Contents

FOREWORD iii

A NOTE FOR THE TEACHERS ix

CHAPTER 1 KNOWING OUR NUMBERS 1

CHAPTER 2 WHOLE NUMBERS 28

CHAPTER 3 PLAYING WITH NUMBERS 46

CHAPTER 4 BASIC GEOMETRICAL IDEAS 69

CHAPTER 5 UNDERSTANDING ELEMENTARY SHAPES 86

CHAPTER 6 INTEGERS 113

CHAPTER 7 FRACTIONS 133

CHAPTER 8 DECIMALS 164

CHAPTER 9 DATA HANDLING 184

CHAPTER 10 MENSURATION 205

CHAPTER 11 ALGEBRA 221

CHAPTER 12 RATIO AND PROPORTION 244

CHAPTER 13 SYMMETRY 261

CHAPTER 14 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY 274

ANSWERS 293

BRAIN -TEASERS 315

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Contents

Foreword iii

Preface v

Chapter 1 Integers 1

Chapter 2 Fractions and Decimals 29

Chapter 3 Data Handling 57

Chapter 4 Simple Equations 77

Chapter 5 Lines and Angles 93

Chapter 6 The Triangle and its Properties 113

Chapter 7 Congruence of Triangles 133

Chapter 8 Comparing Quantities 153

Chapter 9 Rational Numbers 173

Chapter 10 Practical Geometry 193

Chapter 11 Perimeter and Area 205

Chapter 12 Algebraic Expressions 229

Chapter 13 Exponents and Powers 249

Chapter 14 Symmetry 265

Chapter 15 Visualising Solid Shapes 277

Answers 293

Brain-Teasers 311
 Contents

Foreword iii
Preface v
Chapter 1 Rational Numbers 1
Chapter 2 Linear Equations in One Variable 21
Chapter 3 Understanding Quadrilaterals 37
Chapter 4 Practical Geometry 57
Chapter 5 Data Handling 69
Chapter 6 Squares and Square Roots 89
Chapter 7 Cubes and Cube Roots 109
Chapter 8 Comparing Quantities 117
Chapter 9 Algebraic Expressions and Identities 137
Chapter 10 Visualising Solid Shapes 153
Chapter 11 Mensuration 169
Chapter 12 Exponents and Powers 193
Chapter 13 Direct and Inverse Proportions 201
Chapter 14 Factorisation 217
Chapter 15 Introduction to Graphs 231
Chapter 16 Playing with Numbers 249
Answers 261
Just for Fun 275
 CONTENTS

1.
FOREWORD
NUMBER SYSTEMS
iii
1

e d
h
1.1 Introduction 1

s
1.2 Irrational Numbers 5

T i
1.3 Real Numbers and their Decimal Expansions 8

R l
1.4 Representing Real Numbers on the Number Line 15

b
1.5 Operations on Real Numbers 18

E
1.6 Laws of Exponents for Real Numbers 24

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1.7 Summary 27

C p
2. POLYNOMIALS 28

N e
2.1 Introduction 28

r
2.2 Polynomials in One Variable 28

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2.3 Zeroes of a Polynomial 32
2.4 Remainder Theorem 35
2.5 Factorisation of Polynomials 40

b
2.6 Algebraic Identities 44
2.7 Summary 50

o
3. COORDINATE GEOMETRY 51

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3.1 Introduction 51

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3.2 Cartesian System 54
3.3 Plotting a Point in the Plane if its Coordinates are given 61

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3.4 Summary 65

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4. LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 66
4.1 Introduction 66
4.2 Linear Equations 66
4.3 Solution of a Linear Equation 68
4.4 Graph of a Linear Equation in Two Variables 70
4.5 Equations of Lines Parallel to x-axis and y-axis 75
 4.6 Summary 77
5. INTRODUCTION TO EUCLIDS GEOMETRY 78
5.1 Introduction 78
5.2 Euclids Definitions, Axioms and Postulates 80

d
5.3 Equivalent Versions of Euclids Fifth Postulate 86

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5.4 Summary 88
6. LINES AND ANGLES 89

