Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Research paper

Diagenetic alterations and reservoir heterogeneity within the

depositional facies: A case study from distributary-channel belt
sandstone of Upper Triassic Yanchang Formation reservoirs (Ordos
Basin, China)
Zhen Li a, Shenghe Wu a, *, Dongling Xia b, Xiaofang Zhang c, Mei Huang d
a
Faculty of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum, Beijing, 18 Fuxue Road, Changping, Beijing, 102249, China
b
Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, SINOPEC, China
c
No.2 Oil Production Company of Daqing Oileld Company Ltd., Daqing, China
d
Administrative Committee of Lv You Qu, Changtai County, Fujian Province, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Diagenesis is of decisive signicance for the reservoir heterogeneity of most clastic reservoirs. Linking the
Received 20 March 2017 distribution of diagenetic processes to the depositional facies and sequence stratigraphy has in recent years
Received in revised form been discipline for predicting the distribution of diagenetic alterations and reservoir heterogeneity of
27 June 2017
clastic reservoirs. This study constructs a model of distribution of diagenetic alterations and reservoir
Accepted 3 July 2017
Available online 4 July 2017
heterogeneity within the depositional facies by linking diagenesis to lithofacies, sandstone architecture and
porewater chemistry during burial. This would help to promote better understanding of the distribution of
reservoir quality evolution and the intense heterogeneity of reservoirs. Based on an analogue of deltaic
Keywords:
Distributary channel sandstone
distributary channel belt sandstone in Upper Triassic Yanchang Formation, 83 sandstone plug samples
Reservoir heterogeneity were taken from 13 wells located along this channel belt. An integration of scanning electron microscopy,
Diagenetic alterations thin sections, electron microprobe analyses, rate-controlled porosimetry (RCP), gas-ow measurements of
Pore-structure porosity and permeability, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) experiments, together with published
data, were analysed for the distribution, mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of detrital and
diagenetic components and the distribution of reservoir quality within the distributary channel belt.
Distribution of diagenetic alterations and reservoir heterogeneity within the distributary channel belt
sandstones include (i) formation of high quality chlorite rims in the middle part of thick sandstones with
coarser grain sizes and a lower content of ductile components resulted from the greater compaction
resistance of these sandstones (providing larger pore spaces for chlorite growth), leading to formation of
the intergranular pore e wide sheet-like throat and intergranular pore - intragranular pore e wide
sheet-like throat (F>15%, k>1mD) in the middle part of thick sandstones; (ii) formation of thinner
chlorite rims in the middle part of thinner sandstones is associated with the intergranular pore -
intragranular pore e narrow sheet-like throat (9%<F<14%, 0.2mD<k<0.8mD); (iii) strong cementation
by kaolinite in the more proximal sandstones of distributary channel owing to the strong feldspar
dissolution by meteoric water, resulting in the intragranular pore - group of interstitial cement pores e
narrow sheet-like throat/extremely narrow sheet-like throat (8%<F<11%, 0.1mD<k<0.3mD) due to the
pore-lling kaolinite occluding porosity; (iv) formation of dense ferrocalcite zones (d18OVPDB 23.4
to 16.6; d13 CVPDB 4.0 to 2.3) favoured in the top and bottom of the channel sandstone
which near the sandstone-mudstone bouding-surface, destroying pore space (F<8%, k<0.1mD); (v)
strong compaction in sandstone of distributary channel edge laterally as a result of ne grain size and
high content of ductile components in those sandstones, forming the group of interstitial cement pores e
extremely narrow sheet-like throat with porosity values less than 8%.
2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: reser@cup.edu.cn (S. Wu).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2017.07.002
0264-8172/ 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971
1. Introduction
Reservoir heterogeneity strongly affects the uid ow and re-
covery factors of reservoirs (Wardlaw and Taylor, 1976; Wardlaw
and Cassan, 1979; Weber, 1982). The heterogeneity of sandstone
reservoirs occurring at various scales (ranging from micrometers to
hektometers), is commonly attributed to variations in initial sedi-
ment composition (such as geometry and internal structures of
sandbodies, grain size, sorting and provenance), subsequent
diagenetic alterations and structural features (Milliken, 2001;
Schmid et al., 2004; Morad et al., 2010).
Diagenetic alterations are critical to predicting reservoir quality
evolution and heterogeneity of sandstones (Drummond, 1992;
Kukal et al., 1983; Karim et al., 2010). Numerous studies have
examined the factors inuencing diagenetic alternations. Burial
depth, structural evolution, early cementation, and mineral
composition of sediments have been suggested to be the most
important factors affecting compaction (Loucks et al., 1984; Chuhan
et al., 2002, 2003; Trendell et al., 2012; Fu et al., 2013; Bjrlykke,
2014). The distribution of diagenetic alternations in the scale of
hektometers is related to depositional facies and sequence stra-
tigraphy (Dutton and Willis, 1998; El-ghali et al., 2006a,b,c; Ketzer
et al., 2003a,b; Morad et al., 2000, 2010; Saag et al., 2016; Taylor
et al., 1995). However the reservoir heterogeneity, distribution of
diagenetic alternations and the controlling factors of diagenetic
alternations within the depositional facies (the scale of 10 m) are
still illusive.
This study was designed to investigate the distribution of
diagenetic alterations and reservoir heterogeneity within a dis-
