Chapter 6

Nuclides composite
particles of nucleons
A nuclide is a type of atoms
whose nuclei have specific Discovery consists in seeing what
numbers of protons and everyone else has seen and
neutrons (nucleons). The thinking what no one else has
standard model considers up and thought.
down quarks as basic
components of nuclei, but nucleons (protons and neutrons) are
convenient units. On the other hand, nuclides are energy states in the
form of masses. Stable states remain unchanged for an indefinite
period whereas unstable ones undergo radioactive decay. For example,
the energy equivalents of protons, deuterons and 238U are 938 MeV,
1.88 GeV and 212 GeV respectively. For convenience, we discuss
nuclides in terms of nucleons.

Discoveries of protons and neutrons infer the existence of isotopes.

Since isotopes refer to atoms of the same element with different
number of neutron, the term nuclide is more appropriate when
referring to a type of atom. Nuclear properties are specific for nuclides,
but not necessarily for chemical elements.

The number of protons is the same as the atomic

number, Z, and the mass number, A, is the number A nuclide as
of nucleons in the nucleus. Thus the number of an isotope of
neutrons, N, is A - Z. Any nuclide is an isotope of an element E.
element, and the symbol of the element is used to
represent the nuclide, but the mass number is given
as a pre-superscript, such as 16O, where 16 is the
A
EZ
mass number. For clarity and convenience, the
atomic number is given as a post-superscript, 16O8.

Stable nuclides exist for an indefinite period of time, and they are the
constituents of ordinary material. Unstable nuclides emit subatomic
particles, with 4, n, p being the most common. Few undergo
nuclear fission. However, radioactive nuclides with long half-lives are
also present in nature.

177
Stable Nuclides
Stable nuclides remain unchanged for an indefinite period, and they
are not radioactive. Of the natural elements on Earth, only elements
with atomic number less than 83 have stable isotopes, except
technetium (Tc, Z = 43) and promethium (Pm, Z = 61). Only 81
elements have at least one stable isotope. However, there are 280
stable nuclides, and many elements have more than one stable isotope.
The composition of isotopes in an element is an important piece of
information in many technologies. Elements with more than 92 protons
are all man-made, as are technetium (Tc) and promethium (Pm),
because they have no stable isotopes. Elements with atomic number
greater than 83 have no stable isotopes, but they are decay products
from uranium and thorium, and they are constantly produce, but at the
same time they decay and convert eventually to Bi or Pb.

There are many factors affecting the stability of nuclides. In this

section, we describe some common factors of stable nuclides. We can
only describe one at a time, but all factors concertedly affect the
stability of nuclides.

Numbers of Protons and Neutrons

Protons are charged but neutrons are not. Although they may not exist
as individual nucleons in the nucleus, their numbers are obvious
properties. From accounting point of view, we consider them as
individuals.

How do numbers of protons and neutrons affect the stability?

What is the role of neutrons in the atomic nuclei?
What are the ratios of neutron numbers to proton numbers for
stable nuclides?
Do the ratios vary systematically?

We have examined some light nuclides in an Chapter 5 when we

introduced the Nuclide Chart as a means to organize nuclear
information. For convenience, we divide the large Nuclide Chart into
three sections: light-weight nuclides with atomic number less than
20 (Z < 20), medium-weight nuclides with 20 < Z < 50, and heavy-
weight nuclides with Z > 50.

Light-weight nuclides are given in the next page. Some general

observations regarding their stability are given below:

178
Only 1H and 3He have more protons than neutrons in their nuclei.
Natural hydrogen contains 0.0015 % of the isotope D, and only a trace
of 3He is present in natural helium (mostly 4He). All other nuclides have
either equal numbers of protons and neutrons or more neutrons than
protons. The heaviest nuclide with equal numbers of protons and
neutrons is 40Ca20, (20 being a magic number).

Z Stable Nuclides
|(Magic numbers and double magic-number nuclides are in bold) (to be continued)
21 Sc
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca
19 K K K
18 Ar Ar Ar .
17 Cl Cl
16 S S S S
15 . . . . . . . . . . P . . . .
14 Si Si Si . .
13 Al
12 Mg Mg Mg . . .
11 Na
10 . . . . . . . . . . Ne Ne Ne
9 F . . .
8 O O O
7 N N
6 C C . . . .
5 . . . . B B
4 Be . . . .
3 Li Li
2 He He . . . . .
1 P D N
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Most elements with odd atomic numbers, Z, have only one stable
isotope. The number of stable isotopes generally increases as Z
increases. Nuclides with odd numbers of neutrons have only one
stable isotone (nuclides with the same number of neutrons), and the
number of stable isotones also increases as the number of neutrons, N,
increases.

Four nuclides 2D1, 6Li3, 10B5, and 14N7 have equal and odd numbers of
protons and neutrons. For these light stable nuclides, the ratio N/Z
ranges from 1 (D) to 1.22 (40Ar), ignoring H for which N/Z = 0. All but a
few stable nuclides have more neutrons than protons. Uncharged
neutrons probably moderate the proton-proton repulsion, making
heavy nuclide stable.

A chart of stable nuclides with 20 < Z < 70 is given on the next page.
For convenience in our discussion, nuclides with atomic numbers range
between 20 (Ca) and 50 (Sn), two magic numbers called medium-
weight nuclides.

179
A line with equal numbers of protons and neutrons is marked by +
signs. For stable nuclides, the ratio N/I increases as Z (or N) increases:
N
/I = 1.14 for Sc (Z = 21), 1.27 for Nb (Z = 41), 1.41 for Sb (Z = 51),
and 1.43 for Tb (Z = 65). The effect of this increase can be seen from
the deviations of the locations of stable nuclides from the line marked
by +.

Many stable isotopes appear on lines for Z = 8, 20, 28, 50, and 82 (see
list below). Similarly, unusual numbers of stable isotones also appear
on vertical lines with N = 8, 20, 28, 50, and 82. The existence of many
stable nuclides with these numbers of protons or neutrons supports
calling them magic numbers.

