special
hook-bolt jaws, H, which are soft and bored out to
fit the outside of the work. (Incidentally, the work
has been finished on the surface, K, in a previous
setting.) The three jaws indicated are attached to
the master jaws on the table chuck, as shown in the
upper view, and, as the table chuck is of the three-
jawed geared scroll variety, the work is readily cen-
tered on the table. The jaws are brought up very
lightly on the outside of the work, so as not to cause
any distortion; and after they are brought in con-
tact with the work, the hook bolts, L, are tightened
by means of the nut, M, so that the work is gripped
at three points around the circumference in much
the same manner as though it were held in three
separate vises. It can be easily seen that this method
of holding is exceptionally rigid and does not cause
distortion in the work. The pot, F, acts as a locat-
ing device to give the correct height to the work,
and at the same time it supports it against the
pressure of the cut.
Special Fixture with Tapered Plug Locater It is
frequently necessary to locate a piece of work on a

tapered hole that has previously been machined, and
at the same time to hold the piece by means of
clamps on some other portion. As it is a difficult
matter to machine a tapered surface and a plane sur-
face -so that they will always bear an exact relation
to each other, some method of holding must be used
which will compensate for the variations between
the two surfaces.
Let us take as an example of this kind of work
the piece shown at A, Figure 100. This work is a
flywheel for an automobile engine, and it has been
machined in a previous setting in the tapered hole, B,
and also on surfaces C, D, and E. Now in order to
machine the side of the work, F, and the hub, G,
so that they will be in the correct relation to the
previously machined tapered hole, it is necessary to
locate the work on a plug in this tapered hole. But
while this location would be all right, it would not
be possible to clamp the work easily without spring-
ing it out of shape if it were to be located only on
the tapered plug. The surface, D, then, must be
used for attaching an additional clamp, but as this
surface may vary slightly in its relation to the
tapered hole, any method of clamping must be so
designed that compensation may be made for sur-
FIG. 100. HOLDING A PIECE OF WORK BY ITS TAPERED HOLE
face variations. This is accomplished by making

a tapered plug or shell, as shown at H, and locating
this shell on a threaded stud, K, set in the center
hole in the table. The upper end of the tapered
shell is squared out to receive the special socket
wrench, L, by means of which it is operated.
The method of using this fixture is as follows:
The plug is lowered by means of the screw, so that
the work can slip onto it loosely. The clamps, M,
which are three in number, are then set up lightly
on the rim, C. After this, the socket wrench, L, is
used to screw the tapered bushing up in the hole,
thus locating the work on the tapered portion. After
this has been done the clamps are tightened securely,
and the, work is ready for machining.
Applications of this principle can often be used
to hold work of this character, with various methods
of compensating. The tapered shell bushing is some-
times arranged on a spring, so that it is self-locat-
ing. A method of this kind is quite satisfactory and
generally gives good results.
Expanding Arbor and Faceplate for Vertical Bor-
ing Mill. For a piece of work that has been pre-
viously machined and is to be located in the second
setting by the previously machined surface, it is
necessary to make up a locating fixture. A good
example of such a fixture is shown in Figure 101.
In this case the work, which is a double bevel gear,
has been previously machined at A and B, and on
the bevel-gear faces, C and D. It is necessary to
locate it for this operation by means of the hole, B,
and, as the work must be very accurately done, an
expanding arbor must be used in the hole. In con-
junction with the expanding arbor, it is necessary to
prevent the work from springing at the surfaces of
the outer bevel-gear ring, D.
A cast-iron fixture body, E, is located in the center
of the table by means of the plug, F, which enters
FIG. 101. PLAN AND SECTION OF EXPANDING ARBOR AND PACE

PLATE FOR VERTICAL BORING MILL
the center hole. The work is placed in position
over the central plug and drops down against the
surface, A, of the fixture. A split ring, G, similar
to the type described under the heading
"
Split King
Expanding Arbor," Chapter XIII, is then expanded
by means of the bolt, H, thus giving the desired
centering action. The spring jacks, K, are now re-
leased and allowed to spring up against the surface,
D, after which they are locked by means of the set-
screws, L. The final clamping of the work is ac-
complished by means of the hook-bolts, M, which are
operated by the bolts, N.
The principle shown in this fixture can be applied
to a great variety of work, and it can be adapted
to suit different conditions, both as to the means
of clamping and as to the points on which the work
islocated. Any method of clamping applied to a fix-
ture which has been previously machined must take
into consideration the fact that no distortion can
be permitted. The use of springs and spring jacks
for this purpose is common. Care must be exercised
that when the set-screws are tightened they will not
force the jacks out of position.
Vertical Boring-Mill Fixture for a Fragile Alumi-
num Casting. One of the most difficult examples of
a fixture for holding a piece of thin work of irregular
shape, and machining it when held without causing
distortion in the work, is shown in Figure 102, at
A. In the plan above, it will be seen that the cast-
ing has a thin flange of approximately elliptical
shape and the face of this flange is to be machined
in the setting indicated. In addition to this the face,
PIG. 102. PLAN AND SECTION OF A VERTICAL BORING MILL

FIXTURE FOR A FRAGILE ALUMINUM CASTING
,
located below the surface of the other flange,
mst also be faced in the same operation. The part
>f the flange indicated at A
is joined to the right-
land portion of the casting, as indicated in the sec-
tional view below. The other side of the flange, how-
,
at C, is open and unsupported, making it very
lifficult to hold the piece without forcing the parts
out of alignment.
This piece of work is one of the most difficult that
I have ever encountered, and I give it here simply
to show the possibilities of arranging clamping de-
vices so that they will not distort the work. The
piece is set up with the boss, on the under side of
B, locating in a V-block on the fixture base, and the
edge of the adjacent flange is supported by the
spring pins indicated at D. These spring pins are
locked by means of the special screw, E. The flange,
A, rests against a knife-edge locater, F, and is lightly
clamped by means of swinging knife-edge dogs at
G and H, while resting on the pads shown at K.
The other side of the flange, C, is simply a rim
which must be held and firmly located without
springing it out of position in <the slightest degree.
For this purpose, the floating hook-bolt, shown at L,

is made in triplicate. These bolts are used in the
three bosses, M, N, and 0, although only one of them
is shown in the illustration. ,The action of the hook-
bolts is such that the work isclamped between the

jaws shown while the entire mechanism " floats", so
that it does not strain the work. After the hook-
bolt is tightened, it is locked in place by means of
the set-screw, P.
By this method -of clamping, any piece of delicate
section may be clamped without causing distortion.

Although the example shown is a rare case, the prin-
ciples involved in this design can be applied with

equal success to other work of similar nature. It is
sufficient to say in regard to the fixture mentioned
that work was in every way satisfactory and the
its
work was machined without error.
Simple Fixture for Machining an Eccentric. An

example of a fixture for turning an eccentric piece
was shown in the group of fixtures in Chapter XII,
but in that case the work was held on a swinging
fixture applied to a horizontal turret lathe. Another
example of an eccentric turning fixture of the in-
dexing type, but arranged for a vertical boring mill,
is shown in Figure 103. In this case, the work is
set up on an indexing plate, A, by means of the
three pins, B, in the flange. This indexing plate is
located eccentrically on a base, C, which is fastened
to the boring mill table, being located on a plug, D,
in the center hole. After the work is set up on the
pins, clamped in place by means of the three
it is
hook-bolts shown at E, these bolts being brought

down on the flange as indicated in the upper view.
When clamped in the position shown, the hole, F, is
bored, and then the upper part of the fixture, A, is
swung around until the center, G, takes the place
of the hole previously machined. A
locating pin is
provided at H
to give the correct location.
In indexing the fixture, the button clamps around
the rim, as shown at K, and is loosened to permit
the revolution of the portion, A; but when the table
has been indexed to the proper position these clamps
are again tightened before the machining takes
place. The next operation on the work
the ma- is
chining of the eccentric, L, when it has been indexed

into the position mentioned. After this the work can
be removed from the fixture and another substituted
for it.
Work of this character is frequently machined in

FIG. 103. PLAN AND SECTION OF A FTXTTJRE FOR AN ECCENTRIC

PIECE OF WORK
two settings, and no attempt is made to make an
indexing fixture such as that shown. In such an
event the ordinary method of procedure is to bore
the hole first and then locate the work on another
fixture on a stud set eccentrically to the center for
the turning of the eccentric surface, L. The matter

of designing a fixture for a piece of work of this
kind is dependent entirely upon the number of pieces
to be machined and the accuracy required in the
finished product. Application of this principle may
be made to many varieties of work where two sur-
faces are machined eccentric to each other.
Sliding Fixture for Boring a Pair of Cylinders.
When a pair of cylinders, such as those shown in
Figure 104, at A and B, are to be bored and faced
on a vertical boring mill, the work must be handled
either by means of two settings, or by an eccentric
or sliding fixture. If two settings are to be used,
the ordinary method of handling is to machine one
of the cylinders first and then set it up on a stud
eccentric to the center of the table at the correct
distance to bring the center of the second cylinder
into position for boring. For rapid production, how-
ever, a sliding fixture or one having an eccentric
movement can be designed, so that the work can
all be handled at one setting, thus saving consider-
able time in the machining and in the handling of
the work.
The device shown in Figure 104 consists of a
base plate, C, which is fastened to the table and is
centrally located by means of the plug, D. The base
plate is held by means of the bolt, E, in the table
T-slot as indicated. Mounted on the base plate, C,
is a dovetailed slide, F, on which suitable clamps, G,
are provided to hold the work. A
sectional view
taken through the base is shown at H. Along eacn
side of the sliding members are two handles, K, "for
FIG. 104. SLIDING FIXTURE FOR BORING A PAIR OF CYLINDERS

the purpose of locking the sliding fixtures in any

desired position. After one of the holes has been
bored, the handles are unscrewed and the fixture is
pushed over until the second cylinder is under the
center of the spindle, the correct location being as-
sured by means of a taper pin, L. When the de-
sired position has been reached, the levers, K, are
again tightened, and the second cylinder may be
bored in exactly the same manner as the first.
Threaded Knock-off Arbor for Vertical Boring
Mill. The work shown at A, Figure 105, is a large
head used for a rock drill. The piece is made of
chrome-nickel steel which is extremely hard to cut.
The work has been previously machined on the in-
side surfaces, B, and has been threaded at C as
indicated. It is necessary to machine the outside
tapered surfaces, A and B, in another setting, and

these surfaces must be in correct relationship to that
previously threaded inside of the work. A knock-off
arbor was therefore suggested, such as that indicated
in the illustration.
This work was to be done on a vertical boring mill,
and accuracy was an essential point. The base of
the fixture, D,is located on the table of the machine
and held in place by means of the bolts, E, which

is
pass through the T-slot in the table and are clamped

by means of the shoes shown at F. The location of
the plate is obtained by means of the threaded stud
I which is ground to a fit at G in the central hole of
the table. The right-hand threaded arbor, H, is
made at the upper part, so that the thread corre-
sponds to the inside thread in the work at C. Below
FIG. 105. THREADED KNOCK-OFF ARBOR FOR A VERTICAL

BORING MILL
this a left-hand thread is cut at K. The lower part

of the arbor is provided with two pins, L, in order
to give good driving properties. The knock-off por-
tion of the arbor is shown at M, with a left-hand
thread to fit the part K.
Let it be supposed that the fixture is about to be
loaded by attaching the piece A. At this time the
knock-off portion, M, is screwed up until it shoulders
against the portions N. The work, A, is then screwed
on until it makes up against the surface 0. The
work is now readyfor machining, and during the

action, because of the pressure of the cut, the sur-
face, 0, becomes very tightly in contact with the
knock-off pad. After the work has been done, a
sharp blow on one of the projecting lugs of the
knock-off, M, causes the pressure at the point to
be relieved, so that the work can be easily unscrewed
from the arbor. The principles involved in this arbor
are practically the same as those described in Chap-
tei XIII, under the heading "Expanding Arbor for
an Adjusting Nut."
CHAPTER XVI
GRINDING FIXTURES
Adaptability of Cutting Fixtures. The functions

of grinding as practiced by manufacturers in general
have been taken up in Chapter VII, but the matter
of holding fixtures for the grinding operations has
not been dealt with to any extent. As a matter of
fact, fixtures used for grinding purposes are very
similar to those used in various machining opera-
tions, although the necessity for holding the piece
rigidly is not present, since the amount of pressure
exerted on the work by the grinding operations is
nothing like as severe as by the cutting operations.
Many of the fixtures devised for machining opera-
tions can be used for grinding, but as a rule grinding
fixtures are considerably lighter in construction than
those used for turning and facing.
The principles which apply to holding devices of
various kinds for turning can be applied to grind-
ing practice, with proper modifications to suit the
conditions. For example, there are many cases where
a spring clamp can be used for a grinding fixture
with excellent results, and yet such clamps would
not be suitable in any way for machining operations
on account of their lack of holding power. The pull-
ing action of a grinding wheel taking a very light
238
GRINDING FIXTURES 239
FIG. 106. METHOD OF SETTING UP A GRINDING MACHINE FOR

EXTERNAL CYLINDRICAL GRINDING
cut is nowhere near as severe as when a cutting tool
isused on the work.

When cylindrical work is to be ground, there is
seldom a need for any sort of grinding fixtures
unless some portion of the work is irregular, in which
case a special method must be used for holding. The
ordinary method of locating and holding a piece of
cylindrical work for external grinding is illustrated
in Figure 106. The work, A, in this case has several
shoulders, B, C, and D, which are to be ground in
the setting indicated. The work is located on the
centers shown at E and F, and is driven by a dog,
G. which enters the driven faceplate, H. While the
work is in the position indicated, the wheel, K, is
traversed in the direction indicated by the arrows
until the various diameters have been ground to the
correct size. It will be seen that no special equip-
ment of any kind is necessary in performing work of
this character.
FIG. 107. ROTARY AND RECTANGULAR MAGNETIC CHUCKS
Magnetic Chucks. however, cylin-

Frequently,
drical work requires special for although
fixtures,
the portion which is to be ground may be cylindrical,
it may happen that the method of holding must be
special in order to accommodate a peculiarly shaped

piece. Chucks, either magnetic or the step-chuck
type, are largely used for holding work which is to
be ground. When the work permits the holding
by magnetic chucks, this method is largely used and
gives very satisfactory results. Otherwise, a step-
chuck can be arranged -to handle the work.
^ group of magnetic chucks, made by the Heald
Machine Co., i shown in Figure 107. Those shown
at A and B are of the rotary type, while those shown
at C, D, and E, are of the rectangular type, not used
on rotary machines, but applied principally to sur-
face grinding. One of the great advantages de-
rived from the use of magnetic chucks is the rapidity
with which the work is applied to and removed from
the chuck. Another advantage lies in the fact that
there is little danger of distortion caused by an im-
proper method of clamping. This feature is par-

ticularly noticeable when thin work is to be ground.
Still another advantage is that a great number of
pieces can be held at the same time. It is only nec-
essary to throw a switch in order to apply the elec-
tric current, magnetize the soft iron core of the
work on its surface.
chuck, and hold rigidly any
The rotary chuck, shown at A and B, can be
applied to a horizontal machine for cylindrical
grinding, or to a rotary surface-grinding ma-
chine. Piston rings or packing rings, for example,
are usually ground on their edges on this type of
chuck. The rectangular type of chuck, shown at
C, D, and E, is particularly suited to surface grind-
ing and to milling or planing operations. In applica-
tion they hold a number of small pieces or a single
piece of long work.
uses will be found for these chucks in a
Many
manufacturing establishment, and the type of chuck
most suited to any man's work can best be deter-
mined by consultation with the various manufac-
turers. Suitable demagnetiteers are applied to all
chucks of the magnetic type, so that after the work
has be' M removed, no future trouble is experienced
from n gnetism remaining in the work.
Grinding Fixture for Universal- Joint Part. A
number of pieces in an automobile are made of alloy
steel that requires special methods of hardening. One
of these pieces is the rocker arm of the universal
joint, shown in Figure 108 at A. This piece must be

ground on the two cylindrical portions B and C, and
itrequires a special fixture as indicated at D. This
FIG. 108. FIXTURE FOR GRINDING UNIVERSAL JOINTS

fixture is not designed for the purpose of holding the
work, but merely to provide a means for driving
the long end, A, and preventing vibration of the
work during the process of grinding. Such a fixture
as this can be mounted on an adapter plate, as at E,
attached to the spindle of the machine and rotated.
The work in Figure 108 is held on the faceplate,
and is located on two centers, as indicated. A suit-
able thumb screw is provided at F on the fixture, so
that when the work is placed in position the thumb
screw can be tightened to throw the work over
until it strikes a stud, G. Since this fixture with
the work in position is heavier on one side than on
the other, a cast-iron lug, H, is applied to the oppo-
site side, as shown, so that the entire fixture can be
properly balanced before the work is done. If a
grinding fixture of this sort were to be made up and

not properly balanced, the action on the entire ma-
chine would be injurious and the work produced
would not be true. It is not only advisable but nec-
essary to see that any fixture used for grinding is
properly balanced to obtain the best possible results.
FIG. 109. FIXTURE FOR GRINDING PISTONS
Piston
Grinding Fixtures. Manufacturing prac-
tice differs inregard to the finishing of automobile
engine pistons, but most makers finish the external
surface of the piston by grinding. When this is done,
accuracy can be .more readily kept within the re-
quired limits, and the superior finish gained by the
grinding is an added advantage.
A
fixture for holding an automobile piston while
grinding is shown in Figure 109. In this case, the
work, A, is located on an arbor, B, which is drawn
back into a tapered hole, C, in a special nose piece,
D, which is screwed to the end of the last spindle,
E. A key to hold the work on the spindle is pro-
vided at F, somewhat unnecessarily in the instance
shown. I say unnecessarily, because the amount of
friction generated by the grinding wheel against the
outside of the piston, A, could never be sufficient
to permit the arbor, B, to turn in the tapered hole,
when drawn back by means of the nut
especially
and washer shown at G. The end of the piston is
given additional support by means of the center
shown at H, this center being in the tailstock of the
grinding machine. The method of holding the pis-
ton on the arbor is somewhat out of the ordinary
and is therefore worthy of description.
The open end of the piston locates on the arbor
at K, and is drawn back firmly against the shoulder,
L, by means of the rod, M, and the taper wedge, N.
When the work is placed in position, the ball-ended
plug, 0, is dropped through the wrist-pin hole, P,
passing through the draw-back rod as indicated.
After this has been done the wedge, N, is pushed
lightly into place until the operating rod, M, draws
back on the pin, 0, to carry the work up against
the shoulder, L, where it is held firmly. A slot is
cut in the pin, 0, as indicated at Q, so that the re-
taining pin, B, will prevent it from falling out of
the work. The purpose of the spring indicated at S,
is to force out the rod, M, after the work has been
done and when the wedge, N, is pushed back. A
grinding fixture of this sort can be applied to many
varieties of work with suitable adaptations to con-
form to the style of work to be gound.
Internal Grinding Fixtures A Ball-Bearing Cage.
Let it be assumed that the work A, Figure 110, has
been previously machined at all necessary points, has
subsequently been hardened, and that it is now neces-
sary to grind the hole, B, in correct relation to the
cylindrical surface, C. In actual operation, the hole,
B, is ground to size first, and the work is then placed
FIG. 110. FIXTURE FOR INTERNAL GRINDING A BALL-BEARING CAGE

on an expanding arbor and the surface, C, is ground
in the correct relation to the hole, B. The fixture
used for grinding the hole, B, was originally made
up for boring and turning, but was later adapted to
the present use. Since the fixture was made up for
a heavier variety of work than a grinding operation,
the clamps shown at D are much more suited to a
turning operation than they are to a grinding fix-
ture; so, also, the driving pin shown at E would
usually be considered unnecessary if the fixture were
made up for a grinding fixture. This example is
given principally to show how a fixture made up
for turning and boring can be adapted to a grinding
operation if necessary.
If this fixture had been designed originally for
grinding, spring clamps could have been used in
place of the straps shown at D, and the driving pin,
E, could have been omitted. In addition to this, the
entire fixture could have been made much lighter
in its general construction, and would have answered
the purpose fully as well. The adapting plate, F,
was made up in this particular case to fit the spindle
of the grinding machine, and the faceplate, G, was
fitted to it as indicated. A
special form of chuck,
having a series of jaws and operated by means of a
draw-in mechanism through the spindle, can often
be used for work similar to that shown. An example
of this type of holding device is described later in
this chapter.
Grinding Fixture for Universal Joint Member.
A good example of a fixture used for grinding a
tapered hole is shown in Figure 111. This fixture
has a number of commendable points, one of which
is that it may be adjusted to take care of slight
variations caused by distortion in hardening the work

previous to the grinding operation.
The method of setting up the work in this instance
is rather out of the ordinary. In the first place the
work requires that the tapered hole, A, must be
ground concentric with the hole, B, and at right
angles to the cross-hole, C. For this reason the work
is located on a sliding rod, D, which has a bearing
in the spindle at E, so as to run concentric with the

spindle. A
shoulder, B, on the rod, D, locates the
FIG. 111. GRINDING FIXTURE FOR A UNIVERSAL JOINT MEMBER
work in a central position. After it is so located,

the hardened and ground bar, F, is passed through
the cross-hole, C, after which the washer, G, is
slipped into place and the draw-back rod, D, oper-
ated from the rear end of the spindle, pulls back
the work until the bar, F, seats itself in the two
V-blocks, H, on the fixture. (The small detail shown
below the illustration indicates the method by which
the bar, F, is located in the V-block.)
A refinement provided on this fixture is the
knurled button, L, whereby variations in the work
can be compensated. There are three of these but-
tons located 120 degrees apart on the face of thft
fixture, but only one of them is shown in the illus-
tration. An indicator may be used in the hole, A,
to approximate truth before the grinding takes
its
place, and these buttons can then be set up to bring

the hole in the desired position. After the work
has been properly set, it is ground by the small
grinding wheel shown at M, using an internal grind-
ing attachment or an internal grinding machine for
the work. Applications of the principle shown may
be used for other cases of similar character.
Adaptable Fixture for Grinding Spur Gears. After
a spur gear has been machined and the teeth have
been cut, it is frequently put through a process of
pack-hardening or treating in some way to produce
a hard and, at the same time, a tough texture to the
metal, so that it will withstand abuse without frac-
turing. During the process of hardening there is
likely to be a slight change in the shape of the
work, and as it is essential that a gear should have
itsteeth cut in correct relation to the center hole, a
method of compensating for any error from the
hardening process is highly desirable.
The work, A, shown in Figure 112, is a spur gear
which has been hardened and in which it is desirable
to grind the hole, B, which will be concentric with
the teeth around the periphery of the gear. To as-
sure this result the method of locating the gear must
be determined either by the pitch line of the teeth
or else from the bottom of the teeth, for there is
littlelikelihood that these points will change their
relation to the center of the gear because of distor-
tion in hardening. For a spur gear the bottom of
the tooth is usually selected as the locating point.
FIG. 112. SECTION AND PLAN OF AN ADAPTABLE FIXTURE FOR

GRINDING SPUR GEARS
The fixture shown in the illustration consists of a

nose piece, C, mounted on the spindle, D, and pro-
vided with a tapered portion, E, as indicated. The
gear is held and located by a series of blocks, F,
each of which has a point, G, so designed that it
will strike the bottom of six teeth, as indicated.

These six blocks are radially located in a split mem-
ber, H, by means of the clamps shown at K. This
split member, H, is slotted in six places in order
to allow it to contract as it is pulled back into the
tapered portion, E, by means of an internal mech-
anism running through the spindle as indicated at
L, A spider-shaped piece, M, is set into the base
piece, C, between the slots, N, which provide for ex-
pansion and contraction of the piece, H. This spider
is provided in order to give an endwise location to
the work.
It will be seen that as the work is placed in the
chuck, the points, G, are drawn in radially until they

center the work from the bottom of the six teeth
as indicated. This mechanism may be applied to a
PIG. 113. ADJUSTABLE FIXTURE FOR GRINDING A BEVEL PINION
gear having an odd number of teeth by making up

the blocks to suit the conditions.
Adjustable Fixture for Grinding a Bevel Pinion.
A bevel gear that has been hardened is subject to
the same changes as those that may be produced in
a spur gear. It must, therefore, be set up for the
grinding operations in such a way as to compensate
for any errors caused by the hardening process. In
this case, the pitch line of the gear is generally used
as a locating point. Taking the example shown in
Figure 113: the work, A, is to be ground in the
tapered hole, B, which must be concentric with the
teeth cut on the outside of the gear.
A type of fixture is provided for this
different
class of work. A special nose piece, C, is screwed
to the end of the spindle in the usual manner, and
is provided with four holes, D, in which are inserted
the round wires, E, which pass through rollers, F,

and rest against a hardened ring, G, located in the

nose piece and having a suitable taper so that the
center line of the roller will adapt itself to the pitch
line of the gear.
An enlarged view of one of these rollers is shown
in section at the lower part of the illustration. It
will be seen that the center hole through the rollers
is tapered for clearance only, so that a floating action
is permitted, allowing them to adapt themselves to
the gear. Provision is made for supporting the wire

at the inner end of the chuck by means of the ring,
H, and suitable holes are drilled to receive the ends
of the wire. When setting up the work, A, it is
placed in the chuck, and the various rolls find their
location on the fixed line of the gear. The spring
clamps, K, are then swung around into position to
hold the gear in this location. The work is then
ready for grinding.
This type of fixture also can be adapted to bevel
pinions of odd or even teeth by slight changes in
the roll location and by suitable rings of the correct
angle, as shown at G.
Grinding Fixture for a Large Bevel Spring Gear.
The bevel ring gear used in the rear axle of an auto-
mobile is likely to change somewhat during the hard-
ening process; and it is essential, therefore, to grind
it after hardening in such a way that the teeth and
the center hole will be in correct relation to each
other. For purpose a fixture can be made up
this
for grinding similar to that shown in Figure 114.
In this case, the work is located by means of a
master gear, shown at A in the figure. This master
FIG. 114. GRINDING FIXTURE FOR THE LARGE BEVEL RING GEAR IN
THE REAR AXLE OF AN AUTOMOBILE
gear is an exact duplicate of the gear which is to

be ground, and is fastened to the faceplate shown
at B, so that the pitch line of the master gear is
concentric with the center of the spindle. In opera-
tion, the work, C, is placed in position against the
face of the master gear and with the teeth between
those of the master gear. As each of the gears is
beveled, the bevels act in such a way as to center
the gear in the correct position. After the location
has been assured, the spring clamps, D, are adjusted
to hold the work properly. As little pressure is re-
quired to hold a piece of work of this kind, these
clamps answer the purpose very well and can be
quickly adjusted to position. The principle shown
here can be adapted to any work of this character
and the work obtained by its use gives excellent
results,
CHAPTER XVII
OPEN DRILL JIGS
Functions and Operation. Strictly speaking, a
drill jig is a device by means of which a piece of
work may be properly located and clamped in order
that a series of holes may be drilled in the work at
certain fixed locations. It will be seen, then, that any
number of pieces of similar shape and form can be
placed one after the other in a drill jig and all the
pieces will be made in such a way as to be inter-
changeable. Not only is a drill jig provided with
the proper methods of clamping and holding the
work, but there are also a number of bushings, cor-
responding to the number of holes in the piece,
located in the jig in such a way that the drills used
in the manufacture will pass through these bush-
ings and be guided thereby. The bushings are made

of hardened tool steel, and are located very care-
fully by a toolmaker in their correct positions to
produce the holes desired.
Naturally, the shape of the work to be held exer-
cises a powerful influence on the form of jig to be
designed for the work. It is evident that a jig for a

simple piece of work which can be held easily by a
couple of simple clamps, is much easier to design
than one which is of such shape as to require very
253
special methods of locating and clamping. In order

to illustrate the functions of a drill jig, let us suppose
that a hole is to be drilled in each end of a simple
lever, and that the work be done in a drill jig.
is to
Let us further suppose that the workman has a drill

jig before him on the table of a drill press, and that
he is ready to do the work. He takes the work in
one hand, then, and places it in position in the drill
jig, clamping the work securely by means of the
clamps provided in the jig. After this he pulls the
drill jig under the drilling-machine spindle, or
spindles, and proceeds to feed the drill down through
the bushings provided for it in the jig. After the
drillhas been pressed through the work to the proper
distance, .the workman raises the spindle, removes
the jig to a convenient position on the table, and
releases the clamps which hold the work in place.
This allows the piece to be taken out of the jig and
replaced by another one, and the process is repeated.
When drill jigs are to be made for large work, or
when a number of holes are to be drilled at different
angles or from different sides, it is necessary to
make up a drill jig of more elaborate form. If the
work is very large and heavy, trunnion jigs are
frequently employed. Jigs of this character are so
made that the work is placed in position, clamped,
and the entire on a bearing at each
jig is revolved
end, this bearing being the term from which the
word trunnion is derived. A trunnion jig is mounted
on a pedestal, or base of some kind, in such a way
that it can be swung into the correct position for
drilling. It is also provided with suitable indexing
OPEN DRILL JIGS 255
mechanisms, in order to locate the jig properly at

the various angles in which it is to be drilled. Some-
times trunnion jigs are mounted on a sort of carriage
which can be rolled from one drill-press table to
another, in order to take advantage of special group-
ing of the spindle.
In regard to the grouping of spindles, it must be
remembered that many drill jigs are used on mul-
tiple-spindle drilling machines. A number of drilling
machines of this character can be arranged one after
the other and connected by means of a track or
miniature railroad on which a trunnion jig, suitably
mounted on a carriage with wheels which fit the
rails of the railroad, can be rolled from one machine
to the other and indexed, as previously mentioned.
An arrangement of this sort can be used for such
work as an automobile cylinder or crank-case, or a
machine-tool gear box, or some other piece of work
that requires a number of holes to be drilled in it
from different sides. The advantage of such a jig
is that the work is once clamped in position and is
not released until all of the holes have been drilled.