h
6.1 Introduction 89

T s
6.2 Basic Terms and Definitions 90

li
6.3 Intersecting Lines and Non-intersecting Lines 92

R
6.4 Pairs of Angles 92

b
6.5 Parallel Lines and a Transversal 98

E u
6.6 Lines Parallel to the same Line 101

C
6.7 Angle Sum Property of a Triangle 105

p
6.8 Summary 108

N e
7. TRIANGLES 108

r
7.1 Introduction 109

e
7.2 Congruence of Triangles 109
7.3 Criteria for Congruence of Triangles 112

b
7.4 Some Properties of a Triangle 120
7.5 Some More Criteria for Congruence of Triangles 125

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7.6 Inequalities in a Triangle 129

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7.7 Summary 134
8. QUADRILATERALS 135

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8.1 Introduction 135

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8.2 Angle Sum Property of a Quadrilateral 136
8.3 Types of Quadrilaterals 137

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8.4 Properties of a Parallelogram 139
8.5 Another Condition for a Quadrilteral to be a Parallelogram 145
8.6 The Mid-point Theorem 148
8.7 Summary 151
9. AREAS OF PARALLELOGRAMS AND TRIANGLES 152
 9.1 Introduction 152
9.2 Figures on the same Base and Between the same Parallels 154
9.3 Parallelogramms on the same Base and
between the same Parallels 156

d
9.4 Triangles on the same Base and between
the same Parallels 160

e
9.5 Summary 167

h
10. CIRCLES 168
10.1 Introduction 168

T i s
10.2 Circles and its Related Terms : A Review 169

l
10.3 Angle Subtended by a Chord at a Point 171

R
10.4 Perpendicular from the Centre to a Chord 173

b
10.5 Circle through Three Points 174

E u
10.6 Equal Chords and their Distances from the Centre 176
10.7 Angle Subtended by an Arc of a Circle 179

C p
10.8 Cyclic Quadrilaterals 182

N e
10.9 Summary 187

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11. CONSTRUCTIONS 187

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11.1 Introduction 188
11.2 Basic Constructions 189
11.3 Some Constructions of Triangles 191

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11.4 Summary 196
12. HERONS FORMULA 197

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12.1 Introduction 197

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12.2 Area of a Triangle by Herons Formula 199

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12.3 Application of Herons Formula in finding
Areas of Quadrilaterals 203

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12.4 Summary 207

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13. SURFACE AREAS AND VOLUMES 208
13.1 Introduction 208
13.2 Surface Area of a Cuboid and a Cube 208
13.3 Surface Area of a Right Circular Cylinder 214
13.4 Surface Area of a Right Circular Cone 217
13.5 Surface Area of a Sphere 222
 13.6 Volume of a Cuboid 226
13.7 Volume of a Cylinder 228
13.8 Volume of a Right Circular Cone 231
13.9 Volume of a Sphere 234

d
10.10 Summary 237

e
14. STATISTICS 238
14.1 Introduction 238

h
14.2 Collection of Data 239

T s
14.3 Presentation of Data 240

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14.4 Geographical Representation of Data 247

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14.5 Measures of Central Tendency 261

b
14.6 Summary 270

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15. PROBABILITY 271

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15.1 Introduction 271

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15.2 Probability an Experimental Approach 272

N e
15.3 Summary 285

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APPENDIX 1 PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS 286

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A1.1 Introduction 286
A1.2 Mathematically Acceptable Statements 287

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A1.3 Deductive Reasoning 290
A1.4 Theorems, Conjectures and Axioms 293

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A1.5 What is a Mathematical Proof? 298

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A1.6 Summary 305
APPENDIX 2 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 306

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A2.1 Introduction 306

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A2.2 Review of Word Problems 307
A2.3 Some Mathematical Models 311

