Future perspective of school disaster education

in Nepal
Shiwaku, Koichi; Shaw, Rajib; Kandel, Ram Chandra; Surya Narayan Shrestha; Amod Mani Dixit . Disaster
Prevention and Management ; Bradford 16.4 (2007): 576.

ProQuest document link

ABSTRACT

One of the most significant concerns of disaster management is that community at large is reluctant to initiate
pre-disaster measures at the individual level. Disaster education to schoolchildren offers the most vital answer to
this grave concern. The objective of this study is to identify the factors which enhance students' awareness and
promote the actual action for disaster reduction. This study is based on a questionnaire survey in six selected
schools of Kathmandu, Nepal. Different awareness levels have been established to identify effective educational
factors at each level. The analysis showed the way to implement the education program. Results showed that
current school disaster education - which is based on lectures - can raise risk perception, but it cannot enable
students to know the importance of pre-disaster measures and to take actual action for disaster reduction. Self-
education is effective for realizing the importance of implementing measures. Community plays the essential role
for promoting students' actual actions for disaster reduction. Future disaster education in school should be active
learning for students. Continuous community involvement is the most important factor for school disaster
education. This study focuses on the direction of disaster education for schoolchildren. Specific cases of the
education should be customized, based on the results of this study. The study findings are of significant
importance for school teachers or education department while designing the curriculum for disaster education.
The findings and recommendations are field-tested in Nepal and hence offer higher possibilities of adaptation,
particularly in developing countries.

FULL TEXT

Introduction
Recently, a number of catastrophic disasters occurred in many parts of the world. Kobe Earthquake of 1995 in
Japan, in Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004, Pakistan Earthquake of 2005, Hurricane Katrina of 2004 in USA, and
many catastrophic water-induced disasters in Asia and other parts of worlds are among the few to mention with.
Central and local governments play significant role to prevent or reduce damages of natural disasters. Those who
incur severe damages directly from disasters are people in affected areas. This is evident with the fact that
disaster management has not only role of governments but also of the community. People at large are required to
take measures at the individual level but they underestimate the importance of taking measures or they do not
take action to prevent or reduce damages even if they know importance of taking measures. The gap between
intention and action is crucial issue in disaster management and disaster education is one of the most effective
ways to resolve the problem. Importance of education in school and community has been emphasized by many
disaster researchers ([11] Radu, 1993; [8] Kuroiwa, 1993; [2] Arya, 1993; [1] Andrews et al. , 1998; [6] Frew, 2002).
Schools provide education among the students equitably. This study focuses on disaster education in schools;
however recognize that disaster education can be given by family, community, or NGOs/NPOs.
Nepal is extremely vulnerable to natural disasters due to its fragile geology ([10] Paudel et al. , 2003). In Nepal,
occurance of flood or landslide caused by increase of population, deregulated development, environmental

