Biomechanics II (thorax and

lower extremity)
Chest Tolerance and Standards
 Epidemiology
Incidence of Injury to Each Torso Part
Torso Frontal Side
Part Impact impact

Sternum 14% 4%
Heart 10% 13%
Ribs 50% 63%
Aorta 9% 17%
Thoracic Spine 4% 8%
Other chest 39% 47%
Spleen 7% 23%
Liver 25% 34%
Other Abdomen 18% 31%
 Thorax: Basic anatomy

From: Huelke D. F. The anatomy of the human chest

 Injury mechanisms
Compression of the thorax -> rib fractures,
lung injuries
Single rib fractures -> AIS 1 or 2
2 3 rib fracture -> AIS 2 or 3
rib multiple fractures may lead to life
threatening complications -> flail chest
lung injuries
pneumothorax
hemothorax
lung contusion + flail chest -> pneumonia ->
shock waves (viscous loading within the
thorax cavity) -> lung injuries
inertia loading -> rupture of aorta
 Common thoracic injuries
Rib fractures are most common
Fracture were observed in 93.5% of severely
injured belted drives
Other injuries are:
Sternal fractures
Liver lacerations
Clavicular fracture
Separation of the sternoclavicular joint
 Thoracic Injury mechanism
The various injury types appear to be dependent
on the rate of loading because of the viscoelastic
nature of the tissues involved
For automotive crashes, both deformation and
rate of loading play a role in injury causation
Low Speed Crush Injuries (For impact speeds below 3
meters per second (m/s)) -injury mechanism is
compression of the organs
High Speed Impact Injuries -transmission of a pressure
wave through the chest wall by a high-speed blunt
projectile or by a blast wave
 Abdominal Injury Mechanisms
For automotive injuries, dual dependency on
compression and velocity
Solid organs appear to be more at risk than
the hollow organs
Belt-induced injuries to both the hollow and
solid organs have been seen in the field
Lower abdominal organs could only be injured
severely by the lap-belt in association with
submarining of the occupant
 Thoracic Injury Mechanisms
Rib fractures Lung Injuries haemo- or
pneumo-thorax

Belt restraint produce fractures along a path near regions

of loading under the belt (distribution around rib 6
Airbag restraints without belts produce fractures at
anterolateral rib locations Lung collapse and mediastinal shift due to haemo or pheumo thorax

Kent et al. STAPP 2001 From Huelke D. F. The anatomy of the human chest

Injuries to heart and arteries 1 Injuries to heart and arteries - 2

Force from below to above on
the right side can result in
aortic tear just beyond left
sub-clavian artery
Upward motion of heart
Injury to the heart and arteries: Neck
Hyperextension and chest
compression
 Biomechanical response Biomechanical Response Technique
Method developed to improve chest deflection
measurements (12 accelerometers on the test subject)
Thoracic biomechanical response studies
Volunteers Accelerometer locations Direction

Cadavers the most lateral point on the 4th right and

left rib.
From left to right along the normal direction
of the body.
Animals (rabbits, dogs, monkeys, pigs) the most lateral point on the 8th right and Parallel with the body in a forward direction.
left rib.
At the top of the sternum Forward direction.
Types of cadaver thorax tests At the lowest part of the sternum Forward direction.
Impactor test 1st thoracic vertebra Three-axial; head -fot, left-right, forward-
Drop test backward shoulders
12th thoracic vertebra Three-axial; head -fot, left-right, forward-
Sled test backward shoulders
Full scale crash test

Force-deflection plots for quasi-static loading Frontal impact biomechanical response

