Part 1

Outline

Chapter 9 „ States of Matter

„ Deformation of solids

Solids and Fluids „ Density and pressure

„ Buoyant force

1 2

States of Matter Solids

„ Solid „ Has definite volume
Has definite shape
Liquid
„
„
„ Molecules are held in
„ Gas specific locations
by electrical forces
Plasma
„
„
„ Vibrate about
equilibrium positions
„ Can be modeled as
springs connecting
molecules

3 4

More About Solids Crystalline Solid

„ External forces can be applied to „ Atoms have an
the solid and compress the ordered structure
material „ This example is
„ In the model, the springs would be salt
compressed „ Gray spheres
„ When the force is removed, the represent Na+ ions
solid returns to its original shape „ Green spheres
represent Cl- ions
and size
„ This property is called elasticity
5 6

1
 Amorphous Solid Liquid
„ Atoms are „ Has a definite volume
arranged almost „ No definite shape
randomly „ Exists at a higher
temperature than solids
„ Examples include
„ The molecules “wander”
glass through the liquid in a
random fashion
„ The intermolecular forces
are not strong enough to
keep the molecules in a
fixed position

7 8

Gas Plasma
„ Has no definite volume
„ Matter heated to a very high
„ Has no definite shape
temperature
„ Molecules are in constant random
„ Many of the electrons are freed from
motion
the nucleus
„ The molecules exert only weak forces
„ Result is a collection of free, electrically
on each other
charged ions
„ Average distance between molecules is
„ Plasmas exist inside stars
large compared to the size of the
molecules
9 10

Deformation of Solids Elastic Properties

„ All objects are deformable
„ It is possible to change the shape or
size (or both) of an object through the
application of external forces
„ when the forces are removed, the
object tends to its original shape
„ This is a deformation that exhibits elastic
behavior
„ Stress is the force per unit area causing
the deformation
„ Strain is a measure of the amount of
deformation
„ The elastic modulus is the constant of
proportionality between stress and
strain (for sufficiently small stresses)
stress=Elastic modulus×strain

11 12

2
 Elastic Modulus Elasticity in Length
„ The elastic modulus can be thought „ A bar clamped at one end is
of as the stiffness of the material stretched by the amount ∆Lr
under the action of force F
„ Depends on the material being
deformed and the nature of the F
Tensile Stress =
deformation A
„ A material with a large elastic modulus „ Tensile is because the bar is
is very stiff and difficult to deform under tension

„ Analogous to the spring constant ∆L

Tensile Strain =
L0
13 14

Young’s Modulus Stress vs. Strain Curve

stress=Elastic modulus×strain „ Young’s modulus
applies to a stress of
F ∆L either tension or
=Y
A L0 compression
„ It is possible to exceed
„ The elastic modulus Y is called Young’s the elastic limit of the
modulus material
„ Strain is dimensionless „ No longer directly
proportional
„ SI units of stress (and Y) are Pascals, Pa „ Ordinarily does not
„ 1 Pa = 1 N/m
2 return to its original
length
15 16

Breaking Elasticity of Shape

„ If stress continues, it surpasses its „ Forces is parallel to one of
ultimate strength the object’s faces
„ The ultimate strength is the greatest stress F
the object can withstand without breaking Shear stress =
„ The breaking point A
„ For a brittle material, the breaking point is Shear strain =
∆x
just beyond its ultimate strength
h
„ For a ductile material, after passing the
ultimate strength the material thins and „ ∆x-horizontal displacement;
stretches at a lower stress level before h - the height of the object
breaking „ The shear modulus is S
17 18

3
 Shear Modulus Volume Elasticity
„ stress=Elastic modulus×strain „ The forces are perpendicular to,
and act on, all the surfaces
F ∆x (uniform squeezing)
=S
A h F
Volume stress ∆P =
(pressure) A
„ S is the shear modulus
∆V
„ A material having a Volume strain =
large shear modulus is V
difficult to bend
„ The object undergoes a change in
volume without a change in shape
19 20

Bulk Modulus Notes on Moduli

„ stress=Elastic m odulus×strain
∆V „ Solids have Young’s, Shear, and
∆P = − B Bulk moduli
V
„ A material with a large bulk modulus is „ Liquids have only bulk moduli,
difficult to compress they will not undergo a shearing
The negative sign is included since an increase
or tensile stress
„

in pressure will produce a decrease in volume

„ B is always positive „ The liquid would flow instead
„ The compressibility is the reciprocal of the
bulk modulus
21 22

Ultimate Strength of
Materials Example: Problem #5
„ L = 50 m d
„ The ultimate strength of a material
„ d = 1.0 cm
is the maximum force per unit
m = 90 kg L
area the material can withstand „

before it breaks or factures „ ∆L = 1.6 m

„ Some materials are stronger in

„ Y-? Tensile stress:
compression than in tension
F ∆L
=Y
A L0
23 24

4
Density Density, cont.
„ The density of a substance of uniform „ The densities of most liquids and solids
composition is defined as its mass per vary slightly with changes in
unit volume: temperature and pressure
m Densities of gases vary greatly with
ρ ≡ „