In this way, the jig makes it possible to obtain a
number of pieces of work, all of which are drilled
in exactly the same relation to each other. Drill
jigs can be designed so that their work can be done
on any type of drill press, from a single-spindle ma-
chine to one of the multiple type.
A number of points must be considered in the de-
sign of a drill jig: the method of locating the work
in position; the method of clamping it so that it will
be firmly held against the pressure of the drill and
at the same time will not be distorted by the pressure
of the clamp; clearance around the work; provision
for chips; easy accessibility for cleaning so that no
work can be caused by chips or their
variation in the
accumulation on the locating point; and finally a
method of clamping which will be both rapid and .
positive in action.
When a series of jigs is to be made, these points
must all be taken into consideration if the jigging
process is to give correct results. Any incorrect
method of locating, or any method of clamping which
tends to distort the work, may cause a great deal
of troubleand expense; for even with work requiring
great accuracy it is entirely possible to drill a series
of holes in such a way that they will not coincide
with other holes to which the work is to be fitted.
Again, if the work is strained by the method of
clamping, the hole will not line up properly with
the other work and a great deal of unnecessary fit-
ting must be done when the parts are assembled.
In taking up the more common types of drill jigs,
let us consider that the two most general types are
the open and the closed jigs. An open jig is one
in which the work is held in such a way that it is
not enclosed. A closed jig is one of the box type,
where the work is placed in a sort of box or frame
and is usually drilled from several sides in the same
setting.
A Simple Plate Jig. The work shown at A, Figure
115, is a cast-iron flange which is to be drilled with
six holes, B, located in a circle around one face of
the flange. This is an extremely simple piece for
OPEN DRILL JIGS 257
FIG. 115. SIMPLE PLATE JIG
which to make
a jig and, therefore, it is used as an
example to show what simple forms may be used for
jigging purposes.
In this case, the work has been previously bored
and reamed, so that the jig plate, C, can be located
directly on the upper flange by means of a plug, D,
which enters the roll. The jig plate is provided with
a series of bushings, E, so located in the plate as to
give the resired location to the hole. For a piece
of work of this kind no clamping device is necessary,
as the work usually done on a multiple-spindle
is
drill press, each spindle of which contains a drill of

the proper size for the work. These drill spindles
are adjustable, so that they can readily be made to
correspond to the holes in the jig. In operation, a
jig of this kind is simply dropped on the work which
is located on the drill press table, and immediately
thereafter the spindles of the drill press are brought
down until they enter the bushings; after this the
feed is started and the work is completed without
any clamping device being necessary. The pressure
of the drill is sufficient to hold the work in position,
and after the holes have once been started there is
no necessity for any method of clamping to keep the
jig properly located. Jigs of this kind are suited
to many kinds of work that have been previously
machined, as indicated, and also to work that has a
finished face on which to rest it while the drilling
istaking place.
Plate Jig with Supplementary Supporting Ring.
Another type of plate jig, more suited to work that
would be without support while being
unstable
drilled, is Figure 116. This piece of work
shown in
has been previously finished on both sides of the
flange, B, and also on the outside of the hub, C. It
will be seen, however, that the piece could not be
drilled very well without some sort of support, be-
cause the radius of the hole, E, is out beyond the
base of the hub, A, and if the work were to be drilled
without any support, it would be likely to tip one
way or the other unless all the drills were exactly
of the same length. In order to overcome any
tendency of this sort, a cast-iron ring, F, is made to
act as a support for the work. This ring is made of
sufficient diameter and stability to allow the work to
OPEN DRILL JIGS 259
.^cnx.
I
I
1 1
FIG. 116. PLATE JIG WITH SUPPLEMENTARY PLATE
rest on the flange at B and be supported thereby.

The drill-jig plate, D, in this case, is made so that
it will slip over the hub, C, and is provided with a
series of bushings, E, arranged in circular form to
give the correct spacing of the holes.
In some cases, the holes to be drilled may be of
several diameters, and drills of corresponding diam-
eter are used. However, when an occasion of this kind
arises,some method of location must be provided, both
for thework and for the drill-jig plate in order that the
correct bushings may be located properly under the
corresponding drill.
This kind of jig usually used on a multiple-
is
spindle drill press, with the spindles grouped to the

correct radial setting. Adaptations of the two forms
of jigs just mentioned, Figures 115 and 116, may be
made to cover a variety of cases. Such jigs are
FIG. 117. DRILL JIG FOR AN OIL-PUMP COVER
cheap in their construction and answer the purposes

for which they are intended very well indeed.
Drill Jig for an Oil-Pump Cover. The work shown
at A, Figure 117, is an aluminum oil-pump cover
which has been previously faced on the surface, B,
but has not been turned. Due to the fact that only
one surface on this piece has been machined, it is
necessary to locate from this surface for the opera-
OPEN DRILL JIGS 261
tion of drilling the six holes shown at C. In order

properly to accomplish a correct location for this
work, the vee principle is used.
In the example shown in Figure 117, the two pins
at D are used as locaters of this kind. The work is
forced against or between these pins by means of the
thumb screw shown at E, and is further located by
means of the stop-screw, F, against which the boss
is clamped by means of another screw, G. The
clamps, H, are then tightened, thus holding the work
firmly against the face of the fixture and down on
the surface, B. With the work in this position, the
entire jig is turned over onto the legs, K, on which
it rests while the drilling operation takes place.
These legs are a part of the base casting of the jig,
and are surfaced in such a way as to provide an ample
means of support which is, at the same time, parallel
with the surface, B. Bushings are provided for the
holes at C, as in the former instances described. It
will be seen that after the jig has been turned over,
the pressure of the drills comes entirely against the
clamps; H. These clamps, therefore, must be suffi-
ciently strong and heavy to withstand the pressure.
Jigs of this kind are very useful for many kinds
of semi-cylindrical work where there is a single fin-
ished surface and a series of holes arranged more or
less centrally about the center of the piece. Applica-
tions of the principles shown in this jig can be made
to a great variety of work.
Open Jig for a Lever. Jigs designed for drilling

holes in levers are of two kinds: those which locate
from the work in its unfinished state or which locate
OPEN DRILL JIGS 263
lever rests. The other end of the lever is located

and clamped simultaneously by means of the sliding
vee-block, D. This vee-block is chased up into posi-
tion by means of the thumb screw, E, located in a
swinging latch, F, between the bosses, G, through
which a pin is passed. An additional support is
given the latch at the other end on the lug, H. After
the work has been located as mentioned, it is clamped
firmly by means of the wide clamp, L, which is
slotted so that it can be pushed back out of the way
to allow the piece to be placed in position. When
the work has been clamped as indicated, the entire
jig is turned over, so that it rests upon the two feet,
K, after which the holes are drilled through the bush-
ings indicated.
This type of jig is in common use, with certain
modifications in regard to clamping and locating in
accordance with the nature of the piece to be drilled.
It is comparatively inexpensive and gives excellent
results.
Open Jig for a Lever with Stud Locater. The

lever, A, Figure 119, is of similar shape to that shown
in Figure 118, but it is of larger size, and the end, B,
has been bored and reamed in a previous operation.
It therefore, necessary to locate from this hole to
is,
drill the small end, C. A stud, D, is placed in the
jig body, and the work is placed over it as indicated.
The small end, C, is located by means of a sliding
vee-block, E, which is forced up against the boss by
means of a thumb screw, F. The work is held in
position and supported against the pressure of the
cut by means of the clamp shown at G. As in the
FIG. 119. OPEN JIG WITH STUD LOCATEB
former case, after the work has been located in the

jig it is turned over, so that it rests upon the feet, K,
in which position it is drilled. Jigs of this kind are

nearly as common as that shown in Figure 118, and
their application to many shapes of levers will be
apparent.
Open Jig for a Small Bracket. The work shown
at A, Figure 120, is a small bracket which is to be
drilled at B, C, and D. The holes, B and C, are in
one plane, and the hole, D, is in another. Therefore,
the jig must be so made that it can be turned on one
side for the latter hole and on another side for the
holes at B and C. The use of a vee-block is seen in
this fixture at E, and the rounded angular end of the
OPEN DRILL JIGS 265
JIG. 120. PLAN AND SECTION OF OPEN JIG FOR A SMALL BRACKET
work rests in this block as it is forced there by means

of the set-screwshown at F. It will be seen that this
set-screw placed at an angle and also that the vee-
is
block, E, has an angular face. The purpose of this

is to make sure that the work will be held down
firmly and located correctly. The work rests on the

flatmilled surface, G, and suitable bushings are pro-
vided for the various holes. An additional clamp is
provided at H
in order to make the clamping action
more positive. Legs are provided on the side of the
jig at K and also at L, so that the work can be
FIG. 121. SET-ON JIG FOR A TRANSMISSION-CASE COVER
drilled in the correct positions. Additional legs are

also made at M
for purposes of setting up the work.
Set-on Jig for a Transmission-case Cover. When
a large piece of work is to be handled and a small
portion of it only is to be drilled, a set-on jig is ad-
vantageous. In the design of a jig of this kind it is
always necessary to consider the bearing which the
work itself will have on the table of the drill press,
in order that the pressure of the drills as they enter
the work may not be in such a position as to cause
the work to topple over or tip on one side.
An example of this kind is shown in Figure 121.
In this case, the work, A, has been previously fin-
ished by milling along the surface, B, and also on
the face, C. At C, four holes are to be drilled as
OPEN DRILL JIGS 267
shown at E in the upper view. The surface, B, is

sufficiently solid to rest on the drill-press table with-
out difficulty.
The drill jig is made of cast iron and consists of a
pipe, D, with lugs at each end through which the
set-screws, F, are passed to act as an end-stop for
the jig when it is placed in position on the work.
Another stop-pin is placed on the other side of the
jig plate, as shown at H
in the upper view, and in
placing the jig plate on the work this pin is brought
up against the side of the work before the set-screw,
shown at G, is tightened. As this set-screw is tight-
ened it will be seen that the entire jig is clamped in
place on the top of the work. The jig plate is pro-
vided with a series of bushings, E, through which
the drills are passed as the four holes are drilled.
This is a very simple type of jig, but application of
the principle showm can be used on many other cases
for work of similar kind.
Set-on Jig for a Gas-Control Plate. Set-on jigs are
sometimes used for small as well as for large pieces
when the size of the work is such that it can be used
to advantage. In designing a jig of this kind care
must be exercised to see that there is sufficient stabil-
ity to the work itself to permit placing and support-
ing the jig upon it. Figure 122 is a very good ex-
ample of a piece of work which can be drilled with
this type of set-on jig. The gas-control plate, A,
in this case, has been finished in a previous opera-
tion, so that the surface, B, is perfectly plane and

can therefore be used for setting up the work. The
jig is placed on the top of the piece as indicated in
OPEN DRILL JIGS 269
in a book of this kind. My effort, therefore, has

been to show new forms of open jig, in order that
the discriminating reader may be able to form an
idea of the various types and their application to
work of ordinary nature. Speaking broadly, an open
jig can be made for almost any piece of work when
holes are to be drilled from not more than three
directions. As the usual thing, however, open jigs
are designed for pieces that are to be drilled in one
or two directions only
CHAPTER XVIII
CLOSED JIGS
Bushing for an Oil-Pump Shaft. In the previous

chapter a few varieties of open jigs were described,
but by no means all types were mentioned. In this
chapter, also, it will be impossible to enumerate every
type of closed jigs, and yet an attempt will be made
to cover the subject in a broad way, so that the
reader will be able to get a good idea of the variety
of jigs.
Eeferring to Figure 123, let us assume that the
bush%ig shown at A, has been previously bored and
reamed in the hole, C, and that the end, B, has been
faced. Let us also assume that the outside of the work
has been completely finished to the form shown, and
that the upper end has also been faced. The work
in this case is locatedon the previously finished hole
at C on a small stud, and it rests against the sur-
face, B, on the locating stud. While in this position,
it is clamped by means of the set-screw shown at H.
A button on the end of the set-screw bears against

the end of the piece.
This type of jig is arranged in such a way that
holes can be drilled in the work at two different
angles. The jig is turned over on the legs, F, while
the hole located by the bushing, D, is drilled. After
270
CLOSED JIGS 271
FIG. 123. BUSHING FOR AN OIL-PUMP SHAFT
this done, the jig is turned over until it rests

is
upon the legs, K. In this position, the drill is guided

by the long bushing shown at G. As this bushing
is so very long, it will be noticed that it is relieved
to a size a little larger than the drill for a good pro-
portion of its length.
As the piece of work shown in this illustration is
cylindrical in its general form, it does not make any

difference how it is located radially, so that it is
only necessary to slip it on to the stud and tighten
the clamp screw, H, before starting the work. A
drill jig of this kind can be used for many kinds of
bushing work when oil holes or other holes of sim-

ilar kind are to be drilled. It forms an excellent
example of a simple type of closed jig. Naturally,
such a jig is used on a drill press, either with a
couple of spindles in which the different size drills
are placed and used one after the other, or else a
magic chuck or its equivalent is used in a single
spindle machine, and sockets for each of the drills
are provided so that one can be interchanged for the
other while the spindle is in motion.
Drill Jig for a Rod-Supporting Bracket. The sup-
porting bracket for a rod or shaft, shown at A, Fig-
ure 124, has been previously machined in a hole
which extends entirely through the hub indicated.
At the time when the hole was reamed, the end of
the hub was also faced. In a subsequent operation
the surface, K, was milled in a definite relation to the
reamed hole. In the operation indicated by this jig,
the work to be done is the drilling of the two holes,
B, and also the one from the opposite side as indi-
cated at C.
As the hole, F, shown entirely through the hub
has been previously located from the milled surface,
K, when it was machined, it is obvious that a loca-
tion from the hole and the milled surface can log-
ically be considered as the correct method of locat-
ing for the present operation. In order to support
the flanges while they are being drilled, the two set-
screws, E, operated by the workman's fingers are
used. These set-screws are conical on the end, so
that they set up a slight wedging action and hold
the work
securely. The piece is slipped upon a locat-
ing stud in the large hole, and after it has been
clamped against the opposite end of the hub by
means of the C-washer shown at F, by the nut indi-
cated, the set-screws, E, are tightened as previously
mentioned. When drilling the holes, B, the jig is set
CLOSED JIGS 273
r~
r-
274 TOOLS AND PATTEKNS
up upon the legs, D. When the hole, C, is to be

drilled, the entire jig is turned over until it rests
upon the legs on the opposite side. This completes
the drilling operations on this piece of work.
This is one of the simplest types of jigs which can
be devised, but it can be made to give excellent re-
sults in ordinary practice. A point which should be
mentioned in connection with a jig of this sort is that
the surface on the jig shown at K should be so milled
in relation to the center stud on which the work
locates that there will be a slight amount of clear-
ance between the surface of the piece and the pad
on which it locates. A very slight amount of tipping
may be caused when the thumb-screws, E, are tight-
ened; but in actual practice this amount would never
be sufficient to cause any trouble, so that the jig can
logically be considered of good design. In addition,
this jig is easily made and easily cleaned, and chips
are not likely to accumulate on the locating point,
thereby causing errors in locating.
Jig for Automobile Hand Lever. Sometimes an
occasion arises to make a jig which can neither be
considered an open jig nor yet a closed jig. Such an
example is indicated in Figure 125. In this example,
the jig is a kind of half and half type, and is not
really one of the two types, but is midway between
them. In this case, the work, A, is a hand lever
used for operating a pull rod or latch on the brake
lever of an automobile. Previous to the operation
of drilling, the work has been milled on the surface,
F, and it is therefore safe to use this surface as a
locating point in the drilling operation. The piece,
CLOSED JIGS 275
FIG. 125. JIG FOR AN AUTOMOBILE HAND LEVER
therefore, is laid on the surface, F, in the jig as indi-

cated, and is pushed over into a vee-block, D, by
means set-screw, E.
of the This set-screw strikes
against a corner or fillet on the lever in such a way
as to force the work into the vee-block and at the
same time to throw it over until it strikes the end
of the set-screw, G. It will be seen that then the
set-screw, G, acts as one side of a vee, the other side

of which is formed by the thumb-screw, E. All of
the clamping action is accomplished by means of this
one screw in the case mentioned. Little difficulty is
experienced in setting up the work for the operation
and in obtaining a correct location.
The work which is to be done in this setting of
the piece is the drilling of the two holes, B and C,
and the entire jig is set up on the leg shown at E, in
the lower portion of the illustration, when the work is
done. Bushings, naturally, are provided at B and C
to guide the drill and to insure correct locations for
the hole.
Nearly all of the jigs shown so far in these two
chapters are made of cast iron, as this material lends
itself to a variety of forms and can be made cheaply
and quickly. But the same types of jigs can be
built up from steel if desired, and in the case of gun
jigs and of jigs for use with a great many dull pieces,
the steel built-up jig is to be preferred. Its cost,
however, is prohibitive in anything but very large
production.
Drill Jig for a Bearing End-Cap. When a piece
of work has been previously machined and it is nec-
essary to locate it for a drilling operation subsequent
to the other operations on the work, it is essential
to locate the piece by means of the finished surfaces.
An excellent jig for a piece of work of this kind is
shown in Figure 126. In this case the work, A, has
been previously faced at B and has been recessed
at C. It is necessary then to locate the work for
the drilling of the four holes shown at F, by the
previously finished surfaces. The method of doing
this is to set the work upon a shallow stud or plate,
CLOSED JIGS 277
f W^tt&m
FIG. 126. DRILL JIG FOE A. BEARING END CAP
locating it by means of the recess at C, and clamping

the work by means of an equalizing collar, H, oper-
ated by the thumb screw, K.
In placing the work in the jig, the square side of
the piece strikes against the two set screws, G, thus
giving a squaring-up effect. It will be seen that the
action of the clamp collar, H, is such that when the
thumb screw, K, tightened, the entire collar rocks
is
sufficiently to permit an equally distributed pressure

on the work. The thumb screw, K, is mounted in a
strap, N, which extends entirely across the jig. This
strap is slotted at L and M
in such a way that it
can be quickly removed when placing a piece of
work in the jig or removing one from it.
In operation the jig is set up on the four legs
shown at D, and the work is slipped into position.
After this is done the strap is put in place and the
thumb screw, K, is tightened. The entire jig is then
turned over until it rests on the legs, E. Bushings
are provided at F to guide the drills to their proper
positions.
This type of jig can be used for many varieties
of work of a similar character, the only variation
necessary is in the manner of locating the piece and
in little details of clamping, and so on. The type

itself is a common one, the use of which can be
adapted to numerous kinds of work of similar char-
acter.
an Eccentric Bushing. The eccentric
Drill Jig for
bushing shown at A, Figure 127, is used as an ad-
justing bushing for obtaining the correct relation
between the worm and worm-gear sector of an auto-
mobile steering gear. This piece of work has been
previously bored and reamed at B, and has been
faced on the end. The drill jig shown in the illus-
tration is for the purpose of drilling the hole, D, in
the end of the arm as indicated in the illustration.
The body of the jig is provided with feet, K, on
CLOSED JIGS 279
FIG. 127, DRILL JIG FOR AN ECCENTRIC BUSHING

which it rests on the table of the drill press. The
work is located on a short stud shown at C, and is
clamped down upon the shoulder of stud by
the
means thumb screw, L.
of the This thumb screw
operates a square plate, M, which bears against the
top of the bushing at E. The correct location for
the arm in which the hole is to be drilled is assured
by means of the thumb screw, P, which acts as a stop
for the end of the lever, and also by the screw, G,
which forces the work over against the screw pre-
viously mentioned. A suitable bushing is provided
at D, which is it can be removed
so arranged that
and replaced by another bushing of suitable size for
the reamer.
The method used in drilling and reaming a piece
of work in a jig of this kind, is first to drill the
work, using the drill-sized bushing, and immediately
after this operation to remove the bushing and sub-
stitute a larger one of the proper size for the reamer.
This reaming of the hole sizes it correctly to the
given diameter and produces a smoothly finished
piece of work.
The slip bushing shown in this illustration is one
of many types which can be used when it is neces-
sary to remove one bushing and replace it by another,
as in reaming a hole after it has been drilled. There
is very little difference in the types of bushings, the
essential point in design being that the bushing shall
be so made that it can be easily and quickly re-
moved and secured firmly when in position.
Drill Jig" for a Radius Bracket. A
somewhat odd-
shaped piece of work which requires a rather pecu-
CLOSED JIGS 281
FIG. 128. DRILL JIG FOR A RADIUS BRACKET
liar type of jig is shown in Figure 128. The work, A,

has been previously machined on the surfaces, B
and C, to the angle indicated. It is necessary, there-
fore, to locate it by the previously finished surfaces,
and also to provide an end location and clamp the
work securely in position in the jig. The end loca-
tion is assured by means of the stop screw, E, and
by the thumb screw, F. This thumb screw, F, is
hand operated after the work has been thrown over
into the position shown, by means of the screw, K, at
the other end of the jig.
The work to be done in this operation is the drilling
of the hole, D, through the angular side of the piece,
and also two other holes indicated at E. Suitable
bushings are provided for all of these holes, as can
be clearly seen in the illustration. The bushing used
for the hole, D, is of the slip variety and is indi-
cated at G. On the opposite side of the jig a bush-
ing, H, is located for a counterbore which is used
in one side of the hole D. In operation the work is
;
placed in the jig until the surface, B, rests against

the angular part of the jig, after which the set screw,
K, is used to move the work forward in the jig
until it strikes the set screw, E. The thumb screw,
F, is then brought up to make a contact and to
assist in supporting the work, and the screw, N, is
used to bring up the angular shoe shown at L,
against the angular side of the work. The work
itself restson the set screws, and P, and is clamped
down by the screw at M. It will be seen that the
position of the screw, K, is such that it tends to
throw the work down against the stop and over
against the two set screws, E and F. A jig of tkis
kind is provided with feet on the sides opposite to
all points which are to be drilled, so that the jig
will have a firm foundation on which pressure can
be brought to bear.
In drilling the piece shown, the slip bushing, G,
is first used, and a large hole is drilled through the
portion, D. After this the bushing is removed, and a

counterbore of special shape is fed down through the
CLOSED JIGS 283
liner bushing indicated. The jig is then turned over

and the process is repeated through the bushing, H.
In like manner the other holes are drilled by spindles
in a multiple-spindle drilling machine, these spindles
being arranged in proper location to give the correct

spacing for the various holes. Jigs of this character
are used for many kinds of work and can be adapted
to suit different conditions.
Drill Jig for a Crooked Lever. The work shown
at A, Figure 129, is a crooked lever, both ends of
which are to be drilled and reamed as shown at B
and C. In addition to these two holes, there is a
smaller hole at F, which is to be drilled in the same
setting of the work. For this operation the lever is
placed in the jig through the open side and rests
on the finished pad at each end. At the large end,
the flat surface of the work
rests on a fixed support,
as indicated, but at the smaller end, B, the support is
assured by means of the screw bushing shown at H.
After the work has been placed in position, this
screw bushing is jacked up by means of a pin placed
in the holesshown at 0.
The location of the work is gained by the V-blocks
at E. noted that the V-block at this end

It will be
of the lever is fixed, but at the other end there is
a floating member attached to the thumb screw, L,
which also acts as a V-block locater. This is clearly
shown in the upper view. After the work has been
placed in position and located as mentioned, the
thumb screw, D, is turned down firmly against the
web of the lever. The work is now in position to
be drilled, and the jig is turned over on the legs
FIG. 129. DRILL JIG FOR A CROOKED LEVER
shown at P and K for the various drilling operations

involved.
The principles involved in this jig are identical
with those which can be applied to many other
varieties of lever jigs. Naturally it is always neces-
sary to adapt any jig to the work on which it is to
be used, but the principles underlying the design
of jigs of this kind are much the same, and suitable
adaptations can be made for various conditions of
'work in the shop.
Large Trunnion Jig. When the work to be
handled of large size and somewhat awkward in
is
shape, it is sometimes desirable to hold it in some

CLOSED JIGS 285
sort of jig which can be easily loaded. After the

piece has been placed in the jig, the entire mechanism
can be turned over by means of a crank or other
mechanical device, so that it will lie in the correct
position under the drill-press spindles. Furthermore,
a jig of this kind should be arranged so that several
sides of the work can be drilled without removing
the piece from the jig and without any necessity
for more than one operation of clamping. suit- A
able indexing device can be made, so that the accu-
racy of the holes which are to be put in from differ-
ent sides of the work can be assured without diffi-
culty.
A jig of the kind mentioned is generally termed a
trunnion jig. The possibilities of a trunnion jig are
lependent on the number of sides of the work which
ire to be drilled. When the work is such that it
lust be drilled from four or five directions, it is
>ssible to make a double trunnion jig which can be
idexed in several directions to provide for the drill-
ig of holes from several different angles. However,
jig of this kind is more or less complicated, and it
does not always prove a profitable investment to

make one unless the work is in sufficient quantity
so that the expense incurred will be offset by the
saving in the manufacturing time. Nevertheless, drill

jigs of the trunnion type having a suitable bearing
on which they can be swung, are more or less
common.
An example of a trunnion jig of this kind is shown
in Figure 130. The work, A, in this case is a trans-
mission-case casting made of aluminum and pre-
L SECTION P-Q
Enlarged Scale
FIG. 130. EXAMPLE OF TRUNNION JIG FOR A TRANSMISSION

CASE COVER
viously machined along the surface, C. It has also

been drilled at two points for dowels, as indicated
at B, and these holes are used as locating holes for
the work when the piece is being drilled. In locat-
ing the piece, A, in the jig, the position of the
entire jig is as indicated in the illustration. The
work is placed in the U-shaped casting, H, locating
on the dowel pins at B. After it has been placed in

position the latch, F, is swung down into position
and the thumb screw, G, is tightened to secure the
latch. After this the two thumb screws shown at D

and E are tightened to make the work absolutely
secure in the jig.
The piece is now ready to be drilled, but it will be
noted that the holes, J, which are to be drilled are in
the under side of the work. The entire unit, H, is
hung on two bearings at S, and these bearings are
situated in the carriage, L, which is furnished with
wheels, N, traveling along a track located on the
bed of the drill press. An enlarged section of the
CLOSED JIGS 287
track is at P-Q, which makes the construc-

shown
tion of this part of the jig clearly apparent. The
purpose of the track is to provide a means of mov-
ing the jig from one machine to another when one
part of the work has been drilled by a series of
spindles and another set of holes is to be handled on
another machine.
When the jig is to be indexed preparatory to drill-
ing, the pull pin, K, is removed from the bushed hole
indicated, after which the handle, L, is operated,
thus indexing the entire jig by means of the gears
shown at M. This indexing operation turns the
entire jig over, so that it is in the correct position for
drilling the work.
An arrangementof this kind will show very
satisfactory when
results a high production is to
be obtained on a given piece of work and when the
piece is of such sizeand shape that it can not be
conveniently handled in a single operation. By ar-
ranging a track like the one indicated in the figure,
and by suitably fastening this track on cradle cast-
ings, like those shown at R, the round shaft, 0, makes
an excellent track used in connection with the
grooved wheels. It is entirely possible, with an ar-
rangement of this kind, to set up two or three ma-
chines with properly-spaced spindles so that the jig
can be rolled from one machine to the other with
very little loss of time and without the necessity for
more than one setting of the work.
In this chapter an attempt has been made to de-
scribe a variety of drill jigs which are in common
use, but it is eivdent that it is entirely out of the ques-
tion, in a work of this kind, to go into every matter

of design in great detail. Enough examples have
been given, however, to make the subject as clear
as the space will permit and the examples given have
been selected with a view toward simplicity and
variety.
CHAPTER XIX
LUBRICATION OF CUTTING TOOLS
Necessity of Lubrication. If a man has an auto-

mobile, a bicycle, or some other piece of machinery
and wishes the machine to be at its best, the first
thing that he considers is the proper lubrication of
the various bearings so that the mechanism will run
as smoothly as possible. Now, in cutting any piece
of metal the question of lubrication also arises, for
as the cutting tool is in constant contact with the
metal which being cut, it is obvious that a great
is
deal of friction is produced. The friction heats the

tool, and if the amount of heat generated is excessive,
the result will be disastrous to the cutting tool and
eventually result in its ruin. It is necessary there-
fore on some kindsof material to provide a suitable
cutting lubricant in order to carry away the heat
generated by the friction of the tool and to make
the work easier. Certain kinds of material do not
require lubrication, but on others it can be used to
great advantage.
The question of lubricating a cutting tool is of so
great importance that it must be thoroughly consid-
ered. A great many points come up in connection
with cutting lubricants for different classes of mate-
rials. It is out of the question to attempt to prescribe
289
a cutting lubricant which will be suited to any par-
ticular kind of metal without knowing the exact
nature of the alloy of which the metal is composed.
Let us suppose that some one were to ask the question,
"What is the best cutting lubricant for aluminum?"
It would be difficult to answer this question abso-
lutely without knowing of what alloy of aluminum
the casting was composed.
This reminds me of an anecdote which I once heard
of two Englishmen who were in this country for the
first time and who were talking about the peculiar-
ities of Americans The two men were in
in general.
and one remarked to
a railroad station at the time,
the other, "They say that an American always an-
swers a question by asking another one." "That
seems very improbable," replied the second. "Well,
let us see this is really the case. I'll try it now."
if
So he strolled over to the ticket office and. asked the

ticket agent, "I want a ticket. How much is it?"
And the agent replied, "Where to?"
So in the matter of cutting lubricants for different
materials, if I were asked to state the type or kind
of lubricant best suited to a given material, I would
have to ask what the composition of the casting
was before it would be possible to name the proper
kind of lubricant to use on the work.
There is considerable difference of opinion among
manufacturers as to what particular lubricant is bet-
ter for certain classes of work. However, a variety
of lubricants have been proved to give excellent
results, and although the proportions of their com-
ponent parts may vary somewhat, the ingredients
LUBRICATION OF CUTTING TOOLS 291
themselves are very similar. In this chapter we will

describe a number of lubricants which have been used
with success on different kinds of materials. Although
modifications of the formulas herein given may be
found advisable in some cases, the ones given are
thoroughly practicable for commercial purposes.
Composition of Cutting Lubricants. In the first
place it must be remembered that all materials do
not require lubrication. Cast iron, for example, is
not lubricated to any extent. (Some manufacturers
have attempted to use various lubricants on cast
iron, but I do not believe that the results obtained
have been at all convincing. At any rate, cast iron
is generally cut dry.) Brass is usually cut dry.
Aluminum is sometimes cut dry and at other times
it is cut with a lubricant.
We have decided that the purpose of a cutting

lubricant is twofold, one of the purposes being the
lubricating of the cutting tool, thereby eliminating
the friction to a certain extent, and the other is a
cooling action intended to keep the cutting tool in
such condition that it will not be ruined by too
great heat. Now, in discussing the kinds of lubri-
cants used for these purposes, we can consider that
practically only two kinds of lubricants are in use.
One of these is composed of lard oil or mineral oil,
or of mixtures of mineral and lard oil. The other
compound is of a soapy nature and was devised in
order to provide a greater cooling effect than that
obtained by the use of oil only; at the same time it
carries sufficient grease so that it provides a certain
amount of lubrication also.
A solution of sodawater was formerly used as a
cooling medium, but as this compound possesses
littlelubricating action it has been gradually re-
placed by other compositions carrying greater per-
centages of grease. A
number of solutions are on
the market at present, and most of these are in the
nature of emulsions. A saponaceous, or soapy, fluid
is formed by means of potash, or soda, added to
animal oil which is readily soluble in water. In
mixing a compound of this kind it is only necessary
to dissolve soap in mineral oil and then add water
sufficient for the purpose in hand.
important in mixing a solution of cooling or

It is
cutting compounds for any kind of work to make

sure that the action of the compound is not such that
it will cut away the lubricating oil used in the bear-
ings of the machine. Unless care is used in making

a proper mixture, there is some danger of obtaining
so "sharp" a mixture that it will eventually remove
all the lubricating oil from whatever portion of the
machine it touches, and the natural result will be
that the machine itself will be seriously injured
through friction.
The
different compositions of cutting lubricants
as used by various manufacturers are much the
same, although their method of mixing and the
various proportions of the ingredients may differ
somewhat. In general, the following formulas will be
found to give good results, although the mixing of
the compound may vary according to the amount of
water which is used.
Bar stock or machine-steel forgings can best be
cut with a mixture of lard oil, borax, and water, or

lard oil or mineral oil can be used alone.
Steel castings, and bronze or malleable iron can be
cut to advantage with a lubricant composed of min-
eral oil alone.
A mixture made of half lard oil and half kerosene
will prove the best for aluminum castings, and pro-
duces a very smooth cutting action that is much
better than kerosene alone. Kerosene alone is advo-
cated by many manufacturers, but it is not equal to
the lubricant mentioned.
Wide-faced and forming tools seem to give better
results when lard oil alone is used with them, and
tools that are made of carbon steel seem to have
longer life with this lubricant.