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degradation is a regular phenomenon. Nepal is also prone to earthquakes. National Society for Earthquake
Technology - Nepal (NSET), a Kathmandu based NGO is conducting School Earthquake Safety Program (SESP) in
government (public) school in Nepal. SESP consists of three parts; retrofitting or rebuilding of school, training
program to masons, students, parents, and community, and awareness program to students, parents and
community.
The goal of this study is to propose a framework towards future of disaster education in schools. To achieve the
goal, the following objectives are established:
- to identify the effective factors of disaster education to enhance student's awareness or to promote student's
action to disaster reduction; and
- to assess the role of SESP from the two aspects; one is implementing disaster education in schools and the other
is student's awareness and action.
[14] Shaw et al. (2004) conducted the similar study which proposed a framework of disaster education in Japan.
The study pointed out that community plays important role for student's awareness and action and hence local
community must be involved in disaster education in school. Nepal and Japan has different culture, economic
condition and other aspect of livelihood. Comparing the framework of disaster education between Shaw's study
and this study leads to think future perspective of disaster education in the world. Therefore, this study is
important for future disaster education in school.
This paper consists of four parts. The first part describes the overview of SESP and the education activities for
student's awareness raising in SESP. The second part elaborate disaster education in six targeted schools. The
third part is the questionnaire survey of students in targeted school. This study is based on questionnaire survey
to identify the effective factors to enhance student's awareness and promote actions. The final part is the
conclusion, which shows future perspective of disaster education and role of SESP.
School earthquake safety program (SESP)
The first author visited NSET-Nepal for collecting information concerning SESP. This chapter is based on the
collected information and the document written by [7] Khadka (2005), who is working for the ministry of home
affairs in Nepal.
Nepal is highly prone to earthquakes. Schools are located generally in the center of community habitats and thus
destined to act as evacuation center after disasters. However, school buildings equally vulnerable against
earthquake - especially the government schools. There are a large difference between government schools and
private schools in terms of availability of finances. If earthquake occurs, private schools can recover by
themselves but government school cannot. Therefore, NSET-Nepal emphasizes government schools retrofitting
against earthquakes. SESP initiated by NSET-Nepal consists of three parts. The first is retrofitting or rebuilding
school building, the second part is training for mason, and the final part is awareness program for students,
teachers, and community. An aim of this project is community based disaster management through these three
activities. Masons learn and understand appropriate technology for earthquake safety through constructing or
retrofitting school building. After the project, they can build quake resistant houses and buildings. As a part of the
programme, teachers, students, community are given information about disaster management. Following
information is provided by lecture:
- Disaster risk of Nepal;
- Earthquake risk of Nepal and schools;
- Damages of past earthquakes;
- Importance of structural measures; and
- Technology for earthquake safety.
NSET-Nepal has also established Earthquake Safety Club as one of the activities in each project school, which
consists of students as its members. This club organizes essay writing, drawing competition and similar
performances related to criticalities of disaster management in each of these schools.
Through implementing SESP, masons, students, teachers, and community receive technology as well as

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information, learn the importance of mitigation and preparedness, and take supportive action for disaster
reduction. The ultimate objective of the project is to attain sustainable community based disaster management.
This study is based on interview with teachers and survey with students in six selected schools.
Disaster education in schools
Authors conducted detailed interview survey in targeted schools (Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]).
School 1 and 2 are schools where SESP was implemented. Targeted teachers for this survey were those who
teaches subjects like science, environment related subjects and social studies. In school 6, the teacher is in charge
of both science and environment related subject. Table II [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] shows the results of
interview survey. All teachers provide education on all topics assigned in curriculum but do not provide disaster
education in the remaining time except curriculum education although the teacher in school 6 can teach disaster
related topic not covered in curriculum in his lecture. This implies that disaster education in schools is limited to
teaching disaster related topics included in curriculum. In the schools where SESP was implemented, teachers
teach disaster related topics as disaster education and think their subjects are including disaster related topics.
Meanwhile, many teachers in other school do not teach them as disaster education and some teacher's answer
that their subjects are not including disaster related subjects. Teachers in school 5 do not teach disaster related
topics as disaster education in spite they know there are disaster related topics in their subjects.
The difference of SESP schools (school 1 and 2) and other government schools (school 3 and 4) is awareness of
teachers for disaster education. It may be concluded that this difference is caused by SESP. The difference of
government schools (school 3 and 4) and private schools also lies in teacher's knowledge about disaster related
topics. Science teachers in government schools are aware about disaster related curriculum but not the teachers
of other subjects. Another difference between government and private schools is revealed in teaching materials.
Since private schools focus on SLC (School Leaving Certificate) more than government schools, private schools
use more teaching materials and give much information to students. SLC is the certification test of education of
secondary level (tenth grade). Students can take higher education in colleges or university after passing SLC.
Questionnaire survey
Outline of questionnaire survey
Questionnaire survey was carried out during August 2005. The survey mainly targeted the tenth grade students
(15-16 years old) in six schools covering 452 students (Table II [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]).
Model of disaster awareness
The questionnaires were prepared with the awareness model derived from [12] Rohrman (1998), and with
improvements of risk perception by [13] Ronan et al. (2001). Rohrman's awareness model has three levels: risk-
appraisal, decision for prevention action, and risk-reducing behavior ([12] Rohrman, 1998). "Risk-appraisal" is the
probability, severity, proximity, and immediacy of disasters. "Decision for prevention action" focuses on risk
information. "Risk-reducing behavior" is implementation of measures on individual basis or in community.
Although this basic structure is also followed in the current survey, two additional phases are included: willingness
to "Risk-appraisal" and "Risk-reducing behavior." Therefore, five levels model is considered, and is shown in Figure
1 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]. "Risk perception" corresponds to "Risk-appraisal", "Searching information" to
"Decision for prevention action" and "Taking measure" to "Risk-reducing behavior." To identify gap between wish
and actions, intention levels of both "Searching information" and "Taking measure" are established. "Intention to
search information" is the wish to deepen the knowledge, and "Searching information" is actual deepening, and
same scheme is applied to "Intention to take measure" and "Taking measure" respectively.
Each awareness level consists of several elements. Elements of risk perception are possibility of occurrence of
earthquake of certain intensity, assumed damages in that specified intensity, and cause of death caused by
earthquake. Searching information consists of actions to collect information through various media (books,
internet, newspaper, or TV) or talk about disaster management with people (friends, teachers, family member, and
community). Taking measures consists of relationship with community or family members, preparedness in
student's house, security in bedrooms, and knowledge about vulnerable people around students and dangers in

