Heat Exchanger

Heat exchangers are devices built for efficient heat transfer from one fluid to another and are
widely used in engineering processes. Some examples are intercoolers, preheaters, boilers and
condensers in power plants. By applying the first law of thermodynamics to a heat exchanger
working at steady-state condition, we obtain:

mi hi=0

where,
mi= mass flow of the i-th fluid
hi= change of specific enthalpy of the i-th fluid
There are several types of heat exchanger:
recuperative type, in which fluids exchange heat on either side of a dividing wall
regenerative type, in which hot and cold fluids occupy the same space containing a matrix
of material that works alternatively as a sink or source for heat flow
evaporative type, such as cooling tower in which a liquid is cooled evaporatively in the
same space as coolant.

The recuperative type of heat exchanger which is the most common in practice may be designed
according to one of the following types:
Parallel-flow
Counter-flow
Cross-flow

Heat Transfer
Heat may transfer across the boundaries of a system, either to or from the system. It occurs only
when there is a temperature difference between the system and surroundings. Heat transfer
changes the internal energy of the system. Heat is transferred by conduction, convection and
radiation, which may occur separately or in combination. Related topics:

Heat
Heat is a form of energy that is transferred from one body (system ) to another body (system or
surroundings). Heat transfer can occur when there is a temperature difference. Assume two bodies
with different temperatures are brought into contact with each other. The heat transfers from the
hotter body to the colder one. This will continue until the temperature of the bodies are the same
(thermal equilibrium). The SI unit of heat is joule (J). Other units are:
1 cal (calorie)= 4.1868 J
1 Btu (British thermal unit)= 1055.05 J
thermie= 4.184E6 J
ft.lbf= 1.35582 J
kJ= 1000 J
MJ= 1E6 J
hp.h (horsepower.hour)= 2.6845E6 J
kWh= 3.6E6 J
Parallel-flow Heat Exchanger

Figure above shows a fluid flowing through a pipe and exchanges heat with another fluid through
an annulus surrounding the pipe. In a parallel-flow heat exchanger fluids flow in the same
direction. If the specific heat capacity of fluids are constant, it can be shown that:

where,
dQ/dt= Rate of heat transfer between two fluids
U= Overall heat transfer coefficient
A= Area of the tube
T= Logarithmic mean temperature difference defined by:

Related topics:

Counter-flow Heat Exchanger

Figure above shows a fluid flowing through
a pipe and exchanges heat with another
fluid through an annulus surrounding the
pipe. In a counter-flow heat exchanger
fluids flow in the opposite direction. If the
specific heat capacity of fluids are
constant, it can be shown that:

where,
dQ/dt= Rate of heat transfer between two fluids
U= Overall heat transfer coefficient
A= Area of the tube
T= Logarithmic mean temperature difference
defined by:

Cross-flow Heat Exchanger

In a cross-flow heat exchanger the direction of fluids are prependicular to each other. The required
surface area, Across for this heat exchanger is usually calculated by using tables. It is between the
required surface area for counter-flow, Acounter and parallel-flow, Aparallel i.e.
Acounter< Across <Aparallel

Enthalpy
Enthalpy of a system is defined as the mass of the system, m, multiplied by the specific enthalpy
of the system, h i.e.
H=m h

Specific Enthalpy
Specific enthalpy of a working fluid, h, is a property of the fluid which is defined as:
h=u+P v

where,
u= Specific internal energy
P= Pressure
v= Specific volume

Specific enthalpy has the same dimension as [energy/mass]. The SI unit of specific enthalpy is
J/kg. Other units are:
1 kJ/kg= 1000 J/kg
1 erg/g= 1E-4 J/kg
1 Btu/lbm= 2326 J/kg
1 cal/g= 4184 J/kg

HEAT EXCHANGERS
Objective

In this exercise the students will (1) operate a tube-in-shell heat exchanger
and (2) analyze heat- exchanger performance by the LMTD and -NTU
methods.

Background

A heat exchanger is a device in which energy is transferred from one fluid to

another across a solid surface. Exchanger analysis and design therefore
involve both convection and conduction. Radiative transfer between the
exchanger and the environment can usually be neglected unless the
exchanger is uninsulated and its external surfaces are very hot.

