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Here's How:
1. Stir in the sugar, a teaspoonful at a time. Keep adding sugar until it starts to
accumulate at the bottom of the container and won't dissolve even with more
stirring. This means your sugar solution is saturated. If you don't use a saturated
solution, then your crystals won't grow quickly. On the other hand, if you add too
much sugar, new crystals will grow on the undissolved sugar and not on your
string.
2. If you want colored crystals, stir in a few drops of food coloring.
3. Pour your solution into the clear glass jar. If you have undissolved sugar at the
bottom of your container, avoid getting it in the jar.
4. Place the pencil over the jar and allow the string to dangle into the liquid.
5. Set the jar somewhere where it can remain undisturbed. If you like, you can set a
coffee filter or paper towel over the jar to prevent dust from falling into the jar.
6. Check on your crystals after a day. You should be able to see the beginnings of
crystal growth on the string or seed crytal.
7. Let the crystals grow until they have reached the desired size or have stopped
growing. At this point, you can pull out the string and allow the crystal to dry.
You can eat them or keep them. Have fun!
Tips:
1. Crystals will form on a cotton or wool string or yarn, but not on a nylon line. If
you use a nylon line, tie a seed crystal to it to stimulate crystal growth.
2. If you are making the crystals to eat, please don't use a fishing weight to hold your
string down. The lead from the weight will end up in the water -- it's toxic. Paper
clips are a better choice, but still not great.
• 1 cup water
• 3 cups table sugar (sucrose)
• clean glass jar
• pencil or butter knife
• string
• pan or bowl for boiling water and making solution
• spoon or stirring rod
Procedure
1. Add 1/4 cup sugar, 1/2 cup milk, 1/2 cup whipping cream, and 1/4 teaspoon
vanilla to the quart ziplocTM bag. Seal the bag securely.
2. Put 2 cups of ice into the gallon ziplocTM bag.
3. Use a thermometer to measure and record the temperature of the ice in the gallon
bag.
4. Add 1/2 to 3/4 cup salt (sodium chloride) to the bag of ice.
5. Place the sealed quart bag inside the gallon bag of ice and salt. Seal the gallon bag
securely.
6. Gently rock the gallon bag from side to side. It's best to hold it by the top seal or
to have gloves or a cloth between the bag and your hands because the bag will be
cold enough to damage your skin.
7. Continue to rock the bag for 10-15 minutes or until the contents of the quart bag
have solidified into ice cream.
8. Open the gallon bag and use the thermometer to measure and record the
temperature of the ice/salt mixture.
9. Remove the quart bag, open it, serve the contents into cups with spoons and
ENJOY!
Explanation
Ice has to absorb energy in order to melt, changing the phase of water from a solid to a
liquid. When you use ice to cool the ingredients for ice cream, the energy is absorbed
from the ingredients and from the outside environment (like your hands, if you are
holding the baggie of ice!). When you add salt to the ice, it lowers the freezing point of
the ice, so even more energy has to be absorbed from the environment in order for the ice
to melt. This makes the ice colder than it was before, which is how your ice cream
freezes. Ideally, you would make your ice cream using 'ice cream salt', which is just salt
sold as large crystals instead of the small crystals you see in table salt. The larger crystals
take more time to dissolve in the water around the ice, which allows for even cooling of
the ice cream.
You could use other types of salt instead of sodium chloride, but you couldn't substitute
sugar for the salt because (a) sugar doesn't dissolve well in cold water and (b) sugar
doesn't dissolve into multiple particles, like an ionic material such as salt. Compounds
that break into two pieces upon dissolving, like NaCl breaks into Na+ and Cl-, are better at
lowering the freezing point than substances that don't separate into particles because the
added particles disrupt the ability of the water to form crystalline ice. The more particles
there are, the greater the disruption and the greater the impact on particle-dependent
properties (colligative properties) like freezing point depresssion, boiling point elevation,
and osmotic pressure. The salt causes the ice to absorb more energy from the
environment (becoming colder), so although it lowers the point at which water will re-
freeze into ice, you can't add salt to very cold ice and expect it to freeze your ice cream or
de-ice a snowy sidewalk (water has to be present!). This is why NaCl isn't used to de-ice
sidewalks in areas that are very cold.