Lubricating Compound for Steel. An excellent
borax compound for steel is made as follows: Dis-
solve one pound of borax in seven gallons of hot
water and allow the mixture to cool. After it has
cooled, add to it one gallon of lard oil thoroughly
mixed. Enough borax should be used to make the
oil and water mix thoroughly. The quality of the
lard oil used will affect the amount of borax, and
hard or soft water will also make a difference in the
proportions. The quantities mentioned are safe to
start with, although slight variations may be needed
to suit particular cases.
A convenient method of mixing catting lubricants
of this kind is to use forty gallons of hot water to
?even pounds of borax, mixing the solution in a fifty-
gallon barrel. When the solution has cooled, seven
gallons of lard oil can be stirred in, after which it is
ready for use. As previously mentioned, the greatest

care should be used in the amount of borax, because
too much borax has a tendency to cut away the
lubricating oil used on the machine, so that trouble
may be caused from imperfect lubrication of the
machine parts. In general, however, it will be found
that a tool will wear away more quickly when borax
solution is used than if pure lard oil is used, but the
Qpoling action on the tool is considerably greater
with the borax water.
Cooling by Lubrication. The matter of cooling
the tool and lubricating it at the same time is of so
much importance that it is well to speak at this time
of the particular necessity for proper lubrication
when heavy cuts are being taken. As an example, let
us consider that a piece of steel is being cut with a
heavy feed and at about the maximum speed, and

it is desired to select a suitable lubricant for it. As
the friction produced by a heavy cut is so much
greater than if the cut were to be a light one, it is
apparent that in order to produce as good a lubricat-
ing effect as possible it will be necessary to use an
oil rather than a borax compound. But if the same
piece of steel is being machined at high speed and
the amount of stock which is being removed is not
very great, the heating of the tool will be very much
greater, and a borax solution will therefore be found
to give better results.
Another factor that is worthy of comment in re-
gard to the use of cutting lubricants on machine

tools, is the matter of power consumption. Author-
itative data on this subject is difficult to obtain, but
as it is known that a machine will run easier with

oil in the bearings, I am firmly convinced that a cut-
ting tool will remove metal easier if it is properly
lubricated. Experiments that have been made along
these lines have been widely different in the results
obtained, and to my knowledge no absolute tests
under careful management have been made that give
contradictory data.
Lubricating Stream to Remove Chips. Another
function which should be mentioned is the use of
a stream of cutting compounds to wash away the
chips that are generated by the tool. This item is
more serious in some cases than in others. For ex-
ample, take the drilling of a deep hole in a piece of
steel:Here, at times, it is difficult to get the chips
that are being rapidly removed out of the way, and
they stick in the flutes of a drill or pack around a
cutting tool in such a way as to interfere greatly
with the proper machining of the piece.
Let us take as an example a piece of steel which
is being drilled on a horizontal turret lathe. Refer-
ring to Figure 131, the work, A, is held in a special
collet chuck as shown in the illustration. The turret
ithe in this provided with a system for
case is
lubricating the tool through a pipe, B, which con-

lects with the turret as it is indexed from one posi-
:ion to the other. The drill, C, is of the "oil type,"
that is, has a
ithole through the center and two
lucts which lead out directly at the point of the
Irill through which the cutting lubricant is forced
by means of 'the pump on the machine. As the pump
forces the lubricant to the drill, the high pressure
FIG. 131. INTERNAL OILING ARRANGEMENT FOR DRILLING

ON A HORIZONTAL TURRET LATHE
of the fluid tends to force out the chips as they are

generated by the end of the drill, along the flutes, so
that eventually they find their way to the end of the
work and drop out. A method
of forcing lubricants
through tools used on the turret lathe is not uncom-
mon, although the practice varies somewhat with
different manufacturers. Boring bars are not as
easy to lubricate as some other forms of cutting
tools.
Lubricating Through the Spindle of a Turret

Lathe. The device shown in Figure 132 was applied
to a horizontal turret lathe in order to provide proper
lubricating facilities for the cutting tools used in the
inside work on the piece, A. The device was applied
from the rear end of the spindle, but the pump used
to force the lubricant to the spindle was a component
i i
FIG. 132. LUBRICATION OF SPECIAL NATURE APPLIED TO A

TURRET LATHE
part of the machine. A reference to the illustration

will make apparent that a boring bar, B, is used
it
to bore two diameters on the inside of the work, and

is piloted by a bushing, C, in the chuck.
In order to provide the inside cutting tools with
proper lubrication, a pipe, D, is connected to the
lubricant supply pump and is passed through the
md of the spindle where it is guided in the packing
mshings. Through the spindle and at the forward
md, E, it is provided with a telescoping tube of
smaller size, as shown at F. This smaller tube
eaches forward and enters a hole in the end of the
)oring bar. From this hole other smaller holes lead
out directly in front of the cutting tools. coil A
spring takes care of the variations as the bar, B,
progresses into the hole during the cutting action,
and a stop collar, G, limits the forward movement
of the tube, F, as it strikes against the end of the
boring bar.
The application of a device of this kind to a turret
lathe is not costly, and the results obtained by its
use are very satisfactory. At different times I have
made a number of equipments for oiling tools through
the spindle, most of which have been on a similar
order to the one shown in this illustration. It is
obvious that different conditions require slightly
different methods of handling, but the principles in-
volved in the design are much the same in all
cases.
Flood Lubrication. Nearly every machine of a
manufacturing type provided with lubricating
is
devices of one kind or another, according to the type

of machine and the nature of the work to be done.
A turret lathe of the horizontal variety, for instance,
is usually equipped with outside lubricating devices
which will direct a copious
supply of fluid against a
piece of work thatbeing machined.
is A milling
machine is also provided with an outside supply
system for furnishing cutting lubricants to the cut-
ters and the work, and flood lubrication (which
means an excess supply of lubricants) is the usual
method. The production of work from machines
which are provided with flood lubrication for the
cutting tools is far in advance of that obtained from
machines of the older type which had an inadequate
supply of lubricant.
In order to supply a machine with a proper amount
of lubricant, or cutting fluid, and to direct the stream
or streams to the proper position, it is necessary to
arrange the piping in such a way that the spouts
can be swung in any direction, longitudinally and
vertically. By referring to Figure 133 an excellent
example may be seen of the application of a cutting
c-.
\\
Table
EG. 133. CUTTING-LUBRICANT SYSTEM ON A BULLAED VERTICAL

TURRET LATHE
lubricant system to a vertical turret lathe. This
system is used by the Bullard Machine Tool Co. on
their vertical boring mills and vertical turret lathes.
A standpipe at one side of the machine contains two
sliding tubes which can be adjusted vertically to suit
the height of the piece that is being machined. These
two tubes have spouts, A and B, and suitable cocks,
as shown at C, to cut off the lubricant or reduce the
flow. be seen that the fluid can be directed
It will
immediately onto the work, D, without difficulty.

One of the nice features of the device shown lies in
the fact that the supply of lubricant is copious and
can flood the work with a suitable cutting compound
forced through the pipe by a pump located on the
machine. After the cutting fluid has been used, it
flows downwards andfinds its way eventually through
a fine screen back to the pump and is immediately
sent forth again through the same channel to the
work.
CHAPTER XX
CUTTING FEEDS AND SPEEDS
A Careful StudyRequired. In order to obtain

maximum efficiency from any machine tool it is an
essential point that the proper cutting feeds and
speeds should be used. The question then arises as
to what cutting speed is correct for any given kind
of material with a given feed. It is evident that a
very little difference in the cutting speed and a

slight, variation in the feed used on a piece of work
will make considerable difference in the number of
pieces of work that may be produced in one hour,
one day, or one year.
Let us suppose that a certain piece of work is
being machined, and that the feed and speed are a
little less than they should be. If it takes an oper-
ator ten minutes to produce a piece of work at the
feed and speed that is being used, then a reduction
of one minute in the time necessary to machine the
piece would mean a considerable saving in total pro-
duction time. In order, then, that the maximum
production should be obtained from any machine, it
is evident that the cutting feed and speed should be
very carefully studied.

Definition of Cutting Speed. The term "cutting
"
speed in feet per minute is not always thoroughly
301
understood by the non-technical man. In order there-
fore to make the matter more clearly evident to the
reader a short explanation will suffice. Considered
in elementary form, cutting speed means the number
of feet of metal, considered as a continuous strip,
which passes a given point upon the edge of a cut-
ting tool in one minute. For example: Let it be
supposed that I am planing a piece of cast iron 5 feet
long, and that it takes me 10 seconds, or one-sixth of
a minute, to make a cut the length of the work. It
is evident that the cutting speed which I am using
is 30 feet per minute, because it takes one-sixth of
a minute for 5 feet to pass the cutting tool, and six-

sixths of a minute will elapse while 30 feet of metal
are passing the tool, not considering the return
stroke of the planer.
In the same way a piece of cylindrical work which
is revolving and passing a given point on the cutting
tool, can be considered as a ribbon of metal unwind-
ing from the outside of the work as fast as it passes
the tool. In this case the circumference must be
considered in determining the cutting speed. Let us
assume that I have a piece of cast iron 20 inches in
diameter which is running at a rate of 10 revolutions
per minute, and I wish to know at what speed I am
cutting the work, and whether it should be decreased
or increased, and how much.
Formula for Determining Cutting Speeds. It is
evident that the circumference of the work, multi-
plied by the number of revolutions per minute at
which it is running, and divided by 12 (which is
the number of inches in one foot) should equal the
CUTTING FEEDS AND SPEEDS '303
number of feet per minute at which the work is
being cut. Or the solution of the problem would

appear as follows:
T~ --
20 x 3.1416 x 10
52.4 ft. per mm.
As this process is a rather tedious one, let us take
an approximation of the necessary figures, and from
them derive a formula. If we take the constant, 3.1416,
and divide it by 12, which is the number of inches
to the foot, we obtain the figure 0.262, or, in round
numbers, 0.250. Then by substituting this figure,

0.250 (or %), we obtain in place of the solution of
the problem given above, another one:
20 x 0.250 x 10 = 20 x ~ = 50
While this is not exactly correct, it is near enough
for all practical purposes.
If we resolve the matter into a formula, then, we
obtain the following:
Where
D = diameter of work.
N = number of revolutions per minute.
C cutting speed in feet per minute.
If we
reverse this process in order to find the
necessary number of revolutions per minute required
for a piece of work of a given diameter to obtain a
given cutting speed, we use the formula

Taking the same example as given above with the

work diameter, D 20; cutting speed desired, C
50 feet per minute, then
4x50
2o~
~ r-p ' m '
It will be found that most of these formulas are

very simple and can easily be memorized, so that
all cutting speeds for any given diameter can be de-
termined very rapidly by mental calculation.

The number of revolutions required to obtain cut-
ting speeds for given diameters can be found in any
mechanical handbook, but such a book is not always
conveniently at hand when it is desired to know
what a cutting speed is for a certain
class of work.
In such cases the above formulas will be found of
great assistance.
Relation of Speed to Feed. There are certain well-
defined rules which can be applied to the correct set-
ting of a feed and speed for a given piece of work
when the composition and the quality of the work are
known. An important factor in production work is
the depth of the cut to be taken on the work. If a
large amount of material is to be removed and if, there-
fore, the depth of the cut is considerable, it is evi-
dent that the amount of pressure brought to bear
upon the tool and the amount of power required to
pull the tool through the work are of first impor-
tance.
Speaking generally, the depth of the cut has a
powerful effect on the feed which can be used and
also on the speed. It would seem that there should
CUTTING FEEDS AND SPEEDS 305
be, then, a direct relation between the cutting speed

and the feed. That is to say, if a speed of fifty feet
per minute were to be used and a feed of 1/32 of
an inch per revolution of the work with a depth of
cut of % of an incli, it would appear logical that if
the cutting speed were to be changed, the amount of
feed would need to be changed also. Just how much
change a variation of ten or fifteen per cent in the
cutting speed would be required in the feed in order
to produce the same results with the same amount of
damage or injury to the tool, is a difficult question

to decide.
However, the amount of stock to be removed from

a casting or a forging is, in the majority of cases,
very nearly uniform when the work is to be put

through the shop on an interchangeable basis. We
shall assume in our discussion of cutting feeds and
amount of stock to be removed
speeds, then, that the
from any given piece of work is according to the
usual practice. Speaking generally, the larger a
piece of work is, the more stock is left to be re-
moved by the cutting tool, because on large work,
variations in the casting are more likely to be found.
On a piece of cast iron, six inches in diameter, the
ordinary amount of finish left on the casting would
not be apt to exceed %
of an inch on a side. On
work 30 inches or more in diameter, there might
easily be from %to %
of an inch of stock to be
removed. It is very apparent, then, that in ma-
machining large work the depth of the cut would

need to be deeper and, therefore, the feed would
not be apt to be so great.
But there are other factors which enter into the
machining of any piece, and these factors sometimes
seem to contradict themselves. In the machining of
a large casting, 30 inches or more in diameter, with
a depth of cut %of an inch, it might be entirely
possible to take a feed even a little greater than
would be possible on a small piece six inches in
diameter. The factors which would influence this
matter are the power of the machine, the weight
and rigidity of the work which is being machined,
and the sectional area of the tool which is doing the
work. The area of the tool would be proportionately
greater on a heavy and large machine than on a
small machine.
Conservative Cutting Speeds. It will be noted
from the foregoing statement that the amount of feed
and speed which can be used on a given piece of
work is not by any means an absolutely fixed amount.
Given, however, a comparatively uniform amount of
stock to remove from a casting of a known degree
of hardness, there are certain conservative feeds and
speeds which can be used with safety. It is always
necessary in making an estimate of production on a
given piece of work, to assume a certain cutting feed
and speed which has been found by long experience
to be within the limit of safety.
Assuming that the metals to be cut have been
pickled or sand-blasted to remove any injurious
scale that may be upon them prior to the machin-
ing operaton, and further assuming that the amount
of stock to be removed is not excessive, the follow-
ing table of cutting speeds for different materials
will be found to give results well within the limit of
safety. It is always well in making an estimate of
production on a given piece of work, to assume that

the work is normal and not very hard, and that it
has no excessive material to remove. Under these
circumstances, after an estimate of production has
been made, it is easily possible to speed up a ma-
chine slightly in order to gain a little in production,
providing the material which is being cut proves to
be of such a quality that it permits a little higher
speed than normal.
Cast iron 50 feet per minute.
Cast steel 60 feet per minute.
Malleable iron 70 feet per minute.
Machine steel forgings (15 to20 point carbon) 65 feet
per minute.
Machine steel (black stock)70 feet per minute.
Tool steel forgings 35 to 40 feet per minute.
Steel alloys (containing nickel and chromium) 30 to 50
feet per minute (depending on alloy).
Yellow brass 200 feet per minute.
Composition brass 120 to 150 feet per minute.
Bronzes 30 to 80 feet per minute (depending on alloy).
I Importance of Proper Speeds and Feeds. The im-

rtance of a correct cutting speed and feed cannot
be overestimated. It is safe to say that the average
manufacturer loses more money in the course of a
year 'by incorrect setting of speeds and feeds in his
factory than by any other .single item in his total
outlay.
A number of reasons are responsible for this, but
probably the most usual one is the fact that no work-
man likes to grind tools. If a workman has a num-
ber of pieces of work to do on a machine which re-
quires rather careful "setting up," he is quite apt
to run his machine a little too slowly so that it will
not be necessary for him to grind the tools very
often.
It isthe duty of any foreman of a department
in a factory, to make sure that the production time
on the work in process is as great as the nature of
the work will permit. It is furthermore the duty
of the progressive executive to make certain in his

own factory that he is obtaining the results that he
should obtain by making a personal examination
of the methods in use from time to time, and to keep
himself posted in regard to the work, so that produc-
tive inefficiency shall not be laid to a lack of knowl-
edge on his part.
Allowance for Exceptional Cases. While it is all
very nice for a tool engineer, an executive, or a fore-
man in a factory to determine positively beforehand
exactly at what speed any piece of work must be
run, it is an entirely different proposition to tell the
man in the factory who is doing the work that
he must run that work at exactly the prescribed
speed and feed. Getting back to first principles, it
would be entirely possible to fix absolutely every
cutting speed and feed in the factory, providing the
material which was being cut were exactly of the
same quality in each and every case.
Unfortunately,
however, foundry practice not such as to give abso-
is
lutely certain results. Sometimes a group of castings

will be found very hard, while in other cases they will
be soft. It is evident that the first group cannot be

machined as rapidly as the second.
In these days of rapid production and high speed,
itfrequently happens that several patterns are made
of the same piece of work, and in order to obtain
the castings as rapidly as possible, the patterns are
sent to different foundries. Invariably the castings
from one foundry some respect from
will differ in
those of another foundry, and due allowance in set-
ting speeds and feeds must be made for such condi-
tions. So also in the case of alloy steels, a very great
difference may be found in two lots of forgings, al-
though in this case the trouble is not caused by the
composition as a general rule, but is more likely to
be the result of an improper treatment of the forg-
ings after they have been made.
The remedy for conditions of this kind is apparent.
It is certainly not the part of economy for the manu-
facturer to reduce his production speed just because a
foundryman or a drop-forge department has made
errors, or has neglected to do some of the things that
should have been done before the castings or forgings
were delivered. However, it may happen that the
manufacturer does not feel disposed to send back a lot
of imperfect or improperly treated castings or forg-
ings, and prefers to machine them as they are. In
such a case he will have to establish arbitrary ma-
chining speeds, and his decisions must be governed
by the conditions.
Effect of Lubricant on Feed and Speed. In the
previous chapter the matter of cutting lubricants
was discussed and various data were given in regard
to the most suitable lubricant for various classes of
materials. In tool-room work, however, it is very
often the case that the workman does not wish to
use a lubricant in cutting a piece of metal. This
is largely because the use of a lubricant results in
much dirtier work, which is difficult to handle. Hence,

the toolmaker prefers to cut his work dry as a gen-
eral thing. There is no particular reason why a
workman on this class of work should not use his
own judgment as to lubricants. He might be able
to produce some classes of work more rapidly by
using them, because he could use a little higher speed
and a little more feed, but in the long run no par-
ticular gain would be found. Of course, in making
heavy roughing cuts in the room, or anywhere
tool
else in the factory, a lubricant will undoubtedly be
found of great advantage. In the table given pre-
viously in this chapter, it is assumed that a proper
lubricant is to be used on work which needs lubrica-
tion.
General Rules. Speaking generally, the amount of
feed and speed to be used for any work produced
in quantities, should be as great as the work will
permit without obliging the workman to re-grind his
tool more than three times in one day. Naturally,
there are exceptions to this rule, but as a general
thing if the workman
not obliged to grind his tool
is
oftener than once a day, he is losing time in produc-

tion. But, on the other hand, if the workman finds it
necessary to re-grind his tool about once every hour,

it isa sure indication that the speed is too rapid or
the feed is too deep.
I recall a rather peculiar incident connected with

the use of the proper cutting speed and feed that hap-
pened some years ago. In passing through a factory,
a workman stopped me and asked if I could tell him
what kind of he could use in place of the tool

steel
he then had. On questioning the man it appeared
that he was grinding the tool after he had produced
about two pieces, and this tool grinding kept him
busy for some minutes each time. On examining the
work, I found it to be a piece of bronze about 4
inches in diameter. The workman proceeded to cut
one of the pieces while I was standing by his side. I
noticed that the speed seemed to be excessive, and
by counting the number of revolutions per minute, I
saw that he was running the work at something over
600 feet per minute. As the work was a piece of
manganese bronze, it is evident that the tool was
being ruined about as fast as he could re-grind it.
After he had reduced the speed to about 100 feet
per minute he had no further difficulty with the tool.
This example simply illustrates conditions which
sometimes obtain in a factory on account of the igno-
rance or carelessness of the worker.
As absolutely impossible to set a cutting speed
it is
or feed for a piece of work without making a trial

to see whether the work is hard or soft, it behooves
every factory manager or executive to see that the
greatest care is used in making these determinations.
After the speeds and feeds have been set as nearly
correct as possible, it is well to make an examination
to prove that the results show that the work is being
produced to the best advantage. The foreman should

test the various machines from time to time in order
to makesure that the maximum efficiency is being ob-
tained. For, next to proper cutting tools, speeds and
feeds are of first importance. In order, then, to see
that the factory is obtaining the maximum output,
all these various points must be considered, and each
one must be planned in such a way that there will be
no loss either from incorrect handling, from improper
setting of tools, or from incorrect speeds and feeds.
When all these matters have been looked into by the
proper men, the executive can feel assured that he is
obtaining the full capacity of the machine, and when
he has done this he has approached closely to max-
imum efficiency.
CHAPTER XXI
PLANNING AND LAYING OUT WORK
Business Aspects of Planning. If a man were
about to build a house, his first step would be to de-
termine what kind of house he wanted. He would
devote considerable time in sketching out certain ar-
rangements of rooms, and after he had determined
about how many rooms he wanted and how much he
wanted to pay for the house, he would take his
sketches 'to an architect who would draw up a set
of plans from them. After the architect had planned
the house carefully, he would make an estimate on
the cost of the various building operations. That is
to say, he would estimate the amount of excavation
required for cellar and foundations and the cost of all

other matters connected with the actual building.
He would then submit his plans to a number of car-
penters and builders and obtain bids from them.*
At least, this is the procedure that would be fol-
lowed by the average man; but here and there one
will find a peculiarly constituted individual who,
quite probably, would take his rough ideas to a car-
penter and say, "Here are some ideas of a house I
want built. Go ahead and build it like that." The
resulting house can readily be imagined.
* Full discussion of the mechanism of planning will be found In
Planning and Time Study, by G. S. Armstrong, Factory Management
Course.
313
In any kind of business venture involving the out-
lay of a number of dollars, a business man would be
sure to investigate thoroughly all matters connected
with the project. In fact, in any buying or selling
proposition, the man whose money was to be used
would be apt to look up every point in connection
with the spending of his money. So also in the manu-
facture of any kind of product, it is of the first im-
portance to study the methods of production that
are to be used and to plan carefully in advance all
of the operations necessary to complete the various
parts for the finished product.
The importance,
then, of the planning department
in manufacturing can readily be seen. It would cer-
tainly be the height of folly for any manufacturer
to go ahead and obtain a great number of castings,
forgings and other material from which the various
parts were to be manufactured, and then, without
further thought about the matter, to put these parts
out into his factory without any particular plan or
scheme of operation in his mind. And yet in many
cases, especially in old-established factories, the mat-
ter of planning and laying out the various operations
for any given piece of work is almost entirely
neglected. It is true that the operating official, in
cases of this kind, depends largely upon his foreman
and workmen to step into the breach and produce a
finished piece ofwork which resembles the mechanism
which he attempting to build. In the progressive
is
factory, however, the -planning department receives

the most careful attention, and the men who are at
the head of it are specially trained. In addition, their
PLANNING AND LAYING OUT WORK 315
long experience enables them to plan in advance

every detail of the work to be done. In no other way
can the greatest efficiency be obtained from any fac-
tory, and although the outlay necessary for a well
organized planning department is fairly large, the
results obtained more than offset the expenditure.
'
One of the best examples of careful planning can

be found in the Ford Motor Company plant in De-
troit. Were it not for the care and forethought
which has been used throughout this factory, it would
have been impossible to obtain the tremendous pro-
duction of these Ford cars.
Tool Engineering Methods. The importance of tool
engineering has only recently been brought to the at-
tention of the manufacturer. A few years ago the
tool designer in a factory was supposed to lay out
the various operations on the work which was to be
done, but this laying out of operations was in the
main a rather unfinished procedure. It is true that
the old-fashioned tool designer would make a rough
layout of operations necessary to complete a certain
piece of work, but he would not go into the matter
very thoroughly. The method used by the modern
tool engineer, however, is such that every point in
the manufacture is taken up with the greatest care
and nothing is left to chance. All the operations
which are to be done on the work are simply planned
in accordance with the equipment of the factory.
More than this, the equipment (if it is insufficient to
do the work required) is added to, in order that
maximum efficiency on the work in process may be
obtained.
The matter of planning is of such great importance
that I intend to take it up in this 'book in consider-
able detail. I believe that the best way to describe

the methods used and the processes which are ap-
plied by the tool engineer, is to describe the various
steps which are taken.In order that the subject may
be as clear as possible,let us assume that a modern
factory, very well equipped with machine tools of

good design one which has been used for automobile
work is about to proceed with the manufacture of
a new model, and that the drawings of the complete
mechanism have been handed over to the tool engi-
neer ready for him to design the tools and fixtures
for the work which is to be done. Let us also assume
that the tool engineer has been employed by the same
company for several years, so that he is thoroughly
familiar with the machine tool equipment.
Let us follow the steps taken by the tool engineer
in this work, noting the various points of impor-
tance, which will be discussed at length later in this
chapter. Let us assume, then, that the tool engineer
has a pile of blue-prints on his desk he picks up
one of the important pieces (usually one of good
size and considerable importance), and takes up the
points logically about as follows:
1. Looks over each blue-print, compares it with
the assembly drawing, and notes the important fits,
the relation of the piece in question to the other
parts of the mechanism, and so on.
2. Makes rough notes of the various operations
necessary for the completion of the work.
3, Looks over the machine-tool equipment of the
factory, to see what machines are best adapted to

produce the work necessary.
4. Determines the jigs and fixtures needed in the
work of production, notes gauges necessary, and also
the accuracy required for the various fits.
5. Lays out the operation sheet in detail.
6. Makes rough pencil sketches of jigs, fixtures
and other tools necessary in the production.
7. Makes layout sheets.
8. Makes time-studies from layout sheets.
9. Designs jigs, fixtures, and special tools, together
with gauges needed for the work.
10. Notes number of machines required, deter-
mined by the time-studies made for the various oper-
ations.
11. Turns over the time-study sheets to the cost
department, in order that piece-work prices may be
set from the estimated time of production.
Now these various steps which are taken by the

tool engineer are not all undertaken at once, but ap-
proximately in the sequence just given, although the

practical engineer is often able to combine several
at a time. Let us now take up each of the points in
detail.
1: Preliminary Processes. Now in the first step
which the tool engineer takes, he makes a rather rough
analysis of the work which is to be done, but he does
try, in this preliminary inspection, to grasp the im-
portant details of the construction and obtain a very
good general idea of what lies before him. In addi-
tion to this, he familiarizes himself with the general
points in the construction of the mechanism which

he is tobuild, by an inspection of the assembly draw-
ings. He studies these assembly drawings carefully,
in order to learn the general construction of the en-
tire mechanism of which the piece shown on the blue-
print that he is examining, is a component part. He

notes very carefully whether certain of the parts
should be a tight fit, or whether they should be a
sliding or a running fit, and he determines the im-
portance of their relation to the entire mechanisnL
After the tool engineer has gone over a few pieces
of work in this way, he begins to form a very good
idea of the work which he is about to do. He is now
ready for the second step in the process.
2: Preliminary Layout of Operation. Taking up the
piece now in detail, the tool engineer roughly plans
the operations which are necessary for the comple-
tion of the work, and makes notes in pencil in the
form of a memorandum, by which he is guided when
he makes the more serious, careful planning. For
example, he makes a note to this effect on his mem-
orandum pad: "This piece must be chucked, the hub
must be turned, and the inside must be bored out on
a turret lathe. The other end of the work also must
be finished and turned, requiring another screw-ma-
chine or a turret-lathe operation. There are to be
six drilled holes around the flange of the piece, and
these must be bored in a drill jig on a multiple-
spindle drilling machine. There are also several
other operations of milling and counterboring, and
perhaps even one or two besides these." In any event,
the tool engineer's memorandum on this work will
cover everything which is to be done to the piece,

but it may be that the operations, as noted by him,
may not be in the sequence to produce the piece to
the best advantage. This matter will be taken up
made.
later as the careful layout of operations is
3: Machine-Tool Equipment. Now it must be
understood that although the points mentioned are
given in sequence, in reality often, as I have said,
many of these points are taken up by the tool engi-
neer at the same time, since he is trained to this
kind of work, and therefore when he thinks of a
piece of work or an operation which is to be done
on a given piece of work, his mind automatically
selects the type of machine which, in his estimation,
is most suited to the work in hand. He also is pos-
sessed of a knowledge of the various machine tools
which the factory has on hand, and knows something
about their condition and their adaptability to cer-
tain classes of work. It is obvious, however, that
in a large factory the tool engineer cannot carry all
of these details in his mind, so that it is necessary
for him to have a complete record of the machine
tools contained in the factory.
This matter brings us to the point of a reference
machine-tool index, which every progressive tool en-
gineer must have. The amount of detail contained
in a record of this kind is governed by the size of
the factory and the kind of product which is being
manufactured. It is evident that in a small factory
it would be comparatively unnecessary to have a de-
tailed record of every machine tool in the shop, with

its feeds, speeds, and other data regarding its capa-
city. But it be found that in a large factory

will
details of this kind are of the greatest importance.
For work of this sort, then, the progressive engineer
in a large factory endeavors to make his index of
machine tools as complete as possible. I have found
in my own work of tool engineering, that a large
card with an outline of the machine tools upon it,
in at least two views, and with various data con-
cerning feeds, speeds, and capacity, is of the great-

est value. I believe that a card is much better than
a loose-leaf book, because the card can be taken out
of the and used as a reference by the tool de-
file
signer without disturbing other data which may apply

to other machines.
Perhaps a still better scheme would be to have the

data on the various machines drawn up in such form
that it can be blue-printed. It is apparent that if a
blue-print were to be made there would be little
danger of any cards getting lost and of the conse-
quent large amount of labor to accumulate the in-
formation once more. An example of a machine-tool
record record card which I have found of great value,
is shown in Figure 134. It will be seen that this
card is very complete with respect to the data needed
by a tool engineer to determine whether or not a
certain type of machine is suited to the work in hand.
If this kind of information is lacking, it is necessary,
in designing a set of tools for any given machine, to
have the tool designer or a draftsman go into the
shop and make certain measurements on the machine
itself, or else obtain what meager information he can
from a catalogue.
TYPE &S/ZEorMAOUN
P&.W.CO. 1 8Y26-
FIG. 134. MACHINE TOOL RECORD CARD FOR A TURRET LATHE

