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Formerly Professor
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
The physical and mechanical properties of cast alloys influence casting- design to a
considerable extent. Before discussing the common design rules, it would be appropriate to
review the relevance of these characteristics [1]. Data related to the physical characteristics
of common foundry alloys are given in Table 5.1. The physical properties of importance
are:
Fluid life
Solidification shrinkage
Type (eutectic, directional and equiaxed)
Volume (small, medium and large)
SlaglDross formation tendency
Similarly the important mechanical properties are:
Modulus of elasticity (the stiffness of the alloy itself)
Section modulus (the stiffness of the casting geometry)
These characteristics are discussed below in further details.
Fluid life (i.e. fluidity) affects the design characteristics of a casting, such as the minimum
section thickness that can be cast reliably, the maximum length of a thin section, the
fineness of cosmetic details (like lettering and logos) and the accuracy with which the alloy
fills the mould extremities.
Alloy Group
FERROUS
Grey iron Excellent Eutectic type Very small 1371-1427 Little
Ductile iron Good Eutectic Small 1371-1427C Some
directional
Carbon and Large
low alloy steel
High alloy
steels
NONFERROUS
Aluminium 356 Excellent Eutectic type Little 704-760C Moderate
Aluminium 206 Fair/Good Equiaxed Moderate/Large . 704-760C Large
Aluminium Fair Equiaxed Moderate/Large 1093-117rc Large
bronze
Silicon bronze Fair Eutectic type Li tt Ie 1038-1121C Large
Magnesium Excellent Directional Moderate 1300-1400F Little/
ZE43 (704-760C) Moderate
Yellow brass Poor/Fair Eutectic type Moderate 982-1066C Large
Titanium Very good Eutectic type Little 1760-1816C Very large
Zirconium Fair Eutectic type Little 1816-1871C Very large
Solidification Shrinkage
There are three distinct stages of shrinkage as molten metals solidify. These are-liquid
shrinkage, liquid-to-solid shrinkage and solid state shrinkage. Liquid shrinkage is the
contraction of the liquid metal before solidification begins; it is not an important design
consideration. Liquid-to-solid shrinkage is the shrinkage of the metal mass as it transforms
from the liquid state to the solid state. This shrinkage is usually compensated by flow of
liquid metal from the riser. Hence the casting design must facilitate riser feeding and is an
important consideration in casting design. Solid state shrinkage may be etlsily compensated.
by providing appropriate allowances on the pattern itself.
Type of Solidification
The tendency for the formation of porosity in casting depends to a large extent on the type
of solidification. A very high internal integrity can be ensured in a properly designed
directionally solidified casting. Well-planned geometry in a directionally solidifying alloy
can eliminate not only shrinkage but also the need for any supplemental heat transfer
techniques in the mould.
Eutectic-type solidification is tolerant of a wide variety of geometry. Most complex is
the equiaxed solidification. It requires ingenuity in the choice of geometry and may require
supplemental heat transfer through the mould.
II 78 II Casting Technology and Cast Alloys
Small castings solidify quickly and therefore their design does not present much problem.
Large castings, on the other hand, need careful design to-(i) minimize the development of
stress due to differential contraction of thin and thick sections, (ii) maintain adequate
pressure on the riser metal to eliminate localized shrinkage, (iii) avoid hot tearing in
junctions, (iv) avoid mould wall movement etc.
Slag/Dross Formation
Some molten metal alloys generate more slag/dross than others and are more prone to
contain small, round-shaped non-metallic inclusions trapped in the casting. Non-metallic
inclusions may reduce machinability and degrade the surface finish of castings. In certain
cases, non-metallic inclusions may be responsible for more serious problems. For example,
iron silicate rich slag entrapped in gray iron castings may react with the graphite flakes and
may generate carbon monoxide blow holes. Dross inclusions in ductile iron castings are very
often associated with minute shrinkage cavities and degenerate graphite particles. The best
way to avoid non-metallic inclusions is to inhibit their formation through good melting,
ladling, pouring and gating practices. Ceramic .filters are now widely used to eliminate non-
metallic inclusions. Vacuum melting and pouring are practiced in case of extremely dross
prone alloys like titanium. From the design point of view it is necessary to ensure that non-
metallic inclusions entering into the mould cavity have a reasonable chance to separate out
by floatation. The liquid metal also should enter the mould cavity with minimum turbulence
so that fresh dross does not form inside the mould.
,'j.;
Hot spots arc the
most common defect
in casting design
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The hydraulic coupling shown in Fig. 5.3 was originally designed with a 2" core
through the centre. This gave excessive metal and caused local porosity. Redesigning with
sections of reasonable uniformity of thickness corrected the difficulities, reduced the weight
of the casting and lowered the cost of manufacture.
Number of radii in filters in one pattern should be the minimum possible, preferably
only one. To fulfill engineering stress requirements and reduce stress concentration,
relatively large filters are used with radius equaling of exceeding casting section.
Where large fillets are required design as shown in Fig. 5.5(c).
Where this is not possible, consideration must be given as to whether the engineering
design or the foundry casting problem is most vital. From the Foundryman's viewpoint, too
large fillets are undesirable and the radius of the fillet should not exceed one-half the
thickness of the section joined [Fig. 5.5(c)j.
If designed too shallow In depth, or too widely spaced they are ineffectual [Fig. 5.6(a)].
Feeder
riser
Shrink
defect
Incorrect Incorrect
Heavy secliun Lighl section at top
cannol be fed prevenls feeding
) ncorrecl
RisL"rs 'II R wi" nol feed Y