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A2.4 The Process of Modelling, its Advantages and Limitations 319
A2.5 Summary 322
ANSWERS/HINTS 325-350
 Contents
Foreword iii
Preface v
1. Real Numbers 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Euclids Division Lemma 2
1.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic 7
1.4 Revisiting Irrational Numbers 11
1.5 Revisiting Rational Numbers and Their Decimal Expansions 15
1.6 Summary 18
2. Polynomials 20
2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 Geometrical Meaning of the Zeroes of a Polynomial 21
2.3 Relationship between Zeroes and Coefficients of a Polynomial 28
2.4 Division Algorithm for Polynomials 33
2.5 Summary 37
3. Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables 38
3.1 Introduction 38
3.2 Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables 39
3.3 Graphical Method of Solution of a Pair of Linear Equations 44
3.4 Algebraic Methods of Solving a Pair of Linear Equations 50
3.4.1 Substitution Method 50
3.4.2 Elimination Method 54
3.4.3 Cross-Multiplication Method 57
3.5 Equations Reducible to a Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables 63
3.6 Summary 69
4. Quadratic Equations 70
4.1 Introduction 70
4.2 Quadratic Equations 71
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4.3 Solution of a Quadratic Equation by Factorisation 74

4.4 Solution of a Quadratic Equation by Completing the Square 76
4.5 Nature of Roots 88
4.6 Summary 91
5. Arithmetic Progressions 93
5.1 Introduction 93
5.2 Arithmetic Progressions 95
5.3 nth Term of an AP 100
5.4 Sum of First n Terms of an AP 107
5.5 Summary 116
6. Triangles 117
6.1 Introduction 117
6.2 Similar Figures 118
6.3 Similarity of Triangles 123
6.4 Criteria for Similarity of Triangles 129
6.5 Areas of Similar Triangles 141
6.6 Pythagoras Theorem 144
6.7 Summary 154
7. Coordinate Geometry 155
7.1 Introduction 155
7.2 Distance Formula 156
7.3 Section Formula 162
7.4 Area of a Triangle 168
7.5 Summary 172
8. Introduction to Trigonometry 173
8.1 Introduction 173
8.2 Trigonometric Ratios 174
8.3 Trigonometric Ratios of Some Specific Angles 181
8.4 Trigonometric Ratios of Complementary Angles 187
8.5 Trigonometric Identities 190
8.6 Summary 194
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9. Some Applications of Trigonometry 195

9.1 Introduction 195
9.2 Heights and Distances 196
9.3 Summary 205
10. Circles 206
10.1 Introduction 206
10.2 Tangent to a Circle 207
10.3 Number of Tangents from a Point on a Circle 209
10.4 Summary 215
11. Constructions 216
11.1 Introduction 216
11.2 Division of a Line Segment 216
11.3 Construction of Tangents to a Circle 220
11.4 Summary 222
12. Areas Related to Circles 223
12.1 Introduction 223
12.2 Perimeter and Area of a Circle A Review 224
12.3 Areas of Sector and Segment of a Circle 226
12.4 Areas of Combinations of Plane Figures 231
12.5 Summary 238
13. Surface Areas and Volumes 239
13.1 Introduction 239
13.2 Surface Area of a Combination of Solids 240
13.3 Volume of a Combination of Solids 245
13.4 Conversion of Solid from One Shape to Another 248
13.5 Frustum of a Cone 252
13.6 Summary 258
14. Statistics 260
14.1 Introduction 260
14.2 Mean of Grouped Data 260
14.3 Mode of Grouped Data 272
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14.4 Median of Grouped Data 277

14.5 Graphical Representation of Cumulative Frequency Distribution 289
14.6 Summary 293
15. Probability 295
15.1 Introduction 295
15.2 Probability A Theoretical Approach 296
15.3 Summary 312
Appendix A1 : Proofs in Mathematics 313
A1.1 Introduction 313
A1.2 Mathematical Statements Revisited 313
A1.3 Deductive Reasoning 316
A1.4 Conjectures, Theorems, Proofs and Mathematical Reasoning 318
A1.5 Negation of a Statement 323
A1.6 Converse of a Statement 326
A1.7 Proof by Contradiction 329
A1.8 Summary 333
Appendix A2 : Mathematical Modelling 334
A2.1 Introduction 334
A2.2 Stages in Mathematical Modelling 335
A2.3 Some Illustrations 339
A2.4 Why is Mathematical Modelling Important? 343
A2.5 Summary 344
Answers/Hints 345
 Contents
Foreword iii
1. Sets 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Sets and their Representations 1
1.3 The Empty Set 5
1.4 Finite and Infinite Sets 6
1.5 Equal Sets 7
1.6 Subsets 9
1.7 Power Set 12
1.8 Universal Set 12
1.9 Venn Diagrams 13
1.10 Operations on Sets 14
1.11 Complement of a Set 18
1.12 Practical Problems on Union and Intersection of Two Sets 21