For the medium-weight nuclides, 1 (40Ca) < N/Z < 1.48 (124Sn50).
However, 1 < N/Z < 1.40 for the six stable isotopes of calcium alone:
40
Ca20, 42Ca20, 43Ca20, 44Ca20, 46Ca20, and 48Ca20. There are ten (10) stable
isotopes of tin (112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122, & 124Sn50), for which 1.24 < N/Z
< 1.48.

180
 Stable Nuclides (Continue)
Z The Line with equal numbers of p and n is marked by +.
(Double magic-number nuclides and magic numbers are in bold)
74 W
73 Ta To be continued in Table form
72 Hf X XXXX
71 Lu XX
70 Yb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + . . . . . . . . . . X XXXXX X
69 Tm X
68 Er X X XXX X
67 Ho X
66 Dy X X XXXXX
65 Tb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + . . . . . . . . . . X
64 Gd X XXXXX X .
63 Eu X X
62 Sm X XXXX XX .
61 Pm - - -
60 Nd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + . . . . . . . XXXXX X X .
59 Pr X
58 Ce X X X X . .
57 La XX
56 Ba X X XXXXX . .
55 Cs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + . . . . . X
54 Xe X X XXXXX X X . .
53 I X
52 Te X XXXXX X X . . .
51 Sb X X
50 Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . + . . . X XXXXXXX X X . . .
49 In X X
48 Cd X X XXXXX X . . . .
47 Ag X X
46 Pd X XXX X X . . . .
45 Rh . . . . . . . . . . +. . X
44 Ru X XXXXX X . . . .
43 Tc - - -
42 Mo X XXXXX X . . . . .
41 Nb X
40 Zr . . . . . . . . + . . . XXX X X . . . . .
39 Y X
38 Sr X XXX . . . . .
37 Rb X X
36 Kr X X XX X . . . . .
35 Br . . . . . + . . X X
34 Se XXXX X X . . . . .
33 As X
32 Ge X XXX X . .. . . .
31 Ga X X
30 Zn
. . . + . X XXX X . .. . . .
29 Cu X X
28 Ni X XXX X . . . . . . .
27 Co X
26 Fe X XXX . . . . . . .
25 Mn + X
24 Cr X XXX . . . . . . .
23 v XX
22 Ti
XXXXX. . . . . . . .
21 Sc
X
20 Ca X X
2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 9 10
0123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567

181
Because we run out of room in the graph above, the stable isotopes of
elements with Z > 70 are listed below with their mass numbers.
Number of neutrons (N) can be evaluated by subtracting the atomic
number (Z) from the mass number (A), N = A - Z.

In the table below, the abundance in percentage, %, of the isotopes are

given in the parentheses (% omitted). Gold (Au) and bismuth (Bi) are
two elements that have only one stable isotope, the percentages of
197
Au and 209Bi are 100%.

Mass Numbers of Heavy Stable Elements (70 <

Z)
Z Symbol Mass (abundance or half life)

71 Lu 175 (97.4), 176 (2.6)

72 Hf 174 (0.163), 176 (5.21), 177 (18.56), 178 (27.1), 179 (13.75), 180 (35.22)
73 Ta 180 (0.0123), 181 (99.9877)
74 W 180 (0.135), 182 (26.4), 183 (14.4), 184 (30.6), 186 (28.4)
75 Re 185 (37.07), 187 (62.93)
76 Os 184 (0.018), 186 (1.59), 187 (1.64), 188 (13.3), 189 (16.1), 190 (26.4), 192
(41.0)
77 Ir 191 (38.5), 193 (61.5)
78 Pt 190 (0.0127), 192 (0.78), 194 (32.9), 195 (33.8), 196 (25.2), 198 (7.19)
79 Au 197 (100)
80 Hg 196 (0.146), 198 (10.02), 199 (16.84), 200(23.13), 201(13.22), 202(29.8),
204(6.85)
81 Tl 203 (29.5), 205 (70.5)
82 Pb 204 (1.4), 206 (25.1), 207 (21.7), 208 (52.3)
83 Bi 209 (100)

90 Th 232 (100% half life 1.4x1010 y)

92 U 235 (0.720, half life 7.04x108 y), 238 (99.276, half life 4.5x109 y)

For more information about nuclides, consult the Handbook of

Chemistry and Physics by CRC Press, and the Handbook of Isotopes by
CRC Press. More information about the Nuclide Chart is also available
from the following web sites:

http://www.fysik.lu.se/~nsr/isoexpl/isoexpl.htm
http://www.dne.bnl.gov/~burrows/usndn/usndn.html
http://csa5.lbl.gov/~fchu/isoexpl/man73.htm

The contents in these web sites include the following.

Description of the US Nuclear Data Network
Center for Nuclear Information Technology, San Jose State
University

182
 Idaho National Engineering Laboratory
Isotopes Project, Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory
Lund Nuclear Data Service, University of Lund, Sweden
Tandem Accelerator Laboratory, McMaster University, Canada
National Nuclear Data Center, Brookhaven National Laboratory
Nuclear Data Evaluation Project, Triangle Universities Nuclear
Laboratory
Nuclear Data Project, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Permanent Mass-chain Evaluation Responsibilities
International Nuclear Structure and Decay Data Network (NSDD)
Glossary of nuclear data evaluation and WWW jargon

Skill Building Questions

1. How does the ratio N/Z vary as Z or N increases?

2. What are the stable nuclides that have equal numbers of protons
and neutrons. Which of these have odd atomic numbers?

3. Which medium-weight elements do not have stable isotopes? What

are their atomic numbers? How many stable isotones are there with
N = 19, 31, 35, 39, 61, and 89?

4. Can you calculate the atomic weight of say lead (Pb) from the
abundance given to each stable isotope in the table of heavy stable
nuclide, why or why not? If not, what more information is required?

Pairing of Nucleons
Since free nucleons have spin, they obey Pauli's exclusion principle
by allowing two protons or neutrons each with opposite spin to occupy
a quantum state (if they are nucleons in a nucleus). There is a
preference for having pairs of protons or neutrons, and it is known as
pairing of nucleons.