tributary channel belt sandstone and the controlling factors of
diagenetic alternations. A deltaic distributary channel belt from the
proximal to distal of Honghe Oileld of Upper Triassic Yanchang
Formation was selected, extending from the W13 well to the W1
well (Fig. 1).
2. Geological setting
The study area is located in the Chuankou belt, within the
Honghe oileld in the Ordos Basin, central China. With an area of
37  104 km2, the Ordos Basin is a rectangular sedimentary basin
with a northesouth orientation (Fig. 1). The Ordos Basin is a
cratonic basin (Hu, 1991), with its primary part being a depression
spanning from the upper Proterozoic to the Middle Jurassic (Zhang,
1989).
The Late Triassic Yanchang Formation is primarily composed of
uvialelacustrine sediments deposited during steady subsidence
of the Ordos Basin. During this period, multi-level rise-and-fall
cycles of the base level occurred, resulting in ve third-order se-
quences (LSC1eLSC5; long-term cycle) and seventeen fourth-order
sequences (middle-term cycle) (Liu et al., 2013). From bottom to
top, the Yanchang Formation can be divided into 10 oil-bearing
intervals: Chang 10 to Chang 1 (Fig. 2). The studied sandstone is
located in the Chang 8 oil-bearing interval, at the bottom of LSC3
(red rectangle in Fig. 2).
Based on seismic architecture and core observations, the inter-
preted depositional environment is mainly distributary channel
facies on a lower delta plain (Dong et al., 2010), with frequent
transgressioneregression lake water and a southwestern sediment
provenance. Results from previous studies of Sr/Ba ratios and the
content of gammacerane suggest that the ancient salinity of the
lake water of the Yanchang Formation was continental brackish
water rich in electrolytes (Zhang et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2014).
Sediments in the Honghe oileld are rich in biotite and volcanic
rock fragments, which may dissolve and result in abundant Fe
(Xiong et al., 2013). Deltaic distributary channel deposits constitute
951
the main reservoir.
The Chang 8 reservoir is a typical low-permeability tight
reservoir with abundant diagenesis. The reservoir quality varies
along the distributary channel sandstone body. Zones with higher
porosities and permeabilities with good oil-producing capabilities
are characterized by conspicuous chlorite rims. Reservoirs with
dense kaolinite and carbonate cementation have low porosities and
permeabilities.
3. Materials and methods
This study is based on systematic observations of 13 cores from
the W1 to W13 exploration wells in the Chang 8 oil-bearing interval
of the Yanchang Formation. The location of these exploration wells
is shown in Fig. 1. For this study, 180 m of core was systematically
logged and photographed. Cored intervals were depth-corrected
and adjusted to the gamma-ray log.
Eighty-three systematically obtained plug samples from the 13
cores were used to analyze detrital mineralogy, depositional lith-
ofacies, diagenetic features and reservoir quality. Analyses of pol-
ished thin sections, back-scattered electron imagery and scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) samples were conducted at the State
Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resources and Prospecting at China
University of Petroleum. Thin sections vacuum-impregnated with
blue-dyed epoxy were stained with Alizarin Red S and potassium
ferricyanide for identication of dolomite, ferroan calcite and
nonferroan calcite. All thin sections were analysed using an optical
polarizing microscope (Olympus BH2). Freshly broken rock frag-
ments were gold-coated and placed on stubs for scanning electron
and back-scattered electron (BSE) imaging. SEM observations were
conducted using a HITACHI SU8010 equipped with an energy
dispersive spectrometer. A Helios NanoLab 650 was used for BSE
observations. Cathodoluminescence was conducted on polished
and uncovered wafers at the University of Geology, Beijing, using a
cold cathodoluminescence instrument (Citl MK4, conditions:
300e500 mA, 11e16 kV and 0.1e0.2 Torr). The porosity and
permeability and the rate-controlled porosimetry (RCP) were made
on the cut plugs (25  50 mm columnar samples). All plugs were
dried under vacuum at 104  C for 4 h. Helium porosity and nitrogen
permeability tests were rst performed by the steady-state method
under axial ow using a nitrogen permeameter then rate-
controlled porosimetry experiments were run for the core plugs
using a ASPE-730 mercury porosimeter. The mercury injected with
a quasistatic constant value of 5  105 mL/min. The nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) experiments were operated at 9 MHz at
28 C using the RecCore-04 NMR spectrometer Instruments.
Detrital mineralogy, including mineral composition and texture
was determined using 800 light microscopy images and 200 SEM
images.
The features of diagenetic minerals and pore/throat geometry
were studied by polarizing microscopy in thin section, back-
scattered electron imagery and scanning electron microscopy.
Structural relationships between minerals are used to identify the
diagenetic sequence. The thickness of the chlorite rims was
measured by point counts of 250e260 rims per image in SEM and
BSE, and is expressed as the mean of these measurements.
The geochemical characteristics of chlorite rims were deter-
mined by electron probe and SEMeEDS analyses. The data of
electron probe were provided by published examples. The electron
probe experiments were completed at the Nanjing University of
Endogenous Metal Deposit Metallogenic Mechanism State Key
Laboratory. For collecting crystal chemistry data, smooth chlorite
mineral surfaces were selected. The selected oxide contents total
more than 70%.
The carbon and oxygen stable isotopic composition analysis and
952 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971