Now, assuming that our tool engineer is well

equipped with data of this kind, he can very easily
look over thework which is to be done and determine
which machine of a certain class is best suited to
the work. He may be aided in this selection by a
knowledge of the way in which a piece of similar
character was machined at some previous time, but
whether this is the case or not, new machine tools
may have been added since that time which are more
adaptable to the work. In this case it is natural
to assume that the more
tool engineer will select the
modern type of machine. Another point which must
be considered in the same connection, is the location
of any given machine in the factory. The matter of
handling a piece and taking it from one department
to another and then back again, entails an extra
cost of handling the work, and this should be avoided
as far as possible.
4: Jigs, Fixtures, Tools, and Gauges. Now, the
tool engineer has reached the point in his analysis
at which he is ready to take the fourth step. The
engineer then looks over the blue-prints carefully,
and notes on his memorandum sheet that he needs
the following tools: a drill jig, for drilling a certain
series of holes; a milling fixture, for milling a cer-
tain part of the work; and some turret lathe fixtures,
for operations of a cylindrical character, such as
boring or turning of the work. He may also decide
that some particular piece of work can be handled
to advantage on an engine lathe, or, if it is large,
on a vertical boring mill. When the engineer looks
over these pieces he does not stop to consider design,
but simply decides that he needs one jig or two jigs

and one or two milling fixtures, and perhaps a turret
lathe faceplate, or special sub- jaws, or some other
types of fixtures. At this time, also, the matter
of gauging is considered, and a memorandum is made
as to the types of gauges needed whether they are
to be plug, ring, snap, or indicating. Also, whether
the work is to be gauged from some of the rough
surfaces in order to make sure that a proper amount
of finish is left for some subsequent operation, or
to make sure that there is a clearance between some
finished portion of another part and a rough portion

of the work in hand. In connection with this phase,
he must frequently refer to the assembly drawing
of the mechanism in order to make sure that all
these points have been considered. Having gone to
this point in the analysis, the tool engineer is now
ready to go into the matter of the operations on the

work in detail.
5: Laying Out Operation Sheets. In connection
with the preliminary work mentioned, this fifth step
represents the most important of all the work done
by the tool engineer. One of the peculiar things
about the average manufacturer is that when he sees
an operation sheet completely and properly made out,
he does not realize for an instant the amount of work
necessary to produce a result such as that which
appears on the operation sheet. He .sees, for example,
a sheet perhaps 10 x 12 inches in size, on which is
a list of the operations and the tool called for, and
everything appears to him to be as simple as a, b, c.
If, however, the executive, in considering the work
PIECE No.__y*_ ir-tf-^j
BLANK MOTOR CAR COMPANY

TOOt- AND OPERATION SHEET
-K Holes ,
k- ., equally
NOTE: THIS OPERATION SHEET MOT TO BE CHANSEO MATERIAL,
WITHOUT WRITTEN INSTRUCTIONS rROM E.NWNCER
ALLOY__
PRODUCTION
DESCRIPTION DEP'T.
OR FIXTURES N
&>&*&*< *K~. J>*sA*~/k~<Z A$~ *:%',;
afAH**t*
*ft> +J&-#Lfitt
t,j40~<,*,(p*
FIG. 135. TOOL AND OPERATION SHEET ON A CAST-IRON PISTON-

FOUR PIECES PER UNIT
of the tool engineer in this respect, were to stop for

a moment and think that every word written on the
sheet represents the most careful thought, and that
only as a result of a number of years of hard ex-
perience has the tool engineer acquired the knowledge
and skill necessary in the laying out of an operation
sheet then the executive would acquire a more
wholesome respect for the tool engineer and for his
work. It isonly recently, as I have said, that the
executive has been able to see the value of prelimi-
nary planning as carried out and brought to com-
pletion by the experienced tool engineer. Therefore,
to the executive who has not reached this point, and
who still seems to consider that this work is more
"
or less of a "-cut and dried proposition, I would
recommend that he reconsider his attitude in this re-
gard and give the tool engineer the credit to which
he is entitled.
In the first place, an operation sheet in itself
should be made in such form that it gives all the
information necessary in regard to the tool equip-
ment and the machines necessary to do the work.
I have laid out a number of operation sheets for
different firms and on various classes of work, and
I have found that a sheet similar to the one illus-
trated in Figure 135 is about as complete as any-
thing of this kind can be made if the sheet is to be
of a size to allow of binding in a loose-leaf holder,
for ready reference. The form indicated is preferably
about 14 x 17 inches in size, but it can be made a
trifle smaller if desired. It is bad practice, how-
ever, to endeavor to make a sheet of this kind very

small, as the necessary information cannot be in-

cluded on a sheet of much smaller size than that
just mentioned. Keferring to the sheet shown in the
illustration, the reader will see that the data con-
tained on it is complete to the smallest detail. At
the upper left hand corner a small scale drawing
of the piece appears, in order that a reference to
the various operations may be made by means of
letters, as indicated. Generally the drawing of the
piece can be made about one-quarter scale, but on
very large work it may be advisable to leave a
larger space for the outline drawing. This matter
is largely determined by the class of work which is
to be done. I believe that the form shown gives every
essential detail in regard to any piece of work which
is to be manufactured, and forms a complete record
'which can be referred to at a moment's notice. If
desired, the operation sheet can be printed on tracing
paper, and afterward blue-printed so that any num-
ber of record proofs can be made.
It will be seen that a reference to a sheet of this
kind will give the executive or the tool engineer
all the information which he needs, from the process
used in manufacturing the product, down to and in-
cluding the type of gauge needed and the drawing
number of the gauge, or of the tool, jig, or fixture. In
addition to this, the estimated hourly production per
machine is given in the "Kemarks" column, and the
number which are required for what-
of machines
ever production may be determined upon before-
hand. The "Bemarks" column also has a little
additional space, which can be used for any data
in addition to that for which space is provided in

the tabulated list.
After the tool engineer has gone into the matter of

machining the work, and has laid out the operations,
the tool designers use these sheets to work from,,
and as fast as the drawing numbers have been ob-
tained from the clerk, they are entered up in their
proper place against the tool or fixture which they
represent so that before very long, the record is
complete. When this point has been reached, the
sheet should be either blue-printed or copied, and
an original should be filed away in a record book,
!
from which no sheet must ever be taken for any pur-

pose whatsoever. If it is found necesary at any
time, during the progress of the work, to make a
change in the method of handling, a record of the
change which is to be made should be filed in a
separate book devoted entirely to this purpose. A
statement of the reasons for the change should be
embodied in the record, and the authority for making
the change must also be given. It is not an uncom-
mon thing for an operation sheet for a difficult piece
of work like a crank case for an automobile, or a
.receiver for a military rifle to be worth several
hundred dolars in actual labor expended on the plan-
ning of the operations shown on the sheet. It is
therefore evident that it behooves any factory execu-
tive to see that the greatest care is taken in regard
to these points.
In laying out the operation, the tool engineer goes
into every detail of manufacture carefully, as will
be seen if the illustration is referred to. At tliG
Fi/tsr OPS&ATIO
CLCAH CASTING
12-
OPERATION
I
ST face
Ti/fffffr
ROUGH & FINISH -D
ROUGH FACE -
FOURTH OPERATION
Off ILL f
J-Pir>
I-
4-
5-
Chvcf(-l Req. Dq.rto. Mode t>t/P&J
Rough
Radius
False
Turning Tool I- Keg Std
Tool
Jaw -
-
l-Req. Std.
3-Req Dwg.No. 11 21
7- Rough Boring Tool l-ffeq. D<vg Ab 1009
-
-A
6- Finish Boring Tool- l-Req. Dwg.No 1003
e-S,zmg Bar- l-Req Dg.rio. lift
l-Req Drttj Ho. /320
-
A?- Sizing Tool
II- Rough Facing Tool -l-Req. Std.

12- Holder- ?-ffeq. Std. for ?* - W.t.S. T.i BLANK MOTOR COMPANY
13-f/xfure for Drillmg-l-Req. D*g No tii
M- Drill - l-ffeq. 20 "% Dia TOOL LAYOUT FOR PISTON
15- Jig for Centering Req. Owg. Ho. 834
- I-
I
ST To 6 OPERATIONS
16- Centering Drill /-/?eq. Std
8-?4-i7 DRAWN BY HO 166-1-6
[PR
: i-l'-O"
[OK
FIG. 136. TOOL LAYOUT SHEET FOR PISTON OPERATIONS 1 TO 6

Block- H*" RC*" '

Rough Cross Slide I- Rtq. DxyfftOTf
Rough Grooring Tool-i-Raq. Dm. No 1579
Finish Turning Too/ - t-ffey. Sftf
FINISH RADIUS Tool /-ffeq. Dwg NO./379
-
Orerheod Turret Aftoch.-Sfd for "4 Unnt *fti
Turning Stem
-
t-/>eq. Std. For '4 Unit. W.tS*
-
I ffeq. Dmj NolllS

Center
DronBock Chuck- 1-Req. Dwg No /37S
Finish 6roonng Tool 3 Req. Dwg. No. 1U5
0- Forming Tool I-
Req. Dwg flo. /37
Chamfering Tool- /~Req. Drtg. No. 1375
Oil Grooving Tool - I- Req. Dwg. No. /J7S
Finish Crvss Slide Block - 1 Req Divg. No f!7f
Center Bushing - I- R?q. Dwg No IS7S
Jig for Boring l-fteq Dwq.No Sl(
-
15-
16- Rough Boring Bar-- 1 -Req. uwg.Ho 924
17- Finish Boring Bar 1 -Keg Dwg. Ha 924
16- Reamer l-ffeq. Dwg^ No 924 DLANK MOTOR COMPANY
& -
Jiq for Drilling 1- ffeq. DHJCJ. No SIS
?O Drill - I Req. 6 "V* Dia
21- Jig for Drilling -I- Req. Dnq Ha 1462
n- Drill- /-Peg. /$"'/*> Dia.
21 Arbor Plug - l-Req. Dwg. Ho 97!
24 - Hand
Reamer - I- Req. Dwg Ho. 1292
FIG. 137. TOOL LAYOUT SHEET FOR PISTON OPERATIONS 7 TO 12

same time, however, he takes up points in connec-
tion with the manufacture, and makes sketches to
give the tool designer his ideas concerning the fix-
tures which must be made. These points are men-
tioned in connection with the sixth point, follow-
ing, but really the sketches are made directly in con-
nection with the laying out of the operation sheet.
6: Free-Hand Sketches. The matter of making a
sketch, preliminary to the designing of a tool or fix-
ture, is of considerable importance, and the progres-
sive tool engineer is systematic in this as in other
respects. Therefore, when he makes a sketch for a
piece of work, he does one of two things: he either
makes the sketch on a loose-leaf pad and binds the
sketch in a book kept for that purpose, in numerical
order according to the piece number assigned
to the work; or he attaches a sheet of sketches
to the operation sheet. This latter method is not
good, for the reason that these sheets can be easily
lost, and may never be found. In which event,
the tool engineer's ideas may, or may not, be fol-
lowed there is no proof, in either case. It is a very
simple matter to have a number of books, or even
a note-book of plain paper, in which sketches can be
kept The loose-leaf system, however, is much to be
preferred, since, when that is used, the arrangement
of the pieces in numerical order can be more easily
kept.
7: Making Layout Sheets. The making of the lay-
out sheets be considered by the executive as a
may
costly and unnecessary proposition, yet it will be
found that in the long run the preparation of these
sheets will save much time and

expense. lay- A
out sheet like that shown in Figures 136 and 137 is a
picture of the various methods used in handling the
work. The tools which are to be used in the work are
indicated and are given a number, and anything of a
special nature in the line of equipment is shown in
sufficient detail to make the method used perfectly
clear. These tool-layout sheets either may be made
in connection with the tools, jigs, and fixtures which
are being drawn up, or they may be made in ad-
vance. made in advance of the actual designing
If
of the tools, it is necessary that the work should be
done by a man of wide experience one who pos-
sesses the knack of sketching out an idea rapidly.
Layout sheets of this kind are usually made one-
quarter size, and the sheets may be so proportioned
that they can be reproduced by a photostatic process
and kept as a record with the operation sheets; or
they may be bound in a separate book and kept for
record. It will be noted, with respect to the sheets
shown in Figures 136 and 137, that a complete rec-
ord of tools used in the various operations is given
at thebottom of each sheet, and that the drawing
numbers used on each jig, fixture, or tool are specified
in connection with this work.
It is unnecessary, in making a layout
sheet, to go
into the smallest detail in regard to the design, but
an effort should be made to represent a fixture which
can be readily understood, and which will contain
sufficient detail to show the methods used. One of
the greatest advantages in a tool-layout sheet is in
connection with turret-lathe operations. In the set-
ting up of a turret lathe there are cases when an

interference appears, and, unless a layout of some
kind is made, this interference may not be noticed
until the work is set up in the factory and the
operator ready to begin the work. When an inter-
is
ference is not discovered until as late as this, it may
cause a delay of several days in the production,
and this delay may be a costly one to the manu-
facturer. Looking at the matter from all stand-
points, I believe that for work requiring a number of
different operations, and for pieces of unusual char-
acter, the use of a layout sheet is of great value.
For small work which does not require anything
elaborate in the line of special tooling, it may not
be necessary to make such a layout, but even in
cases of this kind the amount of labor involved is
offset by the advantages gained.
8: Time-Study Sheets, There are two ways to
make a time-study. One of these is to estimate the
amount of time necessary to produce the work at
certain speeds and feeds; the other is to take the
actual time of the work in the factory. In the first
instance, the man who makes the time-study must
be a man of broad experience who is familiar with
all kinds of machine and one who has access
tools,
to the tables
giving the the speeds and feeds of
which various machines in the shop are capable. In
the second case, it is unnecessary to have a man of
very wide experience, because he simply watches
the work of the man in the factory and notes the
amount of time taken for doing a certain piece of
work.
TIME STUDY SHEET PIECE NO. _/*

BLANK MOTOR CAR CO. NAME_2/25
DETROIT. MICHIGAN. MAT. _ <LL
It is entirely possible for an experienced man to
determine very closely the amount of time which
will be required for the performance of a given
operation on any piece of work. His experience will
tell him approximately what feed and speed can be
safely used on the work, and as he can easily ascer-

tain the length of the surface which he is about to
cut, the time can be quickly estimated. A very good
illustration of a time-study sheet is shown in Figure
138; it will be noted that various columns are pro-
vided for the different data used in connection with
the estimates. The time-study sheet itself is self-
explanatory.
Now let us take up the method of figuring or per-
haps we should say estimating the amount of time
for a given piece of work, as indicated 'by the layout
sheet. If the tool engineer is about to figure the
time necessary on the work, his first step is to deter-
mine the rate and settle the matter of cost of the
tool. The best method of holding the work must al-
ways be determined, and also the points from which
the piece is to be located. Other matters in connec-
tion with the design of tools and fixtures have been
taken up in the previous chapters.
9: Machine Tools Required. After the time-study
sheet, mentioned previously, has been made, the
amount of time necessary with each machine can be
easily determined, and in order to make sure that a
sufficientnumber of machine tools are at hand to
give the production necessary, and within the proper
time, a record must be kept to show how many
pieces are to be handled by any one type of machine,
and how much of this machine time will be needed.

The best way to determine whether the requisite
number of machines is available, is to make a tabu-
lated list of the various machines in the factory,
and after the time-study sheet has been made, the
amount of time which each piece consumes on a
given type of machine can be tabulated in the list
mentioned. In this way, as the work of the tool
engineer progresses, it is very easy to see when
any one machine or type of machine is overloaded.
Then, when it is found that a certain type of ma-
chine has more of a burden than it can reasonably
be expected to sustain, some of the work which has
been placed upon it can be transferred to some other
type of machine adapted to the work. By using a
process of this kind, and by carrying all these mat-
ters along together, the matter of distribution of the
work in the factory can be adjusted to the best ad-
vantage. The last point can now be taken up by
the tool engineer.
10: Setting Piece- Work Prices. The matter of set-
ting piece-work prices does not strictly come under
the head of the tool engineer's work the time-study
sheet for the various operations on each piece of work
is used by the cost department in obtaining a basis
upon which to figure the cost of production. If the

work 01. the time-study sheet has been carefully
done, the piece-work prices can be determined with
great accuracy by the cost department, and the prices
so found to give excellent results. If,
set will be
made of the production time as
after a test has been
indicated by the time-study sheet, there is found
to be a considerable difference in time, then the mat-
ter should be immediately referred to the tool engi-
neer for his attention. If it should be found that
an error has been made in his estimate of produc-
tion, then the piece-work price may be changed to
allow for the error On the other hand, if it is found
that the workman is consuming too much time
really
in doing the work, the matter of speeds and feeds
which he is using should be carefully looked into,
in order that the source of the trouble may be deter-
mined.
Often I have found that the only reason why the
production time did not check with the time-study,
was that the operator was not using the speeds and
feeds which would produce the best results. There
are, of course, exceptional cases in which the work
is of such a nature that the speeds and feeds which
have been estimated upon cannot be used, but if this
contingency occurs it is time for the factory super-

intendent or the general foreman to step in and find
out why the castings or forgings are not what they
should be.
CHAPTER XXII
ESTIMATING COSTS
Time Factor in Estimating Costs. The problem of

estimating costs of manufacturing work is one which
is of interest to every manufacturer. In some cases
a small factory is engaged in the building of jigs,
fixtures, or other tools for outside concerns, and in
many cases the firm which is doing the work is com-
pelled to submit a bid in competition with other

factories. It is therefore of the utmost importance
to make sure that the bid which is submitted to the
customer, is such that it stands a fair chance in the
competition with the others. In order to make sure
that the prices which are quoted to the customer
are reasonable and proper, and at the same time that
the estimate submitted is made with a wide enough
margin to give a substantial profit to the manufac-
turer, a careful estimate of the time necessary to
produce these various pieces which are to be made, is
a very important factor.
Broad Experience Necessary. This is one way in
which the estimating of costs can be applied, but
there are other applications which are fully as im-
portant. Let it be supposed that a manufacturing
concern is about to submit a bid for making up a
large number of pieces which are components of a
337
military rifle; or that a great number of shrapnel

shells are to be made, and that the bids which are
to be submitted are in competition with those of
numerous other manufacturers who are looking for
the same work. It is very evident, then, both that
the manufacturer who intends to do this class of
work should be well prepared as regards his mechan-
ical equipment of machine tools and shop tools, and
also that his engineering force be well fitted to make
estimates of production and of the costs of machin-
ing. In the first place, either of the propositions
mentioned requires the services of men who have had
long experience in the shop, and also in the planning
of operations for work which is to be done in quan-
tity.
Let us take the case of the factory which is pre-
pared to build jigs and fixtures. It is much more
difficult for a concern of this kind to make an esti-
mate on the cost of a jig or fixture, than to estimate
the production which can be obtained for certain
pieces of work which are being put through the fac-
tory in large quantities. In the case of the manu-
facturing of jigs or fixtures, the work must be re-set
a number of times during the process of manufacture,
and every precaution must be taken to insure accu-
racy. All these operations take a certain amount of
time, the exact amount depending largely upon the
skill of the tool-maker. It is therefore difficult to
estimate this class of work as closely as the other
kind mentioned.
In the case of the manufacturing of a great many
parts of the same kind, it is entirely possible for
ESTIMATING COSTS 339
the manufacturer to provide means of holding and

locating the work for the various operations which
are to be done upon it in such a way that the parts
will cometo the desired size almost automatically.
It is a matter of judgment. Unless the man who is
selected for making estimates of this kind is one of
broad experience, unless he has had a number of
years of actual shop work, together with considerable
experience in the actual engineering processes, and
unless he has a logical mind, he is very likely to
make a complete failure of estimating the cost of
work which is to be done.
Usual Causes of Failure. If a jig or a fixture is
to be made up, and there is a drawing from which
the estimate can be made, the estimator can proceed
to take up the various machining operations which
are necessary to complete the piece of work, and can
jot down the amount of time which he thinks it would
be necessary to consume for the various operations,
always remembering to make due allowance for the
time lost by the tool-maker in looking up tools and
in setting up the work preparatory to the machin-
ing. Allowance must also be made for careful
measuring, in order to insure proper accuracy in the
finished product. It will be readily seen that in
order to do this kind of work the estimator must be
a man who has actually done the work in the factory,
in order that he may know exactly how a man would
be obliged to go to work to do the necessary ma-
chining. The usual causes of failure in estimating
a piece of work such as that mentioned, are that
sufficient allowances are not made for the setting
up and the getting ready to go to work, as well as

for time which the man consumes in actually making
the fixture.
Secret of Estimating Costs. Briefly stated, the
entire secret of estimating costs of production lies
in allowing a man sufficient time to do the work,
remembering at thesame time that there are little
incidental things which tend to increase the time
necessary, because of a failure to find a certain tool
that is wanted, or owing to difficulties that arise when
castings or forgings are not made in exactly the right
way. All these points must be taken into consid-
eration by the estimator, and the time allowance must
be made on an hourly basis. The amount of profit
which is to be made by the manufacturer is depend-
ent, to a great extent, upon the overhead expense

in the factory. There are many other items, also,
which must be considered in making up an estimate
of the of production.
cost Among them are the
matter of the cost of material. In some cases the
jig or fixture is made of cast iron, and the pattern
is to be made by the same person who is to build
the fixtures. In a case of this kind, it is obvious
that the pattern-maker's time must also be charged
against the account. Also, the amount of stock and
the weight of the cast iron which goes to make up
the jig, together with the cost of the iron in the
jig, must be taken into consideration.
and Unskilled Labor. Due time must be
Skilled
allowed for the hardening of any parts of the jigs or
fixtures which are to be hardened, and it must also be
remembered that after a part is hardened, it is
usually necessary to grind it, in order that the dis-

tortion caused by the hardening process may be re-
moved and the piece may be properly fitted. Of
course there are some parts which may be hardened
without affecting the jig or fixture in its vital points
in process for example, such things as the
the
heads of screws or their points, a C-washer, a lever,
or some other part of minor importance. No mat-
ter how small the piece of work may be, however,
it must be considered in the making of the jig or
fixture, and if there are a number of pieces of the
same kind (such as locating pins or something of
similar character), several of these pieces can be
made up at the same time by a boy or an apprentice,
or by a comparatively inexperienced man.
This being the case, the time for these various
pieces need not be charged against the work at as
high a rate as that charged for some of the actual
tool-making. As a matter of fact, it is customary,
in factories which do a considerable amount of this
kind of work, to portion out such parts as can be
made by an inexperienced man, and thus obtain the
benefit derived from a cheaper rate of labor. In cases
of this kind, the man who roughs out the part leaves
a certain amount of work to be done or completed by
the tool-maker, doing only the crudest part of the
work himself.
No Hard and Fast Rule. There can be no definite
rule which a man can follow in estimating costs for
work of this character. As stated before, it is always
necessary to make a generous allowance for the set-
ting up time and incidental time needed by the work-
men in obtaining tools from the tool room, and in
making measurements, laying out the work, and so
on. Let it be supposed that a number of jigs or
fixtures of very similar character are to be made by
a manufacturer for an outside concern. Then the esti-
mator would consider that these various planing or
shaping operations which are to be done on the work,
can be carried along at the same time; if this plan
be followed, a considerable saving in time will be
effected.
There are so many conditions which affect the
building of tools of type, that it is a very
this
difficult matter to go into the details of the processes
used in different factories. About all that can be
said in this regard has already been mentioned. A
specific example or two could be given, but they
would not serve any valuable purpose, and might only
confuse the reader. However, in the estimating of
costs for work which is to be putthrough the factory
in large quantities, other factors which are more nearly
stable come into play.
A Manufacturing Case. Let us now consider the
estimating of cost for a manufacturing proposition
involving a number of pieces of a similar kind,
which are to be made up entirely on an automatic
screw machine. Under such circumstances it is a
very simple matter to decide exactly which are the
tools that must be used for the work, and since
the material from which the work is to be made is
of a certain character, and, furthermore, since the
feeds and speeds of the machine can be easily de-
termined, it is evident that a very close estimate of
the actual time needed to produce the work can be

obtained without great difficulty. Let us assume
further that the job includes a number of pieces which
must be machined on an automatic screw machine, that
a series of holes must be drilled in each piece, and
that a single milling operation is called for. It will
be seen that although this piece of work is some-
what more difficult to figure than the other one men-
tioned, it is nevertheless, a simple manufacturing
proposition. In this latter case, however, it is neces-
sary to take into consideration the fact that certain
tools and fixtures must be made, if the work is to be
done properly and is to come within the required
limit. A jig and a milling fixture will both be neces-
sary. The cost of these fixtures must be estimated,

and the price must be included in the cost which is
submitted to the customer for whom the work is to
be done.
Overhead Expense. Hourly Basis. The matter of
overhead expense is so broad, and furthermore it is
of such a variable character, that it is difficult to
give anything more than a general idea of it in this
chapter. Briefly, the overhead expense of a factory
consists of a burden, or load, over and above the ap-
parent cost of labor. That is to say, if a workman
spends one hour in turning out a piece of work and
if his rate is 30 cents an hour, this burden must be
added to the workman's actual cost of labor, in order

that the cost of equipment, cost of power, and various
other costs, may be taken care of properly. In addi-
tion to these matters, the manufacturer's profit, and
the depreciation of his machinery and equipment,
must also be considered, together with the percen-
tage on the investment, in order that when the work is
completed there may be a large enough profit to
prove to the manufacturer that his business is a
profitable one.*
It is evident that factories of different kinds and
under different management would have a proportion
of overhead expense that would differ according to
the factory conditions and many other items pertain-
ing to the management. In the past few years I
have noted a wide difference between the bids sub-
mitted by different manufacturers on the same jigs
and fixtures. This difference in prices makes it clear
that either there is a tremendous difference in the
way in which different manufacturers estimate on the
same piece of work, or else the equipment which these
various manufacturers use for producing the work
is in some cases better adapted than in others to the
class of work on which these prices were submitted.