How does pairing of protons and neutrons affect the stability of

nuclides?
What evidence suggests pairing of nucleons contributes to the
stability of nuclide?

183
The numbers of stable nuclides
due to even or odd numbers of Effect of Paring Nucleons
protons and neutrons seem to
suggest support the preference Z N No. of stable nuclides
theory. eveneven 166
even odd 57
odd even 53
odd odd 4

There are 166 stable nuclides with both Z and N even, 57 with even Z
odd N, and 53 with odd Z even N. The only 4 light stable nuclides with
both Z and N being odd are 2D1, 6Li3, 10B5, and 14N7. Note that H, Li, and
B have two stable isotopes, which belong to the odd-even type. The
distribution of stable nuclides due to odd and even number of Z and N
can be interpreted as due to pairing of nucleons. We have mentioned
that technetium (Z = 43) and promethium (Z = 61) have no stable
isotopes. There are no stable isotones for N = 19, 31, 35, 39, 61, and
89.

The distinction between stable and long-lived nuclides is vague, but we

choose to list the stable ones only. The effect of pairing also affects the
abundance of the isotopes in elements, as well as the abundance of a
nuclide on a planet, galactic or universal scale.

Pairing of nucleons also affects the decay or transmutation of unstable

nuclides, particularly transmutation of isobars with even mass numbers
A. For this type of nuclide, a beta decay converts an even-even nuclide
into an odd-odd nuclide.

Skill Building Questions

1. Which medium elements do not have stable isotopes?

What are their atomic numbers? How many stable isotones are
there with N = 19, 31, 35, 39, 61, and 89?

2. How many stable isotones are there with N = 2, 8, 20, 50, and 82?

Magic Numbers of Nucleons

Magic numbers 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126 have been mentioned in
previous chapters in connection with the shell model of nuclear
structures.

How does the distribution of stable nuclides support a number to be

a magic number?
How do magic numbers affect the stability of a nuclide?

184
One of the supports for the shell model comes from the fact that there
are more stable isotopes with magic numbers of proton and more
stable isotones with magic number of neutrons when compared to
nuclides of similar mass numbers.

The emission of 4He2 (or particle) nuclei in the form of radioactive

decay supports 2 as a magic number. Oxygen is a very abundant
element, with 16O8 being the most abundant isotope (99.759%), plus
0.037% of 17O and 0.204% of 18O. There are 2 isotones (15N, 16O) with N
= 8, plus the long-lived 14C. These data suggest 8 as
a magic number. Abundance
(%) of calcium
There are 5 stable isotones with N = 20, but 0 with isotopes
N = 19, 1 with N = 21, and 3 each for N = 18 and
22. There are 6 stable Ca isotopes (Z = 20); the 40
Ca 96.97
abundances of Ca isotopes are: 40Ca 96.97%, 42Ca 42
Ca 0.647
0.647%, Ca 0.145%, Ca 2.06%, Ca 0.0033%,
43 44 46 43
Ca 0.145
48
Ca 0.185%. The light and heavy isotopes of Ca 44
Ca 2.06
have 20 and 28 neutrons. There are also 5 Ni (Z = 46
Ca 0.0033
28) isotopes and 4 isotones with 28 neutrons. These data reinforce the
effect of pairing of protons, and pairing of neutrons and the magic
numbers 20 and 28. Note that 4He2, 16O8, 40Ca20, 48Ca20, and 208Pb82 are
double-magic-number nuclides, because they have magic number of
protons and neutrons.

Numbers of stable isotopes and isotones for magic numbers 50 and 82

are very convincing. Furthermore, three families of radioactive series
decay to a stable lead isotope (Z = 82) after many steps of
transmutations.

The heaviest stable nuclide 209Bi83 has 126 neutrons; so has its isotone
208
Pb82. You may think that two stable isotones are not impressive, but
no heavier nuclides are stable.

So far, elements with Z = 112 have been artificially made. One of the
objectives for people who synthesize heavy nuclides is to test the large
magic numbers. Glenn T. Seaborg, a Nobel laureate in Chemistry
(1951) believed that element 126 may have a half-life long enough to
be observed. However, this element has not been observed yet.

Skill Building Questions

1. What are magic numbers?

What are the reasons for them to be magic numbers?

2. Give five double-magic number nuclides.

185
Abundances of Elements
The abundance of an element or nuclide is its amount in a system.

What is the most abundant element in the universe?

How about the solar system and on the planet Earth?
How are they estimated and based on what evidences?

Is the abundance of a nuclide related to its stability?

Aside from stability, what else affects the abundance?

The sun has 99.9% of the mass of the solar system. Hydrogen atoms
contribute 72%, and helium 4He 26% to all atoms in the Sun according
to reliable estimates from spectroscopic, density, and meteorite studies.
Light nuclides H and He are the major components of the Sun, where
nuclear reactions convert H into He. Since stars are by far more
massive than planets, the most abundant element in the universe is
also hydrogen, followed by helium.

Taking as a whole, the most abundant element of the

planet Earth is iron, which is the major component of the
earth (molten) core. Additional evidence comes from the
many iron meteorites, which are considered debris from
outer space. However, the most abundant element of the
Earth crust is oxygen in terms of number of atoms, but
silicon is the most abundant element by mass. Their
physical and chemical properties made them accumulate
in different systems.

The atomic abundance (abundance based on the number of atoms) of

elements are made from mineral and meteorites analyses. For example,
the Earth crust is mostly silicate, SiO2, and the most abundant
elements in the crust are O8 and Si14. Taking other data into
consideration, oxygen is the most abundant element of the inner solar
system, of which the Earth is a major part. The abundance of oxygen is
given as 1 (log 1 = 0) for reference. Magnesium, silicon, and iron are
the next most abundant elements, but their abundances are less than
0.5. Abundances of Ni, Ca, S, Al and Na are less than 0.1 whereas
those of N and F are 0.0001 as shown in the diagram below.

The abundance of elements is one of the most important parameter in

order to understand a planet, a satellite, or any body in the universe.
Thus, space explorations include the probe to find the abundances of
elements in the moon and mars.