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residential areas. [15] Sharma (2001) pointed out that mitigation was important from the lessons of Gujarat
Earthquake of 2001. Therefore, the survey focuses on mitigation and preparedness, which are pre-disaster
measures. But structural mitigation measures are not included as measures because structural mitigation
measures needs much money and it is difficult for students to implement economically.
As educational factors, which can enhance awareness and promote action for disaster reduction, community
education, family education, self-education, school education, and SESP are recognized. Each factor except SESP
consists of several elements as in the case of awareness. Community and family education mainly consists of
activities for disaster reduction, activities not related to disaster management, and talking about disaster
management. Self-education underscores that students learn or study disaster or disaster management by
themselves through books, TV, or various media or materials. School education consists of education of each
school and talking about disaster management with teachers or friends in the time except class hours.
Based on elements of awareness and educational factors, questionnaire was framed. The numbers in Figure 1
[Figure omitted. See Article Image.] shows the number of elements of awareness and educational factors.
Analysis
Analysis is done to identify the effect of educational elements (ee 1) to awareness elements (ae 1), using 2 -test. If 0
is larger than and the element gives positive impact (students have higher awareness or do action more often if
they take education which is related to the element), the effect of the elements is defined in this study is as
follows: Equation 1 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] And if 0 is smaller than 2 , or if 02 is larger than 2 and the
element gives negative impact (students have lower awareness or take action not more often if they take
education which is related to the element), the effect of the elements is defined as follows: Equation 2 [Figure
omitted. See Article Image.] As next step of analysis, the effect of each element to the each awareness level is
calculated. The effect is defined as follows: Equation 3 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] In above equation, n
shows the number of elements in each awareness level. Through above process, the effect of each element to
each awareness level is identified. This calculation is done for all educational elements.
In this study, maximum value out of effects of elements in each factor is defined as the effect of each educational
factor. Effect of community education in risk perception is defined as follows: Equation 4 [Figure omitted. See
Article Image.] Equation 5 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] By conducting the process mentioned above, the
effect of each educational factor in each awareness level is shown in Figure 2 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.].
Results of the questionnaire survey
In enhancing the risk perception level, community, family, and schools play important role. To raise intention to
search information, self-education is the most effective factor. Self-education is the crucial factor in intention level
of searching information and taking measures. In actual action of searching information, community, family, and
self-education are the effective factors. In taking measures level, community plays significant role. SESP is
effective in intention to take measures but do not play important role in other level. Each educational factor has
several elements and it is important to focus effective elements. Following are the consideration of the effective
elements in each awareness level:
- Risk perception: Mutual cooperation among community, keeping sleeping space safer, and education of school 5
are effective elements. Education of school 6 is also more effective than education of school 3 and 4 (government
schools). Private schools in Nepal provide more information or knowledge to students. To raise student's risk
perception, relationship among community in daily life, taking measures, and providing more information is
recommended.
- Intention to search information: Planting trees with community, reading disaster related articles in newspaper,
reading disaster related topics in books are effective elements. Community activities related to disaster reduction
and learning at individual level are necessary to form student's intention.
- Searching information: Participating in community activities, instruction from family members, reading books,
and collecting or seeing information through internet are effective elements. The community activities mentioned
above are not related to disaster management. Relationship with community and learning in daily life can have