V changes in temperature and pressure

„ Units are kg/m3 (SI) or g/cm3 (cgs) „ Densities of solids and liquids are
about 1000 times grater then of gases
„ 1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3

25 26

Quick Quiz 9.1 Pressure

„ VAu= 1 m3 „ If a force F is exerted
perpendicular to a given
„ VAg= 2 m3 surface of area A, the
„ VAl = 6 m3 pressure:
F N
P≡ ; units Pa =
„ Smallest to largest mass-? A m2
Example: the force exerted by a fluid
Table 9.3 (p.274)
„
„ on a submerged object at any point
is perpendicular to the surface of the
object

27 28

Variation of Pressure with

Measuring Pressure Depth
„ The spring is „ If a fluid is at rest in a container, all
calibrated by a portions of the fluid must be in static
known force equilibrium
„ The force the fluid „ All points at the same depth must be at
exerts on the the same pressure
piston is then „ Otherwise, the fluid would not be in
measured equilibrium
„ The fluid would flow from the higher
pressure region to the lower pressure
region
29 30

5
 Pressure and Depth
Pressure and Depth equation
„ Examine the darker region,
assumed to be a fluid
„ It has a cross-sectional area A
„ Extends to a depth h below the „ Po is normal atmospheric
surface
pressure
„ Three external forces act on
1.013 x 105 Pa = 14.7 lb/in2
the region „

P2 A − P1 A − Mg = 0 „ h - depth below the surface

„ The pressure does not depend
„ Mass M = ρV = ρA( y1 − y2 )
upon the shape of the
„ Pressure container
P2 = P1 + ρg ( y1 − y2 )
31 32

Quick Quiz 9.2 Pascal’s Principle

„ Water: „ Increase in pressure at the surface is
transmitted to every point in a fluid
ρ = 1000 kg/m3 „ Pascal’s Principle:
„ Ethyl alcohol:
ρ = 806 kg/m3 A change in pressure applied to an
enclosed fluid is transmitted undimished
to every point of the fluid and to the
„
walls of the container

„ First recognized by Blaise Pascal, a French

scientist (1623 – 1662)
33 34

Absolute vs. Gauge

Pascal’s Principle in action Pressure
„ The hydraulic press is
an important
„ The pressure P is called the
application of Pascal’s
Principle absolute pressure
F1 F2 „ Remember, P = Po + ρgh
P= =
A1 A2 „ P – Po = ρgh is the gauge
F2 > F1 pressure
„ Also used in hydraulic
brakes, forklifts, car
lifts, etc.
35 36

6
 Pressure Measurements:
Manometer Blood Pressure
„ One end of the U- „ Blood pressure is
shaped tube is open measured with a special
to the atmosphere type of manometer
called a sphygmomano-
„ The other end is meter
connected to the „ Pressure is measured in
pressure to be mm of mercury
measured
„ Pressure at B is „ Quick Quiz 9.4
Po+ρgh

37 38

Pressure Values in Various

Units Example: Problem #15
„ One atmosphere of pressure is defined „ P0 = 1.1 atm
as the pressure equivalent to a column
„ h=4m
of mercury exactly 0.76 m tall at 0o C
where g = 9.806 65 m/s2 „ ρ = 806 kg/m3

„ One atmosphere (1 atm) =

76.0 cm of mercury
Pbuble - ?
„
„
„ 1.013 x 105 Pa
„ 14.7 lb/in2

39 40

Archimedes' Principle Buoyant Force

„ Any object completely or „ The upward force is
called the buoyant
partially submerged in a fluid is force
buoyed up by a force whose „ The physical cause
magnitude is equal to the of the buoyant force
weight of the fluid displaced by is the pressure
difference between
the object. the top and the
bottom of the object

41 42

7
Buoyant Force, cont.
„ The magnitude of the buoyant
force always equals the weight of
the displaced fluid
B = ρ fluidVfluid g = wfluid
„ The buoyant force is the same for
a totally submerged object of any
size, shape, or density
43
Archimedes’ Principle:
Totally Submerged Object
„ The upward buoyant force is
B=ρfluidgVobj
„ The downward gravitational force
is W=mg=ρobjgVobj
„ The net force is
B-W=(ρfluid-ρobj)gVobj
45
Totally Submerged Object
„ The object is
more dense than
the fluid
„ The net force is
downward
47
Buoyant Force, final
„ The buoyant force is exerted by
the fluid
„ Whether an object sinks or floats
depends on the relationship
between the buoyant force and the
weight
44
Totally Submerged Object
„ The object is less
dense than the
fluid
„ The object
experiences a net
upward force
46
Archimedes’ Principle:
Floating Object
„ The object is in static equilibrium
„ The upward buoyant force is
balanced by the downward force of
gravity
„ Volume of the fluid displaced
corresponds to the volume of the
object beneath the fluid level
48
8
Archimedes’ Principle:
Floating Object, cont Example: Problem# 27
„ The forces are „ w = 4.0 m
balanced: equal in
magnitude and „ l = 6.0 m
opposite in direction „ h = 4.0 cm
„ ρobj V ρwater = 1000 kg/m3
= fluid „
ρ fluid Vobj

„ Wtruck - ?
49 50