How to Make Red Cabbage pH Indicator
Acid-Base Chemistry
Introduction
Red cabbage contains a pigment molecule called flavin (an anthocyanin). This water-
soluble pigment is also found in apple skin, plums, poppies, cornflowers, and grapes.
Very acidic solutions will turn anthocyanin a red color. Neutral solutions result in a
purplish color. Basic solutions appear in greenish-yellow. Therefore, it is possible to
determine the pH of a solution based on the color it turns the anthocyanin pigments
in red cabbage juice.
The color of the juice changes in response to changes in its hydrogen ion
concentration. pH is the -log[H+]. Acids will donate hydrogen ions in an aqueous
solution and have a low pH (pH < 7). Bases accept hydrogen ions and have a high
pH (pH > 7).
pH 2 4 6 8 10 12
Color Red Purple Violet Blue Blue-Green Greenish Yellow
Materials
• red cabbage
• blender or knife
• boiling water
• filter paper (coffee filters work well)
• One large glass beaker or other glass container
• Six 250 mL beakers or other small glass containers
• household ammonia (NH3)
• baking soda (sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3)
• washing soda (sodium carbonate, Na2CO3)
• lemon juice (citric acid, C6H8O7)
• vinegar (acetic acid, CH3COOH)
• cream of tartar (Potassium bitartrate, KHC4H4O6)
• antacids (calcium carbonate, calcium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide)
• seltzer water (carbonic acid, H2CO3)
• muriatic acid or masonry's cleaner (hydrochloric acid, HCl)
• lye (potassium hydroxide, KOH or sodium hydroxide, NaOH)
Procedure
• Chop the cabbage into small pieces until you have about 2 cups of chopped
cabbage. Place the cabbage in a large beaker or other glass container and
add boiling water to cover the cabbage. Allow at least ten minutes for the
color to leach out of the cabbage. (Alternatively, you can place about 2 cups
of cabbage in a blender, cover it with boiling water, and blend it.)
• Filter out the plant material to obtain a red-purple-bluish colored liquid. This
liquid is at about pH 7. (The exact color you get depends on the pH of the
water.)
• Pour about 50 - 100 mL of your red cabbage indicator into each 250 mL
beaker.
• Add various household solutions to your indicator until a color change is
obtained. Use separate containers for each household solution - you don't
want to mix chemicals that don't go well together!
Notes
• This demo uses acids and bases, so please make certain to use safety goggles
and gloves, particularly when handling strong acids (HCl) and strong bases
(NaOH or KOH).
• Chemicals used in this demo may be safely washed down the drain with
water.
• A neutralization experiment could be performed using cabbage juice indicator.
First add an acidic solution such as vinegar or lemon juice until a reddish color
is obtained. Then add baking soda or antacids to return the pH towards a
neutral 7.
• You can make your own pH paper strips using red cabbage indicator. Take
filter paper (or coffee filter) and soak it in a concentrated red cabbage juice
solution. After a few hours, remove the paper and allow it to dry (hang it by a
clothespin or string). Cut the filter into strips and use them to test the pH of
various solutions.
Amino Acids
Characteristics and Structures
Amino acids contain both a carboxyl group (COOH) and an amino group (NH2). The
general formula for an amino acid is given below. Although the neutrally-charged
structure is commonly written, it is inaccurate because the acidic COOH and basic
NH2 groups react with one another to form an internal salt called a zwitterion. The
zwitterion has no net charge; there is one positive (COO-) and one negative (NH3+)
charge.
There are 20 amino acids derived from proteins. While there are several methods of
categorizing them, one of the most common is to group them according to the
nature of their side chains.
Research shows that lycopene can be absorbed more efficiently by the body after it has
been processed into juice, sauce, paste, or ketchup. In fresh fruit, lycopene is enclosed in
the fruit tissue. Therefore, only a portion of the lycopene that is present in fresh fruit is
absorbed. Processing fruit makes the lycopene more bioavailable by increasing the
surface area available for digestion. More significantly, the chemical form of lycopene is
altered by the temperature changes involved in processing to make it more easily
absorbed by the body. Also, because lycopene is fat-soluble (as are vitamins, A, D, E,
and beta-carotene), absorption into tissues is improved when oil is added to the diet.