186
The abundances of elements with even atomic numbers are usually
higher than those with odd atomic numbers of comparable masses. The
relative high abundances of O, Ca, Fe, Sn and Pb are due to the magic
numbers 8, 20, 28, 50, and 82. Many factors influence the stability of
nuclides and their abundances.
Atomic Abundance (AA) of Elements of the Inner Solar System Excluding the Sun
Log (AA)

0O
...MgSi.Fe.
1Ni
...AlSCa.
2Na
..C.P.TiCrMCo.....
3ClVCuSeAs
..........
4NFSnPb
..Be...ScZr...W.
5LiBMnBa
....Sc.Y....Pt.
6GaRuSbCeNdSmOs
......PdCd..DyYbHfIrAu
8BrPr
......RhAgInILa.EuTbHoTuLu.Tl
9
......Mo...Re.
10

012345678MassNo.
12345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890

A general notion is that stable nuclides are abundant on a planetary or

galactic scale. However, other factors such as the process of their
synthesis and sources of nuclides for their productions also affect their
abundances. The history and formation of the Sun, the Earth, and its
satellite are different, and these differences give rise to their
composition differences. The abundance, however, is partially related
to their stability.

The group of elements C6, N7, O8, Ne10, Mg12, Si14, S16, Ar18, and Ca20
with even atomic numbers are relatively more abundant than the group
with odd atomic numbers: F9, Na11, Al13, P15, and Cl17. The abundances
of Li3, Be4, and B5 are very low. The abundance decreases from Ca20 on
as the atomic numbers increase, but there is a relatively high peak at
iron, Fe26, and nickel Ni28. Thus, the abundance strongly supports the
theory that pairing of nucleons is an important factor for their stability.

Skill Building Questions

1. What are the most abundant elements in the Earth crust and why?

2. How do the magic numbers affect the abundances of elements or

nuclides?

187
Mass and Stability of Nuclides
Unstable nuclides under go radioactive decay or fission, and they are
radioactive nuclides. Some long-life unstable nuclides occur
naturally, but many of them have been made artificially, and their
properties well studied. Their making (synthesizing) involves nuclear
reactions, which will be discussed in the next Chapter. We are only
concerned with mass or energy regarding their stability in this section.

Aside from the stable isotopes of 12C and 13C,

radioactive carbon isotopes with mass number 9, Half
10, 11, 14, 15 and 16 have been made and life
identified. Their half-lives are 127 ms, 19.3 s, 20.3
9
C127 ms,
m, 5730 y, 2.45 s, and 0.75 s respectively. Light
10
C 19.3 s
carbon isotopes 9C, 10C, and 11C decay by emitting
11
C 20.3 m
positrons or electron captures whereas heavy
12
C stable
carbon isotopes 14C, 15C and 16C are beta
13
C stable
emitters. Their masses hold the key for their
14
C 5730 y
stability. Radioactivity is a process by which
15
C 2.45 s
unstable nuclides convert to stable ones.

The Binding Energy

Radioactivity or nuclear decays are spontaneous and exothermic
reactions. The decay energy is the difference in total energy content
before and after the decay. Energy and mass are equivalent, and the
relative mass is the key to stability.

Is the mass of a nuclide the sum of masses of its components?

Why or why not?
How is the mass of a nuclide related to its stability?

Masses of nuclides have been carefully measured, and the mass of a

nuclide is usually less than the sum of masses of components. This
suggests that the formation of a nuclide from its component is an
exothermic reaction. For convenience in our discussion, a special name
is given to the energy released when a nuclide is made from its
components.

The binding energy (BE) of a nuclide is the energy released when the
atom is synthesized from the appropriate numbers of hydrogen atoms
and neutrons. Hydrogen atoms and neutrons are convenient
components, because they provide appropriate number of electrons
and nucleons. The binding energies of hydrogen atoms and neutrons
are thus zero in this definition. The concept of BE applies to both stable

188
and radioactive nuclides, and the definition given above can be
represented by a hypothetical equation:

ZH + Nn = A
EZ + BE

where H, n, and AEZ represent the energy equivalent of hydrogen,

neutron, and the nuclide AEZ. In terms of masses, we have

Z mH + N mn = mE + BE

where mH, mn, and mE are masses of H, n, and the nuclide AEZ
respectively. Thus, BE can be evaluated using:

BE = Z mH + N mn - mE.

The binding energy is thus the minimum energy required in order to

decompose nuclide AEZ into Z H and N n, i.e., AEZ + BE = Z H + N n.
The more the binding energy, the more stable is the nuclide.

To evaluate BE, we need to know the mass of a hydrogen atom

(1.007825 amu, more than the mass of a proton), the mass of a neutron
(1.008665 amu) and the mass of the nuclide AEZ. For example, the
binding energies of 3He (mass 3.016031) and 4He (mass 4.0260) are:

BE (3He) = (2 x 1.007825 + 1.008665 - 3.01603) 931.481 MeV

= 7.72 MeV

BE (4He) = (2 x 1.007825 + 2 x 1.008665 - 4.00260) 931.481

MeV
= 28.30 MeV

The estimates here show that formation of 4He releases much more
energy than the formation of 3He, 20 MeV per atom more. Although
4
He contains only one neutron more than 3He does.