Two important problems in heat exchanger analysis are (1) rating existing
heat exchangers and (ii) sizing heat exchangers for a particular application.
Rating involves determination of the rate of heat transfer, the change in
temperature of the two fluids, and the pressure drop across the heat
exchanger. Sizing involves selection of a specific heat exchanger from those
currently available or determining the dimensions for the design of a new
heat exchanger, given the required rate of heat transfer and allowable
pressure drop. The LMTD method can be readily used when the inlet and
outlet temperatures of both the hot and cold fluids are known. When the
outlet temperatures are not known, the LMTD can only be used in an iterative
scheme. In this case the -NTU method can be used to simplify the analysis.

Energy Considerations

The first Law of Thermodynamics, in rate form, applied to a control volume

(CV), can be expressed as

(1)
where stands for mass-flow rate (e.g., 1bm/min or kg/min) crossing the CV
boundaries, h is specific enthalpy (energy/mass), surris the rate of heat
transfer from the CV to its surroundings, and st is the rate of change of
energy stored in the CV. This simplified form of the First Law assumes no
work- producing processes, no energy generation inside the CV, and
negligible kinetic and potential energy in the fluid streams entering and
leaving the CV. In steady state operation the energy residing in the CV is
constant, meaning that st=0. If, furthermore, the boundary of the CV is
adiabatic (i.e., perfectly insulated), then surr =0. Under these circumstances
Eq. (1) reduces to a simple balance of enthalpy inflow and enthalpy outflow: .

(2)

Applied to a heat exchanger with two streams passing through it, Eq. (2) can
be rearranged to give

(3)
h(hh,i-h h,o ) = (hc,o-hc,i)
c

where the subscripts h and c indicate the hot and cold fluids, respectively,
and i and o indicate inlet and outlet conditions. In words, Eq. (3) says that the
rate of energy loss by the hot fluid (left-hand side) equals the rate of energy
gain by the cold fluid. Remember: This rate balance holds only if the heat-
exchanger envelope is adiabatic and the exchanger has reached a steady
state.

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one
shell pass and one tube pass. The cross-counterflow mode of operation is
indicated.
Figure 1. Shell-and-tube-heat exchanger with one shell pass and one tube
pass; cross- counterflow operation.

Inside the heat exchanger the hot and cold fluid temperature distributions
would have the form sketched in Fig. 2(a).

Figure 2. (a) Temperature distributions in a counterflow heat exchanger.

Figure 2. (b) Energy balance in a differential length element.

The points 1 and 2 on the x axis represent the two ends of the heat
exchanger. Provided there is no energy loss to the environment and that the
exchanger has reached steady state, then dq, the rate of heat transfer from
the hot fluid, is exactly equal to the rate of heat transfer to the cold fluid in a
differential length dx of the exchanger surface. For the special case of fluids
that are not changing phase and have constant specific heats

(4)
dq = - h cp,h dTh= -C hdTh,

(5)
dq = c cp,c dTc = CcdTc,

where Ch and C care called the hot and cold fluid heat-capacity rates,
respectively. Integration of Eqs (4) and (5) along the heat exchanger (from 1
to 2) gives

(6)
q = Ch(Th,i-Th,o)

and

(7)
q = Cc(Tc,o - Tc,i)

1. Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) Method

The differential heat-transfer rate dq across the surface area element dA can
also be expressed as

(8)
dq = U TdA,

where is the local temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids and
U is the overall coefficient of heat transfer at dA. Both U and T vary with
position inside the heat exchanger (i.e., x), but by combining Eqs (4) and (5)
with Eq. (8) it is possible for a single pass exchanger to integrate over the
exchanger contact surface from inlet to out. The result of the integration is

(9)
q = AUm Tln,
where q is the total heat-transfer rate (BTU/min), A is the total internal
contact area (ft2), Um is the mean overall coefficient of heat transfer (BTU/min
ft2 F), defined as

(10)
and is the logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD), given by

(11)

As shown in Fig. 2(a), T1 = T h,i-Tc,o and T2 = Th,o-T c,i for the counterflow, single pass case.
Equation (9) is also applied to more complicated heat-exchanger designs with multipass and
cross- flow arrangements with a correction factor applied to the LMTD. See Ozisik (1). As
mentioned above, if both inlet and outlet temperatures are specified the LMTD can be calculated
from Eq. (11) and q from either Eq. (6) or Eq. (7). Then the product is given explicitly by Eq. (9).
Further specification of then "sizes" the heat exchanger, i.e., determines A and the dimensions of
the internal flow passages.