Although lycopene is available in supplement form, it is likely there is a synergistic effect
when it is obtained from the whole fruit instead, where other components of the fruit
enhance lycopene's effectiveness
Facts About Vitamin A and Carotenoids
Part 1: What is vitamin A?
Whole eggs, whole milk, and liver are among the few foods that naturally contain
vitamin A. Vitamin A is present in the fat portion of whole milk, so it is not found in
fat-free milk. Most fat-free milk and dried nonfat milk solids sold in the US are
fortified with vitamin A (17). There are many other fortified foods such as breakfast
cereals that also provide vitamin A. The tables of selected food sources of vitamin A
suggest animal sources of vitamin A and plant sources of provitamin A carotenoids
(18).
It is important for you to regularly eat foods that provide vitamin A or beta-
carotene even though your body can store vitamin A in the liver (1). Stored vitamin
A will help meet your needs when intake of provitamin A carotenoids or vitamin A is
low (19, 20).
What is the Recommended Dietary Allowance for vitamin A for adults?
The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is the average daily dietary intake
level that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97-98%)
healthy individuals in each life-stage and gender group (13). The 1989 RDAs (21) for
vitamin A for adults and children are:
Results of the third National Health and Nutrition Examination survey (NHANES
III 1988-91) (22) suggested that the dietary intake of some Americans does not
meet recommended levels. The Continuing Survey of Food Intakes of Individuals
(CSFII 1994) (23) suggested that diets of many Americans provide less than 75% of
recommended intake levels. These surveys highlight the importance of encouraging
Americans to include dietary sources of vitamin A in their daily diets.
Part 3: Who is at risk for deficiency, and what are the symptoms?
Vitamin A deficiency rarely occurs in the United States, but it is still a major public
health problem in the developing world. It is most often associated with
protein/calorie malnutrition and affects over 120 million children worldwide (8). It is
also a leading cause of childhood blindness. In countries where immunization
programs are not widespread and vitamin A deficiency is common, millions of
children die each year from complications of infectious diseases such as measles.
(8).
Signs of vitamin A deficiency
Signs of vitamin A deficiency include night blindness, dry skin, and decreased resistance
to infections. In ancient Egypt it was known that night blindness could be cured after
eating liver, which was later found to be a rich source of vitamin A (1). Vitamin A
deficiency contributes to blindness by making the eye very dry, damaging the cornea of
the eye (referred to as xerophthalmia), and promoting damage to the retina of the eye
(24). Extremely dry skin, dry hair, sloughing off of skin, and broken fingernails are other
common signs of vitamin A deficiency.
Vitamin A deficiency also decreases resistance to infections (1, 10). When there is not
enough vitamin A, cells lining the lung lose their ability to remove disease-causing
microorganisms. This may contribute to the pneumonia associated with vitamin A
deficiency (9).
Children living in the United States who are considered to be at increased risk for
subclinical vitamin A deficiency include:
Children with low body stores of vitamin A who have measles may require
vitamin A supplementation, as discussed above. Also, individuals with chronic fat
malabsorption also poorly absorb vitamin A. Fat malabsorption can occur with cystic
fibrosis, sprue, pancreatic disorders, and after stomach surgery. Healthy adults
usually have a one-year reserve of vitamin A stored in their livers and should not be
at risk of deficiency during periods of temporary or short term fat malabsorption.
Long term problems absorbing fat, however, can result in deficiency and may require
vitamin A supplementation (8). Children may only have enough stores of vitamin A
to last several weeks, so children with fat malabsorption may require immediate
vitamin A supplementation (8).
Hypervitaminosis A refers to high storage levels of vitamin A in the body that can
lead to toxic symptoms. Toxicity can result in dry, itchy skin, headache, fatigue, hair
loss, loss of appetite, vomiting, and liver damage. When toxic symptoms arise
suddenly, which can happen after consuming very large amounts of vitamin A over a
short period of time, signs of toxicity include dizziness, blurred vision, and muscular
uncoordination (6-8, 33, 34).
Although hypervitaminosis A can occur when very large amounts of liver are
regularly consumed, most cases of vitamin A toxicity result from an excess intake of
vitamin A in supplements. A generally recognized safe upper limit of intake for
vitamin A from diet and supplements is 1,600 to 2,000 RE (8,000 to 10,000 IU) per
day (33, 35). The Institute of Medicine is currently reviewing the scientific literature
on vitamin A. They are considering revising the RDAs and establishing an Upper Limit
(UL) of safe intake for vitamin A.