For comparison purpose, we can look at the amount of energy released

when one nucleon is added to a nuclide. The binding energy of a
nucleon (BEn, or BEp) is the energy released when a nucleon is added
to a nuclide. From the above estimates, the binding energy of a neutron
for 3He is 20.58 MeV. As another example, the binding energies of
proton and neutron for 234U are calculated below. For these
calculations, the masses of 234U92, 235U, and 235Np93 are 234.040946,
235.043924 and 235.044056 amu respectively. These values are looked
up from data Table of nuclides. By definition, the binding energy of a
neutron, BEn in 234U is the amount of energy released in the
hypothetical reaction:

189
 U + n 235U + BEn. Thus,
234

BEn = (234.040946 + 1.008665 - 235.043924) amu

= 0.00566 amu x 931.5 MeV / amu
= 5.30 MeV

The binding energy of proton (BEp) when it is added to 234U to make a

235
Np atom (234U + p 235Np + BEp) is,
BEn = (234.040946 + 1.008665 - 235.044056) amu
= 0.00555 amu x 931.5 MeV / amu
= 5.17 MeV

The binding energy for a group of nucleons such as an particle (BE)

is the negative energy of decay Edecay. For example, we can write the
equation for the decay of 212Po84 as
212
Po84 = 208Pb82 + 4He + Edecay

But for the reverse reaction, we have

Pb82 + 4He =
208 212
Po84 + BE.
Thus,
BE = Edecay

Note, however, BE is the energy of binding an particle in the nuclide

212
Po84, not the binding energy of 4He from 2 H and 2 n, neither is it the
binding energy of 212Po84. By the way, the particle energy from 212Po is
6.09 is MeV (looked up from a table).

Skill Building Questions

1. Evaluate the binding energy of 12C (mass = 12.00000), 14N (mass =

14.003074) and 16O (mass = 15.994915). Discuss your results.

2. Discuss the binding energies of O,

16
O (mass = 16.999131), and
17

18
O (mass = 17.999160).

3. Calculate the binding energies of a proton and a neutron to 4He. You

need to look up the masses of 5He and 5Li.

4. Is it possible for 235Np to be a proton emitter and 235U to be a

neutron emitter?
Is the binding energy of an alpha particle in an alpha emitter
positive or negative?

190
The Average Binding Energy
The average binding energy, Eab, of a nuclide is its binding energy
(BE) divided by the number of nucleon in it (or mass number A), Eab, =
BE/A. The average binding energy is also called the packing fraction.
This term is given to reflect the tighter the nucleons pack in a nuclide,
the more energy is released.

How does binding energy, BE, vary as the mass number A

increases?
How does the average binding energy vary as A increase?
Which nuclide has the largest average binding energy, 16O, Fe or
56

235
U?

Comparison of BE provides an indication about relative stability for

similar nuclides, but BEs of different nuclides are not based on the
same numbers of H atoms and neutrons.

As we evaluate the average binding energy BEav of some of the

nuclides, pay attention to the variation of binding energy as A
increases:

BEav (3He2) = 7.72 MeV / 3 = 2.57 MeV / nucleon

BEav (4He2) = 28.3 MeV / 4 = 7.08 MeV / nucleon
BEav (16O8) = 127.6 MeV / 16 = 7.98 MeV / nucleon
BEav (56Fe26) = 492.3 MeV / 56 = 8.79 MeV / nucleon
BEav (54Fe26) = 471.76 MeV / 54 = 8.74 MeV / nucleon
BEav (208Pb82) = 1636.44 MeV / 208 = 7.87 MeV / nucleon
BEav (238U92) = 1801.7. MeV / 238 = 7.57 MeV / nucleon

In general, the binding energy BE increases as A increases. For

example, the binding energy for 16O, 56Fe (mass = 55.934939 amu),
208
Pb82 (mass = 207.976627) and 238U (mass = 238.050784) are 127.6,
492.3, 1636 and 1801.7 MeV respectively. There is a steady increase as
A increases.

There is a dramatic increase of BEav from 3He to 4He. Note that 4He, 16O
and 208Pb are double-magic-number nuclides, but their BEavs are lower
than those of the two iron isotopes. In fact BEavs for the two iron
isotopes are the highest among the group, indicating a very high
stability of iron in terms of BEav. There is a very slight difference
between BEavs of the two iron isotopes, but only 54Fe contains a magic
number (28) of neutrons.

191
A general trend of the variation of
average binding energy as a Variation of the Average Binding Energy
function of the mass number is as a Function of Mass Number A
sketched here. As the atomic
number increases, the average BEa
Fe
binding energy increases, reaching v

a peak at Fe, and then it decreases

gradually. From the average
U
binding energy point of view,
nuclides with mass number around
58 are the most stable.
3
He A

Since the average binding energy for Fe is the highest, synthesis of Fe

from hydrogen atoms and neutrons will release the most energy per
nucleon compared to all other nuclides. Thus, energy will be released
when light nuclides such as H and D combines to form He, or even
when He combine to form C, O etc. Combining light nuclides to form
heavy ones is called nuclear fusion and it usually is accompanied by a
release of (fusion) energy.

When a heavy nuclide split up, it is called nuclear fission. Fission also
releases energy. The release of energy in fusion and fission is evident
from the sketch.

The BEav is an indicator of energy frozen per nucleon in a nuclide. The

more average energy is released when a nuclide is synthesized, the less
energy is frozen per nucleon in a nuclide. Thus, BEav is a parameter for
the stability of a nuclide, stable and unstable.

Skill Building Questions

1. Calculate the average binding energies of 11B (Mass, 11.00931), 30Si

(29.97376), 52Cr (51.9405), 100Ru (99.9030), 150Sm (149.9170), and
208
Pb (207.9766).

2. Use a spreadsheet to evaluate the average binding energy of the

above nuclides and those given in this section. Use the spreadsheet
to plot or sketch the negative values of BEav as a function of A.

Mass Excesses
The mass of 12C is defined as 12 atomic mass units (amu) exactly,
and thus the average mass of a nucleon in 12C is exactly 1 amu. The

192
difference between the mass of a nuclide and its mass number, A, is
called the mass excess (ME),

ME = mass - A.

For example, the mass excesses of H (1.007825 amu) and neutron

(1.008665 amu) are 0.007825 and 0.008665 amu respectively.
Ironically, mass excess is also called mass deficiency because many
nuclides have negative mass excesses. Like binding energy and
average binding energy, mass excess is a convenient and useful
criterion regarding a nuclide's stability.

How is the mass excess (ME) evaluated?

What is the ME for 12C?
What is the relationship between ME and BEav?
Sketch ME as a function of A, and use it to describe fusion and
fission energy.