2. -NTU Method
In cases where only the inlet temperatures of the hot and cold fluids are
known, the LMTD cannot be calculated beforehand and application of the
LMTD method requires an iterative approach. The recommended approach is
the effectiveness or -NTU method. The heat-exchanger effectiveness, , is
defined by

(12)
= q/qmax,

where q is the actual rate of heat transfer from the hot to cold fluid, and qmax
represents the maximum possible rate of heat transfer, which is given by the
relation

(13)
qmax = Cmin(Th,i- Tc,i)

where Cmin is the smaller of the two heat capacity rates (see above, Eqs (4)
and (5). Thus, the actual heat transfer rate can be expressed as

(13)
q = Cmin(Th,i - Tc,i)

and calculated, given the heat-exchanger effectiveness , the mass-flow rates

and specific heats of the two fluids and the inlet temperatures.

The value of depends on the heat-exchanger geometry and flow pattern

(parallel flow, counterflow, cross flow, etc.). Theoretical relations for and
graphical characteristics are given by Ozisik (1) and Incropera & DeWitt (2) for
a limited selection of heat-exchanger types. For a single pass counterflow
exchanger like the one used in this exercise

(15)

where C Cmin / Cmax and N UmA / Cmin. The dimensionless factor is known as
the number of transfer units . It is an indicator of the actual heat-transfer area
or physical size of the exchanger. An experimental determination of
effectiveness is found by

(16)

Apparatus
Figure A1 in the Appendix is a schematic diagram of the two flow loops which
exchange energy through the heat exchanger. Hot water circulates through
the exchanger shell while a chilled solution of propylene glycol (PG) in water
(approximately 30% PG by weight) circulates through the tubes. The chilled
water flow is driven by a constant speed centrifugal pump while the hot water
flow comes from the building water supply. Both flows are controlled manually
with valves. Mass flow rates are indicated by in-line rotameter-type flow
meters. Calibration curves for the two flow meters are appended. Four
thermocouples mounted close to the four ports of the heat exchanger and
connected to a digital readout indicate T h,i,Th,o ,Tc,i , and Tc,o.
The principal geometrical characteristics of the heat exchanger are as follows:

Shell diameter (outer) 3.63 in. Shell length 27-1/4 in. Tube O.D. 0.250 in. Shell
volume 0.70 gal. Tube volume(internal) 0.40 gal. Tube surface area 11.1 ft 2
No. of tubes 76 Length of tubes 26-11/16 in.

Procedure
1. Locate the calibration data plot and equation for the water flow meter in
the lab write up.

2. Locate the calibration data plot and equation for the propylene glycol flow
meter. Since this calibration was performed using water as the working fluid
you must correct the equation for use with propylene glycol using the
following relationship:

=
pg (S.G.pg)1/2
H2 O

The specific gravity (S.G.) of the propylene glycol is found on the graphics
provided in the write- up for a 30% solution
3. Determine the flow meter readings for the sixteen experiments possible in
the following array, choosing the water flow as the "minimum" fluid:

Table 1. Nominal Values of Fluid Heat Capacities for the Propylene Glycol Loop.
C ( Cp)max [Btu/minF]
1.00 5 10 20 40
0.75 5 10 30 60
0.50 7 15 30 60
0.25 15 30 45 65

C is the ratio of the heat capacities of the two fluid streams which is defined by:

(17)

From the first row (5, 10, 20, 40) you can determine the water flow meter
readings as well as the propylene glycol flow meter readings, i.e., C = 1.0.
From the "C" ratio, determine the other propylene glycol flow meter readings
for the sixteen experiments using the values of Cp from the graph provided in
the write-up.

4. Execution of the experiment

a) Set the H2O flow meter at the lowest reading in the array and then monitor
the difference between the inlet and outlet temperatures for both water and
propylene glycol (C = 1.0) until a steady state is established (usually in a few
minutes).

b) Measure and record the inlet, outlet and temperature difference for both
the water and propylene glycol flows.

c) Change the propylene glycol flow to give C = .75, then .5 and .25, each
time repeating a) and b) above.

d) Sequence through the second, third and fourth columns of the

experimental array.

5. Lab report.
a) Organize your lab data and calculated values in a neat spreadsheet array.
Use only the English system of units.

b) Plot the heat transfer to the propylene glycol vs. the log-mean-temperature
difference.

c) From the sixteen experiments performed, determine the average overall

heat transfer coefficient, U, from the following definition:

Heat Transfer = ( Cp)PG TPG = U A TLMTD

Note that the slope of the curve plotted in b) is equal to UA.
d) On one plot, plot the effectiveness, , versus NTU and curve fit the data
where C is a constant by making a plot similar to Fig. 11.15 of Incropera &
DeWitt using eq. (15). Remember from your data is determined from the
four measured temperatures using eq. (16) and not from equation (15).