Frontal loading
Static loading dynamic loading
Plateau influenced by impactor velocity
Techniques to High hysteris
Determine Thoracic
Deflection

based on: Lobdell T. E. Impact response of the human thorax from: Kroell, C. K.: Thoracic response to blunt frontal loading
 Mechanical Response of the Thorax
Dynamic data were obtained Frontal Thoracic Response to flat impactors
by Nahum et al and Kroell et al
using a 152-mm (6-inch)
impactor, weighing 227 N (51
lb) or 191 N (43 lb) shown in
figure.
Response corridors for impact
speeds of 4.9 m/s (11 mph)
and 7.2 m/s (16 mph)
The static stiffness of an
unembalmed thorax was
found to vary from 6.3 to 10.9
kN/m (36 to 62 lb/in

Adjusted force-skeletal deflection curves

 Mechanical Response of thorax
Patrick performed a
courageous study on
himself in 1970, using a 10-
kg (22 lb) pendulum
Impact velocities ranged
from 2.4 to 4.6 m/s (8 to 15
ft/s) Initial stiffness of the load-deflection
Generally cadaveric data response of the chest
needs to be increased to
simulate a tensed living
human,
Patricks data agree better
with the unadjusted cadaveric
data

Plateau force versus impactor velocity

 Response to Belt Loading
Belt loading stiffness at the sternum ranged from 17.5
to 26.3 kN/m (100 to 150 lb/in) while disc loading
ranged from 8.8 to 17.5 kN/m (50 to 100 lb/in)
Tests on pigs show,
Thoracic force-deflection curves exhibited an initial low
stiffness region with a concave-upward stiffening behavior
up to about 25 to 50 mm (1 to 2 in) of deflection.
followed by a high stiffness response up a maximum
deflection of 100 to 150 mm (4 to 6 in)
dead animals had a low stiffness of 35.7 kN/m (204 lb/in)
and a high stiffness of 115.7 kN/m (661 lb/in)
stiffness of living pigs was slightly over half the value of
dead pigs
 Side Impact Thoracic Response
Flat impactor test results:
initial dynamic stiffness ranged from 273.6 to
437.8 kN/m (1563 to 2500 lb/in) at 6.1 m/s (20
ft/s)
At the higher velocity, the values were 437.8 and
790.0 kN/m (2500 to 4500 lb/in)
Drop test:
Dynamic stiffness of the thorax was in a range
from 96.8 to 255 kN/m (553 to 1457 lb/in).
Pendulum impacts conducted by Viano
et al
Force-deflection and force-time Force-deflection and force-time response
response for chest impacts--Raw Data for chest impacts--Normalized