Vitamin A toxicity also can cause severe birth defects. Women of child-bearing
age are advised to limit their total daily intake of vitamin A (retinol) from foods and
supplements combined to no more than 1,600 RE (8,000 IU) per day.
Retinoids are compounds that are chemically similar to vitamin A. Over the past
15 years, synthetic retinoids have been prescribed for acne, psoriasis, and other skin
disorders (36). Isotretinoin (Roaccutane® or Accutane®) is considered an effective
anti-acne therapy. At very high doses, however, it can be toxic, which is why this
medication is usually saved for the most severe forms of acne (37). The most serious
consequence of this medication is birth defects.
Nutrient toxicity traditionally refers to adverse health effects from a high intake of
a particular vitamin or mineral. For example, large amounts of the active form of
vitamin A (naturally found in animal foods such as liver but also available in dietary
supplements) can cause birth defects.
Recent clinical trials that suggested a greater incidence of lung cancer and total
mortality (death) in current smokers who supplemented their diet with 20 mg of
beta-carotene per day have raised concern about the safety of beta-carotene
supplements. However, conflicting studies make it difficult to interpret the health
risk. For example, the Physicians' Health Study compared the effects of taking 50 mg
beta-carotene every other day to a placebo (sugar pill) in over 22,000 male
physicians and found no adverse health effects (39). Also, a trial that tested the
ability of four different nutrient combinations to inhibit the development of
esophageal and gastric cancers in 30,000 men and women in China suggested that
after 5 years those participants who took a combination of beta-carotene, selenium
and vitamin E had a 13% reduction in cancer deaths (40). One point to consider is
that there may be a relationship between alcohol and beta-carotene because "only
those men who consumed more than 11 g per day of alcohol (approximately one
drink per day) showed an adverse response to B-carotene supplementation" in the
lung cancer trial (13).
The Institute of Medicine did not set a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL), the
highest level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health
effects, for B-carotene or carotenoids. Instead, they concluded that B-carotene
supplements are not advisable for the general population. As stated earlier, however,
they may be appropriate as a provitamin A source or for the prevention of vitamin A
deficiency in specific populations (13).
As the 2000 Dietary Guidelines for Americans state, "Different foods contain
different nutrients. No single food can supply all the nutrients in the amounts you
need" (41). The following tables suggest dietary sources of vitamin A and provitamin
A carotenoids. As the tables indicate, liver, eggs and whole milk are good animal
sources of vitamin A. Many orange fruits and green vegetables are good sources of
provitamin A carotenoids. Including these foods in your daily diet will help you meet
your daily need for vitamin A. In addition, food manufacturers fortify a wide range of
products with vitamin A. Breakfast cereals, pastries, breads, crackers, cereal grain
bars and other foods may be fortified with 10% to 15% of the DV for vitamin A. It is
important to read the nutrition facts panel of the food label to determine whether a
food provides vitamin A.
If you want more information about building a healthful diet, refer to the Dietary
Guidelines for Americans and the Food Guide Pyramid.
IU/
Food International %DV *
Units
Liver, beef, cooked, 3
30,325 610
oz
Liver, chicken,
13,920 280
cooked, 3 oz
Egg substitute,
1355 25
fortified, 1/4 c
Fat free milk, fortified
500 10
w/ vitamin A, 1 c
Cheese pizza, 1/8 of
380 8
a 12" diameter
Milk, whole, 3.25%
305 6
fat, 1 c
Cheddar cheese, 1
300 6
oz
Whole egg, 1 280 6
medium
Swiss cheese, 1 oz 240 4
Margarine, soft, corn
165 4
oil, 1 tsp
Yogurt, fruit flavored,
120 2
low fat, 1 c
*DV = Daily Value. DVs are reference numbers based on
the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA). They were
developed to help consumers determine if a food contains
a lot or a little of a specific nutrient. The DV for vitamin A is
5,000 IU (1,000 RE). The percent DV (%DV) listed on the
nutrition facts panel of food labels tells adults what
percentage of the DV is provided by one serving. Percent
DVs are based on a 2,000-calorie diet. Your Daily Values
may be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs.
Foods that provide lower percentages of the DV will
contribute to a healthful diet.