2. Relations and Functions 30

2.1 Introduction 30
2.2 Cartesian Product of Sets 30
2.3 Relations 34
2.4 Functions 36
3. Trigonometric Functions 49
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Angles 49
3.3 Trigonometric Functions 55
3.4 Trigonometric Functions of Sum and Difference of Two Angles 63
3.5 Trigonometric Equations 74
4. Principle of Mathematical Induction 86
4.1 Introduction 86
4.2 Motivation 87
4.3 The Principle of Mathematical Induction 88
5. Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations 97
5.1 Introduction 97
5.2 Complex Numbers 97
5.3 Algebra of Complex Numbers 98
5.4 The Modulus and the Conjugate of a Complex Number 102
5.5 Argand Plane and Polar Representation 104
5.6 Quadratic Equations 108
6. Linear Inequalities 116
6.1 Introduction 116
6.2 Inequalities 116
6.3 Algebraic Solutions of Linear Inequalities in One Variable
and their Graphical Representation 118
6.4 Graphical Solution of Linear Inequalities in Two Variables 123
6.5 Solution of System of Linear Inequalities in Two Variables 127
7. Permutations and Combinations 134
7.1 Introduction 134
7.2 Fundamental Principle of Counting 134
7.3 Permutations 138
7.4 Combinations 148
8. Binomial Theorem 160
8.1 Introduction 160
8.2 Binomial Theorem for Positive Integral Indices 160
8.3 General and Middle Terms 167
9. Sequences and Series 177
9.1 Introduction 177
9.2 Sequences 177
9.3 Series 179
9.4 Arithmetic Progression (A.P.) 181
9.5 Geometric Progression (G.P.) 186
9.6 Relationship Between A.M. and G.M. 191
9.7 Sum to n terms of Special Series 194
10. Straight Lines 203
10.1 Introduction 203
10.2 Slope of a Line 204
10.3 Various Forms of the Equation of a Line 212
10.4 General Equation of a Line 220
10.5 Distance of a Point From a Line 225
viii
11. Conic Sections 236
11.1 Introduction 236
11.2 Sections of a Cone 236
11.3 Circle 239
11.4 Parabola 242
11.5 Ellipse 247
11.6 Hyperbola 255
12. Introduction to Three Dimensional Geometry 268
12.1 Introduction 268
12.2 Coordinate Axes and Coordinate Planes in
Three Dimensional Space 269
12.3 Coordinates of a Point in Space 269
12.4 Distance between Two Points 271
12.5 Section Formula 273
13. Limits and Derivatives 281
13.1 Introduction 281
13.2 Intuitive Idea of Derivatives 281
13.3 Limits 284
13.4 Limits of Trigonometric Functions 298
13.5 Derivatives 303
14. Mathematical Reasoning 321
14.1 Introduction 321
14.2 Statements 321
14.3 New Statements from Old 324
14.4 Special Words/Phrases 329
14.5 Implications 335
14.6 Validating Statements 339
15. Statistics 347
15.1 Introduction 347
15.2 Measures of Dispersion 349
15.3 Range 349
15.4 Mean Deviation 349
15.5 Variance and Standard Deviation 361
15.6 Analysis of Frequency Distributions 372
ix
16. Probability 383
16.1 Introduction 383
16.2 Random Experiments 384
16.3 Event 387
16.4 Axiomatic Approach to Probability 394
Appendix 1: Infinite Series 412
A.1.1 Introduction 412
A.1.2 Binomial Theorem for any Index 412
A.1.3 Infinite Geometric Series 414
A.1.4 Exponential Series 416
A.1.5 Logarithmic Series 419
Appendix 2: Mathematical Modelling 421
A.2.1 Introduction 421
A.2.2 Preliminaries 421
A.2.3 What is Mathematical Modelling 425
Answers 433
Supplementary Material 466