Stiffness values were not computed but the suggested

corridors had an initial stiffness of 100 to 140 kN/m.
Mechanical Response of the Abdomen
Mechanical response data
from impacts to the
abdomen, particularly
frontal impact data, are Lower abdominal frontal impact stiffness
somewhat sparse
As for lower abdominal
response to belt loading,
the only data available were
taken from porcine subjects
by Miller.
Rouhana et al scaled the
data to the human level
using the equal stress/equal
velocity method
Lower abdominal response to dynamic belt
loading
 Tolerance of the Abdomen
The large number of abdominal organs and
the difference in structure and strength
between solid and hollow organs render the
study of tolerance rather difficult.
An additional difficulty is the effect of obesity,
age and disease, such as cirrhosis of the liver,
and the presence of material in the hollow
organs, such as partially digested food in the
intestines and a fetus in a uterus
Tolerance of the Abdomen to Frontal
Impact
Author Tolerance Injury Organ Remarks
(ref) Severity
Melvin et p = 310 kPa AIS 4-5 Liver Exposed, perfused, N
al [137] =17 Rhesus monkey,
fixed back, V=2.5m/s
Lau and F=0.24 kN AIS > 3 Liver Rabbits, N=26,
Viano Compression 16%,
[128, 129] fixed back
Horsch et V*C =0.72 AIS > 3 Liver Steering wheel
al [140] impact, N = 17, V = 32
km/h
Miller [86] F = 3.76 kN AIS > 4 Lower 25% prob. of injury,
Abdomen Swine, N=25, Lap belt
load
Miller [86] C = 48.3% AIS > 4 Lower 25% probability of
Abdomen injury, Swine, N= 25,
Lap belt load
Miller [86] Fmax*Cmax AIS > 4 Lower 25% probability of
= 2.0 kN Abdomen injury, Swine, N= 25,
Lap belt load
Upper pelvis Response
Pendulum impact data obtained b
are shown in Figure
On the left are force-deflection
curves with initial stiffnesses of
100, 75 and 128.6 kN/m for the
three impact velocities of 4.3, 6.7
and 9.5 m/s respectively.
Force-time response curves are
shown on the right of Figure
When these force-time histories
are compared with normalized
data obtained from cadaveric
drop tests onto rigid armrests,
distinct differences are obvious
 Mechanical Response of the Pelvis -
Frontal
Cadaver was suspended in a restraint harness and
one knee was impacted
Both the linear and angular acceleration of the
pelvis were measured but the angular
acceleration about the spinal (z-) axis was not
always predominant for this off-axis impact
Mechanical impedance, as an analytical tool and
resonance was estimated to occur between 180
and 280 Hertz had large scatter of data
 Lateral Impact Response of the Pelvis
The impact speeds ranged
from 21 to 44.6 km/h
(13.0 to 27.7 mph).
Each cadaver sustained
multiple (2 to 5) impacts
that were administered at
increasing velocities until
fracture occurred
Force-deflection curves
for the 33.8 km/h impacts
shown in figure Force-deflection response of the pelvis
 Tolerance of the Pelvis in frontal
impact
Patrick et al. results for advance aged subjects
Range of loads for pelvic fracture was 6.2 to 11.8 kN (1400
to 2650 lb)
Hip and/or pelvic fractures resulted from combined knee
loads of 8.9 to 25.6 kN (2000 to 5760 lb)
Although no definitive tolerance level has been
established for the pelvis for frontal impact, one can
deduce that the 10-kN femoral load limit in FMVSS 208
adequately protects the pelvis
The three-point belt is not likely to cause injury to the
sacroiliac joint, even in the absence of an airbag
 Tolerance of the Pelvis to Lateral
Impact
Caesari et al.
For males, the force at fracture, at the level of the 3-ms clip,
ranged from 4.9 to 11.9 kN (1000 to 2900 lb).
The corresponding range for females was 4.4 to 8.2 kN (1000
to1840 lb).
The average force for an AIS 2 or 3 pelvic injury was 8.6 kN
(1930 lb) for males and 5.6 kN (1260 lb) for females
Proposed tolerance force at the level of the 3-ms clip
10 kN (2250 lb) for a 75-kg person.
4.6kN (1030 lb) for a 5th-percentile female
Two more measures for pelvic injury are the acceleration
and the displacement.
With absence of data, 10kN force is best tolerance
 Injury criteria & tolerances
1: Chest deflection due to compression mechanism

Compression Criterion (CC): maximum chest

compression is much better indicator of injury severity than
acceleration or force!
frontal, blunt impact, quasi static: Vimp< 3 m/s
use normalized chest deflection: 35% deflection -> AIS 3
 Injury criteria & tolerances
2: Acceleration and force due to compression
mechanism & inertial loading

Single acceleration: <60 g at CG when t < 3 ms

(specified in United States regulations FMVSS
208), limited validation
Chest severity index (SI): 1000 (not used, bad validation)
Force on the sternum: 3.3 kN =>minor injuries)
Distributed load shoulder + chest: 8.0 kN
=> resulted in only minor injuries, compare F=60 g (acc
criterion ) * 30 kg (chest mass) = 18 kN
Thoracic Trauma Index (TTI)
+ mass, age
- pure statistical function
 Severity Index (SI)

SI was introduced by Gadd, 1996

SI a dt 2.5

a= acceleration (g)
2.5=weighting factor based on the slope of the tolerance curve
t=time (sec)