IU/
Food International %DV *
Units
Carrot, 1 raw (7 1/2") 20,250 410
Carrots, boiled, 1/2 c 19,150 380
slices
Carrot juice, canned, 12,915 260
1/2 c
Mango, raw, without 8,050 160
refuse, 1 fruit
Sweet potatoes, 1/2 c 7,430 150
Junior mashed
Spinach, boiled, 1/2 c 7,370 150
Cantaloupe, raw, 1 c 5,160 100
cubes
Kale, boiled, 1/2 c 4,810 100
Vegetable soup, 3,005 60
prepared with equal
volume water, 1 c
Pepper, sweet, red, 2,620 50
raw, 1/2 c sliced
Apricots, without skin, 2,055 40
canned in water, 1/2 c
halves
Spinach, raw, 1 cup 2,015 40
Broccoli, frozen, 1,740 35
chopped, boiled, 1/2 c
Apricot nectar, 1,650 30
canned, 1/2 c
Oatmeal, instant, 1,050 20
fortified, low sodium,
dry, 1 packet
Tomato juice, canned, 1,010 20
6 oz
Ready-to-eat cereal, 750 15
fortified, 1 oz (15%
fortification)
Peaches, canned, 650 15
water pack, 1/2 c
halves or slices
Peach, raw, 1 medium 525 10
Papaya, raw, 1 small 430 10
Orange, raw, 1 large 375 8
Asparagus, boiled, 4 325 6
spears
Tomato, red, ripe, raw, 170 2
1/2" thick slice
*DV = Daily Value. DVs are reference numbers based on the
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA). They were
developed to help consumers determine if a food contains a
lot or a little of a specific nutrient. The DV for vitamin A is
5,000 IU (1,000 RE). The percent DV (%DV) listed on the
nutrition facts panel of food labels tells adults what
percentage of the DV is provided by one serving. Percent
DVs are based on a 2,000-calorie diet. Your Daily Values
may be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs.
Foods that provide lower percentages of the DV will
contribute to a healthful diet.
How Does Stainless Steel Remove Odors?
A. One household tip for removing odors from fish, onions, or garlic from your hands is
to rub your hands across the blade of a stainless steel knife. In fact, you can even buy
stainless steel 'soaps', which are just hunks of stainless steel that are about the same shape
and size as a bar of normal soap. Does stainless steel remove odors? If so, how does it
work?
There isn't a lot of hard scientific data (that I have seen anyway) concerning stainless
steel odor eaters. However, you can test this kitchen wisdom yourself, using your nose to
take data. Better yet, get someone else to smell your fingers, since your own sniffer will
have odor molecules inside it already from exposure to the food.
My experience has been that the knife trick works, but only up to a point. If you have
been working with onions, garlic, or fish long enough for their 'perfume' to be absorbed
into your skin, the best you can do is to diminish the scent with the steel.
Other types of odors are not affected by contact with the metal.
How It Works
This is speculation on my part - if you know more about the chemistry behind this
phenomenon, please feel free to write me. It makes sense to me that the sulfur from the
onion/garlic/fish would be attracted to and bind with one or more of the metals in
stainless steel. Formation of such compounds is what makes stainless steel stainless, after
all. Onions and garlic contain amino acid sulfoxides, which form sulfenic acids, which
then form a volatile gas (propanethiol S-oxide), which forms sulfuric acid upon exposure
to water. These compounds are responsible for burning your eyes while cutting onions
and also for their characteristic scent. If the sulfur compounds bind to the steel, then the
odor is removed from your fingers.
Why is Stainless Steel Stainless?
What It Is and How It Works!
What Is Stainless Steel and Why Is it Stainless?
If the metal is cut or scratched and the passive film is disrupted, more oxide will quickly
form and recover the exposed surface, protecting it from oxidative corrosion. (Iron, on
the other hand, rusts quickly because atomic iron is much smaller than its oxide, so the
oxide forms a loose rather than tightly-packed layer and flakes away.) The passive film
requires oxygen to self-repair, so stainless steels have poor corrosion resistance in low-
oxygen and poor circulation environments. In seawater, chlorides from the salt will attack
and destroy the passive film more quickly than it can be repaired in a low oxygen
environment.