The mass excess of 3He (mass = 3.01603) is 0.01603 amu. This

quantity is easily calculated for nuclides whose average nucleon
masses are more than 1 amu. For these nuclides, the mass excesses are
positive. The mass of 54Fe is 53.939612 amu for 54 nucleons, and the
mass excess is (53.939612 - 54.000000 =) -0.060388 amu, a negative
value. In fact, MEs are negative for most nuclides except the light ones
(H, He, C) and heavy ones (Ra, Th, U, etc).

In general, the variation pattern of negative average binding energy (-

BEav), and mass excess (ME) are the same, but there is no direct way of
converting ME into BEav and vice versa. A comparison is given in a
table form below:

Comparison Among ME. Eab.

Nuclide Mass/amu ME/amu -Eab /amu BE/amu

H 1.007825 0.007825 0 0
n 1.008665 0.008665 0 0
3
He 3.01603 0.01603 -0.00276 0.00828
4
He 4.00260 0.00260 -0.0076 0.0304
12
C 12.000000 0 -0.00825 0.09894
16
O 15.994915-0.005085 -0.00857 0.1369
40
Ca 39.96259 -0.03741 -0.00917 0.3669
54
Fe 53.939612-0.060388 -0.00938 0.5065
56
Fe 55.934939-0.065061 -0.00944 0.52851
208
Pb82207.976627-0.023373 -0.00845 1.757
U 238.050784 0.050784
238 92
-0.00813 1.934

193
The binding energies of H atoms and neutrons are zero, 0. The more H
atoms and/or neutrons are combined, the more energy is released.
Thus, the BE increases as mass number A increases. The average
binding energies (BEav) are calculated by treating H atoms and
neutrons in a similar manner.

The mass of 12C is a zero point of reference for ME. Since the mass of H
atoms and neutrons are different, ME values cannot be converted to
BE values directly, but the two parameters vary in a similar manner.
Both ME and BEav are good indicators for the stability of a nuclide.
Because ME values are easily evaluated, they are widely used. For
example, a Table of Nuclides may choose to list ME for unstable
nuclides instead of masses. In such a list, however, the unit MeV is
often used.

The variation of ME Variation of ME with A

as a function of mass for Some Stable Nuclides
number A is sketched ME amu
here. The MEs for
0.01 He
3
light nuclides
oscillate rapidly due
to the effect of n
nucleon pairing and 0.005
H
magic numbers of U
nucleons. However,
the variation for 0.0 4He 12
C Pb
medium and heavy Fe
nuclides are not as 0.005
dramatic. In general,
A
the ME decreases as
A increases from 1 to 56, but it increases as A increases from 56 to
208. The ME values indicate that nuclides with A = ~56 are more
stable than light or heavy nuclides. Thus, combining light nuclides such
as H, D, 3He, into heavier nuclides 12C, 20Ca etc. in a nuclear fusion
reaction will release energy, and splitting heavy nuclides such as 235U
in a nuclear fission reaction into lighter nuclides such as Sr, La, Xe
etc. will also release energy. The variation of ME as a function of A is
an important piece of information concerning nuclear energy.

Another application of ME is to use it to calculate the energy of

radioactive decay. For example, the MEs of 40Sc21 and 40Ca20 from a
handbook are -20.527 and -34.847 MeV respectively. Thus the energy
of the decay process

Sc21
40
Ca20 + +
40
or Sc21 + e
40
Ca20
40

194
is
Edecay = -20.527 - (-34.847) = 14.32 MeV

Of course, 1.02 MeV (2 times the rest mass of an electron) has to be

spent in producing the positron-electron pair in positron decay, but not
in electron capture. This example illustrates the fact that the ME not
only vary as mass number A changes, it also vary as the atomic number
Z changes for isobars. Thus, a plot of ME versus Z and A shall produce
a 3-dimension plot. The three parameters are BE, A, and Z. We shall
discuss the variation of ME as Z changes for the isobars in the next
section.

Skill Developing Questions

1. The masses are given for the following nuclides. Calculate the mass
excesses in MeV:
2
D 2.0140 amu 6
Li 6.015121 amu
9
Be 9.012182 10
B 10.012937
11
B 11.009305 13
C 13.003355
14
C 14.003241 14
N 14.003074

2. Use the ME to calculate the decay energy for the decay of C

14
N7
14

+ ?

3. The MEs of 40Sc21 and 40Ca20 from a handbook are -20.527 and
-34.847 MeV respectively. What are the masses of these two
nuclides?

4. What is the difference between ME and BEav of a nuclide? Discuss

the advantages and disadvantages of their usage as indicators.

Mass Excesses of Isobars

Isobars have the same number of nucleons, but different numbers of
protons and neutrons. Their mass excesses are usually different. Thus,
the mass excess among isobars varies as atomic number, Z, changes.

How does mass excess vary as a function of atomic number Z?

Why is the variation of mass excess interesting for isobars?
What decay will decrease or increase the atomic number, Z?
What is the relationship between the mass excess the decay energy?

Energy is the driving force for change, and a change usually results in
a system containing less energy. Isobars convert to each other by the
beta decay process, which change the atomic number giving a more

195
stable nuclide. Thus, the variation of mass excess as a function of Z is
interesting, because it shed some light about the beta decay process.

If the mass number is odd, all isobars are even-odd or odd-even type in
numbers of protons and neutrons, whatever Z is. These nuclides do not
have a special contribution to ME due to pairing of protons or
neutrons, because in either type, there is one unpaired nucleon.

As an example, the mass excesses of isobars with an arbitrary mass

number of 123 are given below:

In49 Sn50 Sb51 Te52 I-53 Xe54 Cs55 Ba56

-0.0896 -0.0943 -0.0958 -0.0967-0.0944 -0.0915 -0.0870-0.0808 amu

Note that all the mass excesses are negative. These values are usually
available from a handbook or from a table of nuclides. However, the
units may be in MeV or keV.