Fig. 1. (a) Map of the Ordos Basin, showing the location of the Honghe oileld. (b) Map of the Chuankou belt within the Honghe oileld. Isopachs of sandstone in the studied
stratigraphic interval are in metres.

uid inclusion microthermometry of carbonate cement were con- and carbon isotope data are presented in the d notation relative to
ducted at the laboratory of Beijing Research Institute of Uranium the V-PDB (Vienna PeeDee Belemnite) standards. Fluid inclusion
Geology. The two analyses were performed on 11 representative microthermometry was conducted using a Linkham THMS 600
carbonate-cemented sandstone and mudstone samples. Oxygen stage with 0.1  C precision at 0  C.
 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971 953

Fig. 2. The Triassic Yanchang Formation in the Ordos Basin and the sequence stratigraphic section from the outcrop (modied after Liu et al., 2013). Red square indicates Chang 8
oil-bearing interval. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
954 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971
Depositional lithofacies were distinguished in cores and thin
sections based on grain-size and concentrations of ductile com-
ponents. Representative thin sections were point-counted under
plane-polarized and cross-polarized light (300 points per sample)
to calculate the relative content of detrital framework grains and
ductile components. Grain size distributions were determined by
point counts of 300 grains per thin section, and were expressed as
the mean of these measurements.
The throat classication was made based on the contribution of
the main throat radius to the saturation of movable uid. The main
throat radius was calculated by the pore throat radius data of RCP
experiments (pores and throats can be distinguished due to pres-
sure uctuations by injecting mercury into a small core sample at
an extremely low constant rate and accurately measuring the
mercury pressure and volume), which was the weighted average
value of pore throat radius with contribution to permeability being
95%. The NMR experiments carried out to analyze the saturation of
movable uid.
Based on the point-count data and following established con-
ventions (Ehrenberg, 1995; Lundegard, 1992), the intensity of
compaction was quantitatively characterized by the compactional
porosity loss (COPL) and the intensity of cementation was quanti-
tatively characterized by the cementational porosity loss (CEPL),
which are calculated from the assumed initial porosity (Pi 40%),
the intergranular volume (IGV) and the volume of cement (C) that
lls the primary porosity:
COPL Pi {[(100 Pi)  IGV]/(100 IGV)}
CEPL (Pi COPL)  (C/IGV)
The IGV is reported as a percentage of the rock volume and is the
sum of detrital matrix, primary porosity and the volume of cement
that lls primary pore space.
4. Results
4.1. Variations in detrital supply
Sandstones from the Honghe oileld can be classied as feld-
spathic litharenite and lithic arkose according to Folk's
Fig. 3. Ternary diagram showing the framework grain composition of Chang 8 sand-
stones from the Honghe oileld.
classication scheme (Folk, 1980), with an average framework
composition of Q42.5F24.4L28.1 (Fig. 3). Detrital mineralogy is domi-
nated by quartz, which averages 42.7%, ranging from 29% to 60%;
feldspar averages 31.0%, ranging from 20% to 48%; and rock frag-
ments average 27.9%, ranging from 19% to 44%. Rock fragments are
mainly igneous and metamorphic rock fragments. In all the sand-
stones of studied wells, ductile component content is more abun-
dant in the more proximal sandstones. The ductile component
content, including clay, eruptive rock, schist, phyllite, slate, mica
and kaolinized feldspar (the weathered granite gneiss is rich in