The three main types of stainless steels are austenitic, ferritic, and martensitic. These
three types of steels are identified by their microstructure or predominant crystal phase.
Austenitic:
Austenitic steels have austenite as their primary phase (face centered cubic crystal).
These are alloys containing chromium and nickel (sometimes manganese and nitrogen),
structured around the Type 302 composition of iron, 18% chromium, and 8% nickel.
Austenitic steels are not hardenable by heat treatment. The most familiar stainless steel is
probably Type 304, sometimes called T304 or simply 304. Type 304 surgical stainless
steel is an austenitic steel containing 18-20% chromium and 8-10% nickel.
Ferritic:
Ferritic steels have ferrite (body centered cubic crystal) as their main phase. These steels
contain iron and chromium, based on the Type 430 composition of 17% chromium.
Ferritic steel is less ductile than austenitic steel and is not hardenable by heat treatment.
Martensitic:
The characteristic orthorhombic martensite microstructure was first observed by German
microscopist Adolf Martens around 1890. Martensitic steels are low carbon steels built
around the Type 410 composition of iron, 12% chromium, and 0.12% carbon. They may
be tempered and hardened. Martensite gives steel great hardness, but it also reduces its
toughness and makes it brittle, so few steels are fully hardened.
There are also other grades of stainless steels, such as precipitation-hardened, duplex, and
cast stainless steels. Stainless steel can be produced in a variety of finishes and textures
and can be tinted over a broad spectrum of colors.
Passivation
There is some dispute over whether the corrosion resistance of stainless steel can be
enhanced by the process of passivation. Essentially, passivation is the removal of free
iron from the surface of the steel. This is performed by immersing the steel in an oxidant,
such as nitric acid or citric acid solution. Since the top layer of iron is removed,
passivation diminishes surface discoloration. While passivation does not affect the
thickness or effectiveness of the passive layer, it is useful in producing a clean surface for
a further treatment, such as plating or painting. On the other hand, if the oxidant is
incompletely removed from the steel, as sometimes happens in pieces with tight joints or
corners, then crevice corrosion may result. Most research indicates that diminishing
surface particle corrosion does not reduce susceptibility to pitting corrosion.
Natural Mosquito Repellents
Strategies That Work
When I was pregnant, I wanted to avoid using toxic chemical insect repellents, yet the
mosquitoes seemed to find me tastier than ever. My solution at that time was to wear
what I called my 'DEET sheet', which was an old cotton sheet that had been sprayed with
S.C. Johnson's Off! Deep Woods formula. While this was highly effective, it wasn't
practical for use around kids, so I did research into safer, natural mosquito repellents. I
learned that many so-called natural mosquito repellents don't repel mosquitoes (e.g.,
ultrasonic electronic devices), but some are backed by reputable research and really work.
Mosquitoes have complex methods of detecting hosts and different types of mosquitoes
react to different stimuli. Most mosquitoes are active at dawn and dusk, but there are also
mosquitoes that seek hosts during the day.
You can avoid being bitten by making sure you aren't attracting mosquitoes, using
attractants to lure mosquitoes elsewhere, using a repellent, and avoiding actions that
diminish the effectiveness of the repellent.
Mosquito Attractants
Use this list of items and activities that attract mosquitoes as a list of things to avoid or
that can be used as bait to lure mosquitoes away from you.
• Dark Clothing
Many mosquitoes use vision to locate hosts from a distance. Dark clothes and
foliage are initial attractants.
• Carbon Dioxide
You give off more carbon dioxide when you are hot or have been exercising. A
burning candle or other fire is another source of carbon dioxide.
• Lactic Acid
You release more lactic acid when you have been exercising or after eating
certain foods (e.g., salty foods, high-potassium foods).
In addition to perfumes, hair products, and scented sunscreens, watch for the
subtle floral fragrance from fabric softeners and dryer sheets.
• Skin Temperature
The exact temperature depends on the type of mosquito. Many mosquitoes are
attracted to the slightly cooler temperatures of the extremities.
• Moisture
Natural Repellents
These natural products will effectively repel mosquitoes, but they require more frequent
reapplication (at least every 2 hours) and higher concentrations than DEET. Because of
the differences between types of mosquitoes, products that contain multiple repellents
tend to be more effective than those containing a single ingredient. As you can see,
natural repellents tend to be volatile plant oils.