For these isobars, the two with Mass Excesses of Isobars

the lowest mass excesses, Sb with Mass number 123
and Te, are stable. For a
comparison, the mass excesses -0.08 amu
are plotted as a function of Z as
shown here. The further away a
+, EC
nuclide is from its stable isobars,

the higher (less negative) are -0.09
their mass excesses. If we
connect all these points to form a
curve, its shape looks like a
hyperbola. This meaning that ME -0.10 In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba
varies as a function of Z2. 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56

Since the relative mass excesses of the isobars are directly related to
their masses, their locations on the diagram represent their
thermodynamic stability. The lower the position, the more stable is the
isobar.

196
Although mass excess cannot be converted to Isobars with Mass
binding energy directly, the two quantities are Number 57
similar, especially if BE is used. For the -494
isobars with mass number 57, the BEs and - Cr
BEs are listed and plotted here: -495

-496 _
+ Ni
-497 EC
-498
Mn Co
-499

-500
24 25 Fe 27 28

Isobars of Mass number 57

Cr24 Mn25 Fe26 Co27 Ni28

Mass 56.9434 56.9383 56.9354 56.9363
56.3980 /amu
BE 0.53031 0.53462 0.53667 0.53493
0.53240 /amu
-BE -494 -498 -500 -498 -496
/MeV

For a small mass number of 57, the number of isobars listed in

handbooks is limited. Isobars with atomic number outside the 24 - 29
range are too unstable to be observed.

For mass numbers 57 and 123, the effect of nucleon pairing is not
present, because all these isobars have either the protons or neutrons
paired, but not both. The effect of nucleon pairing is important for
isobars with even mass numbers, because the beta decay process
convert a even-even (paired) nuclides into odd-odd ones, which have
two unpaired nucleons. Isobars with even mass numbers are discussed
next.

Isobars with 120 nucleons have two stable nuclides 120Sn50 (mass =
119.902200 amu, mass excess = -0.097800 amu = 91.1 MeV) and
120
Te52 (mass = 119.904048 amu, mass excess = 0.095952 amu). The
former has a magic number of protons.

197
The atomic numbers Z, element symbols (Isobar), mass differences
(Mass) [compared to 120Sn50, which is taken as zero] decay energies
(Edecay), decay modes, and half lives, are given below:

Z 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56
Isobar Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba
Mass/MeV 15.32 7.135.3 0 1.51 1.72 7.12 9.07 17.3
22.6
Edecay/MeV 8.2 1.80 5.3 stable 2.68 stable 5.4 2.0 8.22
5.3
Decay mode +,EC +,EC +,EC +,EC
+, EC
Half life 1.2 s 50 s 44 s 15.9 m 1.35 h 40 m 64 s
32 s

The decay energy and mass

differences are consistent for Relative Mass Differences (MeV) for
Isobars with Mass Number 120.
isobars which undergo decay, but Ba
for those undergo + and EC 22
decays, there is a little discrepancy,
perhaps due to production of 20
positrons. 18
Cs
16
Ag
14

12

10
Xe
8
Cd I
6
In
4

2
Sb Te
0 Sn
47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56

The mass differences (Mass) can be converted to mass excesses by

subtracting 91.1 MeV, which is the mass excess of 120Sn (ME = (Mass -
91.1) MeV). For simplicity, the mass differences are plotted against the
atomic number Z here. From the graph, the - decay series Ag (- -)
Cd (- -) In (- -) Sn, reduces the energy of a nuclide via several

198
isobars in steps. So does the decay series by + emission or electron
capture that convert Ba via Cs, Xe, I, to Te in five steps.

The stable and even-even type isobar 120Te52 contains slightly higher
energy than the radioactive and odd-odd type nuclide 120Sb51, which is
converted to the most stable isobar 120Sn50, which has the lowest mass
(or energy). The two decay modes + and EC of 120Sb51 occur at 41 %
and 59 % respectively.

To see the effect of nucleon pairing, we connect the even-even type and
the odd-odd isobars by lines. These lines form two hyperbolas.

There is a difference in Mass for odd-odd type nuclides and the even-
even type nuclides due to the effect of nucleon pairing. The even-even
and odd-odd nuclides appear to belong to two separate classes. The
gap between these two types of nuclides depends on the mass number
A. An average over many nuclides has given a difference of 250/A MeV.
For A = 120, the gap is 1 MeV, and this value seems reasonable from
the two curves in the plot.

The variation of binding energy for mass 57 represents typical isobars

with odd number nuclons, and the variation of binding energy for mass
120 reflects the importance of nucleon pairing. In both examples, there
are two stable nuclides, but more often, there is only one stable nuclide
for a series of isobars. From these graphs, we gain a little more insight
to the energy for the beta decay process.

Skill Building Questions

1. List atomic numbers Z, element symbols (Isobar), mass excess

(ME) decay energies (Edecay), decay modes, and half lives for
isobars with mass number A = 140 and 141 respectively. (Please
find the data from a handbook)

2. Plot the - BE of the nuclides given above versus atomic number.

3. Use a spreadsheet to plot the variation of ME as functions of both Z

and A for a selected group of nuclides, for example Z = 1 to 20 or
for Z=21 to 40.

A Semi-empirical Equation for Binding Energy

Binding energy (BE) varies in a systematic manner as a function of
mass number A and atomic number Z.

199
 Can the systematic variation be represented by a formula?
What a theoretical model can be proposed for variations of BE?

The variation of BE is complicated but somewhat systematic and a

model for calculating BE has been proposed by Seeger in 1961. He
used a semi-empirical approach. The equation is based on some
theoretical consideration, but mostly based on empirical data (the
masses of nuclides). His theoretical consideration is based on the
liquid-drop model, in which the nucleus volume is directly proportional
to A. Its radius is proportional to the cubic root of A (A1/3) and its
surface area is proportional to the square of its radius A2/3. The function
BE as a function of A and Z is,

0.6Z 2 20( A 2 Z ) 2
BE(A,Z) = 14.1A - 13A2/3 - - + Eo.
A1 / 3 A

For nuclides with A 80, the equation gives reasonable results (in
MeV). The rational for various terms are described below:

1. The 1st term (14.1 A) shows BE being proportional to the number of

nucleons A. The more nucleons that pack into a nucleus, the more
energy is released. Thus, BE is proportional to A.