Different Methods but One Principle. One particu-
lar instance is worthy of mention. A set of blue-
prints of a group of three indicating gauges was sent
to five different manufacturers, with a request for
bids. The lowest bid received was $670, the highest
bid was $1472. The work was given to the man
whose bid was the lowest, and the work produced was
of so high an order that it passed a most rigid inspec-
tion. It is evident from this case that the manu-
facturer whose bid was the highest would have been
* A full discussion of the factors affecting the determination of

burden or overhead will be found in Industrial Cost Finding, by N. T,
Ficker, Factory Management Course,
able to make a very high profit on the work, had he

succeeded in obtaining the contract, or that his
operating methods were very inferior. As a matter of

fact, I have found that many manufacturers who bid
upon work do not go to the trouble of
this class of
figuring out all the details of manufacture carefully,

but merely look over the work and form a rough
estimate from their previous knowledge of how long-
ittakes to do the work. To be sure, a man of wide
experience can, even by this method, obtain a close
approximation of the time necessary to produce a
given piece of work, always provided that this man
has had experience with other work of a similar kind.
On the other hand, a careful estimator who has had
the necesary shop experience and many years of
actual shop training, can obtain a much closer ap-
proximation of the cost of production by figuring out
the actual amount of work which must be done to
complete the piece.
Evidently, then, different processes of estimating
cost are used by different manufacturers. It is hard
to say just what method is best suited to a particu-
lar class of work, since so many factors enter into
the matter. It is always safe, however, to act upon
the principle that the careful estimator who figures
the work on the hourly basis will obtain, in the long
run, a much more uniform and satisfactory estimate
of cost than the man who depends upon snap judg-
ment. Each manufacturer must be a law unto him-
self in this regard, but the careful man, who adopts
the principle of "safety first," will find himself better
off than the one who uses the "hit or miss" method.
CHAPTER XXIII
INTERNAL, EXTERNAL AND THREAD GAUGES
Accuracy Required in Interchangeable Manufac-

ture. When a number of parts are to be made that
will be interchangeable one with another, it is neces-
sary to make the parts within definite limits of accu-

racy. Before going into this subject let us first under-
stand the different terms which apply to gauging and
gauging systems. Let us also determine the use of a
gauge and its applications to the work.
In the first place in assuming that a number of pieces
of the same size are to be made, it will be necessary
for the workman to measure each piece as he is pro-
ducing itin order to be sure that the sizes are kept
to the dimensions, unless a system of gauges is
made for work.
the He would use for this pur-
pose a set of micrometer calipers and other measuring
instruments of precision depending upon the class of
work on which he was engaged. But as these instru-
ments are capable of being set to certain sizes, and
all
are, therefore, flexible, it is obvious that in using these

tools he must be able to discriminate in their applica-
tion. He must guard
against error in reading the
micrometer, or other instruments. And, again, the
continual use of such delicate instruments in manu-
facturing is not to be commended on account of the
346
INTERNAL, EXTERNAL AND THREAD GAUGES 347
wear involved. In order, then, to take the place of

these delicate instruments, especial gauges can be
made to give fixed readings; also in order to provide
for slight variations in the work, "limit" gauges can
be used.
Let it be supposed that automobiles are to be made
up in large quantities complete in every part and on
an interchangeable basis, such that one part if injured
or worn out can be replaced by another which will be
the counterpart of the previously used portion.
Assuming that a condition of this kind is found, the
first step in the gauging system must be a determina-
tion of the different kinds of fits which will be used in

the different parts of the automobile. In this connec-
tion the quality of the product must be taken into con-
sideration. That is to say, if an excellent machine is
to be manufactured, the workmanship will be natu-
rally of a high grade and, therefore, the allowances for

the various fits must be consistent with the quality of
the machine to be manufactured. Let us consider this
matter in detail under the various headings given here-
with.
Terminology. When two parts are to be fitted to-
gether the relation of these parts to each other is in
the nature of a fit of some kind. For example when a
shaft is to be fitted to a bearing in such a way that it
will revolve freely in the bearing, the fit will be called
a "running fit". A "push fit" is somewhat closer than
a running fit; the parts are not free to revolve, but can
be assembled by hand without using much pressure. A
"drive fit" is such that the parts can be assembled only
by means of pressure under an arbor press or by driv.
" force fit" is such that the
ing with a hammer. A
parts must be assembled by means of heat and hydrau-
lic pressure.
It is evident that there may be several kinds of run-
ning fits; that is, there may be several grades of these
fits. we should assume that a farm machine, such
If as
a harvester or mowing machine, was to be made, it
would be apparent that such a machine subjected as it

is to heavy usage and in the hands of men who are not
mechanical, would need to be rather freely put together.
This class of fit would obviously be less accurate than
if the machine in question were to be an automobile or
a sewing machine or some other type of mechanism

requiring careful workmanship. Therefore it is plain
that several grades of running fits must be made to suit
different kinds of work. These matters are entirely
dependent upon manufacturing conditions and also the
requirements of the mechanism after it is completed.
Manufacturing conditions are such that it is easier
to make shafts or studs to a size a little under or a lit-
tle over a specified dimension than it is to make a hole
over or under a given size. This is due to the fact that
a hole is usually drilled, bored, reamed, or ground. It
is not a very easy matter to make a reamer so that it
will cut a hole much different from the standard size
(although a new reamer is inclined to cut a trifle over-

size, and after it is worn a little it may cut a little
under-size). Therefore the size of the holes are usually
kept as nearly to a standard as the uses of tools will
permit. As a general thing not customary to put
it is
any kind of a limit on a hole which is to be drilled, but

holes which are to be reamed or ground can be
machined within close limits of accuracy. It is well to

state parenthetically at this point that as the hole is
usually made as nearly standard as possible the limits
of accuracy within which it must be machined are de-
termined by conditions. The shafts or studs, however,
which fit the holes are made within limits determined
by the class of fit for which they are intended.
Terms Used in Gauging In mentioning the terms
1
used to describe various points in connection with

gauging, there are three words the meaning of which
are not always clear to the average man. These terms
are "allowance,"
" " and "limit."
tolerance,
The term allowance is used to describe the relation
that one piece bears to another when the two parts are
assembled. For example, if a shaft were to be fitted
into a hole so as to revolve freely, it would be neces-
sary to make an allowance between the size of the hole
and the size of the shaft so that the right relation will
be maintained between the two surfaces and permit the
shaft to revolve with the proper amount of clearance
and sufficient freedom in the hole. If a hole were to
be reamed to 1 inch in diameter and a shaft were to be
revolved in this hole, we can assume that an allowance
of 0.001 inch must be made on the shaft under the size
of the hole so as to permit free turning. It will be
seen that the kind of fit which must be obtained be-
tween two pieces of work determines the possible al-
lowance.
The term tolerance applies to the total amount of
variation permissible in manufacturing any given piece
of work. As an example, let us take a shaft 1 inch
in diameter which must be machined to a given size.
Tolerance determined by the machining possibilities
is
and the quality of fit which is to be made. If it is sup-
posed that the shaft is to be machined within a toler-

ance of 0.0005 inch, then the maximum and minimum
variations must not differ by more than the amount
mentioned.
The term limit is applied to the maximum and mini-
mum size of work to be produced as determined by the
tolerance. For example, if the work is to be made
Shaft
FIG. 139. DIAGRAM SHOWING APPLICATION OF LIMITS TO A

SHAFT AND HOLE
within a tolerance of 0.0005, then the limits within

which the piece may be permitted to vary must be such
that their total amount will not exceed the prescribed
tolerance.
Let us take a concrete example of the shaft and hole
diagramatically shown in Figure 139. This illustra-
tion shows that the limits as set for the dimension of
the hole are given in terms of plus ( + ) and minus ( ).
It will be seen that the shaft sizes are also given in

limits but that the limits are both minus dimensions.
From the figures given on the diagram, the greatest

amount of variation possible is as follows:
Maximum hole 1.00025

Minimum shaft = 0.098
Clearance = 0.00225
Minimum hole = 0.99975
Maximum shaft = 0.999
Clearance = 0.00075
From the diagram and the foregoing figures it will
be seen that in such extreme cases the allowance or
clearance will be sufficient to obtain a running fit for
the shaft in the hole. It is true that in the greater
extreme the clearance is a little more than it should be,
while in the smaller allowance the fit is a little closer
than it should be but if the gauges which are used for
;
the work are properly used, there will be no doubt that

the fits obtained are commercially good.
The principles shown diagram can be applied
in this
to other kinds of gauging, and
it is an easy matter to
determine whether the proper allowance, tolerance, and

limit have been set for any given piece of work by
means of a careful inspection of the results in maxi-
mum and minimum sizes obtained by following the
limit given.
Setting Limits for Interchangeable Work. Gauging
work in order to produce interchangeable parts is de-
pendent upon so many factors that it is out of the

question to give hard and fast rules here that will be
applicable to all conditions. Manufacturers have
established no system of limits which fit every con-
iii
TT 111
g
iii
Hi
|S2
888
HI sss
iii iii
rr ?T
sss
iii
0. 0.
-0. 111
iii
111
iii sis
R EE
TT ?r
iii
?r 77
3388
sis
(NEWAL
11F
3 sss
TOLERANCE
o >o o
?r
111
TT
sss
iii
TT
iO O
TT TT
Dia
Inches.
Limit
Limit
ominal
ters, je.5
ls_ Max. Min. Tolerance
353
sa
000 000
TT
888
00
TT
888 000
000 ooo
ooo
2 o p >c 88
g
* ope
00<
?
ii pop
ooo odd
TT +4-
5 s
1
c/5
< 888 iii

000
TT
g ! g
888 lii
000 000
T?
Sl
88i
ooc 000
TT
sss 888
ooo 000
Tr
TT
il
8.9.
m_
354
dition, and there is more or less diversity of opinion.

Tables used by the Newall Engineering Co. are given
on the preceding pages which may be helpful to a
manufacturer in establishing a system of limits for his
own factory. As previously stated, the class of work to
be done has a great effect on the setting of limits for
interchangeable manufacture, but a basis from which
to work can readily be established and suitable changes
made to suit requirements which later may be found
necessary.
The man who establishes a system of manufacturing
limits for interchangeable manufacture must always
understand the requirements of the work to be done and
its nature. He must know just where the finest work-
ing parts of the mechanism are situated and how

closely these parts must be fitted in order to give the
results required. The conditions of manufacture must
always be considered, and the vital parts of the
mechanism must have special attention. As pre-
viously mentioned, tolerances for all work should be as
great as possible consistent with the quality of the
work to be produced.
,
In mention the unfor-
this connection it is well to
tunate practice of the majority of manufacturers in
regard to shaft lengths. It is seldom that they pre-
scribe limits on this class of work, and therefore the
workman in making a shaft is unable to determine
how closely the shoulders must be made to the given
sizes on the drawing. In order to obviate any trouble
in this regard it is good practice to establish a system
of some sort to govern such work. It must always be
remembered that small tolerances mean careful work
and that careful work is always expensive. Therefore
it is highly advisable to specify the limits on shafts
and shoulders in order to obviate difficulties in machin-

ing. It is frequently possible to give shoulder toler-
ances on shafts of 1/64 or 1/32 of an inch, and when
it is possible to give such tolerances the cost of
machining will be much more reasonable.

Many manufacturers set tolerances entirely too
close in the effort to obtain a fine product. Some
even go to the expense of finishing parts which do not
fitothers in order to improve the appearance of the
finished product. Such practice as this is expensive
and unnecessary, except in cases where parts must be
balanced on account of the high rate of speed at
which they are to run or else to prevent vibration
due to excessive speed and lack of perfect balance.
All these points must be considered in the setting
of limits, and therefore it is very obvious that the
engineer who does this work must be perfectly fa-
miliar with the product in itsactual working points.
Marking Limits on Drawings. The marking of
drawings with limits is commendable, and much con-
fusion can be avoided by using fractional dimensions
for all unimportant sizes. A notation can be made
on the drawing to the effect that an error of 1/64 +
or is permitted on fractional dimensions given on
the drawing. Decimal dimensions can also be used

to indicate tolerances to a certain degree, although
this practice in general is not recommended. There
may be a notation or an understanding in regard to
the matter, however, such that if decimal dimensions
are given to four places of decimals, the work must
be kept within a limit of plus or minus 0.0005; if

three places of decimals are given on a drawing then
the limit is to be kept within 0.001 plus or minus;
if two places of decimals are given on the drawing
then it may be understood that a limit of 0.005 plus

or minus is permissible. The better way, however, is
to markthe drawings positively with the limit when-
ever possible, so that there is no chance for errors on
the part of the workman.
Internal Limit Gauges. If it is necessary to ma-
chine a hole within certain limits of accuracy, a
gauge should be provided which is so constructed as
to permit the workman to use it in determining
whether he has produced the work within the re-
quired size or not. If the hole to be measured is a
cylindrical one of small size, say 2 or 2% inches, then
the type of gauge which is used is termed a plug
gauge. And if the hole to be gauged is tapered, the
type of gauge used is termed a taper plug gauge. If
the hole is threaded, the gauge used is called a male
thread gauge. These three gauges are of different

types and are made differently to suit the various
kinds of work for which they are to be used.
A limit gauge is a gauge so constructed as to de-
termine more or less automatically whether work has
been made within the specified limits or not. There
are several types of gauges for this purpose, which
differ from each other only in certain details of con-
struction; the principles on which they are based are

the same. The type used for gauging a cylindrical
hole has one end made of such size that it will just
enter the hole providing the hole has been made large
NOT 60
FIG. 140. SEVERAL VARIETIES OF PLUG GAUGES
enough; the other end is very slightly larger than the

hole should be, the difference in size being the ex-
treme limits or tolerance permitted in the work.
Therefore a gauge of this kind is frequently spoken
of as a "go and not go" gauge, meaning that one
end should go into the work and the other end should
not go. Sometimes the go and not go portions are
on the same end of the gauge.
Referring to Figure 140, the two types of gauges
commonly used will be noted at A and B. The
upper figure, A, shows the double-end plug gauge,
and the lower figure, B, has both of the limiting
portions on one end. The lower type, B, is to be pre-
ferred for work in which the hole extends com-
pletely through the piece, as the workman in this
case not obliged to turn the gauge end for end in

is
using These gauges are often made with a slight

it.
taper on the end, in order to facilitate their use.

Another type of plug gauge for cylindrical work is
shown at C in the same figure. This gauge does not
differfrom the one indicated at A in any respect ex-
cept that the go and not go portions are made in the
form of bushings which can be removed and replaced
with others in the event of their becoming worn.
Although gauges of this kind cost a little more to
produce, they have many advantages, which are
plainly apparent, in the line of upkeep.
Internal Taper Gauges. The gauging of a tapered
hole is an entirely different proposition from the
gauging of a cylindrical one, for two gaugings are re-
quired, namely, the taper itself and the diameter at
the large end of the hole. It is obvious that a
tapered hole is made to fit a tapered shaft or some-

thing of similar nature. In a gear which is made
with a taper hole, for instance, the gear must be
made to mesh correctly with its mate, and therefore
its longitudinal position on the tapered shaft is im-
portant. This means that the tapered portion must

be of such a diameter at the large end that it will
slip upon the tapered shaft a definite distance
to
and fit snugly on the shaft at the same time that it
attains its correct position longitudinally. It is plain,
then, that a gauge for such a piece of tapered work
must be so made determine the taper as
that it will
well as the distance that the actual fit will take
place on the shaft.
As it is rather difficult to measure a tapered hole
at the large end, or in fact in any other portion of
the hole, without special instruments. The method
used in gauging the diameter is by the distance that
a marked section of the gauge enters the large end
of the work. By reference to Figure 141, the type
of gauge used for a tapered hole will be clearly
noted. This gauge is a limit taper gauge, and the
PIG. 141. TAPER LIMIT GAUGE FOR INTERNAL TAPERED HOLE
limiting portions are determined by the flatted part,

B, on one side of the gauge and the cylindrical por-
tion, C,which extends beyond it. Now when this
gauge is used in a tapered hole, the operator places
it in position and notes whether the flatted portion is
below the surface of the hole or not. If he finds

that it is below the surface and that the opposite
side of the gauge, C, remains slightly outside of the
work, then he is certain that the work has been made
within the required limit longitudinally.
In addition to the longitudinal dimension, how-
ever, it is necessary to determine whether the taper
FIG. 142. FEMALE MASTER GAUGE FOR TESTING MALE

TAPER GAUGES
is correct or not. As a general thing the taper in a

hole is determined by means of a special tapered
reamer and, therefore, there is little chance for varia-

tion at this point. However, in order to determine
the taper with certainty, the inspector may use a
little Prussian blue on the gauge and by revolving
it slightly in the hole, he may see whether it is in
contact along its entire length or not.

In connection with the use of taper gauges and, in
fact, other types of gauges, mention should be made
of the necessity for reference gauges. Gauges of
this kind are made with great care and should be
kept in a safe place so that they will not be subject

to injury or marked variations in temperature. It
is apparent that a reference gauge for a male taper
gauge, such as that just described, would be such

that when placed in conjunction with the reference
gauge any variation might be readily detected. A
male gauge is usually tested by placing it in a
female gauge, and conversely a female gauge is
tested on a male gauge.
When a number of tapers of different diameters
but of the same angle are to be tested, a reference
gauge like that shown in Figure 142 can be readily
made. This gauge is marked with the piece numbers
and the limits in such such a way that the accuracy
of the gauge to be tested can be quickly determined.
This gauge is made with three adjustable blades of
manufacture. After the gauge has
steel to facilitate
been set properly by means of suitable measuring in-
struments, the screw holes can be filled with wax or
composition so that they cannot be tampered with.
Male Thread Gauges. When an internal thread is
to be gauged the type of gauge used is generally
called a male thread gauge. The gauging of a thread
requires special precautions as there are so many
points to be determined: First, there is the diameter
of the thread at the pitch line; second, the angle of
the thread; third, the diameter of the hole at the
bottom of the thread; fourth, the lead of the thread.*
The ordinary commercial gauge only gives an ap-
proximation of these four points, otherwise several
gauges would be needed to determine whether a
thread was correctly made or not.
The simplest form of thread gauge is a piece of
* The lead of a thread is the distance from the center
of one
thread to the center of the next, measured longitudinally. That is,
in a 16 pitch thread, the lead is -fa inch, because there are 16 threads
to the inch. On multiple threads, i. e., double or quadruple threads,
lead denotes the longitudinal distance from one thread to the same
thread after it has passed once around the piece. Thus the lead of a
16 pitch thread quadruple, would b 4 x -^ =% inch.
steel threaded on both ends, one end of which is

made so as to -enter the threaded hole and the other
end slightly larger so that it will not enter the
threaded hole. This type of gauge is clearly shown
in Figure 143. Commercially, a gauge of this type
gives results sufficiently close to the limit.
The majority of threaded holes are made by taps,
and if the thread gauge does not enter the work
freely, it is generally found that something is the
NOT GO
FIG. 143. STANDARD TYPE OF MALE THREAD GAUGE
matter with the tap that has been used. The taps
should then be examined to find where the error lies
and be discarded if found faulty. In most cases it
will be found that a variation in the lead is the cause
of the trouble. The tap may have been made up
properly and have changed considerably during the
hardening process, so as to give a lead slightly dif-
ferent from what it should be. It is an easy matter
for a workman to tap a hole to the proper size, but
ifthe lead of his tap is incorrect, great difficulty may
be found in assembling the parts after they have
been machined. A variation in the lead of the thread
means that only a few threads will be doing all the
work while the other ones are free.
Several instruments are made for measuring the
lead of a screw, based on the pitch line measure-
ment. Usually these instruments are provided with
ball points to reach down into the thread and
measure directly on the pitch line. The type of
thread gauge shown in the illustration is practically
the only one which is commercially used today. The
amount of tolerance permitted should never be more
than 70 to 80 per cent of a full thread.
Some gauges are made in such a way that a por-
tion of the gauge will act as a plug to measure the
root of the thread or, really, the diameter of the
hole. In this case the thread itself is measured sepa-
rately. The majority of commercial screws are made

with two much clearance; this results in a loss of
strength and is productive of considerable difficulty
when used on machinery otherwise all right. The
result of poor workmanship on threaded work is that
the threads, not having a full bearing, strip easily
and are generally useless. The limit on threaded
work should be sufficient to avoid such conditions.
External Gauges. External gauges are made for
cylindrical, taper, or threaded work. There are sev-
eral kinds: snap, gauges, ring gauges, receiver gauges,
and female thread gauges. The snap gauge is the
most common and is used for gauging cylindrical
work. The ring gauge is generally used for reference,
although occasionally it is used for actual gauging
processes. Eeceiver gauges are made for determining
several diameters at the same time and also for taper
FIG. 144. STANDARD TYPE OF SNAP GAUGE WITH

ADJUSTABLE POINTS
work. The female thread gauge is used for gauging

male 'threaded work, such as screws and the like.
In gauging cylindrical work which is to be held
within definite limits of accuracy, the snap gauge
shown in Figure 144 is commonly used. This gauge
is provided with surfaces or pins which limit the
amount of variation, as shown at A

and B in the
illustration. The "go" portion of the gauge is rep-
resented at A; the "not go" at B. This gauge is
used directly on the work and is extremely simple.
As an example, let us suppose that a piece of cylin-
drical work is to be held within the dimension 0.998
and 0.996. Then A would be made 0.998 and B,
0.996; hence if the work were to be made so that it
will enter A and not go between the points B, it is
GO,
FIG. 145.SNAP GAUGE FOR FIG. 146. TEMPLET GAUGE FOR A

MORE THAN ONE DIMENSION SPECIAL STUD
sure to be right. When this gauge becomes worn,

the points A and B can be adjusted by size blocks or
reground to size. In order to avoid either acci-
dental or intentional changes, it is well to pour
melted wax
into the holes at the adjustable points, or
else to put a drop or two of solder at these points so
that no change can possibly be made without per-
mission from the inspection department.
Snap Gauges for Widths. Gauges of the snap
variety are also used for determining widths across
lugs and between them, for shoulder distances on
shafts, for distances between bearings, and for other
work of like character. Sheet metal gauges are fre-
quently made for this purpose, and several gauging
points can be made on a single gauge. For example,
having a casting, such as shown above in Figure 145
in which the dimensions A and B are to be gauged,
a snap gauge similar to that shown in the lower por-
tion of the figure can be employed. This type of

gauge is made up of sheet steel, usually %
to 3/16
inch in thickness, and hardened after it has been
made very close to size. After the hardening, the
gauging points or surfaces are carefully ground to
correct dimensions. Gauges of this kind can be used
in confined situations, and as they can be cheaply
made their use is almost infinite.
Templet Gauges. Frequently it is necessary to
determine the form of a piece of work after it has
been machined, especially when the shape of the
piece is more or less irregular. Take as an example
thework shown in Figure 146, in which the general
form and correct spacing of A, B, and C are essential.
In a case of this kind a templet gauge, similar to
that shown at D, can be made to the form desired
and the workman can use it when making up the
piece, applying it to the work from time to time to
obtain correct spacing and form.
The templet gauge as ordinarily used is not, how-
ever, an accurate method of gauging for it does not
"tell the story," but only determines whether the
shape of the work is correct or not. It does not show
just where the points of inaccuracy are, but it does
show that the piece is not correct if it does not fit
the gauge. When it is necessary to gauge the con-
tour of a piece of work within close limits of accu-
racy, another type of measuring instrument, termed
an indicating gauge, can be used. This type will be
described in the next chapter.
Perhaps one of the most useful applications of the
templet gauge is in the manufacture of bolts, cap
FIG. 147. TEMPLET GAUGE FOB A SCREW
screws, studs, and the like, for determining the

length of the work and the length of the thread. As
an example, let us take the screw shown in Figure
147 in which the length, A, is 3 inches and the length,
B, of the thread, 2 inches. A
gauge can be made for
this work similar to that shown in the lower part of
this illustration. Its application is obvious: both the
length of the work and the thread can be noted in an

instant when the gauge is applied. There are many
other uses to which the templet gauge can be
adapted, and the forms used are naturally dependent
upon the work to which they are to be applied.
Ring Gauges for Cylindrical Work. Eing gauges,
such as that shown in Figure 148 at K, are used in
a large degree for reference, but they are also occa-
sionally called for in connection with manufacturing
on certain classes of work. The ordinary snap gauge

as used on cylindrical work simply gives the diameter
of the work at certain places where it is applied, but
it does not show the variations along the shaft, nor
does it determine whether the work is uniform in size

at all points.
Let us take the piece of work shown in Figure 148
as an example: Here we see a shaft on which another
member is to have a sliding fit from A to B. In
gauging this shaft, the snap gauge would be used at
two or three points, as at C, D, and E, and it will
be assumed that the remainder of the shaft is correct,
providing these points pass the inspection. By re-
ferring to the exaggerated view, much enlarged, of
the same shaft, it can be seen that if the work is
found to be imperfect, as shown at F, G, and H, the
FIG. 148. CYLINDRICAL RING GAUGE, SHOWING APPLICATION

snap gauge will not reveal the defect. But if the ring
gauge, K, were to be passed over the work from A to B,
the trouble would be located immediately. For work
of this kind, therefore, the snap gauge can be used
as a work gauge and the ring gauge for the final in-
spection. The workman can then gauge the work for
diameter, and the inspector's test with the ring gauge
will show any variations along the length.
Receiver Gauges. On certain classes of work, such
as the components of rifles, sewing machines, type-
writers, and adding machines, it may be found neces-
sary to gauge every part of the piece as a final check
against errors in machining. In this work a receiver
gauge can be employed to advantage. This instrument
is so made that the work can be placed in the gauge
itself, and if /the work has been correctly made
piece of
within the required limits of accuracy, it will conform
mark for L enc/th
Blcrdt
O
O
FIG. 149. RECEIVER GAUGE FOR TAPER PINS

closely to the 'Contour of the receiver. Gauges of this

kind can be made as limit gauges if desired, either by
making them up with a series of sliding points to in-
dicate the limits of variations
permissible, or by
making two gauges which the work must
in one of
go and in the other not go. Sometimes it is neces-

sary to gauge a contour very carefully, and in cases
of this kind an indicating gauge can be employed, as
described in the next chapter.
Ct/foui -Collar C
\.
FIG. 150. RECEIVER GAUGE FOR A POPPET VALVE
A common form of receiver gauge is that shown in

Figure 149, which is made for taper pins. Keference
to the illustration will show that it consists of a base
plate and two blades, one of which may or may not be
adjustable. In using this type of gauge the pin is
simply laid between the two blades in order to note
whether the taper corresponds to that of the gauge
or not. An
additional refinement can be incorporated
in this gauge by placing a mark on one of the blades
to gauge the diameter of the taper pin by determin
ing its length.
Another application of the receiver gauge is shown
in Figure 150. This gauge is made for a poppet
valve, in order to test the concentricity of the stem,
A, and the valve seat, B. In addition to these points
the angle of the seat can also be gauged. It will be
noted that a part of the collar, C, is cut away to
permit inspection along the seat of the valve. Many
applications of this type of gauge can be made when
the nature of the work warrants it.
Taper Ring Gauges. In gauging a taper shaft or
work of similar character several varieties of gauges
may be used. These gauges are usually made from a
cylindrical piece of steel having a tapered hole, such
as that shown in Figure 151 at A. The limits are
taken care of by cutting away half of the gauge at
the large end, as noted at B. The correct size is de-
termined by the junction of the tapered portion with
the cylindrical part and the position of the gauge
Doffed Lines
work io be Gauged
FIG. 151. FEMALE TAPER LIMIT GAUGE

longitudinally on the work. The gauge should not

push onto the work far enough so that the flat part
comes beyond the junction of the tapered and the
cylindrical part. The taper itself is found to be cor-
rect or not by placing the gauge in position on the
work which has been coated with a thin film of Prus-
sian blue and giving it a slight turn to determine
whether the taper is touching at all points.
FIG. 152. MALE MASTER GAUGE FOR TESTING FEMALE

TAPER GAUGES
Master Taper Gauge for Female Gauges. As a

reference gauge to which a female gauge may be
applied in order to determine whether it is correct or
not, a form such as that shown in Figure 152 can be
advantageously used when all of the tapers to be
gauged have the same angle. This gauge was de-
signed to go with the female gauge shown in Figure
142. But in this case the gauge is intended for test-
ing female taper gauges while the other is intended

for testing male taper gauges. It will be seen that
Dotve/ P/rt
L r"J
it
FIG. 153. FEMALE THREAD GAUGE
there are three blades, A, which are set into a column

of steel supported by a base, B. Along the blades,
the limits for various sizes of tapers are marked, as
indicated at C, D, E, F, etc. In use, then, a master
gauge of this kind is set up on its base, the ring
gauge dropped over it, and an inspection will de-
is
termine whether the ring gauge is made correctly

both as to limit and proper taper. Gauges of this
kind which are intended for reference only should be
preserved very carefully and never used for anything
except reference.
Female Thread Gauges. When a piece of threaded
work, such as a shaft or stud, is to be gauged on its
threaded portion, the testing is usually done by screw-
ing the work into a female thread gauge, such
as that shown in Figure 153. This gauge is made
from a piece of steel of rectangular form and is
drawn together or separated, as the case may require,
by means of the set screws indicated at A and B.
Adjustment is simply for the purpose of finishing the

gauge to the correct size with as little difficulty as
possible. It also provides a slight adjustment after
the gauge has become worn.
Gauges of this kind are seldom made with limits;
but for very particular work two gauges can be used,
one of the "go" variety and the other of the "not
go." For ordinary commercial work which does not
require very close limits of accuracy a gauge of this
kind will be found sufficient.
For determining whether the lead of the thread is
correct, a separate instrument must be used, as de-
scribed in the next chapter. In general, threads of
this kind are not gauged for the lead unless they
are particularly important, in which case the in-
dicating type of gauge is used to determine the cor-
rect lead.
There are other types of external and internal
gauges which are used for special purposes, but the
majority of them are modifications of those which
have been shown or else they are of the indicating
type of gauge for determining variations in inside
or outside contours. The description of such of these
gauges as are not mentioned in this chapter will be
taken up in the following chapter.
CHAPTER XXIV
PKOFILE AND INDICATING GAUGES
Gauges for High Accuracy. The present tendency

in gauging methods is to do away as far as possible
with all gauges which do not show the amount of
variation in the work. Many of the gauges described
in the previous chapter are made to indicate whether
a piece of work has been finished within the required
limits or not. The workman, in using ordinary limit
gauges, has no means of knowing (except the sense
of feeling) how nearly he is approaching the limits
which are permissible. His first real knowledge that
his tools have "gone the limit'' is when his gauge
tells him Hence it will be seen that for work
so.
requiring a high degree of accuracy, the ordinary

types of limit gauges do not quite answer the pur-
pose. For such conditions, then, some other type of
instrument by means of which the actual variations
in the work can be accurately determined, is essen-
tial.
Now us see what principles can be used in

let
gauging work, keeping it within the prescribed limits

and at the same time indicating the variations which
are taking place from time to time because of the
wear and changes in size of cutting tools. It is evi-
dent that indicating instruments which will show
376
. PROFILE AND INDICATING GAUGES 377
variations in the work make it possible for the work-

man to change his tools as may become necessary
and thus keep the work much closer to size than if
the ordinary limit gauges were used.
For instruments of this kind variations in the work
can be shown by a pointer of some sort working over
a graduated scale; by the sense of touch in the work-
man's fingers as they are passed over one or more
movable points; or by the sense of hearing, as in the
case of a gauge showing limits by an electric contact
which rings a bell or operates a buzzer. Of these
three types, the dial-indicating, or multiplying-lever
type, is most common. This gauge has a sensitive
movable pointer which works on a graduated scale or
dial, and can be adapted to an infinite number of
uses in gauging. The "feeler" or "flush pin" gauge
is also used to a considerable extent on work of
irregular form, or for depth gauging; it is sometimes

found convenient to use it also in the case of deter-
mining a correct shoulder distance. Micrometer
gauges are also used to some extent on work requir-
ing the highest degree of accuracy. And finally,
there is a type of gauge which employs a delicate and
sensitive arm so arranged that it multiplies the
actual variation in a piece of work; if the variation
is too great, it rings a bell by an electrical contact,
or shows a red or green light if this scheme is pre-

ferred.
Standard Instruments of Precision. Any mention
of gauging systems which does not include some of
the standard measuring instruments would be in-
complete, but as we are for the most part concerned
C. O H,
SECTIONAL VIEW OF
MICROMETER CALlPER
MICROMETER HEAD
FIG. 154. MICROMETER GAUGES SHOWING CONSTRUCTION