• Citronella Oil
• Castor Oil
• Rosemary Oil
• Lemongrass Oil
• Cedar Oil
• Peppermint Oil
• Clove Oil
• Geranium Oil
• Possibly Oils from Verbena, Pennyroyal, Lavender, Pine, Cajeput, Cinnamon,
Basil, Thyme, Allspice, Soybean, and Garlic
• Many Sunscreens
• Dilution from Rain, Perspiration, or Swimming
• Absorption into the Skin
• Evaporation from Wind or High Temperatures
Keep in mind that 'natural' does not automatically imply 'safe'. Many people are sensitive
to plant oils. Some natural insect repellents are actually toxic. Therefore, although natural
repellents provide an alternative to synthetic chemicals, please remember to follow the
manufacturer's instructions when using these products.
Chemistry of Firework Colors
A Marriage of Art and Science
Incandescence
Incandescence is light produced from heat. Heat causes a substance to become hot
and glow, initially emitting infrared, then red, orange, yellow, and white light as it
becomes increasingly hotter. When the temperature of a firework is controlled, the
glow of components, such as charcoal, can be manipulated to be the desired color
(temperature) at the proper time. Metals, such as aluminum, magnesium, and
titanium, burn very brightly and are useful for increasing the temperature of the
firework.
Luminescence
Luminescence is light produced using energy sources other than heat. Sometimes
luminescence is called 'cold light', because it can occur at room temperature and
cooler temperatures. To produce luminescence, energy is absorbed by an electron of
an atom or molecule, causing it to become excited, but unstable. When the electron
returns to a lower energy state the energy is released in the form of a photon (light).
The energy of the photon determines its wavelength or color.
Sometimes the salts needed to produce the desired color are unstable. Barium
chloride (green) is unstable at room temperatures, so barium must be combined with
a more stable compound (e.g., chlorinated rubber). In this case, the chlorine is
released in the heat of the burning of the pyrotechnic composition, to then form
barium chloride and produce the green color. Copper chloride (blue), on the other
hand, is unstable at high temperatures, so the firework cannot get too hot, yet must
be bright enough to be seen.
Quality
Pure colors require pure ingredients. Even trace amounts of sodium impurities
(yellow-orange) are sufficient to overpower or alter other colors. Careful formulation
is required so that too much smoke or residue doesn't mask the color. With
fireworks, as with other things, cost often relates to quality. Skill of the manufacturer
and date the firework was produced greatly affect the final display (or lack thereof).
Color Compound
Red strontium salts, lithium salts
lithium carbonate, Li2CO3 = red
strontium carbonate, SrCO3 = bright red
calcium salts
Orange calcium chloride, CaCl2
calcium sulfate, CaSO4·xH2O, where x = 0,2,3,5
Gold incandescence of iron (with carbon), charcoal, or lampblack
sodium compounds
Yellow sodium nitrate, NaNO3
cryolite, Na3AlF6
white-hot metal, such as magnesium or aluminum
Electric White
barium oxide, BaO
barium compounds + chlorine producer
Green
barium chloride, BaCl+ = bright green
copper compounds + chlorine producer
Blue copper acetoarsenite (Paris Green), Cu3As2O3Cu(C2H3O2)2 = blue
copper (I) chloride, CuCl = turquoise blue
Purple mixture of strontium (red) and copper (blue) compounds
Silver burning aluminum, titanium, or magnesium powder or flakes
Additional Reading
What Is a Sparkler?
All fireworks are not created equal! For example, there is a difference between a
firecracker and a sparkler. The goal of a firecracker is to create a controlled
explosion. A sparkler, on the other hand, burns over a long period of time (up to a
minute) and produces a brilliant shower of sparks. Sometimes sparklers are called
'snowballs' in reference to the ball of sparks that surrounds the burning part of the
sparkler.
Sparkler Chemistry
A sparkler consists of several substances:
• An oxidizer
• A fuel
• Iron, steel, aluminum, or other metal powder
• A combustible binder
Reaction Details
Now that you've seen the composition of a sparkler, let's consider how these
chemicals react with each other:
Oxidizers
Oxidizers produce oxgen to burn the mixture. Oxidizers are usually nitrates,
chlorates, or perchlorates. Nitrates are made up of a metal ion and a nitrate ion.