x
 Contents
PART I
Foreword v
Preface vii
1. Relations and Functions 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Types of Relations 2
1.3 Types of Functions 7
1.4 Composition of Functions and Invertible Function 12
1.5 Binary Operations 19
2. Inverse Trigonometric Functions 33
2.1 Introduction 33
2.2 Basic Concepts 33
2.3 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 42
3. Matrices 56
3.1 Introduction 56
3.2 Matrix 56
3.3 Types of Matrices 61
3.4 Operations on Matrices 65
3.5 Transpose of a Matrix 83
3.6 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices 85
3.7 Elementary Operation (Transformation) of a Matrix 90
3.8 Invertible Matrices 91
4. Determinants 103
4.1 Introduction 103
4.2 Determinant 103
4.3 Properties of Determinants 109
4.4 Area of a Triangle 121
4.5 Minors and Cofactors 123
4.6 Adjoint and Inverse of a Matrix 126
4.7 Applications of Determinants and Matrices 133
 xiv

5. Continuity and Differentiability 147

5.1 Introduction 147
5.2 Continuity 147
5.3 Differentiability 161
5.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 170
5.5 Logarithmic Differentiation 174
5.6 Derivatives of Functions in Parametric Forms 179
5.7 Second Order Derivative 181
5.8 Mean Value Theorem 184
6. Application of Derivatives 194
6.1 Introduction 194
6.2 Rate of Change of Quantities 194
6.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions 199
6.4 Tangents and Normals 206
6.5 Approximations 213
6.6 Maxima and Minima 216
Appendix 1: Proofs in Mathematics 247
A.1.1 Introduction 247
A.1.2 What is a Proof? 247
Appendix 2: Mathematical Modelling 256
A.2.1 Introduction 256
A.2.2 Why Mathematical Modelling? 256
A.2.3 Principles of Mathematical Modelling 257
Answers 268
Supplementary Material 286
 Contents
PART II
Foreword v
Preface vii
7. Integrals 287
7.1 Introduction 288
7.2 Integration as an Inverse Process of Differentiation 288
7.3 Methods of Integration 300
7.4 Integrals of some Particular Functions 307
7.5 Integration by Partial Fractions 316
7.6 Integration by Parts 323
7.7 Definite Integral 331
7.8 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 334
7.9 Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Substitution 338
7.10 Some Properties of Definite Integrals 341
8. Application of Integrals 359
8.1 Introduction 359
8.2 Area under Simple Curves 359
8.3 Area between Two Curves 366
9. Differential Equations 379
9.1 Introduction 379
9.2 Basic Concepts 379
9.3 General and Particular Solutions of a 383
Differential Equation
9.4 Formation of a Differential Equation whose 385
General Solution is given
9.5 Methods of Solving First order, First Degree 391
Differential Equations
10. Vector Algebra 424
10.1 Introduction 424
10.2 Some Basic Concepts 424
10.3 Types of Vectors 427
10.4 Addition of Vectors 429
 xiv

10.5 Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar 432

10.6 Product of Two Vectors 441
11. Three Dimensional Geometry 463
11.1 Introduction 463
11.2 Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a Line 463
11.3 Equation of a Line in Space 468
11.4 Angle between Two Lines 471
11.5 Shortest Distance between Two Lines 473
11.6 Plane 479
11.7 Coplanarity of Two Lines 487
11.8 Angle between Two Planes 488
11.9 Distance of a Point from a Plane 490
11.10 Angle between a Line and a Plane 492
12. Linear Programming 504
12.1 Introduction 504
12.2 Linear Programming Problem and its Mathematical Formulation 505
12.3 Different Types of Linear Programming Problems 514
13. Probability 531
13.1 Introduction 531
13.2 Conditional Probability 531
13.3 Multiplication Theorem on Probability 540
13.4 Independent Events 542
13.5 Bayes' Theorem 548
13.6 Random Variables and its Probability Distributions 557
13.7 Bernoulli Trials and Binomial Distribution 572
Answers 588