FEATURES
with special gauges, we will not devote a great

amount of space to instruments which are adapted to
the most minute variations, such as micrometer and
vernier calipers and other instruments of precision.
But as the principles on which these instruments
are based are also applied to gauging certain kinds
of work, let us look into the fundamental points on
which they depend for their accuracy.
The micrometer caliper, shown in Figure 154, is
familiar to all, and a brief description is all that will
be necessary. The upper portion shows at A a gen-
eral view of the instrument; a sectional drawing just
below, gives an excellent idea of the construction.
The frame, B, is a drop forging which is supplied
PROFILE AND INDICATING GAUGES 379
with a hardened inserted anvil, C. The frame is

bored out and has an adjusting nut, K, inside and a
short nut, L, to compensate for the wear on the
threads. The screw, D, is threaded at E, and is fast-
ened to the thimble, G, so that it can be rotated by
the fingers of the operator. Each revolution of the
screw moves it longitudinally 0.025 inches. The upper
view shows the graduation on the thimble; and as
there are 25 of these, starting with and running to
25, each division represents 0.001 inch. It will be
seen that by placing the work between the points C
and D and adjusting the screw by means of the
thimble, an accurate reading can be easily obtained.
This type of instrument is used all over the world for
accurate measuring. The micrometer head shown in
the lower portion of the same figure is sold as a
separate instrument and can be applied to many
forms of gauging by mounting it on a suitable fixture
to conform to the work which is being gauged.
Dial Indicator. Another forfri of gauge, useful for
inspecting a number of parts of the same kind, is
shown in Figure 155. This instrument may be
adapted to a variety of work by mounting it on a
suitable holder to fit the conditions. It should not
be considered as 'a gauge, however, but more as an
indicator to show variations in size after setting it to
a size block or plug. This instrument consists of the
base, A, on which is erected a vertical shaft, B,
absolutely perpendicular to the base. A sliding lever

acts on this shaft as a holder for the dial indicator,
C. The sleeve can be vertically adjusted and clamped
at any desired height by means of a thumb screw
FIG. 155. AMES DIAL TEST GAUGE ARRANGED FOR INSPECTION

OF SHAFTS
(not shown) at the rear of the instrument. The gauge

point, D, is connected with the dial by means of a
multiplying device inside of the instrument case, and
the dial is graduated to read in thousandths of an inch,
or finer if desired. In operation, a plug of the desired
size, similar to that shown at G, is used for setting
the gauge and indicator so that the pointer will read
if the work is correct. A piece of work, such as
shown under the gauge point, D,
at E, is then passed
and the reading is noted. Variations can be quickly
determined in this way, and a number of pieces tested
one after the other. Indicators of this type are also
frequently mounted on special gauging fixtures for
special work.
Prestwich Fluid Gauge. There has been a demand
for many years for an accurate indicating gauge
reading to one ten-thousandth part of an inch or
finer, and a number of instruments are now on the
market which will give readings as close as this, but
FIG. 156. PRESTWICH FLUID GAUGE

they are quite delicate in construction and require

careful handling as well as care in reading.
The recently developed gauge shown in Figure 156,
however, answers the demands of modern engineering
work most admirably, and the reading of the instru-
ment is so plain that a variation of one ten-thou-
sandths part of an inch is discernible across an ordi-
nary room. Furthermore the work can be gauged to
specified limits, with the gauge set to meet the re-
quirements of the work.
For ball bearings, thread gauges, or any other work
which needs to be calibrated in large quantities and
within very close limits of accuracy, an instrument of
this kind is indispensable. The principles involved in
the construction are as follows:, A fluid-containing
chamber, A, is provided with a flexible diaphragm,
B, and a glass tube, C, finely bored, and connected
with the chamber, A. The diaphragm, B, is furnished
with a hardened steel pin or anvil, D, and the base of
the instrument also has a fixed anvil, E, between
which and the anvil, D, the work is passed when
calibrating. The chamber, A, contains a colored
liquid which rises and falls in the glass tube, C,
according to the pressure applied to the anvil, D, and

transmitted to the diaphragm. The large area of the
diaphragm in comparison with the fine hole for the
liquid in the tube makes possible such a fluctuation
in the tube that it is easier to determine variations
of a ten-thousandth of an inch with this instrument
than it is to discern a thousandth with most other
measuring instruments. The chamber, A, is provided
with a thread and micrometer index and a pointer on
the upper surface, as indicated, to show thousandths of

an inch. This portion of the instrument is made for
the purpose of obtaining rough adjustments; but it
is not used after the instrument has once been set
to the size desired. The carrier, F, is furnished with
a scale, G, and three adjustable pointers, H, J, and K.
The upper two of these pointers are so arranged that
they can be set to indicate the tolerance limit between
which it is desired to keep the work when gauging.
The lower pointer, K, is set to the normal level of the
fluid in the glass tube, C, so as to compensate for any
fluctuations from changes in temperature. The in-
strument is roughly set to the size desired by means
FIG. 156-A. PRESTWICH GAUGE USED IN GAUGING A PISTON

of the rack,M, and the pinion, N, on the pillar, 0, to
suit the piecewhich is to be gauged. The clamping
screw is then tightened, and the final adjustment is
made by the micrometer dial, A, to a standard gauge
or a piece of the given dimension.
In the illustration, a piston wrist pin, X, is being
gauged, a small special angle plate being set on top
of the anvil, E, for this purpose, as clearly indicated.
It is evident that a reading can be taken on a pin of
this kind by simply pushing it along and noting any
fluctuation in the column of liquid, C.
.Referring to Figure 156- A, the same type of gauge
FIG. 156-B. PRESTWICH GAUGE USED FOR INSPECTION OF

THREAD GAUGES
is shown applied to the measurement of an auto-

mobile piston. In this case it will be noted that the
base of the gauge is furnished with a special block,
S, and that a different indicating point, R, is used.
In testing a thread gauge, such as that shown in
Figure 156-B, another application of this most useful
gauge is found. In this case the indication point is
of special form, permitting the
" three- wire
system"
from the fixed diameter to be used. It will be seen
that with this improvement, thread gauges or work
of similar character can be determined with the
utmost nicety and that the most approved system of
gauging from the pitch diameter can be adopted.
This gauge can be applied to many other varieties of
special work, and its sensitiveness and facilities for
quick and accurate reading make it invaluable to the
progressive manufacturer.
Flush-Pin Gauges. The flush-pin gauge is with-
out doubt the simplest type of gauge based on the
indicating principle. Several applications can be
made of this principle, one of the most useful of these
being the measuring of depths or shoulders.
Flush-pin gauges usually consist of a base or holder
of some sort in which one or more pins are inserted
so as to form a
'Sliding fit in their bearings. The pins
are madeof correct length for gauging a given sur-
face, the limit being determined by noting the amount
of projection of the end of the pin beyond the end
of the gauge itself.
As an example, let us take the flush-pin depth-

gauge shown in Figure 157. In this case, the work,
A, is placed on a surface plate and the gauge is used
..-'P/'r? cutaway at fhi3

'-
Worff A
FIG. 157. FLUSH-PIN DEPTH GAUGE
to determine the correct distance, B. The gauge

itself consists of a holder, C, through which the
gauge pin, D, works, a small retaining pin being used
to prevent the pin from falling out when not in use.
The end of the gauge pin is cut away to the center
line to show the amount of tolerance allowed in
manufacturing the work. In using the gauge the in-

spector simply notes that the shoulder on the pin is
lower than the finished surface on the holder and that
the end of the pin does not go below the shoulder.
This indicates that the work has been machined
within the desired tolerance.
Gauges of this kind are not suitable for work
within very close limits. From 0.003 to 0.005 inch is
as close as this type of gauge can be used to advan-

tage. When work permits a variation of 1/64 to 1/32
inch, gauges of this kind are frequently used, but for

the closer work they are by no means to be recom-
mended. They can be adapted, however, to fine read-
ings by using an indicator to act on the end of the
pin. This indicator can either be of the dial type,
applied by mounting it on a suitable holder, or it can
be a simple pointer pivoted in such a way as to
provide a large ratio of movement at the end of the
pointer.
Eeferring to Figure 158, let us suppose that the
push pin, A, in the upper sketch, is in contact with
the work at the end, B, and that variations to
0.001 inch are to be noted. If the short end of the
pointer has a fulcrum %
inch from the bearing, C, on
' '
Oraduafions O. O40
-
aparf. ffeadinq 0001
.-Push Ptn A for
UC= I
FIG. 158, FLUSH-PIN GAUGE FOR PRECISE WORK

the end of the pin, and the pointer is five inches long,
then the ratio -of multiplication will be as is to 5 or %
as 1 is to 40. Therefore, if the graduations on the
arm or -scale are cut 0.040 inch apart, a variation of
the pointer on one of these divisions will indicate
0.001-inch variation on the push pin.
Application of this principle can be made to many
forms of gauges requiring a reading closer than that
given by the ordinary flush-pin type. Still closer in-
dications can be obtained by multiplying the levers,
as shown in the lower portion of the diagram. One
lever, E, working on another, F, will obtain a larger
ratio.
Flush-Pin Gauge for Tapered Shafts. When a
tapered shaft is close to a shoulder, as in the case
shown in Figure 159, it is difficult to gauge the taper
as to its position. In such cases, the flush pin, B,
can be arranged so as to push the gauge on to the
shaft until the pin strikes the shoulder, A, on the
work, indicating the limit when the pin protrudes
A '
t
Pin cuf a'HOy on
.
'end fo s/fOtY /imifs
lie
A SECTION ON A-A
FIG. 159. FLUSH-PIN GAUGE FOR TAPERED SHAFTS

through the gauge at C. This pin is shouldered to

indicate the permissible limit of error similar to that
shown in Figure 157. Gauges of this kind can also
be used for determining shoulder distances on straight
or taper shafts.
Flush-Pin Gauge for Contours. In some instances
it is desirable to gauge one or two points with con-
siderable accuracy and other points not nearly as

closely. Take, as an example, the work shown in
Figure 160. In this case, the length of the work
FIG. 160. FLUSH-PIN GAUGE FOR CONTOURS
between the points F and G, is not of the greatest

importance, but the irregular portions at B and C
must not be above a certain dimension and can be
permitted to be under the dimension by 0.005 to
0.010 inch. The gauge in this case consists of a
block, L, on which the pins, G, F, D, and E, are
carefully set and against which the piece locates. Two
flush pins, at H and K, are cut away on the end to show
the amount of the tolerance permitted. It will be
seen, then, that as the work is placed in the gauging
D' E'
FIG. 161. DOUBKE FLUSH-PIN GAUGE
fixture these two pins, H and K,, can be moved up

against the points B and C, and the inspector can
easily determine whether the projection of the end of
the flush pin is too great or not. In this way the
desired contour of the work can be kept within the
required limit. Applications of this principle may be
made to many other kinds of work where it is neces-
sary to keep a certain portion within a specified tol-
erance.
Flush-Pin Depth-Gauge for Indicating Two Sur-
faces Simultaneously. Another type of flush-pin
gauge for use on two surfaces at the same time is
shown in Figure 161. This gauge is made up some-
what differently from the others, as the pins are
made of flat stock and the holder is composed of two
side pieces, with fillers between them, the two side
pieces, D, and the fillers, E, being riveted together as
indicated. The pins, A and B, indicate different
depths on the fly-wheel casting, C, and the limits are
shown by the shoulders on the pins, as indicated at
F and G.
Where the work is large, as indicated in the illus-

tration, a gauge of this kind may be preferred to one
made of a solid piece of bar stock with holes drilled
and reamed for the pins. It is somewhat lighter in
construction and, although no cheaper to manufac-
ture, it is a trifle more convenient to handle. Its
operation is similar to the flush-pin gauges previously

described.
In making a gauge of this kind, the various parts
are hardened and are lapped to a finish. Suitable
retaining pins are inserted so that the gauge pins will
not be lost when the instrument is not in use.
Indicator Gauge for Testing Alignment of Con-
necting-Rod Bearings. The parallelism and align-
ment of the connecting-rod bearings of an automobile
motor is exceedingly important. It is not enough to
know that the alignment of the bearings may be in-
correct, but the amount and direction of variation
must also be known. In order to determine these
two points it is necessary to use a gauge based on
the indicating principle.
An excellent type of gauge for this purpose is shown
in Figure 162. The connecting rod, A, has been pre-
viously finished in all of its dimensions, and is sup-
posed to be correct and ready for the final inspec-
tion. Previous to placing the work in the gauge, it
is fitted with the special pins, B and C, hardened
and ground to -size, and fitting closely in the bear-

ings at each end of the connecting rod. After the
work has been supplied with these two pieces it is
placed in the fixture, T, in such manner that the large
end of the connecting rod lies between the finished
surfaces, 0, on the fixtures and the pins at and C B

rest on the hardened pins, and F, D
at the large and
small ends of the fixture respectively. When the
work is placed in position the spring pins, N, hold it
firmly against the hardened pins, E, the pins, N, being
carefully adjusted so as to be perpendicular to the
center line of the work.
At the smaller end of the piece there is a fixed pin.
F, and, on the opposite side, a pin, G, with an adjust-
able knurled head and supported by the coil spring,
H, in the body of the fixture. One -side of the spring
pin is slotted at K end of the indicator,
to receive the
L. This indicator works on a scale, M, reading to
.001 inch. It can be seen, therefore, that any vari-
ation in alignment of the connecting-rod bearings
will be indicated by this pointer if the holes are not
parallel in the direction indicated.

Assuming that a discrepancy has been found in the
alignment, a suitable clamp can be placed on the
piece while it is -still in the fixture and it can be
twisted until the alignment is correct. Having
straightened out the alignment in this direction, it
is then necessary to gauge the work in another posi-
tion. For this purpose the arm, P, bearing a dial in-
dicator, S, is mounted in bearings, Q and E, these

bearings being put on a line with the center line of
the work. An indication of the parallelism of the
shaft, C, with that of the other end, B, can easily be
determined by swinging the indicating gauge, S, from
one side to the other of the shaft, C, and noting
whether there is any variation in the reading of the
dial when this is done. The indicator should read
the same on each side of the shaft if it is perfectly
parallel with the other end.
Applications of this type of gauge may be made to
many kinds of work. It is possible to use either the
dial indicator, as shown in this instance, or multiply-
ing levers to indicate the amount of variation in the

work. This particular gauge was designed by me on
some work for the Russian government.
Special Indicating Gauge for an Automobile Cam
Shaft. An automobile part requiring great care in
gauging is the cam shaft. A
special indicating gauge
designed for such use is shown in elevation in Figure
163 and in plan in Figure 163-A. In this work the
shape of the cam and the amount of throw are the
important points to be inspected. Usually the amount
of throw of the cam is not permitted to vary more
than 0.003 inch; some manufacturers hold their work
within tolerances even closer than this.
In the cam shaft, shown at A, the cams indicated
at D, D, D, have been forged integral with the shaft
and ground to the desired shape. An essential point
connected with the form and throw of the cams is
their location with respect to each other and also in
relation to the keyway on the tapered end of the shaft
at B. It follows, therefore, that the work should be
located from this keyway in gauging the cam. The
fixture itself consists of a base plate, K, which has
been carefully scraped to a fine finish on the surface.
On this base plate three bearings, E, are set, which fit
the outside diameter of the cam shaft. In gauging
the work the shaft is laid in these three bearings and
swinging clamps are pulled down on top of the shaft
by means of the handles shown at F. As these

handles are pulled down, the detent pins, H, snap into
place in a conical hole in the side of the lever, and
the spring plungers in the center of the swinging
clamps, as shown at G, bear down on the cam shaft
and hold it firmly in place in the bearings, E.
Although these spring pins hold the cam shaft firmly
in place they do not prevent its rotation. After the
piece has been set into place, the finger lever, E, is
pulled down until the work can be revolved suffi-
ciently to permit the locater to enter the keyway at
B. The work is now set ready for gauging.
Let us assume that the work has been placed in
position and that everything is ready to indicate the
piece. It will be noted that the block, L, is fastened
to the bed plate of the fixture and that the finger
lever, E, is contained in a sliding cylindrical piece

held in position by an internal spring. At the end of
the shaft, M (which works in a hardened bushing on
the inside of the block, L), a dial plate, 0, is keyed
in the correct relation to the finger lever and keyway
at E and B. This dial plate contains four tapered
bushings in proper relation to the keyway, B, and the
work can be indexed by pulling out the taper pin, P,
and turning the knurled handwheel, Q, for indicating
the various cams. To indicate the throw of the cam,
a special gauge set on the stand, S, and having three
feet of hardened steel, as shown at T, and an
Tipper
arm with indicating points at U and V for the
"go" and "not go" limit of the throw of the cam-
can be slidalong the surface of the plate until the
"go" and "not go" points on the gauge come in con-
tact with the cam, thus determining whether the

throw is within the desired limits or not. After these
points have been determined, the indicating dial is
revolved and the next cam in rotation is similarly
tested.
The contour or shape of the cam is gauged by
means of the block, W, which has a steel plate at X,
formed to the coutour of the cam. It is obvious that
this gauge is also moved along on the surface of the
plate until it comes in contact with the cam so that a
comparison can be easily made by the inspector.
After the shaft has been completely tested, the
entire mechanism of the indexing head is pulled away
from the tapered end of the shaft until the lever, M,
drops down into the recess on the shaft prepared for
it. This holds the mechanism far enough back so
that the cam shaft can be removed without difficulty.
A gauge of this kind is somewhat expensive, but the
results obtained by its use are most excellent.
Feeler Gauge far an Automobile Crank Shaft. A
limit gauge, rather peculiar in its character as it is
not really an indicating gauge and yet can be de-
pended upon to hold the work within the prescribed
limits of accuracy, is the crank shaft gauge shown in
Figure 164. This instrument is used to determine the
widths of the various bearings on the crank shaft
and their relations to each other. One of the features
of this gauge is that it can be used on the work
while in process it is not necessary to wait until after
the crank shaft has been removed from the machine
before testing for accuracy.
it
The gauge itself consists of a single hardened and

ground shaft, D, having at one end a templet plate,

E, which the center bearing of the crank shaft
fits
and is prevented from moving sideways by means of

the plate, C, which is cut out to fit the bearing, as
clearly shown in the end view. The other end of the
gauge is also provided with a plate, cut out in like
manner so that the operator may steady the gauge on
the work and that it may have a correct location in re-
lation to the axis of the work. In order to prevent the
gauge from falling over sideways while the various
bearings are being tested, a piece of sheet steel, M, is
fastened to the shaft as indicated.
Let it be assumed that the inspector is ready to
test the crank shaft and that the gauge has been
placed in position. It will be seen that the bushings

lying between the spacing collars H
and K, have each
two plates or fingers, F and F 1 and G and G1 located
,
one on each side of the bushings. Also the bushing

at the end of the crank shaft and between the col-
lars K and M
has also a pair of feelers, L and L 1 In .
testing the work, the feelers at these various points

are swung by the operator's fingers between the bear-
ings. If the first feeler goes through without diffi-
culty and the second does not, the inspector is ready
to pass the work. After one end of the crank shaft
has been tested the gauge is reversed and the other
end is tested in a like manner, using the center bear-
ing as the gauging point in each instance. After the
crank shaft has been gauged in this way, it is abso-
lutely certain that all the crank pins and bearings are
in correct relation to each other within the prescribed
limits.
Although type of gauge is somewhat out of the

this
ordinary, has
it proved successful in this kind of
work. It is obvious that the greatest care must be
used in making the instrument so that the various
parts may have no more freedom than is absolutely
necessary.
Electrical Contact Gauge for Cams. The use of
electrical contact for determining variations within
certain limits is well shown in Figure 165. Here, the
FIG. 165. ELECTRICAL, CONTACT GAUGE
work, A, which is to be tested, is a cam, the throw of

which must be held within certain limits as in pre-
vious instances. In this case, however, the cams are
not on a shaft, but are separate and can be handled
on a much smaller and simpler type of fixture.
The work, A, is placed on a stud (not shown), the
stud being located in the fixture plate. The gauge
is so arranged that if the throw of the cam is cor-
rect, a red light will show at J; while if the throw
of the cam is too great, the bell, K, will ring. A
reference to the illustration will show that a battery
is connected with the screw, F, and through it to the
tempered spring, E, A multiplying lever, C, is
pivoted at B, and acts on the push pin, D, which in
turn pushes up the flat spring, E, until it is in con-
tact with the adjustable screw, G. This completes an
electrical circuit through the wiring indicated by the
dotted line, and lights the red light at J. If the
throw of the cam is too great, the push pin, D, forces
the spring, E, up further until it touches the other
screw, H, which also completes an electrical circuit
and rings the bell at K. It must be understood that
this is only a diagramatic illustration of the prin-
ciples applied, and that various applications suitable
to the particular piece of work which is to be gauged
can be conveniently made.
Profile Inspection Gauge. On certain classes of
work the profile of the piece must be kept within
certain limits. It is not always possible or conve-
nient tomake up a receiver gauge for this purpose
and even when one is used, the results obtained do
not show up the variations markedly enough.
The use of the ordinate principle can be employed,
as shown in the Figure 166, in a case of this kind.
This system of gauging leaves nothing to be desired
where it is needful to inspect for accuracy and to de-
termine, at the same time, the variation in the con-
tour of the work. This gauge consists, first, of a sur-
face plate, A, which has been carefully scraped to a
plain surface. On this plate a master-gauge piece, X,
is placed and fastened securely in position, and is
3- 3-
(ZL
b-B
" K
FIG. 167. GAUGE FOR DETERMINING CONCENTRICITY
it is necessary to know how much variation there is
at various points.
Concentricity Indicating Gauge far High-Explosive

Shells. In the inspection of high-explosive shells the
concentricity of the exterior surface with the inside
isimportant. In order to determine this rapidly and
without difficulty, the gauge shown in Figure 167
was designed. This is a very simple type of in-
dicator gauge and the principles upon which it is
based are applicable to many other forms. The
work, A, is placed on the fixture and is located by the
lower end, which is tapered, at C and also by means
of the sliding tapered bushing at D. This latter
bushing is supported by a light spring, E, in order
to make sure that there is a contact on both tapered
bushings. If this were not so arranged, it might be
that the work would be placed in position and located
only on one end, which would cause a wobble in the
work when indicating. The standard on which these

two bushings are located may be revolved in the fix-
ture, and the work can be turned around freely by
hand when in position. As the work is revolved, the
plunger, F, which is spring controlled, bears against
the outside of the casing and operates the indicating
pointer, pivoted at K, and has a fulcrum at G. The
lower end of the pointer moves along the arc of the
graduated scale, H, thus showing variations in the
concentricity of the work according to the amount of
multiplication in the lever. In the case noted, the
multiplication is 20 to 1, as this is amply sufficient
to show variations in the concentricity of the work.
The principle shown in this fixture can be used with
an indicating dial; it is simply necessary to mount the
dial indicator in some way on the fixture so that the
push pin, F, will operate against it.

Johansson Gauges. Any description of gauging
systems which does not include some mention of the
testing blocks originated by Mr. C. E. Johansson
would be incomplete, although the system is well
known throughout the country. Briefly stated
Johansson standard gauges are parallel-lapped blocks,
in which the two opposite sides of each block are per-
fectly parallel and the distance between them is equal
to the size marked upon the block. These blocks are
furnished in a number of sizes, so that any dimen-
sion up to the limit of the various blocks can be
obtained by placing the surfaces of blocks marked to
the sizes required against each other in such close
contact that a measurement across the blocks will
give absolutely the dimension required.
All Johansson standard-gauge blocks up to 6 inches
are guaranteed to have no greater error than 0.00001
inch, that is 1/100,000 part of an inch. They were
originally intended for use in the tool room only for
the quick and accurate laying out and checking of
jigs and but their applications have become
fixtures,
better known now they are used for checking
until
many varieties of work. The gauge blocks are made
up in a number of sets to suit various requirements.
With their standard holders for making up a num-
ber of blocks to a required dimension, they can be
considered as a valuable adjunct to the tool room
for checking dimensions, gauges, and other
limits,
work requiring extreme accuracy. A lengthy descrip-
tion of the Johansson system of gauging is unneces-
sary, but it is safe to say that no manufacturer who
is engaged in the production of interchangeable work
or any kind of work requiring extreme accuracy

can afford to be without a set of these gauging
blocks.
CHAPTER XXV
PATTERNS
The Use of Patterns. A casting which is to be
machined must be made by a pattern. The simplest
form of a pattern may be identical in shape and
size with the piece which is to be made; but, on the
other hand, the
pattern may differ quite widely,
depending upon the construction of the piece, the
number of holes in it, and whether it has ribs or
protuberances of different kinds which may necessi-
tate that it be made up to provide for the use of
core boxes or core prints. Speaking generally a pat-
tern is a form which can be laid in damp sand or some
other plastic material such that when molten metal is
poured into the mold the desired shape will be re-
produced in metal. Usually the outside of a pattern
has the general form of the piece which is to be
moulded and differs from that piece only in the
various pieces called core prints, which stick out from
the patterns here and there according to the require-
ments of the work.
Patterns are usually made of wood, but they may
also be made of metal, rubber, plaster, and occa-
sionally of other materials. Eegardless of the ma-
terial used, however, the pattern itself does not differ
in form nor is the result obtained greatly different.
407
In work requiring a great number of pieces of the
same kind, metal patterns are more commonly used,
as they are more durable and will stand handling
much better than the wooden. For work that is
comparatively small and involving a number of
pieces of the same kind, a number of small metal pat-
terns can be made up and arranged in the mold
about a "gate," so that a great many castings can
be made at one time in the one mold.
Wooden patterns and metal patterns are made in
practically thesame way, the difference being that the
metal pattern must be cut and worked into shape
with different tools than those used on the wooden
pattern as it is obvious that metal cannot be cut
properly with wood-working tools. Frequently, in
the making of a metal pattern, a wood pattern is
first made which is a little larger than the work is
and also for shrink-
to be, so as to allow for finishing
age, and a casting is made from it in some kind of
metal which can be conveniently worked. This cast-

ing is then used for the metal pattern after the pat-
tern maker has worked it up to the desired size.
Form of Pattern. In making a casting, the first
thing for the pattern maker to determine is just how
his work is to be molded. The important point in
this connection is the withdrawal of the pattern from
the sand which has been rammed around it. If the
pattern is simple in character, no great difficulty
should be experienced in this matter; but if the work
has a number of bosses or lugs and is of a peculiar
shape, the matter of molding must be carefully con-
sidered by the pattern maker in the making up of
PATTERNS 409
his patterns. Obviously, it is necessary for the pattern

to be made in such a way that the molder can with-
draw from the sand without disturbing the im-
it
pression which the pattern has created in the sand.