(bad validation)
 Thoracic Trauma Index (TTI)
TTI = 1.4 * AGE + 0.5 * (RIBY + T12Y) * MASS / Mstd
Where:
TTI = Thoracic Trauma Index (dimension: g)
AGE = age of the subject in years
RIBY = maximum absolute value of lateral acceleration in gs of the 4th and 8th rib on
struck side after signal filtering
T12Y = maximum absolute value of lateral acceleration in gs of 12th thoracic
vertebra after signal filtering
MASS = test subject mass in kg
Mstd = standard reference mass of 75 kg

TTI(d) = 0.5 * (RIBY + T12Y)

Where:
TTI(d) = definition of the TTI used for 50th percentile dummies

Used as criterion in side impact in USA

Injury criteria & tolerances
3: Viscous criterion due to compression
mechanism & viscous response

d D(t ) D(t )
VC V (t ) * C (t ) *
dt D See: SAE J211
Viscous Criterion (VC) is a time function
formed by the product of the velocity of
deformation: V(t) and the instantaneous
compression function: C(t)
V(t) is calculated by differentiation of the deformation, and
C(t) is calculated in relation to initial torso thickness (D)
valid if 3 m/s < Vimpact < 30 m/s
 VC: ranges of validity

Less compression produce similar injury

levels when impact velocity is increased!

based on Lau I.V., Viano, D. C. The Viscous Criterion: Bases and Applications of an Injury Severity Index for Soft Tissues
 Viscous response
Serious injury to soft tissue and organs
occurs at the time of peak viscous response,
well before maximum deflection

The maximum chest compression is needed

to protect against crushing injuries, which
may occur during slow or static deformation
of the chest and abdomen
 VC criterion
The tolerance level for a 25% probability of
severe injury (AIS 4+) was found to be
VCmax = 1 m/s

VC has been criticized that it is a measure of

the energy stored in the thorax and not the
energy dissipated

It has also been hypothized that varied

loading conditions by different restraints
need a more restraint specific injury criterion
 Combined Thoracic Index (CTI) - 1

Amax Dmax
CTI
Aint Dint

A max = Maximum chest acceleration (g)

A int = X-axis intercept (dummy specific), 85 gs for 50% HIII
D max = Maximum chest deflection (mm)
D int = Y-axis intercept (dummy) specific, 102 mm for 50% HIII
 Thorax Crash Safety Legislation
Frontal Collision EU (96/79/EG) Frontal Collision USA (FMVSS 208)

Thorax Compression Criterion (ThCC): 50 mm 50% HII

Soft Tissue Criterion (VC): 1.0 m/s Chest acceleration: 60 g
Thorax compression: 63 mm

5% HII
Chest acceleration: 60 g
Thorax compression: 52 mm

Side Collision EU (96/27/EG) Side Collision USA (FMVSS 214)

RDC (Rib Deflection): 42 mm Thoracic Trauma Index (TTI):

Soft tissue criterion (VC): 1.0 m/s 85 g (4 door)
90 g (2 door)
 Injury Mechanisms of the Thoraco-
Lumbar Spine
If the injury involves the spinal cord, paraplegia can result
Mechanism of injury for these wedge fractures is a
combined compressive and bending load
Two load paths down the spine to transmit vertical (axial)
compression generated by inertial loading, depending on
the orientation of the lumbar spine
The two load paths are the discs and the articular facets that
transmit compressive load by bottoming the tips the inferior
facets onto the laminar of vertebra below
Disc rupture is a slow degenerative process
An extremely violent single loading event causes the
nucleus pulposus to extrude from the side of the disc
Lower extremity - bones
Anatomy of the knee
 Movement Directions
Flexion
Extension
Adduction
Abduction
Rotation
Movement of the ankle joint
 Physiological movement of
joints of extremities
Motion range of joints (degree)
Physiological *Ankle-
feature Shoulder Elbow Hip Knee subtalar
Flexion 180 145-160 90-145 20-30
Extension 45-50 0 20-30 30-50
Abduction 140 0 45 30-40
Adduction 30-45 0 30 25-35
Lateral rotation 80 90 30
Medial rotation 95 85 60
Inversion 15-20
Eversion 15-Oct
Axial rotation
* The motion of the ankle is combined with that of the subtalar joint.