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possibility to let students take action of searching information.
- Intention to take measures: Reading disaster related topics or article in magazine with family, reading books, and
collecting or seeing information through internet are effective elements. Students can raise intention by getting
more information from various media.
- Taking measures: Participating in community activities and talking to neighbors are effective elements. These
elements are not related to disaster reduction directly. The relationship with community in daily life is important
and building community should be taken into consideration to let student take action for disaster reduction.
In the following stage, each type of education parameter is deliberated for enhanced understanding on this
subject:
- Community education: Some elements of community education play important role in risk perception, searching
information, and taking measure level. This means that community education is effective to let students take
action.
- Family education: Some elements are effective in risk perception, searching information, intention to take
measures level. Especially in searching information level, family is key factor for student's action.
- Self-education: In intention to search information, searching information, and intention to take measure level, self-
education plays significant role. But it cannot let students take measures.
- School education: Although education of school 5 in risk perception is important element for student's risk
perception, school education does not play an important role for student's awareness or action.
- SESP: SESP can let students think importance of taking measures but it is not effective factor for student's
action for disaster reduction. Although SESP is one of the effective factors in searching information, hence this
can have students interested in disaster management.
From the results of Figure 1 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.], it is apparent that current school disaster
education don not play critical role in any form of awareness level except risk perception. Each school has
different condition compared to other schools. Implementation of SESP, location (urban/rural), and school type
(government/private) are important factors deciding school character. Figure 3 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]
shows effects of some mentioned factors.
The effect of SESP is captured by comparing between school 1 and school 3 and between school 2 and school 4.
The effect of education of private school is captured by comparing between school 4 and school 5 and between
school 4 and school 6 and the effect of rural area is captured by comparing between school 1 and school 2 and
between school 3 and school 4. The following are the considerations of each awareness level to know the effects
of the parameter that decides a schools character:
- Risk perception: Education of private school is critical factor and it is important to provide more information.
- Intention to search information: Rural area contribution to raise the intention and other factors are not effective.
The main disasters are flood and landslide in Nepal. The landslide and flood are the most destructive types of
disasters in Nepal and these disasters occur in hilly area mainly ([4] Chhetri, 2005). Rural areas are located in hilly
areas. In addition, linkage among community people is stronger in rural area than in urban area in Nepal. It can be
thought strong community linkage can let students think about community safety and importance of disaster
management.
- Searching information: SESP and rural area are effective factors. To promote searching information, providing
appropriate knowledge and letting students think disasters is a part of the livelihood is important.
- Intention to take measures: SESP and education of private school can raise intention. Knowledge or information
should be given to students.
- Taking measure: Rural area is the most effective factor towards this. Community building can lead to promoting
student's action and community safety.
Conclusion
Role of SESP
In the beginning of the SESP programme, NSET emphasizes structural safety of school buildings. Community is

