An Analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying feature (variable)

of the signal is a representation of some other time varying quantity, i.e., analogous to
another time varying signal. It differs from a digital signal in terms of small fluctuations
in the signal which are meaningful.
A digital signal uses discrete (discontinuous) values. By contrast, non-digital (or analog)
systems use a continuous range of values to represent information. Although digital
representations are discrete, the information represented can be either discrete, such as
numbers or letters, or continuous, such as sounds, images, and other measurements of
continuous systems.
Cons of analog

Slow development difficult to do accurate design tolerances of electronic components

Hard to do complicated controls Interference Hard to modify testing alternatives is
difficult Hard to build in comparative logic Hard to build in intelligence Hard to back-
up Hard to do MIMO

Pros of analog

Robust doesnt (often) break down doesnt crash Dynamic range easier to avoid being
limited by self noise Continuous processing no inherent band-width limits Hard to
modify Available diagnostic instrumentation is good

Pros of digital

Flexibility can do really complicated controllers easy to modify quick to develop easy
to make back-up Can build in lots of logic intelligence for switching states locking logic
adaptive filtering Diagnostics in particular, remote off-line testing and diagnostics
store signals Can do lots of DIO Can do MIMO Error detection Signal generation and
injection Control interfaces are more precise

Co Easy to break backup, backup, backup! Hard to do fast loops limited to about
10kHz UGF with current technology can get really fast ADC/DAC cards, but processing
and integration becomes an issue Interference? Dynamic range best systems limited to
about 20-bit typical systems more like 10-14-bit often need good whitening, both at ADC
and DAC Software interfaces are currently not as user-friendly as real knobs and switches
Software instrumentation not as advanced as analogns

Analog Digital

Signal Analog signal is a continuous signal which represents Digital signals

physical measurements. are discrete
time signals
generated by
digital
Analog Digital

modulation.

Waves Denoted by sine waves Denoted by

square waves

Representation Uses continuous range of values to Uses discrete or

represent information discontinuous
values to
represent
information

Example Human voice in air, analog electronic devices. Computers,

CDs, DVDs,
and other
digital
electronic
devices.

Technology Analog technology records waveforms as they are. Samples analog

waveforms into
a limited set of
numbers and
records them.

Data transmissions Subjected to deterioration by noise during transmission Can be noise-

and write/read cycle. immune
without
deterioration
during
transmission
and write/read
cycle.

Response to Noise More likely to get affected reducing accuracy Less affected
since noise
response are
analog in nature

Flexibility Analog hardware is not flexible. Digital

hardware is
flexible in
implementation.

Uses Can be used in analog devices only. Best suited for Best suited for
audio and video transmission. Computing and
digital
electronics.
 Analog Digital

Applications Thermometer PCs, PDAs

Bandwidth Analog signal processing can be done in real time and There is no
consumes less bandwidth. guarantee that
digital signal
processing can
be done in real
time and
consumes more
bandwidth to
carry out the
same
information.

Memory Stored in the form of wave signal Stored in the

form of binary
bit

Power Analog instrument draws large power Digital

instrument
drawS only
negligible
power

Cost Low cost and portable Cost is high and

not easily
portable

Impedance Low High order of

100 megaohm

Errors Analog instruments usually have a scale which is Digital

cramped at lower end and give considerable instruments are
observational errors. free from
observational
errors like
parallax and
approximation
errors.
Noise: White noise cause by sound is a type of noise that is produced by combining sounds of
all different frequencies together.

EMI generated by power converters and transmited to the control section

Resolution limitation in sensors specialy in the position feedback.

 Multiplicative noise, multiplies or modulates the intended signal
Quantization error, due to conversion from continuous to discrete values
Poisson noise, typical of signals that are rates of discrete events
Shot noise, e.g. caused by static electricity discharge
Transient noise, a short pulse followed by decaying oscillations
Burst noise, powerful but only during short intervals
Phase noise, random time shifts in a signal

1.Example: A discrete time system is described by the following transfer function: Find the
system response to input [ ] [ ] if all initial conditions are zero. syms n z x=(-2).^-n;
x=simplify(ztrans(x)) h=(z+.32)/(z^2+z+.16) y=x.*h yn=iztrans(y)]

2.
Aliasing and noise The input signals coming from the current and voltage sensors should be
amplified and adjusted before ADC. This is called signal conditioning. Basically this stage
includes addition/subtraction, attenuation/amplification and filtering [1]. Nowadays energy
measurement chips have built-in architecture for this stage. In ADC, proper sampling
frequency should be selected to restore the original input waveform. Improper sampling can
give rise to aliasing problems which is an artifact of all sampled systems regardless the
architecture [2]. Aliasing means that the frequency components greater than half sampling
rate shift into the frequency band of desired. This can be reduced by removing the
components of the input signal above the Nyquist frequency which is half of the sampling
frequency. Therefore it is necessary in all energy measurement design to use an anti aliasing
filter to the input signal. This is done by introducing a single pole RC low pass filter.

DSP vs microcontroller DSP's multiply accumulate feature (MAC) that uC does not
have.FFT will take more time in mc.

Microcontrollers are integer math processors with an interrupt sub system.DSPs are
processors optimized for streaming signal processing

DSPs are mostly custom processors with Harvard architecture capable with dual bus to
access/ program /
data ram simultaneously. C/C++ code in code compare are compile it to control DSP.

PLD are empty raw hardware, it programmable logic electric. No bus/ CPU/ RAM using in
built logic blocks/ programmable routing resources. HDL Language to be used to configure
hardware.

Root locus limitations:

The most important one is that it cannot handle dead time easily. When we have a system with dead
time, we must make an approximation with the Pad formulas

DSPs are mostly custom processors with Harvard architecture capable with dual bus to access/
program /

data ram simultaneously. C/C++ code in code compare are compile it to control DSP.

PLD are empty raw hardware, it programmable logic electric. No bus/ CPU/ RAM using in built logic

blocks/ programmable routing resources. HDL Language to be used to configure hardware.

root locus plot is that it can only give us the so-called absolute stability but not relative stability.

z = [0 0]';
p = roots([1 0.01 1])
k=1;

[b,a] = zp2tf(z,p,k)