Kapandji [1970], White and Panjabi [1978], Frankel and Nordin [1980]
 Pelvic Injury Mechanisms
Common injuries to the pelvis
in frontal impacts result from
severe knee loading into the
dash
Separation of the pelvis from
the sacrum at the sacroiliac
joint can occur if the knee is
wedged between the front
seat back and the dash
In side impacts, the most
frequent injury in this case is
pubic rami fractures followed
by acetabular fractures
Injury mechanisms to lower
extremity in frontal impacts
Injury mechanisms of the knee
joint in pedestrian accidents
Damage mechanism of knee joint

Kajzer et al. 1997

 Knee Joint Injuries
Frequently injured in
motor vehicle crashes
when it comes into
contact with the
instrument panel or
dash
Dashboard which slopes
down and away from
the occupant, ensures
that PCL s preserved
 Ankle Joint Injuries
In offset impacts, footwell
intrusion can place the
foot in dorsiflexion as well
as in inversion or eversion
Pylon fractures appear to
be due to the
simultaneous application
of a large brake pedal
load through the mid-foot
in concert with the
application of a large calf
muscle force
 Pelvis: injury mechanisms
Frontal impact Lateral impact

Posterior hip dislocation Fracture - dislocation Intrapelvic (femur neck,

trochanter) fracture-
dislocations and fractured
pelvis
Fractures of the ankle and
direction of forces
Moment-angle characteristics of
the hip joint
Mechanical Response of the Knee and
Femur
This was a rigid 5-kg (11-lb)
pendulum impact against
the knee of a seated
cadaver that did not have a
back support.
The drop height was 0.225
m (8.9 in).
Other forms of response
data include peak femur
acceleration as a function of
peak knee impact force and
mean peak knee impact
force as a function of
pendulum mass.
Knee femur impact response
Mechanical Response of the Knee and
Femur
For the knee, studies have been conducted to quantify the
force-deflection characteristics associated with the human
knee being forced into energy-absorbing or crushable
materials
Nyquist tested a cross-section of volunteers utilizing
Styrofoam of known crush characteristics
To prevent soft tissue injuries to the knee in the automotive
environment, Viano obtained the stiffness the knee joint
for static posterior tibia subluxation relative to the femur.
The linear range of the stiffness values from the five
cadaver specimens tested had an average of 149 kN/m (850
lb/in)
 Mechanical Response of the Tibia
The bones were tested in 3-point bending, 11 of them in the
antero-posterior (AP) direction and 9 in the latero-medial (LM)
direction
The dynamic load was provided by a 32-kg (70.6-lb) linear impactor
at speeds between 2.1 and 6.9 m/s (6.9 to 22.6 ft/s)
From the known bending moment, the tensile stress to failure was
computed
The response curve for AP loading had an average stiffness of 282
92 kN/m (1610 525 lb/in) when the impact force was plotted
against deflection
The LM response was bi-linear.
initial stiffness was 105 36 kN/m (600 206 lb/in) and
final stiffness prior to fracture was 265 70 kN/m (1513 400 lb/in).
The difference in stiffness is obviously due to the contribution from
the fibula which is stronger in the AP direction
 Mechanical Response of the Ankle
Ankle Response in
Ankle Response in Dorsiflexion Inversion/Eversion

Because of the variability in the data, The only dynamic data obtained by
the response curves for dorsiflexion Begeman et al for inversion/eversion
The data provided by Crandall et al were for
of the ankle are ill-defined quasi-static tests
 Femur strength
Femur strength.
Male Female
Torque (N = m) 175 136
Range 141-222 78-207
Bending (kN) 3.92 2.58
Range 3.43-4.66 2.26-3.33
Average maximum moment (N 310 180
= m)
Long axis compression (kN) 7.72 7.11
Range 6.85-8.56 5.63-8.56
From Messerer, as reported in Naham and Melvin
 Tibia and fibula strength

Tibia strength Fibula strength.