kaolinitised feldspar, and its elastic modulus is 1.3e9.79 GPa (Yang,
2007), which is much smaller than that of the pre-kaolinitised
feldspar (69 GPa) and that of biotite (33.8 GPa)), is 40%e58%,
with a mean value of 48.9%. The ductile component content
(average content of sandstones of Chang 8 Oil-bearing interval) is
less than 50% in area A (including wells W1eW7) and more than
50% in area B (including wells W8eW13) (Fig. 4). The ductile
component content of some samples in W12 and W13 is more than
60%.
The grain size of the samples is mainly ne- and medium-
grained. The sediments are mainly well sorted (sorting coef-
cient: 1.4e2.6) with mainly subangular grains.
4.2. Lithofacies
(1)
Three lithofacies are distinguished in the Chang 8 reservoirs
(2) (Fig. 5). Each lithofacies, which is identied based on core obser-
vations and thin sections, is found in different part of the distrib-
utary channel sandstone body (Fig. 6).
i Fine to medium-grained, low ductile component content
sandstone
This lithofacies ranges from ne-grained to medium-grained
(grain size >100 mm) sandstone (Fig. 7a). The samples are mainly
well sorted, and the content of ductile components is lower than
50%. The average thickness of the distributary channel sandstone
body is 15 m, which is determined based on sandstone thicknesses
from 185 wells. Lithofacies i is prevalent in sandstones above the
average thickness (Fig. 6). Table 1 shows petrography data from
wells with two thickness categories: sandstone body thickness
above average (W8, W4, W3) and average sandstone thickness
(W13, W7). The result shows that the content of ductile compo-
nents in the thicker sandstone bodies is lower than that in the
sandstone bodies with average thickness.
ii Fine to medium-grained, high ductile component content
sandstone
The grain size of this lithofacies is similar to that of lithofacies i,
ranging from ne-grained to medium-grained (grain size >100 mm)
sandstone (Fig. 7b). However, the content of ductile components is
usually lower than 60% and higher than 50% and some samples are
higher than 60%.
iii Silt to ne-grained sandstone
This lithofacies generally consists of silt to ne-grained sand-
stone (Fig. 7c), and is characterized by wavy or aser bedding. The
matrix content is high (>60%). The content of ductile components is
high (>60%). This lithofacies often occurs in the edge of the dis-
tributary channel laterally.
 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971 955

Fig. 4. Histogram showing the distribution of average content of ductile component of Chang 8 in distributary channel.

Fig. 5. Grain size and ductile component content analyses of three sandstone lithofacies.

4.3. Diagenesis in the distributary channel sandstones (Fig. 8). As shown in the plot
of cementational porosity loss (CEPL) versus compactional porosity
4.3.1. Diagenetic features loss (COPL) (Fig. 9), the porosity loss in the distributary channel
The grain-contacts are mostly linear to concavo-convex contacts sandstones due to compaction is greater than due to cemention.
 956
Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971
Fig. 6. Lithostratigraphic plots for cores from wells 8, 4, 12, 7 and 11 in the distributary channel. Wells 8 and 4 with sandstone body thickness above average are showed in (a) and wells 12 and 7 with average sandstone thickness are
showed in (b). (c) Shows the well 11 which is the edge of the distributary channel laterally. Black circles show location of plug samples in each core. Cal indicates the locations of carbonate cement-rich sandstone.
 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971 957

Fig. 7. Sedimentary lithofacies in cores and thin sections.