Nitrates give up 1/3 of their oxygen to yield nitrites and oxygen. The resulting
equation for potassium nitrate looks like this:
Chlorates are made up of a metal ion and the chlorate ion. Chlorates give up all of
their oxygen, causing a more spectacular reaction. However, this also means they
are explosive. An example of potassium chlorate yielding its oxygen would look like
this:
Perchlorates have more oxygen in them, but are less likely to explode as a result of
impact than are chlorates. Potassium perchlorate yields its oxygen in this reaction:
Reducing Agents
The reducing agents is the fuel used to burn the oxygen produced by the oxidizers.
This combustion produces hot gas. Examples of reducing agents are sulfur and
charcoal, which react with the oxygen to form sulfur dioxide (SO2) and carbon
dioxide (CO2), respectively.
Regulators
Two reducing agents may be combined to accelerate or slow the reaction. Also,
metals affect the speed of the reaction. Finer metal powders react more quickly than
coarse powders or flakes. Other substances, such as cornmeal, also may be added to
regulate the reaction.
Binders
Binders hold the mixture together. For a sparkler, common binders are dextrin (a
sugar) dampened by water, or a shellac compound dampened by alcohol. The binder
can serve as a reducing agent and as a reaction moderator.
Important Reminders
Obviously, sparks cascading off of a burning stick present a fire and burn hazard.
Less obviously, sparklers contain one or more metals to create the sparks and any
colors, so they can present a health hazard. For example, they should not be burned
on cakes as candles or otherwise used in a manner which could lead to consumption
of the ash. So use sparklers safely and have fun!
Candy Triboluminescence
From Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.,
Your Guide to Chemistry.
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Glow-in-the-dark fun!
For several decades people have been playing in the dark with triboluminescence using
wintergreen-flavored Lifesavers candy. The idea is to break the hard, donut-shaped candy
in the dark. Usually a person looks in a mirror or peers into a partner's mouth while
crunching the candy to see the resulting blue sparks.
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When the electrons return to their usual state, the energy is released in the form of light.
The spectrum of the light produced from the triboluminescence of sugar (sucrose) is the
same as the spectrum of lightning. Lightning originates from a flow of electrons passing
through air, exciting the electrons of nitrogen molecules (the primary component of air),
which emit blue light as they release their energy. Triboluminescence of sugar can be
thought of as lightning on a very small scale. When a sugar crystal is stressed, the
positive and negative charges in the crystal are separated, generating an electric potential.
When enough charge has accumulated, the electrons jump across a fracture in the crystal,
colliding with and exciting electrons in the nitrogen molecules. Most of the light emitted
by the nitrogen in the air is ultraviolet, but a small fraction is in the visible region. To
most people the emission appears bluish-white, although some people discern a blue-
green color (human color vision in the dark is not very good).
The emission from wintergreen candy is much brighter than that of sucrose alone because
wintergreen flavor (methyl salicylate) is fluorescent. Methyl salicylate absorbs ultraviolet
light in the same spectral region as the lightning emissions generated by the sugar. The
methyl salicylate electrons become excited and emit blue light. Much more of the
wintergreen emission than the original sugar emission is in the visible region of the
spectrum, so wintergreen light seems brighter than sucrose light.
Glow-in-the-dark fun!
Wint-O-Green Lifesavers aren't the only candies that exhibits triboluminescence. Regular
sugar cubes will work, as will just about any opaque candy made with sugar (sucrose).
Transparent candy or candy made using artificial sweeteners will not work. Most
adhesive tapes also emit light when they are ripped away. Amblygonite, calcite, feldspar,
fluorite, lepidolite, mica, pectolite, quartz, and sphalerite are all minerals known to
exhibit triboluminescence when struck, rubbed, or scratched. Triboluminescence varies
widely from one mineral sample to another, such that it might be unobservable.
Sphalerite and quartz specimens that are translucent rather than transparent, with small
fractures throughout the rock, are the most reliable.
For the most part, triboluminescence is an interesting effect with few practical
applications. However, understanding its mechanisms may help explain other types of
luminescence, including bioluminescence in bacteria and earthquake lights.
Triboluminescent coatings could be used in remote sensing applications to signal
mechanical failure. One reference states that research is underway to apply
triboluminescent flashes to sense automobile crashes and inflate air bags.