Male Female Male Female
Torque (N = m) 89 56 Torque (N = m) 9 10
Range 63-110 47-63 Range 6-12 8-16
Bending (kN) 3.36 2.24 Bending (kN) 0.44 0.3
Range 2.30-4.90 1.86-2.65 Range 0.35-0.54 0.21-0.39
Average maximum moment 207 124 Average maximum moment 27 17
(N = m) (N = m)
Long axis compression (kN) 10.36 7.49 Long axis compression (kN) 0.6 0.48
Range 7.05-16.39 4.89-10.37 Range 0.24-0.88 0.20-0.83

From Messer, as reported in Naham and Melvin.

Pelvis impact response - tolerances
Vertical loading
3.7 kN dynamic -> bilateral dislocation of the sacroiliac joint
3.5 kN static -> similar kind of injury (Fasola et al. 1955)
Frontal loading
2.7 kN at the pubis -> fracture of the pubic rami (Fasolaet et al. 1955)
8.9 25.6 kN at the knee -> hip/pelvic fractures (Melvin et al. 1980)
37 kN noted -> not fractures (Nusholtz 1982)
Lateral loading
Fracture force: 4.9 11.9 kN for males, 4.4 8.2 kN for females (Ramet,
Cesari 1979 1983)
Average force for AIS 2-3: 8.6 kN for males, 5.6 kN for females
Impact Force = 193.85 Wc 4710.6, Wc body weight -> for 50th
percentile male: 9.8 kN
even study from UMTRI and University of Heidelberg
Force-deflection response of pelvis

Lateral impact to greater trochanter, pendulum diameter 150 mm, mass

23.4 kg, speed 16.2-33.8 km/h. Peak pelvis acceleration and pelvic
deformation not reliable measures. Ratio of pelvic deformation to pelvic
width correlate with pubic rami fracture:
25% probability of fracture at 27% pelvic compression
Viano et al. 1989
 Pelvic Fracture Risk Curve

Impact force of 8.9 kN 20% risk of pelvic fracture

Impact force of 9.8 kN 50% risk of pelvic fracture
 Tolerance levels of upper and
lower leg
Femur force EEVC WG 10 4 kN
4.23 kN
5.28 kN
7.1 7.7 kN (static axial compression)
11.6 kN (dynamic axial compression)
Femur bending moment EEVC WG 10 220 Nm
310 Nm (males static)
Tibia acceleration EEVC WG 10 150
Fractures 170 270 g (average 222 g)
No fractures 185 243 g (average 202 g)
124 207 Nm (static bending moment)
280 320 Nm (dynamic bending moment)
 Tolerance levels of the knee
Shearing EEVC WG 10 6mm at 4 kN
12 mm (no preload, quasistatic)
16-28 mm (preload, dynamic)
2.4-2.9 kN shearing force
400-500 Nm bending moment

Bending EEVC WG 10 150

110 (dynamic) 190 (quasistatic, no preload)
15-160 (preload dynamic)
Levels of knee force and moment
in various studies
Setup of four-point knee bending
test
 Bhallas results compared with
response os FLEX-PLI and TRL-PLI

Konosu and Tanahashi 2003

 Femur Injury Criterion (FIC)

F (kN) =23.14 0.71 T (ms), for T<20 ms

F (kN) = 8.9 kN, for T>=20 ms

where:
F is the axial compressive force
T is the primary load pulse duration.
 Tibia injury criterion
Tibia Index (TI)
TI=(M/Mc) + (F/Fc) < 1.0 and Fmax <8 kN

where:
Mc=225 Nm and Fc=35.9 kN

Basis: Static bending tests of tibia (Yamada)

Bone properties:
ultimate compressive stress = 210 Mpa
ultimate tensile stress = 150 Mpa
Tolerance levels of the ankle joint