There is a sample with COPL of 18% and this sample is cemented by
carbonate cement in the thin-section (Fig. 8d).
Dissolution of unstable detrital grains (feldspar and lithic frag-
ments) is common in the distributary channel sandstones, resulting
in the formation of intergranular and intragranular secondary pores
(Fig. 8).
Diagenetic minerals that are encountered in the distributary
channel sandstone include chlorites, carbonate cements, illite,
quartz overgrowths, kaolinite and barite. Chlorites, kaolinite and
carbonate cements are common in the Chang 8 sandstones,
constituting 0.2%10.0%, 0.2%10.0% and 0.2%-45% (avg. 1.3%, 1.9%
and 4.9%) of the total rock volume, respectively. The paragenetic
sequence is summarized in Fig. 10 based on textural relationships.
However, the precise timing and duration of all of the observed
diagenetic effects cannot be determined due to the lack of a burial
history curve and the complex diagenetic history.
4.3.2. The main diagenetic minerals
4.3.2.1. Chlorite. Chlorites are present with three different mor-
phologies: (1) ne-sized particles of chlorites are arranged parallel
to oblique to the surface of detrital grains (Fig. 11a, c); (2) coarse-
sized euhedral crystals of chlorite oriented perpendicular to the
surface of the detrital grains (Fig. 11b and c); (3) rosette-like clus-
ters of crystal plates of chlorite (Fig. 11d).
The rst and second morphology of chlorite occur as pore-lining
rims. Back-scattered electron microscopy observations indicate that
the ne-sized particles of chlorite are single akes with an average
diameter of <1 mm. The width of the chlorite rims ranges from
958 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971

Table 1
Grain size characteristics and ductile component content in the distributary channel sandstone samples with thicknesses above average (W8, W4, W3) and in sandstone
samples with average thickness (W13, W7).

Wells Ture Vertical Depth(m) Grain Size(mm) Ductile Component Content(%)

W3 2111.49 142 50
W3 2111.66 80 50
W3 2110.21 165 43
W4 2096.7 284 53
W4 2092.17 239 38
W4 2094.47 325 33
W4 2091.5 208 55
W8 2234.91 233 63
W8 2243.22 386 59
W8 2243.8 362 56
W8 2243.88 303 54
W8 2232.85 193 53
W8 2232.28 411 49
W8 2233.07 503 52
W8 2233.56 351 52
W8 2236.23 427 50
W8 2237.53 290 54
W8 2238.02 244 52
W8 2241.87 241 57
Average 283.53 51.21
W7 2258.13 327 60
W7 2259.81 236 55
W7 2263.61 210 58
W13 2354.33 239 57
W13 2351.36 220 60
W13 2352.35 142 58
Average 207.25 59.125

Fig. 8. Thin section photomicrographs showing petrographic features of compaction and dissolution in lithofacies. (a) Grain-contacts are mostly point to linear contacts (white
arrow), dissolution of feldspar is common (yellow arrow). Lithofacies i. COPL 31.81%. (b) Grain-contacts are mostly linear contacts (white arrow), dissolution of feldspar is common
(yellow arrow). Lithofacies ii. COPL 33.33%. (c) Grain-contacts are mostly linear to concavo-convex contacts (white arrow). Lithofacies ii. COPL 38.78%. (d) Sandstone of lith-
ofacies i is cemented by carbonate cement. COPL 17.81%. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)