The pattern maker must always possess foresight
enough to make provision for removing the pattern
from the mold after the sand has been packed
around it.
Method of Molding. The best way to understand
thoroughly just how a pattern is molded is to describe
the process in connection with a simple pattern, such
as that shown in Figure 168. In the first place
it must be recalled that the fine sand used for mold-
ing is moistened slightly so that itwill hold together
in the flasks into which it is pounded or rammed
around the pattern. These flasks are of various
kinds, but in their simplest form they are boxes open
at top and bottom and made either of wood or metal.
The boxes are provided with lugs on the sides
through which dowel pins may be passed so that two
flasks can be put together in such a way that they
always bear the same relation to each other. They

can then be separated and replaced at will, with the
assurance that the parts of the mold in the sand will
correspond. The upper half of the flask is the
"cope" and the lower half is the "drag" or "nowel."
It will be noted that the pattern shown at in A
Figure 168 is what may be called a "solid" or "one
piece" pattern and that it has no core in it. It may
be said of this pattern, therefore, that it leaves its
own core in the sand and does not require anything
special in its construction. This particular piece is
an exact model of the casting which it will produce
and is a good example of the simplest form of mold-
ing. The shape of this particular piece is such that
the angles on both outside and inside give an excel-
lent draft, permitting the work to be removed with-
out disturbing the sand in any degree. When the
&rag Side-'
FIG. 168. METHOD OF MOLDING A SIMPLE PATTERN
molder prepares to moldthis pattern he takes a large

as that shown at C, and places it on
flat board, such
his bench. On this board he places the pattern, A,
with the large side down; over it he puts the drag
portion of the flask. He then sifts or "riddles" fine
sand all over the surface of the pattern and rams it
tightly. After this has been done, he fills the re-
mainder of the flask with coarse sand which is also
rammed tightly, just filling the box flush to the top.
PATTERNS 411
The entire box is then turned over until the cope side
comes upward, as shown in the illustration. The ex-
posed surface is now sifted or covered lightly with
parting sand that is, white beach or river sand.
This is done to prevent the cope side of the flask from
sticking to the drag. The cope side is then placed in
position over the drag and the entire box filled with
coarse sand, rammed in. Cope and drag are then
separated, the pattern carefully removed from the
mold, the cope replaced, and the flask is ready for
molding or is set aside until required.
Cores and Core Boxes. If the casting to be made
requires a hole in it and, because of the shape of the
pattern, it is not possible to place the pattern in the
mold (as in the instance noted) in such a way as to
leave a pyramid or conical portion of sand in the
mold that will prevent the metal from flowing into
that part and thus leave a hole in the resulting cast-
ing, it will be necessary to make a separate "core."
For example, in Figure 169 a separate core is neces-
sary on account of the shoulder on the inside of the

work. This requires that a core box be made
specially for it.
Cores may be made from metal, dry sand, or green

sand. The kind illustrated in Figure 168 is the green
sand core and is made at the same time that the
mold is made. There are occasional instances when
a green sand core can be made up separately and
placed in the mold, but these cases are rather rare
and need not be considered here. Metal cores are
chiefly used in brass work or other work in which
considerable accuracy is required. They are not used
" "
Pa ffern A >-' Core Print
Casting B\
Core Print..
FIG. 169. MOLD AND PATTERN SHOWING USE OF BAKED CORE
in molding cast iron. The most common form is the

dry sand core. This is made from a fairly coarse sand
mixed with some binder material to hold it together
and then baked until perfectly hard and thoroughly
dry.
Dry sand cores are molded in core boxes made tip
to the shape and Core boxes are usually
size desired.
made of wood in two or more parts, depending some-
what on the shape of the core itself. The making of
core boxes for patterns is fully as important as the
making of the pattern itself.
After the core box has been made, the mixture of
sand, with the binder thoroughly incorporated in it,
is placed in the core box until it is filled completely.
PATTERNS 413
Itmust be remembered that the core in the box is

stable, but when removed it is somewhat delicate. In
some cases, then, it is necessary to reinforce the core
sand by means of rods or bars of different shapes to
conform to the size of the core and its contour. After
the core box has been filled, the core is removed, laid
on a plate, and placed in the oven in order to dry
out. It is then ready for use in the mold, having first
been given a coating of blacking with a composition
of plumbago or graphite, in order that the molten
metal may not stick to the core.
Eeferring to the pattern, A, Figure 169, a core
print, as it is termed, is seen at each end. There is
a taper on the upper of these prints, for it is on the
cope side of the mold and the cope could not readily
be removed unless this part of the print were made
tapering. Occasionally the tapered end of the core
print removable, so as to make it easier for the
is
molder do his work. Otherwise the molder will

to
bore a hole in his molding board to accommodate this
end of the print when ramming up the pattern.
Eeferring to the casting, B, shown in the same illus-
tration, an inside recess is seen of such a form that it
would be impossible to mold the work from a pattern
without a separate core. Therefore a core box is
made up to give the form indicated at C, and after
the pattern A has been rammed in the mold, this core
C is inserted prior to the molding operation as in-
dicated in the illustration. When the metal is poured
into the mold it will flow all around this core and
into the depression left by the pattern form, thus pro-
ducing the desired shape, After the iron has cooled
and the mold is dumped, the core,
being of a fragile
nature, can easily be broken up and knocked out of
the casting, which is then left in the condition shown
atB.
Two-Part Pattern and Method of Molding. The
casting, A, Figure 170, is seen to have flanges at
each end of such form that the casting could not be
molded in the same manner as that shown by Figure
169. In work of this kind the better method is to make
up a two-part pattern, as shown at B, and prepare

to mold the work as indicated in the illustration. It
will be noted that this two-part pattern is separated
on the center line and that there is a dowel pin, C,
at each end of the pattern so that the two parts can
be placed together in their correct relation at all
times.
In molding, one-half of the pattern is laid down on
the molding board and the drag portion of the mold
is rammed up around it. The mold is then turned
over and the other half of the pattern laid on to its
fellow, after which the cope side of the mold can
be rammed. After lifting out the pattern and placing
the core in position as noted, the work is ready for
molding.
Occasionally in cheap pattern work it may not be
desirable to make a two-part pattern. When this is
the case, the method shown in the lower part of the
illustration can be used. In this, the pattern is made
in one piece, and the molder lays the pattern down
on his molding board and rams up the mold in the
drag portion. He then turns over the drag, as indi-
cated in the illustration, cuts down the slope, D,
PATTERNS 415
fi-Ttft,
Casting
^iJAP
Pa f fern
A -.-. ..- COPE.-:- ;
rw4 r-f teiy u
PIG. 170. TWO METHODS OF MOLDING A PATTERN WITH FLANGES

Upper figure shows the split-pattern method. Lower shows
solid pattern.
with his molding tool, and removes the sand down to

the center line of the pattern, leaving it all clear and
clean. After sifting parting sand on the drag portion
of the mold, he places the cope flask in position and
rams this up also until it takes the form shown in
the illustration. The cope can then be lifted care-
fully off so as not to disturb the sand which is hang-
ing below it, and the pattern can be removed and the
core inserted as in the previous instance. This
method of molding is seldom used unless only one or

two castings are desired from a certain pattern, for
too great a portion of the molder's time is taken up
than the work warrants.
Circular Cover Pattern. Figure. 171 shows a some-
what different type of pattern. Here the work to be
produced from the pattern is shown at A, and the
method of molding the piece is indicated in the lower
portion of the figure. In this case the parting line
of the pattern is at C; there is a projection into the
cope of the pattern itself, and also the portion, B,
of the cope extends down into the pattern. To use
this pattern it must be laid down on
the molding
board and a suitable recess provided for the flange
Coshrry
FIG. 171. CIRCULAR COVER PATTERN SHOWING PART OF THE

MOLD IN THE COPE SIDE
PATTERNS 417
portion so that the parting line, C, will lie flat on

the board. The sand is then rammed around the
pattern, after which the drag is turned over in the
usual way and dusted with parting sand. The cope
is now placed in position and rammed up, the sand
being forced down into the portion B, and lifting out
as the cope is removed so that the part, B, remains
hanging from the cope side of the mold.
Pattern Requiring a Three-Part Flask. In some
instances it is necessary to mold a certain kind of
pattern in a flask containing more than two parts.
An instance of this kind is shown in Figure 172
where the work, A, is a casting having four ribs and
a flange at each end. It is apparent that it would not
be possible to ram sand all around the pattern and
then be able to remove it from the sand without dis-
turbing the mold. The pattern is made up, therefore,
in the form shown at B, the usual core print being
applied and the pattern itself being arranged so that
it can be separated along the line X-Y.
The process in molding this pattern is as follows:

The large flange is placed on the molding board, the
"cheek" of the three-part flask is first rammed up as
far as 'the separation of the pattern X-Y, the cope
being then placed in position and rammed in turn.
Both cope and cheek are then turned over together
on to the molding board and the drag side is com-
pleted. In removing the pattern, one part drawn
is
from the large flange side and the other from the
small flange side. The core can then be placed in
position in the usual way, and the mold is ready for
pouring.
FIG. 172. EXAMPLE OF MOLDING A FLANGED AND RIBBED PATTERN

IN A THREE-PART FLASK
Other Forms of Patterns. It is not necessary to
present a lengthy discussion of the various forms of

patterns, hut several other kinds may be mentioned
in a general way in order to make the subject a little
clearer. The matter of loose pieces is one which occa-
sionally gives the pattern maker and molder more or
less trouble. For instance, in making a casting that
has a number of lugs or bosses on it of such a kind
that they could not be readily removed from the
molds, the pieces are frequently made loose with a pin
in them to permit their ready removal. In molding
PATTERNS 419
such a piece of work the pins are removed from the

loose pieces before the pattern is taken out of the
mold; the pattern can then be removed without dis-
turbing the loose pieces which can be taken out by
the molder's hands afterwards.
The type of patterns known as "sweep" patterns
should also be mentioned. These are used for circular
work when a very cheap pattern is desired. They
can be made for almost any kind of cylindrical ring,
and if made in sectional form to take up a certain
portion of the mold desired, this part of the pattern
can be attached to a radius stick pivoted at the cen-
ter of the mold and a part of the mold rammed up at
a time. After one section of the mold has been pre-
pared in this way, the sweep can be moved around to
another section which is treated in like manner.
Skeleton patterns may also be used in a somewhat
similar way. But attention should be called to the
fact that each of these types just mentioned is used
for the purpose of economy where only a very few
castings are to be made from any one pattern. The
skeleton pattern is used in place of a complete pat-
tern, but its principal claim to distinction is that it
can be made up cheaply for cylindrical work. While
the pattern maker saves considerable time in making
either a skeleton pattern or a sweep, the molder, how-
ever, is required to spend very much more time in
making up the molds than he would do if he were
provided with the proper kind of pattern.
Tools for Pattern Making. The tools used in pat-
tern making are much the same as those used by any
carpenter, except that a number of varieties of spe-
cial tools are required, such as those used by the
cabinet-maker and wood-carver. A number of spe-
cial machines are in use in the pattern shop in order
to facilitate the work of pattern-making. These in-
clude such special machines as the core-^box machine,
which is specially designed to assist in cutting out
the inside work in a core-box, and also sand-paper-
ing machines of the disc type with adjustable tables
to permit them to be set to different angles for the
greater convenience of the pattern maker. Other
tools used in the pattern shop are the circular saw,
the band saw, the hand jointer or buzz planer, the
mortiser, and the shaving machine. Special pattern-
maker's vises might also be mentioned, which are so
constructed as to hold the work in any desired posi-
tion without injury. The tool-maker's engine lathe
is also found in the pattern shop and is largely used.
In addition to all the above, each pattern maker has
his own private supply of hand to'ols, most of which
have been made up by himself for certain kinds of
work which has been out of the ordinary. Aside from
these, the cabinet-maker's or carpenter's kit of tools
would represent general usage.
CHAPTER XXVI
PATTERN RECORDS AND STORAGE
Desirability of Pattern Records. Keeping patterns

after they are made, in a safe and readily accessible
place, is a matter that has deservedly received con-
siderable attention in late years. Formerly, the boss
pattern-maker had a system of his own; he located
any desired pattern in from ten minutes to three or
four days, depending on his memory and the amount
of time he could spare in looking it up.
The boss pattern-maker frequently was, and still is,
a man who had held the position for a number of
years and who might be expected to know what a
given pattern looked like and where it was likely to be
found. Memory is a poor thing to depend on, however,
for locating anything, and the results from the sud-
den death, resignation of the man having
illness, or
this store of knowledge can well be imagined. Con-
sider the amount of time consumed by the boss pat-
tern-maker under ordinary circumstances in finding
a given pattern and estimate the cost of finding the
pattern under these conditions.
However, it is gratifying to note the progress
made in this respect among present-day manufac-
turers. Nearly all of them now-a-days have a well-
ventilated, light, and convenient pattern-storage
421
building, with suitable racks or compartments in

which the patterns are kept. In former times it hap-
pened not infrequently that the loft (if there hap-
pened one above the pattern shop) was utilized
to be
for storage, and it took a man with a searchlight
and a pair of good eyes some time to find what he
wanted.
Quality of Patterns. Before going into the matter
of pattern storage and records, I should like to say
a few words in regard to economy in the construction
of patterns; for it is always a good plan to consider
other things in addition to the first cost of a pattern,
and there are many factors affecting the construc-
tion.
It is obvious that the number of pieces to be made
from a given pattern is an essential factor in deter-
mining the character of the pattern. For example,

a jig or fixture pattern is usually made as cheaply
as possible, for it will only be used once or twice.
Any other sort of pattern for a special machine or
mechanism, which will be used for only one or two
castings,would therefore seem to come under the
same category, but here other factors vitally affect
the construction. A special machine may be de-
signed for use in a manufacturer's own shop, or it
may be sold to a customer; in either case the appear-
ance of the finished machine must be considered, and
therefore the pattern should be well filleted, with
corners rounded, and finished throughout so that the
castings obtained from it will be of good appearance.
Speaking generally, it is not necessary or even de-
sirable to give patterns of this kind a high finish
PATTERN RECORDS AND STORAGE 423
with several coats of varnish. A good sandpaper

although a coat of shellac
finish is usually sufficient,
is a very good protective covering that may preserve
the pattern in better condition than if it were left
without it, in the event that other castings may be
wanted at a later date. These matters are generally
left tothe judgment of the pattern-maker when he is
instructed by the foreman as to the kind of pattern
wanted.
Usually in making a pattern for a -single casting,
the warping of the wood from which it is made and
the consequent distortion arising therefrom are not
taken into consideration, so that if another casting
is desired at a later date, it may easily happen that
the results obtained in the second case are unsatis-
factory. If there is a likelihood of a pattern being
used a second time, provision should be made to pre-
vent undue warping. However, attention to this mat-
ter should not permit too great an addition to the
first cost of the pattern. Judgment should be used
in all cases.
Patterns which are built up in sections, with the
grain of the wood running in opposite directions, are
not generally desirable for single casting work on
account of the first cost of the pattern; but when the
shape of the work is such that there is strong likeli-

hood of distortion, the pattern should be made sub-
stantial enough to counteract any tendencies of this
kind.
For patterns which are to be used over and over
again, the first cost should be a secondary considera-
tion. A
poorly built pattern will go out of shape and
become so damaged by frequent molding that it will
soon need to be replaced by another. Of course,
when the size of the work will permit it, and the
number of castings to be made warrants the expendi-
ture, a metal pattern is most satisfactory. The cost
of a metal pattern, however, is very much greater
than the cost of one made of wood, so that it is un-
economical to use metal unless a great many pieces
of the same kind are to be cast from the same pat-
tern.
In machine-tool patterns there is always a pos-
sibility of a change in design of the machine. This
may make an entirely new pattern necessary, and
therefore metal patterns should be rather sparingly
used for work of this kind because of their expense
and the likelihood of an early discard.
Economy in Combination Patterns. In the making
of pulleys or gears with spokes, which require sev-
eral pieces of the same diameter but with different
lengths or sizes of hubs, considerable economy can
be effected by using one spider and ring pattern with
loose hub pieces of different lengths and diameters.
A combination of these loose hub pieces with the
spider and ring will meet a number of different con-
ditions. The spiders can also be made with a vary-
ing number of spokes and the pulley rings can be
made in different widths so that a wide variety of
castings can be obtained. Hubs and spiders can be
so made as to be interchangeable one with another,
so that with only a few complete patterns combina-
tions of all kinds can be quickly and satisfactorily
effected.
Gear Molding Machine, Another great economy

in pattern making has been the development of the
gear molding. This permits a special pattern to be
made in sectional form which has only one tooth
space on the rim and a part of a tooth on each side,
instead of an entire pattern of a gear with teeth all
around it more or less accurately spaced according
to the skill of the pattern maker. The gear molding
machine takes the sectional pattern and molds the
remainder of the teeth far more accurately than is
possible in any other way.
Pattern Records, Having considered the making
of the patterns and the economies which can be put
into effect in their construction, let us see how we
can best take care of them after they have been
made, and how we can locate them when wanted
without resorting to memory. It is apparent that
any record for patterns must be based on the method
used in identifying any component part in the class
of work being manufactured. Thus, if machine tools
are being made, the system used should identify the
machine by number or name, the part by number and
name, and the location of the pattern in its rack in
the pattern storage building. It is useful also to
have the date that the pattern was made, its cost,
and the weight of casting incorporated in the index,
together with information regarding core boxes and
a record of castings made with date of order, etc.
Figure 173 shows a simple index card that is ap-
plicable in recording the patterns used in making
machine tools.
In any record of this kind the cards should be filed
Machine No.. />*/

machines are simple, reasonable in price, and do not

get out of order easily. In addition to the number
plate, the number should be painted on the pattern
in case the plate should be knocked off and lost. It
is also necessary to have the storage location plainly
marked on the pattern, so that when it is returned

from the foundry it can easily be put in its proper
place without reference to the card index.
Storing the Patterns. The actual method used in
storing patterns is dependent upon the facilities pro-
vided or available for the purpose. If a building can
be used for this storage, it should be equipped with
steel orwooden racks preferably steel laid out in
aisles or sections. Eachsection can be given a letter
and each shelf a number, so that a location specified
as F-21, for example,would mean Section F, Shelf 21.
This can be further subdivided to provide for small
patterns by a suitable box which can be placed on
the shelf and also designated by a number or letter,
as F-21-C, which would indicate Section F, Shelf 21,
Box C.
The lighting is im-
of the pattern storage building
portant. If the building can be lighted by ordinary
daylight, it is an advantage; but if daylight is not
available, good artificial lighting should be provided,
preferably by means of portable incandescent bulbs
suitably caged and having long cords to permit lights
to be carried from one shelf to another as required.
Another point which should be mentioned in con-
nection with pattern storage is that the building
must be dry, since moisture is very apt to affect the
glue in the patterns to such an extent that it may
cause them to fall apart and give an endless amount
of trouble.
By no means the least important of the factors in
connection with pattern storage is the nature of the
building in which they are stored. It might be said
that above all buildings in the plant, this should be
as nearly fireproof as possible. One can readily
imagine the havoc caused to any plant through the
loss of the patterns on which the business was based.
At a price, buildings and machinery can be readily
replaced in fairly short order; but patterns, which
are the fruits of years of development and upon each
of which large sums of money, in many cases, have
been expended, can only be replaced, if ever, by an
equal expenditure of time and money. In other
words, possible that the loss or destruction of the
it is
patterns through fire might result in the total failure

of the business; the least effect is a more or less pro-
tracted delay in filling orders.
Many of the patterns themselves are highly in-
flammable; these should be individually guarded.
Metal patterns, of course, suffer little danger of dam-
age from a small fire; but in the event of the loss of
the storage building by fire, even they would be dam-
aged beyond repair. Too great stress, therefore, can-
not be placed on this point, and in far too many cases
it is a factor which has apparently been entirely
overlooked.
CHAPTER XXVII
CAEE AND STORAGE OF CRUCIBLES
Clay Crucibles. The crucibles used for melting

small quantities of metals are made either from clay
or graphite. In the steel industry crucibles are used
extensively, principally in the manufacture of so-
called crucible steel. Their greatest use, however,
is in brass foundry work, and the graphite form is
much preferred to the clay on account of its greater

durability.
When clay crucibles are used, a high grade clay
is mixed with about 5 per cent of powdered coke and
made into a stiff dough or paste by the addition of
water. The mixture is then thoroughly worked or
kneaded until it is of uniform consistency, after
which it is forced into a mold of the desired shape
by means of a plunger. The top of the crucible is
then formed (after removal from the original mold)
by forcing over it another die of conical shape. The
formed crucibles are then allowed to dry slowly for a
few days without the aid of artificial heat. After this
preliminary drying they are placed near the melting
furnaces for final drying out.
In the molding operation a hole is left in the bot-
tom of the crucible, through which a pin passes to
center the plunger used in forcing the clay into the
429
mold. This hole is left open until the crucible is
placed in the furnace, and is closed by resting it on a

little clay stand in the furnace and throwing a little
sand into the hole. This sand fuses very quickly from
the heat, effectively stopping the hole and at the
same time cementing the crucible to the stand on
which it rests.
The greatest care is necessary in handling clay
crucibles. They must be heated very slowly, and
must be re-charged while hot. While their normal
cost is not high, they are easily broken and may
cause a loss in metal and in damage to the furnace
in which they are used far in excess of the value of
the crucible.
Graphite Crucibles. Graphite crucibles have many
advantages over those made from clay, and are there-
fore used by a majority of manufacturers in this
country. They will stand more heats and rougher
handling than clay crucibles; can be tested for cracks
and thickness before charging, and can be charged
cold.
Prior to the war, graphite crucibles were made from
German clay and water to which is added sand and
Ceylon graphite. A
substitute for the German clay,
however, is now being used which gives exceedingly
satisfactory The mixture of clay, water,
results.
sand, and graphite, is made up into a stiff paste
which is allowed to " season" by keeping it in a damp
place for several days. When the material has been
" seasoned " it is
properly tempered or placed in a
mold upon a potter's wheel and revolved. A
movable
arm or profile iron spins out the material to fill the
CARE AND STORAGE OF CRUCIBLES 431
mold, at the same time acting as a gauge to keep the

walls of the crucible at the desired thickness for the
purpose in hand.
After the spinning operation, the crucible is sea-
soned for another 24 hours at a temperature of not
more than 80 degrees Fahrenheit, and is then
smoothed up to its desired form ready for the final
seasoning. This final seasoning is accomplished by
keeping the crucibles at a temperature sufficient to
drive off the hygroscopic moisture for a period of
three weeks. They are then placed in an annealing
oven at a temperature of 1500 degrees Fahrenheit and
kept there for three days to remove all traces of
moisture. This process is termed "burning". The
finished crucibles are then protected by placing them
inside clay molds to prevent oxidation and damage of
other kinds. Before using the crucibles, however,
they should be kept for a considerable time in a warm
place. This final seasoning tends to toughen the
crucible and give them greater durability, hence they
are often kept for some time after being made. Cru-
cible covers are generally made from the bottoms of
old pots, and are treated in the same way as the cru-
cibles themselves.
The "scaling" or flaking, which sometimes seen
is
in crucibles, caused by improper annealing and

is
seasoning. The material of which they are made is

of such a nature that it absorbs moisture rapidly, un-
less prevented, and when the crucible is placed in the
furnace in this condition the moisture is converted
into steam, causing a "flaking" by blowing off pieces
of the pot entirely, thus rendering it unfit for use. As
pointed out, the moisture must be driven off by a

slow process of annealing and tempering in order to
prevent any trouble of this kind. Crucibles which
have been thoroughly dried out will seldom flake or
crack when heated, and it is therefore of supreme
importance to see that this preparatory work is
thoroughly done.
Storage of Crucibles. The prime requisite in
the storage of crucibles is that they be kept in a
warm and dry place. Where pit furnaces are used
in the foundry, an excellent place for storage is just
back of the battery of furnaces, where both dryness
and warmth will be assured.
A special oven can be arranged which utilizes the
waste heat from the furnaces, and by using dampers
of suitable form the heat can be regulated to make
an annealing oven of it. Whatever arrangement is
made for crucible storage it is absolutely essential
to provide continuouswarmth, and not have an in-
terval during which the crucibles cool off and ab-
sorb moisture.
Care in the Use of Crucibles. An important point
in connection with the care of crucibles is to prevent
the graphite from burning off the outside of the pots
during use. An oxidizing atmosphere will do this.
Therefore when oil and gas furnaces are used for
heating, a reducing flame must be kept up. A badly
burned crucible is the result of directing an oxidiz-
ing flame directly upon it; such a crucible is soon
ruined. Better results will be obtained by using a
wider flame from burners adapted to high-pressure
oil and low-pressure air; these burners are more
CARE AND STORAGE OF CRUCIBLES 433
easily controlled and not so severe in their action as

burners which are designed for low-pressure oil and
high-pressure air.
In using fuels, those which have a high content of
sulphur form sulphur dioxide, which is very injuri-
ous to crucibles. Such fuels, therefore, should be
avoided.
Crucibles will last much longer if the metal is
poured as soon as possible after the proper tem-

perature has been reached so that they will not be
subjected to the burning action of the flame any
longer than is needful. The life of crucibles continu-
ally kept at high temperatures is comparatively
short. It is of advantage, therefore, to use a crucible
first in melting alloys high melting
requiring
points, then, as it growsprolong its life by
older,
melting alloys requiring a lower melting point. It is
necessary, of course, to clean out any alloy of one
kind thoroughly before using the crucible for another
alloy, in order to prevent hybrid mixtures. No mat-
ter what melting points are used or what alloys
are melted, care must be taken in charging the pot
not to crowd it full of scrap or heavy ingots of metal,
as the expansion of these in melting is sometimes suf-
ficient to crack or otherwise shorten the life of the
vessel.
Crucibles will have longer life in round furnaces
than in square ones, because the heating is more uni-
form in the former. For this reason tilting furnaces
are easier on crucibles than pit furnaces. In using a
pit furnace the life of a crucible is prolonged by plac-
ing it in the furnace to cool gradually with the fur-
nace rather than to let it cool in other atmosphere
and under various conditions.
A protective paint or a wash made of pulverized
carborundum fire-sand mixed with water glass oj
boric acid, has a resisting effect and prolongs the life
of a crucible to some extent. A coating of this kind
has been used sucessfully in Europe and has recently
been put on the American market.
INDEX.
Abrasives, Artificial, 97 with Expanding Shoe, 183

Adaptable Fixture for Grinding Spur Artificial Abrasives,97
Gears, 248 Attachment, Angular Generating, for
Adjustable Boring Tool for Tool- Vertical Turret Lathe, 216
Room Work, 48 for Boring an Internal Radius,
Counterbalance for a Face-Plate 217
Fixture, 175 Radius- Forming, for Crowning
for Grinding Bevel Pinions, 250 Pulleys, 203
Turning Tool with Roller-Back Radius-Generating, for an Engine
Rests, 59 Lathe, 201
Adjusting Nut, Expanding Arbor for, Radius-Generating, for a Vertical
188 Turret Lathe, 214
Air-Operated Chucks, 130 Tapping, for Drill Press, 123
Allowance, Definition of, 349 Turning and Boring, for Packing
Aluminum Casting, Fragile, Vertical Rings, 209
Boring-Mill Fixture for, 228 Turret for
Lathe, Generating
Thin, Fixture for, 169 Bevel Pinions, 211
Aluminum, Lubricants for Cutting, 293 Automobile
Ames Dial Test Gauge, 380 Bearings, Testing Align-
Attachment for
ment of, 391
Angular-Generating
Vertical Turret Lathe, 216 Cam Shaft, Testing Throw of,
Cross-Slide, 208 396

Angular Milling Cutters, 79 Crank Shaft, Feeler Gauge for,
Angular Milling, Fixture for, 147 399
Arbor, Definition of, 181 Cylinders, Sliding Fixture for
Expanding, and Faceplate for Boring, 233
Vertical Boring Mill, 226 Flange, Expanding Arbor for, 186
Expanding, for an Adjusting Nut, Fly-wheel, Fixture for, 224
188 Gas-Control Plate, Set-On Jig for,
Expanding, for an Automobile 267
Flange, 186 Hand Lever, Closed Jig for, 274
Expanding, for a Bevel Pinion, 189
Oil-Pump Cover, Drill Jig for, 260
Expanding, for a Piston, 192
Expanding, Split-Ring Type, 184 Oil-Pump Shaft, Bushing for, 270
for Milling Machine, 182 Piston, Expanding Pin Chuck for,
for Plain Lathe, 182 192
Knock-Off, for Threaded Collars-, Piston Grinding Fixtures, 243
196 Transmission-Case Cover, Set-On
Special, an Eccentric Pack-
for Jig for, 266
ing Ring, 198 Transmission-Case Cover, Trun-
Threaded and Knock-Off, 194 nion Jig for, 284
Threaded Knock-Off, for Vertical Universal Joint, Grinding Fixture
Boring Mill, 235 for, 241, 246
436
INDEX 437
Ball-Bearing Cage, Internal Grinding Bushing, Eccentric, Drill Jig for, 278
Fixture for, 244 for an Oil-Pump Shaft, 270
Ball Bearings, Fluid Gauge for, 382 Business Aspects of Planning, 313
Bearing End-Cap, Drill Jig for, 276
Bearings, Testing Alignment of, 391 Calipers, Micrometer, 378
Becker Continuous Milling Machine, Cams, Electrical Contact Gauge for
Fixture for, 158 401
Bench Vises, 117 Cam Shaft, Testing Throw of, 396
Bending Dies, 33 Castings, Rough, Self -Centering Fix-
Bevel Gear, Double, Expanding Arbor ture for, 168
and Faceplate for, 226 Thin Aluminum, Fixture for, 169
Bevel-Generating Attachment for a C-Clamps, 116
Turret Lathe, 211 Centering Fixture for a Rough Casting,
Bevel Pinions, Adjustable Grinding 168
Fixture for, 250 Chatter in Planer Tools, 22
Expanding Arbor for, 189 Chips, Removal of, by Stream of Lubri-
Generating Attachment for, on cant, 295
Turret Lathe, 211 Chisels, Cold, Forms of, 12, 14
Bevel Ring Gear, Large, Grinding Fix- Chucking Reamers, Fluted, 42
ture for, 251 Rose, 42
Vertical Turret Lathe Attachment Chucks, Air-Operated, 130
for, 216 Collet,124
Blades, Hacksaw, Tooth Spacing of, 12 Drill,and Sockets, 120
Blanking Dies, 29 Four-Jawed Independent, 132
Blocks, Johansson, 405 Geared Scroll, 129
Borax Solution as a Cutting Lubri- Magic, 121
cant, 293 Magnetic, 240
Boring and Turning Attachment, Ec- Step, 126
centric, for Packing Rings, 209 Two-Jawed, 127
an Internal Radius, 217 Circular Cover Patterns, 416
Cylinders, Sliding Fixture for, 233 Forming Tools, 71
Boring Bars, Flat-Cutter, 48 Clamp, Toolmakers, 115
Types of, 49 Classification of Files, 8
Boring Mill, Vertical, Fixtures for, 220 of Hand and Forged Tools, 7
Vertical, Turning Tools for, 62 Clay Crucibles, Manufacture of, 429
Boring Tools, 46 Closed Jigs, 270
Adjustable, for Tool-Room Work, for a Bearing Cap, 276
48 for a Rod-Supporting Bracket,
Box Tool for Turret Lathe Work, 58 272
Bracket, Irregular, Fixture for, 172 for an Oil-Pump Bushing, 270
Radius, Drill Jig for, 280 for Automobile Hand Lever, 274
Rod-Supporting, Drill Jig for, 272 Cold Chisels, 12
Slotted, Fixture for End Milling, Angles on, 15
145 Forms of, 14
Small, Open Jig for, 264 Collars, Threaded, Knock-Off Arbor
Brass Founding, Crucibles in, 429 for, 196
Broaches for Irregular Holes, 95 Collets and Chucks, 125
for Four- Way Keyways, 94 Combination Pattern for Pulleys or
for Round Holes, 92 Gears, 424
for Square Holes, 91 Composition of Cutting Lubricants, 291
Varieties of, 91 Compound Dies, 31
Broaching a Round Hole, 92 Concentricity Indicating Gauge, 404
a Square Hole, 91 Conditions of Manufacture, 2
Preliminary Treatment in, 90 Connecting Rod, Automobile, Simple
Purposes of, 89 Straddle-Milling Fixture for,
Broaching Tools, Varieties of, 91 141
Building for Storing Patterns, 421, Automobile, Double Straddle-
427 Milling Fixture for, 143
438 INDEX
Bearings, Testing Alignment of, Depth Gauge, Flush-Pin, 386
391 Designer, Tool, Work of the, 315
Face-Plate Fixture for, 172 Details of Manufacturing, 1
Continuous Milling Machines, 154 Dial Indicator, Ames, 379
Becker, Fixture for, 158 Dies, Bending, 33
Continuous Milling Fixture for Auto- Blanking, 29
mobile Cylinders, 156 Compound, 31
Simple Type of, 155 Curling, 33
Contours, Flush-Pin Gauges for, 389 Cutting, 30
Cooling by Lubrication in Cutting, 294 Dove-Tailed Drop Forge, Ex-
Cope, Definition of, 409 ample of, 27
Core Drills, 38 Drawing, 33
Example of, 39 Follow, Example of, 30, 32
Cores and Core Boxes, 411 Forming, 32
Baked, 412 Gang, Example of, 33
Cost Estimation, 337 Progressive, Example of, 32
Counterbalance, Adjustable, for a Shaping, 30
Face-Plate Fixture, 175 Sub-press, 34
Counterbalanced Fixture for a Con- Tandem, 31
necting Rod, 172 Taps and Holders, 136
Counterbores, 39 Trimming, Example of, on Rough
Types of, 40 Forging, 30
Crank Shaft, Feeler Gauge for, 399 Dimensions, Limiting, on Drawings,
Cross-Slide for Generating Angular 356
Cut on Ring Gears, 208 Distortion in Fragile Work, Fixture to
Crown, Pulley, Forming the, 203 Prevent, 228
Crucibles, Care in the Use of, 432 in Patterns, 423
Clay, Manufacture of, 429 Double Flush-Pin Depth Gauge, 390
Graphite, Manufacture o.V 430 Indexing Fixture for Straddle
Pouring the, 433 Milling, 149
Storage of, 432 Spline-Milling Fixture, 161
Curling Dies, 33 Straddle-Milling Fixture for a
Curved Surfaces, Generating, 200 Connecting Rod, 143
Cutters, Angular, 79 Dove-Tailed Drop-Forge Dies, Example
Milling, 75 of, 27
Slotting, 78
Drag, Definition of, 409
Cutting Action of Lathe Tools, 23
of Planer Tools, 21
Drawing Dies, 33
Cutting Dies, 30 Drawings, Marking Limits on, 356
Drill Chucks and Sockets, 120
Cutting Fixtures, Adaptability of, 238
Drill Jig, Closed, for a Bearing Cap,
Cutting Lubricant, Effect of, on Speeds
and Feeds, 309 276
for a Crooked Lever, 283
Cutting-Off Tools, 64 for an Eccentric Bushing, 278
Cutting Speed, Definition of, 301 for an Oil-Pump Cover, 260
Formula for Determining, 302 for a Radius Bracket, 280
Table of, 307 for a Rod-Supporting Bracket, 272
Cutting Tools, Lubrication of, 289 Functions of, 253
Cylinders, Automobile, Continuous Drill Jigs, Open, 253
Milling Fixture for, 156 for a Lever, 261
-External, Ring Gauges for, 368 for a Lever with Stud Locator,
Sliding Fixture for Boring, 233 263
Cylinder Grinding, 108 Plate, with Supplementary Sup-
Cylindrical Grinding, External, Hold- porting Ring, 258
ing Work for, 239 Drill Press, Tapping Attachment for,
Methods, 104 123
Cylindrical Holes, Plug Gauges for, Drills, Core, 38
357 Flat Twist. 38
INDEX 439
Shapes and Forms, 35 for Hub Flange, 167