Ankle moment (quasi static)

33 Nm in dorsiflexion
40 Nm in plantarflexion
34 Nm in inversion
48 Nm in eversion
Ankle bending angle
34 deg. In inversion (quasi static)
32 deg. in eversion (quasi static)
 Tolerance of the Femur
Authors Test Type Peak Load Fracture Percent Padding Duration
Range (kN) Type Fractured Thick- Range

Dynamic data available

ness (ms)
Patrick et al Sled 4.2-17.1 Condyl- 25 Rigid/Thi >30
(64) ar n
Patrick et al Sled 8.8 None 0 36 mm 30
for three decades [92]
Brun-Cassan Sled 3.7-11.4 None 0 25 mm Unknown
et al [143]

Femur Injury Criterion Powell et al Pendulum

[150, 151]
11 Shaft/N
eck
13 None 10-20

F (kN) = 23.24 0.72 T (ms), for T < 20 ms

Powell et al Pendulum 7.1-10.4 Condyl- 33 None 10-20
F (kN) = 8.90 for T 20 ms [150, 151] ar

12 kN (2700 lb) may not be Melvin et al Pendulum

[152]
18.8
average
Condyl-
ar
29 None <10

exceeded Melvin et al Pendulum 16.2-22.7

[152]
None 71 None <10

10 kN (2250 lb) may not be

Melvin et al Pendulum 13.6-28.5 Condyl- 18 25 mm 22 max
[152] ar
Melvin et al Pendulum 19.7 Shaft 20 50 mm <10.7
exceeded for durations of [152]
Melvin et al Pendulum 14.7 None 40 50 mm <10.7
less than 3 ms [152]
Stalnaker et Pendulum 13.4-28.5 Shaft/ 100 None Unknown

7 kN (1575 lb) may not be al [155] Neck

and
Condyl-
exceeded for durations of Stalnaker et Pendulum 15.7
ar
Condyl- 33 25 mm Unknown

less than 10 ms al [155] average

Stalnaker et Pendulum 5.3-14.0
ar
None 60 50 mm Unknown
al [155]
 Tolerance of the Patella
Tolerance implies the minimum load needed to damage a
bone or a piece of tissue.
Any load above this minimum will also cause damage.
Thus, there is no assurance that the forces measured in
those knee impacts are close to the tolerance value or have
well exceeded this limit
The problem is further complicated by the fact that the
forces generated by padded impacts are borne by both the
patella and the condylar surfaces around it.
Hence rigid body impacts alone can be considered.
Minimum fracture loads - 2.5 to 3.1 kN (560 to 700 lb)
Average failure load ranged from 4.6 to 5.9 kN (1030 to 1320 lb).
 Tolerance of the Knee
Two issues with knee injury in automotive
crash
Damage to the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL)
from impacts to the tibia just below the knee
Post-traumatic osteoarthritis in the patellofemoral
joint, which can result from knee impact with the
instrument panel
Padding in instrument panel should have crush
strength of 0.69 to 1.35 MPa (100 to 200 psi)
 Tolerance of the Tibia
Bending
Number Total Reaction
Direction Moment
Gender of Data Load (kN)
of Loading (N.m)
Points
Mean S. D. Mean S. D.
Tolerance data for
21 308 79 4.83 1.23 tibial bending
Males AP and LM
and AP only 11 300 77 4.6 1.37 impacts
Females
LM only 10 317 84 4.86 1.27

AP and LM 16 317 88 4.8 1.45

Males
8 304 90 4.57 1.59
Only AP only
LM only 8 330 89 5.03 1.37

AP and LM 5 278 30 4.48 0.61

Females
3 288 37 4.7 0.74
Only AP only
LM only 2 264 14 4.16 0.22
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Material in the presentations is adapted from
different sources including presentations
made in the annual TRIPP safety course,
material available on the www, LS Dyna
manual as well as other published material.
We also acknowledge the support from
Ratnakar Marathe in preparing some of the
contents.