0.5 mm to 3 mm (Fig. 11a, c). Due to their small crystal sizes, these chlorite is present at contacts between adjacent grains. The coarse-
chlorite particles are often invisible in thin section. This type of sized euhedral crystals of chlorite are oriented perpendicular to
 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971
Fig. 9. Cross plot of compactional porosity loss(COPL) versus cementational porosity
loss(CEPL) in the distributary channel sandstone.
grain surfaces. The average diameter of the coarse-sized chlorite
rims with euhedral subhexagonal crystal morphology ranges be-
tween 3 mm and 10 mm (Fig. 11b and c). This type of chlorite covers
the walls of the primary pores. Coarse-sized chlorite can formed on
ne-sized chlorite and inside ferroan calcite based on SEM and thin
section investigations. However, there are only ne-sized chlorite
particles in ferroan calcite-cemented tight sandstone samples
(Fig. 11e). The rosette-like clusters of crystal plates of chlorite is
partly or completely lls intergranular pores and is rarely observed.
According to SEMeEDS analyses of the crystal chemical of three
different chlorite types selected from sample W4 at 2091.17 m
(Fig. 12), both chlorite rim types are Fe-rich. Published chemical
compositions show that coarse-grained euhedral crystals of chlo-
rite can have a range of Fe/(Fe Mg) ratios (Fig. 13), varying be-
tween 0.42 and 0.80 (Zhang and Lin, 2011). Since the ne-sized
chlorite is difcult to be observed due to the poor resolution in
Fig. 10. A sketch showing the overall paragenetic sequence of diagenetic alterations in
the distributary channel sandstones. The boundary between eodiagenesis and meso-
diagenesis is placed at 85  C according to the division of diagenetic stages in clastic
rocks of china (SY/T 5477-2003).
959
optical microscope and the rosette-like clusters of crystal plates of
chlorite is rarely observed, they will not be mainly discussed in this
paper.
4.3.2.2. Carbonate cements. Calcite and ferrocalcite are the two
dominant carbonate cements, with average volumes of 0.5% and
4.4% respectively. Cementation of dolomite and ferrodolomite is
minor or absent in the thin sections.
Ferrocalcite is the most abundant diagenetic constituent ac-
counting for 90%e95% of the total carbonate content. Ferrocalcite
appears in cathodoluminescence images as orange patches lling
the primary intergranular pores (Fig. 14a). There is no concomitant
feldspar dissolution observed. Contacts between grains are mainly
point and linear, while the cements completely ll the intergran-
ular space (Fig. 14b). Ferrocalcite results in the destruction of
porosity. Fig. 11e illustrates that ferrocalcite lls the pore space
between grains lining ne-sized chlorite rims.
Calcite occurs as blocky crystals lling the secondary intra-
granular pores and partially replaces framework grain rims
including feldspar and lithic fragments (Fig. 14c). Calcites in cath-
odoluminescence images are as bright yellow (Fig. 14a). This type of
carbonate cement will not be mainly discussed in this paper
because of the limited distribution.
Carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions of ferrocalcite and
calcite in mudstones showed a range of d18OVPDB values from e
23.4 to e 16.6 and d13 CVPDB values from e 4.0 to 2.3
(Table 2).
4.3.2.3. Kaolinite. The monocrystalline kaolinite is the form of
pseudohexagonal plates, and the aggregates exhibit booklet mor-
phologies (Fig. 15a). Kaolinite lls intergranular pores between
detrital grains with chlorite rims (Fig. 15b) and replaces detrital
feldspar grains (Fig. 15c).
4.4. Distribution of diagenetic alternations
Coarse-sized chlorite rims occur in sandstones of lithofacies i
and ii with variable thickness (Table 3). The coarse-sized chlorite
rims are thicker and more continuing in lithofacies i than in lith-
ofacies ii and are absent in lithofacies ii. The coarsest authigenic
chlorite particles (average thickness of 10 mm) are observed in
sandstones of the W3, W4, W5, W8 and W9 reservoirs, whereas the
smallest crystals (average thickness <6 mm) are observed in sand-
stones of the W7, W10, W11, W12 and W13 reservoirs.
Ferrocalcite is usually present in sandstones of lithofacies i and ii
near sandstone-mudstone bounding-surface (Fig. 6). Dense car-
bonate cemented zones with carbonate cements greater than 10%
are at the edge of sandbodies. The content of carbonate cement
gradually decreases from the edge toward the centre of the dis-
tributary channel sandstone (Fig. 16). Thicknesses of these zones
have positive relationship with thicknesses of mudstones (Fig. 17).
Kaolinite is more abundant in wells W8eW13 (Fig. 18), in the
more proximal sandstones (area B).
The distributary sandstones show variable degrees of mechan-
ical among the various lithofacies, which usually leads to COPL.
Sandstone of lithofacies iii underwent over 35% reduction in
intergranular porosity by compaction while lithofacies i and ii un-
derwent less than 35% reduction (Fig. 19).
Intergranular dissolution pores are most common in sandstones
of lithofacies i and ii (Fig. 8a and b).
4.5. Porosity, permeability and pore-structures
Porosity varies from 2% to 17% and permeability from 0.01mD to
1.7mD with mean porosity of 9.9% and permeability of 0.25mD in
960 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971