Spotting, 36 for Quantity Production, 165
Twist, 37 for Thin Aluminum Castings, 169
Types of, 36 Self-Centering, for Rough Casting,
Drive Fit, Definition of, 347 168
Table of Tolerances for, 354 Standard, for Engine Lathe, 165
Drop-Forge Dies, Dove-Tailed, Ex- Swinging Eccentric, 178
ample of, 27 with Adjustable Counterbalance,
with Space for Receiving Fin, 29 175
Drop Forging, Method of Providing with Safeguarding Devices, 172
Holes for, 31 Factors Influencing Selection of Mill-
Principles of, 26 ing Machines, 73
Feeds and Speeds, Effect of Cutting
Eccentric Fixture for a Ring Pot, 177 Lubricant on, 309
Swinging, 178 Relation of, to Cutting Speeds,
Eccentric Packing Ring, Special Arbor 304
for, 198 Feeler Gauge for a Crank Shaft, 399
Turning Attachment for Packing Female Master Gauge for Testing Male
Rings, 209 Taper Gauges, 361
Work, Simple Fixture for Ma- Taper Limit Gauge, 372
chining, 231 Thread Gauge, 374
Electrical Contact Gauge for Cams, 401 Female Taper Gauge, Reference Gauge
End-Cap, Bearing, Drill Jig for, 276 for, 373
End Milling a Slotted Bracket, Fix- Files, Classes of, 8
ture for, 145 Forms of, 9
Engine Lathe, Simple Radius-Generat- Fin, Removal of, in Drop Forging, 28
ing Attachment for, 201 Fire Protection in Pattern Storage,
Simple Recessing Tool for, 51 428
Equipment, Standard, for Tool Crib, Fishtail Cutters, 78
120 Fits, Variety of, in Manufacture, 347
Standard Tool, for the Shop, 110 Fixture, Continuous Milling, for Cyl-
Estimates, Making the, 339 inders, 156
on Labor Expense, 340 Counterbalanced, for a Connecting
on Overhead Expense, 343 Rod, 172
Estimating Costs, 337 Cutting, Adaptability of, for
Expanding Arbor and Faceplate for Grinding, 238
Vertical Boring Mill, 226 Double-Indexing, for Straddle
for an Adjusting Nut, 188 Milling, 149
for an Automobile Flange, 186 Eccentric, for a Ring Pot, 177
for an Automobile Piston, 192 Face-Plate, for Quantity Produc-
for a Bevel Pinion, 189 tion, 165
Split-Ring Type, 184 for Angular Milling, 147
Expanding Pin Chuck for a Piston, for an Irregular Bracket, 172
192 for a Fragile Aluminum Casting,
Expanding Shoe Type of Arbor, 183 Vertical Boring-Mill, 228
External Cylindrical Grinding, Hold- for Becker Continuous Milling
ing Work for, 239 Machine, 158
Form Grinding, 106 for Continuous Milling, Simple
Gauges, 364 Type of, 155
Tapers, Grinding Methods for, 106 for Double Spline Milling, 161
for End Milling a Slotted Bracket,
Face-Plate, Expanding Arbor and, for 145
Vertical Boring Mill, 226 for Form Milling, 148
Face-Plate Fixture, Counterbalanced, for Gang Milling, 145
for a Connecting Rod, 172 for Holding Automobile Fly-
for an Irregular Bracket, 172 wheel, 224
for a Ring Pot, 177 for Plain and Straddle Milling,
for Cutting Packing Rings, 166 139
440 INDEX
for Spline Milling, 160 Four-Way Keyway Broaches, 94
for Thin Aluminum Castings, 169 Free-Hand Sketches in Out
Laying
for Thin Work, 221
Work, 330
for Vertical Boring Mills, 220
Grinding, for Universal Joint,
241, 246 Gang Dies, Example of, 33
Index Milling, for Quantity Pro- Gang Milling, Fixture for, 145
duction, 150 Gas-Control Plate, Set-on Jig for, 267
Nature and Variety of, 139 Gauges, Ames Dial Test, 380
Simple, for Machining an Eccen- Concentricity Indicating, 404
tric, 231 Electrical Contact, 401
Sliding, for Boring a Pair of External, 364
Cylinders, 233 Feeler, for a Crank Shaft, 399
Special, with Tapered Plug Lo- Female Thread, 374
cater, 224 Flush-Pin, 385
Straddle-Milling, for a Connect- Indicating, for a Cam Shaft, 396
ting Rod, 141 Indicator, for Testing Alignment,
Swinging Eccentric, 178 391
with Adjustable Counterbalance, Internal Limit, 357
175 Internal Taper, 359
with Safeguarding Devices, 172 Johansson, 405
Flange, Automobile, Expanding Arbor Master, for Female Taper Ganges,
for, 186 373
Flask, Molding, 409 Master, for Male Taper Gauges,
Flat-Cutter Boring Bars, 48 361
Flat Twist Drills, 38 Micrometer, 378
Flood Lubrication, for Cutting, 298 Plug, 358
Fluid Gauge, Prestwich, 380 Prestwich Fluid, 380
Flush-Pin Gauges, 385 Profile and Indicating, 376
Double, 390 Profile Inspection, 402
for Contours, 389 Receiver, 370
for Tapers, 388 Ring, 368
with Dial Indicator, 387 Snap, 365
Fluted Reamers, Plain, 42 Taper Ring, 372
Flywheel, Automobile, Fixture for, 224 Templet, 367
Force Fit, Definition of, 348 Thread, Male, 362
Table of Tolerances for, 354 Gauging, Terminology of, 349
Ford Motor Plant an Example of Plan- Geared Scroll Chucks, 129
ning, 315 Gears, Bevel Ring, Grinding Fixture
Forged Tools, 1 for, 251
Varieties of, 19 Bevel Ring, Vertical Turret Lathe,
Forging, Drop, Principles of, 26 Attachment for, 216
Follow Dies, Example of, 32 Combination Patterns for, 424
Formed Milling Cutters, 81 Double Bevel, Expanding Arbor
Form Grinding, External, 106 and Faceplate for, 226
Forming and Grooving Attachment for Ring, Cross-Slide for Generating
Pistons, 206 Angular Cut on, 208
Forming Attachment, Radius, for Spur, Adaptable Grinding Fix-
Crowning Pulleys, 203 ture for, 248
Forming Dies, 32 Gear Molding Machine, 425
Forming Tools, 68 Gear-Tooth Milling Cutters, 81
Circular, 71 Generating Angular Cut on Ring Gears,
for Turret Lathe Work, 57 Cross-Slide for, 208
Rectangular, 68 Curved Surfaces, 200
Form for, 148
Milling, Fixture Generating Attachment, Angular, for
Formula for
Determining Cutting Vertical Turret Lathe, 216
Speeds, 302 Go and Not Go Gauges, 358
Four-Jawed Independent Chuck, 132 Goose-Neck Threading Tools, 67
INDEX 441
Graphite Crucibles, Composition of, Indicating Gauge for a Cam Shaft, 396
430 for Concentric Surfaces, 404
Manufacture of, 430 Indicator Gauge for Testing Align-
Grinding, External Cylindrical, Hold- ment, 391
ing Work for, 239 Indicators, Dial, 379
External Forms, 106 Inserted-Blade Milling Cutter, 85
External Tapers, 106 Reamers, 43
Interior of Automobile Cylinders, Inspection Gauge, Profile, 402
108 Instruments of Precision, 377
Grinding Fixtures, Adaptable, for Interchangeable Manufacture, 3
Spur Gears, 248 Degree of Accuracy in, 346
Adjustable, for Bevel Pinions, 250 Interchangeable Work, Limits for, 351
for Automobile Piston, 243 Interlocking Milling Cutters, 86
Grinding Fixture for a Large Bevel Internal Grinding Fixture for a B all-
Ring Gear, 251 Bearing Cage, 244
for Universal Joint, 241, 246 Internal Grinding Methods, 107
Internal, for a Bail-Bearing Cage Limit Gauges, 357
244 Radius Boring Attachment, 217
Grinding Material, 97 Taper Gauges, 359
Grinding Methods, Cylindrical, 104 Irregular Bracket, Face-Plate Fixture
Internal, 107 for, 172
Surface, 10Q
Grinding Tools, 24 Jigs, Closed, 270
Grinding-Wheels, Shapes of, 99 for Automobile Hand Lever, 274
Grooving Attachment for Pistons, 206 for an Oil-Pump Bushing, 270
for a Rod Supporting Bracket,
Hacksaws, 10 272
Hand and Forged Tools, 1 Jig, Closed Drill, for a Bearing Cap,
Hand Lever, Automobile, Jig for, 274 276
Hand Vises, 114 for a Crooked Lever, 283
Head, Multiple Turning-Tool, 62 for an Eccentric Bushing, 278
Hob Milling Cutter, 83 for a Radius Bracket, 280
Holders for Taps and Dies, 136 Jig Drill, for an Oil-Pump Cover, 260
for Tools, 25 Functions of, 253
Holding Work, Necessity for, in Mill- Jig, Open, for a Lever, 261
ing, 140 for a Lever with Stud Locator, 263
Holes, Cylindrical, Plug Gauges for, for a Small Bracket, 264
357 Jigs, Plate, with Supplementary Sup-
in Drop Forgings, Method of Pro- porting Ring, 258
viding 31
for, Jig, Set-On, for a Gas- Control Plate,
Irregular, Broaches for, 95 267
Round, Broaching Cut for, 92 for a Transmission-Case Cover,
Square, Broaching Cut for, 91 266
Standard, Table of Tolerances for, Jigs, Simple Plate, for Drilling, 256
352 Jig, Trunnion, for a Transmission-
Hollow Mills, 55 Case Cover, 284
Types of, 56 Johansson Gauges, 405
Horizontal Turret Lathe, Internal
Lubrication of, for Drilling, 296 Knock-Off Arbors for Threaded Col-
Hub Flange, Face-Plate Fixture for, lars, 196
167 Threaded, 194
Threaded, for Vertical Boring
Independent Chuck, Four-Jawed, 132 Mill, 235
Index Milling a Pair of Levers, 149 Keyway Broaches, 91
Fixture for Quantity Production,
150 Lard Oil as a Cutting Lubricant, 291
Index of Machine Tools, 319 Lathe, Plain, Arbor for, 182
of Patterns, 425 Lathe Tools, Cutting Action of, 23
442 INDEX
Labor, Skilled and Unskilled, in Es- Marking the Pattern, 426
timating Costs, 340 Master Gauge for Male Taper Gauges,
Laying Out Work in the Machine 361
Shop, 317 for Female Taper Gauges, 373
Layout of Jigs, Fixtures, Tools, and Metal Patterns, Advantages of, 424
Gauges, 322 Micrometer Gauges, Construction Fea-
of Machine-Tool Equipment, 319 tures of, 378
of Operations, 318 Milling Cutters, Angular, 79
of Operation Sheets, 323 Formed, 81
Sheets, 330 Gear-Tooth, 81
Lead of Thread, Definition of, 362 Hob, 83
Lever, Crooked, Drill Jig for, 283 Inserted-Blade, 85
Hand, Jig for, 274 Interlocking, 86
Index Milling a Pair of, 149 Plain, 86
Open Jig for, 261 Shell-End, 77
Open Jig for, with Stud Locator, Spiral, 75
263 Straddle, 85
Limit, Definitionof, 350 Straight-Fluted, 75
Limit Gauges, Internal, 357 Milling, Gang, Fixture for, 145
Taper, for Internal Tapered Hole, Processes, 72
360 Milling Machine, Arbor for, 182
Limiting Dimensions on Drawings, 356 Factors Influencing Selection of,
Limits for Interchangeable Work, 351 73
Locating Work, V-Block Principle of, Mills, Hollow, 55
170 Mineral Oil as a Cutting Lubricant,
Lubricants, Composition of, for Cut- 291
ting Aluminum, 293 Molding a Flanged and Ribbed Pat-
Composition of, for Cutting Steel, tern, 418
293 Clay Crucibles, 429
Effect of, on Cutting Speeds and Method, 409
Feeds, 309 Molding Machine for Gears, 425
Stream of, for Removing Chips, Molding Sand, 411
295 Morse Taper, 120
Lubricating a Horizontal Turret Lathe, Multiple-Spindle Drilling Machines,
Internally, 295 Drill Jigs for, 253
a Turret Lathe through the Spin- Multiple-Turning Tool Head, 62
dle, 296
a Vertical Turret Lathe, 299 Natural Abrasives, 97
Lubrication, Flood, for Cutting, 298 Newall Engineering Co., Table of
of Cutting Tools, 289 Limits, 355
Nowel, Definition of, 409
Machine Equipment, 119 Nut, Adjusting, Expanding Arbor for,
for Molding Gears, 425 188
Machine-Tool Equipment, 319
Index, 319 Oil as a Cutting Lubricant, 291
Record Card, 321 Oiling Arrangement, Internal, for
Machine Vises, 134 Drilling on Horizontal Turret
Magic Chuck, 121 Lathe, 296
Magnetic Chucks, 240 Oil-Pump Cover, Drill Jig for, 260
Description of, 100 Shaft, Bushing for, 270
Male Master Gauge for Testing Fe- Open Drill Jigs, 253
male Taper Gauges, 373 Open Jig for a Lever, 261
Taper Gauge, Reference Gauge for, for a Lever with Stud Locator,
361 263
Thread Gauge, 362 for a Small Bracket, 264
Mandrel, Definition of, 181 Open-Side Turning Tools, 60
Manufacturing Details, 1 Operation Layout, 318
Manufacturing Vises, 134 Operation Sheets, Layout of, 323
INDEX 443
Overhead Expense, Estimating the, 343 Cast-Iron, Tool and Operation

Overhead Turning Tools, 60 Sheet for,324
Forming and Grooving Attach-
ment for, 206
Packing Ring, Eccentric, Special Arbor Generating Curved Ends of, 201
for, 198 Grinding Fixture, 243
Eccentric Turning and Boring At- Prestwich Gauge for, 383
tachment for, 209 Tool Layout Sheets for, 328
Fixtures for Cutting, 166 Plain Chucking Reamers, 42
Packing Ring Pot, Swinging Eccentric Fluted Reamers, 42
Fixture for, 179 Milling Cutter, 86
Parallels,112 Plain Milling, Fixtures for, 139
Pattern Makers' Tools, 419 Planing Tools, 87
Pattern Records, Importance of, 421 Chatter in, 22
Cards, 425 Cutting Action of, 21
Patterns, Circular Cover, 416 Planning, Business Aspects of, 313
Combination, for Pulleys and Plate Jig, Simple, for Drilling, 256
Gears, 424 with Supplementary Supporting
Composition of, 407 Ring, 258
Construction of, 408 Plug Gauges for Cylindrical Holes, 357
Finish of, 422 Plug Locater, Tapered, for Holding a
Fire Protection of, 428 Flywheel, 224
Flanged and Ribbed, 418 Poppet Valve, Receiver Gauge for, 871
Index, 425 Pouring the Crucible, 433
Location of, 427 Precise Measuring, 377
Marking System 426
for, Prestwich Fluid Gauge, 380
Metal, Advantages 424
of, Principles of Drop Forging, 26
Method of Molding, 410 of V-Block in Locating Work, 170
One-Piece, 409 Profile and Indicating Gauges, 376
Quality of, 422 Inspection Gauge, 402
Ring and Spider, 424 Progressive Dies, Example of, 32
Sectional, 423 Pulleys, Combination Patterns for, 424
Skeleton, 419 Facing on Vertical Turret Lathe,
Sweep, 419 214
Three-Part, 417 Forming the Crown of, 203
Two-Part, 414 Push Fit, Definition of, 347
Warpage of, 423 Table of Tolerances for, 354
Pattern Storage Building, 421, 427 Pump Cover, Oil, Drill Jig for, 260
Fire Prevention in, 428
Method, 427
Permanent Tools, Definition of, 5 Quality of Patterns, 422
Perishable Tools, Definition of, 5
Piece-Work Prices, Determination of,
Radius Boring, Internal, Attachment,
335 217
Piloted Turning Tool for Rapid Pro- Radius Bracket, Drill Jig for, 280
duction, 61 Radius-Forming Attachment for Crown-
Pin Chuck, Expanding, for a Piston, ing Pulleys, 203
192 Radius-Generating Attachment for a
Pinions, Bevel, Adjustable Grinding Vertical Turret Lathe, 214
Fixture for, 250 Attachment, Simple, for an En-
Expanding Arbor for, 189 gine Lathe, 201
Turret Lathe Attachment for Gen- Reamers, 41
erating, 211 Inserted-Blade, 43
Pipe Vises, 117 Plain Chucking, 42
Piston, Automobile, Expanding Pin Plain Fluted, 42
Chuck for, 192 Rose Chucking, 42
Cast-Iron, Time-Study Sheet on, Taper, 44
333 Receiver Gauge, for Taper Pins, 370
444 INDEX
Recessing Tools, 50 Limits for Length of, 355
for a Large Steel Casing, 54 Tapered, Flush-Pin Gauge for, 388
for Turret Lathe Work, 52 Shaping Dies, 30
on an Engine Lathe, 51 Shell-End Milling Cutters, 7?
Record Cards for Patterns, 425 Shells,Gauge for Indicating Concen-
of Machine Tools, 321 tricity of, 404
Records, Pattern, Importance of, 421 Shop Equipment, Standard, 110
Rectangular Forming Tools, 68 Side Milling Cutter, 85
Magnetic Chucks, 240 Skeleton Patterns, 419
Reference Gauges, Female, 361 Sketches, Free-Hand, for Work, 330
Male, 373 Sliding Fixture for Boring a Pair of
Rests, Roller-Back, for Adjustable Cylinders, 233
Turning Tool, 59 Slotting Cutters, 78
Ring and Spider Patterns, 424 Snap Gauge, for Cylindrical Work, 365
Ring Gauges for Cylindrical Work, 368 for General Dimensions, 366
for Tapers, 372 Sockets, Drill, 120
Ring Gear, Bevel, Grinding Fixture Soda-water as a Cutting Lubricant, 292
for, 251 Speeds and Feeds, Definition of, 301
Vertical Turret Lathe Attach- Effect of Cutting Lubricants on,
ment for* 216 309
Ring Gears, Cross-Slide for Generating General Rules for, 310
Angular Cut on, 208 Importance of Proper, 307
Ring Pot, Face-Plate Fixture for, 177 Speeds, Cutting. Formula for Deter-
Packing, Swinging Eccentric Fix- mining, 302
ture for, 179 Cutting, Table of, 307
Rock Drill, Vertical Boring Mill Fix- Relation of, to Feeds, 304
ture for, 235 Spider and Ring Patterns, 424
Rod- Supporting Bracket, Drill Jig for, Spiral Milling Cutters, 75
272 Spline-Milling Fixtures, 160
Roller-Back Rests for Adjustable Turn- Split-Ring Expanding Arbor, 184
ing Tool, 59 Expanding Arbor for an Adjuot-
Rose Chucking Reamers, 42 Ing Nut, 188
Rotary Magnetic Chucks, 240 Spotting Drill, 36
Round Holes, Broaching Cut for, 92 Spur Gears, Adaptable Grinding Fix-
Running Fit, Definition of, 347 ture for, 248
Table of Tolerances for, 353 Square Hole, Broaching Cut for, 91
Standard Face Plate for Engine Lathe,
165
Safety Devices on a Face-Plate Fix- Tool Equipment for the Shop, 110
ture, 172
Steel, Lubricants for Cutting, 293
Scheduling Work in the Machine Shop,
316 Step Chucks, 126
Storage of Crucibles, 432
Scrapers, 15
of Patterns, 427
Types of, 18
Use of, 16 Straight-Edges, 112
Straight-Fluted Milling Cutters, 75
Screws, Measuring the Lead of, 364
Straddle Milling Cutter, 85
Templet Gauge for, 368
Straddle Milling, Double-Indexing Fix-
Scroll Chucks, Geared, 129
ture for, 149
Secret of Cost Estimation, 340 Straddle-Milling Fixture for a Con-
Sectional Patterns, 423 necting Rod, 141
Self-Centering Fixture for a Rough Working from a Finished Surface,
Casting, 168 143
Set-On Jig for a Gas- Control Plate, Stud Locater for Open Jig, 263
267 Sub-Press Dies, 34
for^ a Transmission-Case Cover, Surface Grinding Methods, 100, 102
266 Surface Plates, 111
Shafts, Dial Test Gauge for Inspecting, Sweep Patterns, 419
380 Swinging Eccentric Fixture, 178
INDEX 445
Tandem Dies, 31 for Pattern Making, 419

Tapered Hole, Holding Work by the, Grinding, 24
225 Hand and Forged, Classification
Tapered Plug Locater for Holding a of, 7
Flywheel 224 Lathe, 23
Taper Gauge, Female, Reference Gauge Perishable, Definition of, 5
for, 373 Permanent, Definition of, 5
Internal, 359 Planer, 21, 87
Male, Reference Gauge for, 361 Recessing, 50
Taper Pins, Receiver Gauge for, 370 Threading, 65
Taper Reamers, 44 Transmission-Case Cover, Set-On Jig
Taper Ring Gauge, 372 for, 266
Tapers, Designation of, 120 Trunnion Jig for, 284
Flush-Pin Gauges for, 388 Trimming Die, Example of, on Rough
Grinding External, 106 Forging, 30
Tapping Attachment for Drill Press. Trunnion Jig, 284
123 Turning and Boring Attachment, Ec-
Taps, Dies, and Holders, 136 centric, for Packing Rings, 209
Tee-Slot Cutters, 78 Turning-Tool Head, Multiple, 62
Templet Gauges, 367 Turning Tools, 57
for a Screw, 368 Adjustable, with Roller-Back
Thin Work, Fixture for, on Vertical Rests, 59
Boring Mills, 221 for Vertical Boring Mills, 62
Thread-Chasing Tools, 66 Open-Side, 60 .
Threaded and Knock-Off Arbors, 194 Overhead, 60
Threaded Collars, Knock-Off Arbor for Piloted, for Rapid Production, 61
196 Turret-Lathe Attachment for Generat-
Threaded Knock-Off Arbor for Verti- ing Bevel Pinions, 211
cal Boring Mill, 235 Turret Lathe, Box Tool for, 58
Thread Gauge, Inspection of, by Fluid Bullard Vertical, Cutting-Lubri-
Gauges, 384 cant System for, 299
Female, 374 Forming Tool for, 57
Male, 362 Horizontal, Internal Lubrication
Threading Tools, 65 of for Drilling, 296
Goose-Neck, 67 Lubrication of, through Spindle,
Three-Part Patterns, 417 296
Time Factor in Cost Estimates, 337 Machine-Tool Record Card for,
Time-Study Sheets, 332 321
Tolerance, Definition of, 349 Recessing Tools for, 52
for Push, Drive, and Force Fits, Vertical, Angular Generating At-
Table of, 354 tachment for, 216
for Running Fits, Table of, 353 Vertical, Radius-Generating At-
for Standard Holes, Table of, 352 tachment for, 214
Tool and Operation Sheet, 324 Twist Drills, 37
Tool Crib, Equipment for, 120 Flat, 38
Tool Engineering, Importance of, 315 Two-Jawed Chucks, 127
Tool Equipment, 5 Two-Lip Slotting Cutters, 78
Standard, for the Shop, 110
Tool Holders, 25
Universal Joint, Grinding Fixture for,
Tool Layout, 322
241, 246
Sheet, 328
Toolmakers' Adjustable Boring Tool,
48 Valve Stem, Receiver Gauge for, 371
Tool Equipment of, 111 V-Blocks, 116
Tools, Boring, 46 Principle of, 170
Broaching, 91 Vertical Boring Mill, Expanding Arbor
Cutting-Off, 64 and Face-Plate for, 226
Forming, 68 Fixtures for, 220
446 INDEX
Fixture for a Fragile Aluminum Vises, Bench, 117
Casting, 228 Hand, 114
Threaded Knock-Off Arbor for, 235 Machine and Manufacturing, 134
Turning Tools for, 62 Pipe, 117
Vertical Turret Lathe, Angular Gen-
erating Attachment for, 216
Cutting-Lubricant System for, 299 Warpage of Patterns, 423
Radius-Generating Attachment for, Worm-Gear Hob Milling Cutter, 83
214 Worm-Gear Sector, Fixture for, 176
University of Toronto
Library
CD
to
DO NOT
REMOVE
THE
CARD
nd
s FROM
rQ
THIS
r
& POCKET
Acme Library Card Pocket

LOWE-MARTIN CO. LIMITED

Tools and Patterns - 1920 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Tools and Patterns - 1920 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

XV

A Series of Interlocking Text Books Written for the

INDUSTRIAL EXTENSION INSTITUTE

WlLLARD F. HlNE, CHARLES B. GOING,

INDUSTRIAL EXTENSION INSTITUTE

Many factory executives are chiefly concerned with the

lying mechanical work.

HAND AND FORGED TOOLS

DROP FORGING AND BLANKING DIES

DRILLING, BORING, AND REAMING

SURFACE AND CYLINDRICAL GRINDING

Grinding- Wheel Shapes 99

Adaptable Fixture for Grinding Spur Gears .... 248

Lubricating Compound for Steel 293

Desirability of Pattern Records 421

HAND AND FORGED TOOLS

judge intelligently of his shop equipment, to develop

interchangeable work on a large scale when there is

Many instances are seen where a small manufac-

example, a broken part can be replaced with a new

By means of limit plug gauges for the inspection

any number of male pieces can be made to fit corre-

gauging. The matter of allowances for fits of vari-

enough and can not, therefore, be followed out logi-

The superintendent or foreman may discover that

ample, does not indicate the size of the teeth unless

any factory their cost becomes an item of considerable

RASP DOUBLE CUT SINGLE CUT

FLAT PILLAR HALF ROUND ROUND TRIANGULAR CR05S

FIG. 1. FILE FORMS AND CLASSES

to know the kind of metal to be cut, whether the

smooth or draw-filed or will be finished in some other

that it lighter and not adapted to such heavy service.

manfacturer may make a saw blade with every alter-

for hand work blades having eighteen teeth to the

14 -TEETH TO THE INCH

32 -TEETH TO THE INCH

12 -TEETH TO THE INCH

18 -TEETH TO THE INCH

FIG. 2. TOOTH SPACING IN HACK-SAW BLADES

economical. A comparison of the tooth spacings will

handling. Several methods are used to smooth up

cutting point, as these edges serve as guides in chip-

FIG. 3. DIFFERENT FORMS OF COLD CHISELS

chisel to gouge down into the work and not produce

Work. Shearing Angle

Guiding Edge A-''

FIG. 4. EFFECT FROM INCORRECT AND CORRECT ANGLES ON

chisel is used largely for cutting oil grooves in bear-

ings, pulleys, and similar work. It will be seen that

high spots" must be removed and the whole sur-

piece of work, if properly clamped, cannot be finished

condition, but even under the most favorable con-

down of the spots would destroy the alignment of the

be seen from the foregoing that on flat work

heavy work the double-end tool shown is to be pre-

square across the end so that it will not tend to gouge

PIG. 5. VARIOUS TYPES OF SCRAPERS

from him, as in the case of the double-end scraper. The

tained over the work, so that it has the mottled

appearance previously mentioned.

particular cases. It is unnecessary to take up each

work, in boring a hole, or in turning a taper, so that