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likely to be affected from disasters, especially earthquakes, even if school building is safe against them. NSET-
Nepal recognized this fact and started to involve community safety program (training and awareness program)
within SESP.
From the results of questionnaires, it is clear that SESP has a positive effect to let students think that taking
measures (especially, pre-disaster preparedness/mitigation measures) is important. In the field of disaster
management, taking measures is the most important to reduce damages of disasters. This effect of SESP is
significant. But it is difficult to let students take measures through SESP. The most important elements which can
promote student's action for disaster reduction is community activities and talking to neighbors. This shows that
relationship with community in daily life is important for promoting measures. Students, whose school is located
in rural area and where SESP activities were implemented, more often take measures than other schools. In the
future, SESP should give students chances to take measures with community. It is difficult for students to
implement structural measures in school or their own houses. Therefore, non-structural measure or preparedness
is preferable. Students can contribute to community in the future in daily life and in emergency situations as well.
Students are requested to know most vulnerable areas to disasters within residential area, to recognize vulnerable
people, or to know more about community safety.
Future disaster education in schools
As mentioned earlier, major challenge for disaster reduction is implementing measures, especially at the individual
level. Role of disaster education is to provide knowledge and information to students and promote measures. To
achieve it, students may be encouraged to know disaster risk, collect information related to pre-disaster mitigation,
and implement it. School disaster education should be changed largely. To raise risk perception, more applicable
information should be transferred to students. Self-education provides chances with students to think that
measures are important. Teachers should give students time to think disaster management by themselves as well
as give information through lectures. Community or student's family should be involved in school disaster
education and students should take measures with them or do activities with them. Through these activities,
students know how to take measures and make good relationship with community. Taking measures by
themselves can raise higher risk perception as well as know how to take measures. Proposed disaster education
potentiates the cycle of "risk perception - intention to search information - searching information - intention to take
measure - taking measure - higher risk perception".
However, neither teachers nor students are professionally equipped for disaster management. In the process of
school disaster education, professional organization; for example, NGO/NPO, research institutes, or universities;
should be involved.
The goal of education is to change people's behavior ([9] Nathe, 2000). Awareness about risks and dangers needs
to start in early education before abilities to address them can become part of growing civic and professional
responsibilities as people mature ([16] UN/ISDR, 2004a). In New Zealand, responsibility of decision making from
central government to local government varies at different levels ([3] Britton and Clark, 2000). It can be said that
only government cannot take all actions for prevention and mitigation of damages of disasters. In the time of
disaster, the most vulnerable people have the most serious effects. Now the importance of community based
disaster management is recognized widely. The role of education should not be confined within the school itself,
but should be promoted to families and communities ([5] Dixit et al. , 2002). Community education is essential for
actions ([14] Shaw et al. , 2004). Proposed education in this study is the education which community participates
in. Students are expected to talk to family or community about disaster management and take action for disaster
reduction through the education. The education can lead to community based disaster management and it
becomes a part of culture in daily life.
In the World Conference on Disaster Reduction, Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015 was adopted. The
framework emphasizes the role of education, especially, school disaster education for forming culture of disaster
prevention ([17] UN/ISDR, 2004b). The proposed disaster education in this study can contribute disaster safety
society in the world.

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Proceedings of the Thematic Session on Education for Sustainable Development, 18-22 January, Kobe, Japan, pp.
28-35
This study was financed by Japan Securities (Nihon Shoken) Scholarship Foundation and a part of this research
was supported by MEXT Research Grant on Case Station and Field Campus (No. 17404004). The survey of several
schools for this study was conducted in cooperation with NSET-Nepal, which also provided helpful comments and
information to the authors. The authors would like to express their gratitude to all the people and organizations
(especially, the schools, teachers, students, and education department) who graciously cooperated with this study.

References

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Appendix

Corresponding author
Koichi Shiwaku can be contacted at: shiwaku@ges.mbox.media.kyoto-u.ac.jp

AuthorAffiliation

Koichi Shiwaku, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan

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Rajib Shaw, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan

Ram Chandra Kandel, NSET-Nepal, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET), Kathmandu, Nepal

Surya Narayan Shrestha, NSET-Nepal, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET), Kathmandu,
Nepal

Amod Mani Dixit, NSET-Nepal, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET), Kathmandu, Nepal
Illustration

Equation 1

Equation 2

Equation 3

Equation 4

Equation 5

Figure 1: Five level model of awareness and action and five educational factors in questionnaire

Figure 2: Positive effects of five educational factors (community, family, self-education, school, and SESP) on each
awareness and action level

Figure 3: Positive effects of three factors (SESP, private/government, and rural/urban) which decide school
characters on each awareness and action level

Table I: School information

Table II: Disaster education in schools

DETAILS

Subject: Disasters; Education; Emergency preparedness; Perceptions; Studies;

Nongovernmental organizations; NGOs

Classification: 9540: Non-profit institutions; 9130: Experimental/theoretical; 8306: Schools and

educational services; 1220: Social trends &culture

Publication title: Disaster Prevention and Management; Bradford

Volume: 16

Issue: 4

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 Pages: 576

Publication year: 2007

Publication date: 2007

Publisher: Emerald Group Publishing Limited

Place of publication: Bradford

Country of publication: United Kingdom

Publication subject: Public Health And Safety

ISSN: 09653562

CODEN: DPMAEY

Source type: Scholarly Journals

Language of publication: English

Document type: Feature

Document feature: References Graphs Equations Charts

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09653560710817057

ProQuest document ID: 214390531

Document URL: https://search.proquest.com/docview/214390531?accountid=31533

Copyright: Copyright Emerald Group Publishing Limited 2007

Last updated: 2014-05-22

Database: Health &Medical Collection

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