2. The 2nd (negative) term (- 13A2/3) indicates an increase in surface

area causes a decrease in stability. The factor A2/3 reflects the square
of the radius (A1/3).

0.6Z 2
3. The 3rd (negative) term represents the instability caused by
A1 / 3
protons due to Coulomb interaction, which is proportional to Z2, but
inversely proportional to the radius.

20( A 2 Z ) 2
4. The 4th (negative) term attributes to a favorable
A
number-of-neutron to number-of-proton (N/Z) ratio for a nucleus of
mass A, and the instability is proportional to (A - 2 Z)2 but inversely
proportional to A.

5. The last term (Eo) is a constant reflecting stability due to pairing of

nucleons, Eo = 0 for odd-even and even-odd nuclides, = -125/A for
even-even nuclides, and = +125/A for odd-odd nuclides.

All isobars have the same value A, and their binding energy is thus a
function of Z and Z2. For isobars with an odd mass number, the
nuclides are either odd-even or even-odd type, and the last term is
zero. This equation suggests that a plot of BE for a set of isobars as a

200
function of Z is a parabola with its vertex at the stable isotope. For
isobars with an odd number of nucleons, there are usually one or two
nuclides that contain the least amount of energy. These are stable
isobars.

For isobars with even mass numbers, the equation suggests two
parabolas, one corresponding to the odd-odd type, and one to the even-
even type due to the different values of the last term E0.

Skill Building Questions

1. Use the semi-empirical equation to calculate the binding energies

for the isobars with mass number 120 giving earlier. Compare the
values with those listed earlier and comment on your results.

2. Apply the semi-empirical equation to calculate the binding energy

for Cr24, Mn25, Fe26, Co27, and Ni28 for mass number 57, and discuss
your results.

201
Exercises
1. What are the lightest and heaviest stable nuclides? Which element
has the largest number of isotopes? What elements with atomic
number less than 83 are absent and why? What are some of the
common features of these absent nuclides? What roughly is the
number of stable nuclides?

2. What are the ratios of number-of-neutrons to number-of-protons

ratio (N/Z) for the stable nuclides: 1H, 14N, 35Cl, 56Fe, 80Br, 100Rh, 150Sm,
200
Hg, 209Bi? Describe the variation of N/Z ratios as the mass number
increases.

3. The heaviest stable nuclide is 209Bi (Z = 83). How many neutrons

are there in the nucleus? What is its N/Z ratio? (Ans. 126 n and 1.52)

4. Give the four stable nuclides that have equal and odd numbers of
protons and neutrons?

5. What evidences support the conclusion that nuclides with even

numbers of protons and neutrons are more stable? What theory can
you give to explain this fact?

6. List a summary of the considered factors that affect the stability of

nuclides.

7. List some features about the stable nuclides. For example, explain
why there are six stable nuclides for the element hafnium but only
two each for lutetium and tantalum?

8. Is there a relationship between abundance of nuclides and their

stability? If so, what evidence can you give? If not, provide some
arguments.

9. Enumerate the magic numbers. Why are they called magic

numbers? Give some double magic-number nuclides? Comment on
the fact that 209Bi (Z = 83) is stable, whereas 209Pb (Z = 82) is a
positron emitter.

10. What are the most abundant nuclides in the solar system and in
the planet earth? How are the estimates made? Comment on your
answer.

11. Calculate the binding energies (BE) and average binding

energies of 56Fe (Z = 26, mass = 55.9349 amu), and 238U (Z = 92,
mass = 238.0508). (Ans. BE = -492.3 MeV and -1801.7 MeV
respectively.)

202
12. Use a spreadsheet to evaluate the average binding energy of the
above nuclides and those given in this section. Use the spreadsheet
to plot or sketch the negative values of Eab as a function of A (one of
the Skill Building Questions).

13. The disintegration energies for isobars with mass number 133
are given below. Make a plot of energy content as a function of Z
for these isobars from the disintegration energy (in MeV). Te (52),
2.4; I (53), 1.8; Xe (54), 0.43; Cs (55), stable; Ba (56), 0.489; La (57),
1.2l Ce(58), 1.8. Do the points fall on a parabola?

14. Calculate disintegration energies of 133

Ba and La using the
133

function of binding energy?

15. Plot the binding energy of isobars with mass number 114 as a
function of Z. Which nuclide is stable? (Check the properties of
nuclides from a handbook please.)

16. Discuss the stability of isobars in terms of binding energy (BE).

In particular, how does BE vary as a function of the atomic number
Z and mass number A? What decay process is responsible for the
transmutation of isobars? How does a function for the calculation of
BE takes the effect of even or odd number of protons and neutrons
into account?

Further Reading and Work Cited

Harvey, B.G. (1969), Introduction to nuclear physics and chemistry, 2nd
Ed. Prentice Hall.

Kuroda, P.K. (1982), The origin of the chemical elements and the oklo
phenomenon, Springer-Verlag.

Lederer, C.M., Hollander, J.M. and Perlman, I. (1986) Table of isotopes

8th Ed.

Noddack, I. and Noddack, W. (1930), Naturwissenschaften 18, 757.

Pagel, B. (1965), New Scientist, 26, 103.

Seeger, P.A. (1961) Nuclear Physics, 25, 1

Suess, H.E. and Urey, H.C. (1956), Rev. Mod. Phys. 28, 53.

Useful Web Sites

203
The following web sites contain very handy data about nuclides.
http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/
from that, choose the Nuclear Wallet Cards to go to
http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/wallet/walletcontent.shtml
On it is a list of atomic numbers, such as
0n1H2He3Li4Be5B6C7N8O9F
10Ne11Na12Mg13Al14Si15P16S17Cl18Ar19K
20Ca21Sc22Ti23V24Cr25Mn26Fe27Co28Ni29Cu
Each of these items is hyper linked to another file which contains data
on all isotopes of the elements. Access these data is easier than looking
up from a handbook.

If you click the NuDat, you will go to the web site

http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nndc/nudat/
and there are various choices of nuclear data.

204