Fig. 11. Backscattered electron and SEM images showing chlorite rim features; Chl denotes chlorite. (a) Framework grains chlorite rims consisting of ne-sized particles arranged
parallel to oblique to the surface of the detrital grains. This form of chlorite rim exists in the contacts between two adjacent grains. (b) Coarse-sized euhedral chlorite rimming as
part of framework grains preserving porosity. There is no coarse-sized euhedral crystals of chlorite in the contacts between adjacent grains. The crystals are oriented perpendicular
to the surface of the detrital grains. (c) Stacked chlorite rims. The ne-sized particles occur at the base of coarse euhedral chlorite crystals. Coarse-sized euhedral crystals of chlorite
are oriented perpendicular to the surface of the detrital grains, and ne-sized particles are arranged parallel to oblique to the surface of the detrital grains. (d) Rosette-like clusters of
crystal plates of chlorite lls intergranular pores. (e) Only ne-sized particles of chlorites line the grains that have calcite crystals. No coarse-sized chlorite is present.
 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971
Fig. 12. (a) SEM micrograph of two chlorite rim types. (b) EDS analysis of the sites marked by red rectangles in Fig. 10a. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
this distributary channel sandstone.
There are three types of pore in this distributary channel
sandstone: (1) intergranular pores; (2) intragranular pores; and (3)
interstitial cement pores. The size of intergranular pores varies
from 10 mm to 100 mm and the intragranular pores corresponds to
pore sizes of 5e40 mm left by feldspar dissolution (Fig. 20). The
interstitial cement pores are originated from the clay dominated
pores such as kaolinite. The sizes of cement dominated pores
commonly less than 0.5 mm. The interstitial cement pores
commonly occur as group lling in the intergranular pores
(Fig. 20c).
Throats are sheet-like along particles in this distributary chan-
nel sandstone (Fig. 20d). The diameters of the throat are usually less
than 2.5 mm and the length ranges from a few microns to dozens of
microns. The sheet-like throats are classied into three types ac-
cording to throat size which equates with throat radius in this
paper: wide sheet-like throats (the main throat radius >1 mm),
narrow sheet-like throats (0.5 mm < the main throat radius <1 mm)
and extremely narrow sheet-like throats (the main throat
radius < 0.5 mm). The cutoff value of throat size was determined by
the contribution of the main throat radius to the saturation of
movable uid (Fig. 21).
According to the combination and proportion of pores and
throats from actually observations, pore-structures have been
961
assigned to six classes (Table 4). Physical properties of each pore-
structure are also presented in Table 4. The intergranular pore e
wide sheet-like throat (Inter-Sw) displays porosities greater than
15% and permeabilities greater than 1mD, dening a good quality
reservoir. The remaining pore-structures of relating to intergran-
ular pore (including the Inter-Intra-Sw and Inter-Intra-Sn) present
porosities of 9e14% and permeabilities between 0.2 and 0.8 mD.
The intragranular pore - group of interstitial cement pores e nar-
row sheet-like throat/extremely narrow sheet-like throat (Intra-
Intst-Sn/Intra-Intst-Sen) encompasses samples with porosity of
8e11% and low permeability of 0.1e0.3mD. The group of interstitial
cement pores e extremely narrow sheet-like throat (Intst-Sen)
comprises samples with the lowest porosities (<8%) and perme-
abilities (<0.1mD) in the distributary channel. The intergranular
pore - intragranular pore e narrow sheet-like throat (Inter-Intra-
Sn) and the group of interstitial cement pores e extremely narrow
sheet-like throat (Intst-Sen) are the primary pore-structures in this
distributary channel sandstone (Fig. 22).
The Inter-Sw and Inter-Intra-Sw occur in sandstones of lith-
ofacies i with coarse chlorite rim while the Inter-Intra-Sn occurs in
sandstones of lithofacies ii with thinner chlorite rim. Sandstones
with strong kaolinite cementation favour pore-structure of Intra-
Intst-Sn and Intra-Intst-Sen. The Intst-Sen is common in sand-
stones of lithofacies iii with strong compaction.
962 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971

Fig. 13. Published element ratios from reservoir W9 at 2264.14 m. Data for coarse-grained euhedral crystals of chlorite were acquired by electron probe analysis. Modied after
Zhang et al. (2011).

Fig. 14. Carbonate cements occurrence in thin sections and cathodoluminescence image. (a) Cathodoluminescence (CL) image showing zoned calcite. The orange CL corresponds to
the ferro-calcite and the bright yellow CL corresponds to the calcite. (b) Ferrocalcite cements completely lled in intergranular pores (lithofacies i). Clastic sand grains appear as
point and line contact. (c) Isolated calcite cements lled in intragranular pores. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)
 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971 963

Table 2
Characteristics of carbon and oxygen isotopes of carbonate cements in distributary channel sandstone.

Wells True Vertical Depth (m) Lithology Occurrences d13CV-PDB/ d18OV-PDB/

W8 2224.10 mudstone 2.5 16.6
W8 2249.56 mudstone 1.1 19.5
W5 2104.35 mudstone 3.7 20.4
W8 2237.92 sandstone Filled in intergranular pores 3.3 20
W8 2238.37 sandstone Filled in intergranular pores 2.5 19.3
W8 2239.07 sandstone Filled in intergranular pores 1.2 19.4
W8 2247.32 sandstone Filled in intergranular pores 3.9 19.6
W5 2092.73 sandstone Filled in intergranular pores 2.9 20.3
W5 2099.88 sandstone Filled in intergranular pores 4 20.9
W5 2101.03 sandstone Filled in intergranular pores 3.8 23.4
W5 2104.25 sandstone Filled in intergranular pores 2.3 20.8

Fig. 15. Photomicrographs show petrographic features of kaolinites. Kln kaolinite. Chl chlorite. (a) Monocrystalline kaolinites in the form of pseudohexagonal plates. (b)
Kaolinite presents as pore lling cement. Grains are coated by chlorites.(c) Detrital feldspar grains are kaolinized.

5. Discussion Ostwald process, exclusively at the walls of the remaining pore

5.1. Diagenetic alterations linked to depositional lithofacies,
sandstone architecture and porewater chemistry
5.1.1. Chlorite
Chlorite is one of the most distinctive diagenetic minerals in this
distributary channel sandstone. Coarse-sized chlorite rims formed
on chlorite rims consisting of ne-sized particles and inside ferroan
calcite based on SEM and thin section investigations. However,
there are only ne-sized chlorite particles in ferroan calcite-
cemented tight sandstone samples (Fig. 11e). This nding in-
dicates that coarse-sized euhedral chlorite rim formed later than
ferroan calcite. The coarse-sized euhedral chlorite crystals growing
toward the centre of primary pores are only present at the walls of
those pores, indicating that this form of chlorite crystallized after
the sediment grain came into contact as a response to compaction.
Previous studies suggest that coarse-sized euhedral chlorites
grew by redistribution of ne-sized chlorite coatings through the
space after total consolidation of the sandstone (Jahren, 1991;
Grigsby, 2001). Different occurrence, crystal size and sequencing
of the two chlorite rim types in this area, as well as limited distri-
bution of the Fe-rich precursor (attributed to formation conditions),
suggest that the authigenic coarse-sized euhedral chlorite rim may
formed differently with the ne-sized chlorite and may be
precipitated from formation water. The ne-sized chlorite rims may
facilitate the coarse-sized euhedral chlorites becoming coarser.
Fig. 13 shows two broad areas of iron-rich (with a Fe/(Fe Mg) ratio
of 0.65e0.80 and a silica tetrahedral occupancy of 2.6e2.9) and
mixed (Fe- and Mg-rich, with an Fe/(Fe Mg) ratio of 0.35e0.60
and a slightly higher silica tetrahedral occupancy of 2.9e3.3)
chlorites. This indicates that iron may be supplied by dissolution of
the occulation and deposition Fe supplied by river systems on
entering brackish lake water and the dissolution of volcanic rock
fragments (Zhang and Lin, 2011). The abundant Fe in the formation
water would favours chlorite.
The coarse-sized chlorite rims are less abundant in lithofacies iii
964 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971

Table 3
Measured thickness and quality of chlorite rims in thin section and SEM and BSE observations.

Wells True Vertical Depth (m) Thickness of Chlorite Rim (mm) Sedimentary Lithofacies

W5 2111.96 10.60 i
W5 2110.94 12.63 i
W5 2110.61 9.97 i
W5 2108.44 11.90 i
W5 2100.33 6.50 ii
W8 2236.50 12.30 i
W8 2232.60 11.50 ii
W8 2233.15 5.80 ii
W8 2238.10 10.60 i
W8 2242.20 0.00 iii
W9 2264.02 8.45 ii
W9 2264.24 11.96 i
W9 2265.94 14.03 i
W4 2096.88 10.60 ii
W4 2090.90 12.11 i
W3 2109.79 10.12 i
W3 2112.90 6.52 ii
W7 2258.13 5.5 i
W7 2259.81 5.2 ii
W10 2245.02 0.00 iii
W11 2160.38 0.00 iii
W13 2254.80 5.40 ii
W13 2352.00 0.00 iii
W1 2035.50 0.00 iii
W12 2169.22 0.00 iii

Fig. 16. Vertical distribution of diagenetic cements in the distributary channel sandstone as showed in well W4. The relatively low value of AC represents the dense ferrocalcite
cement zone in this area.
 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971 965

Fig. 17. Plot of thickness of mudstone versus thickness of carbonate cement zone in 10 wells. Carbonate-cemented zone in sandstones were identied in the core. Mudstones were
pure without siltstone. Thicknesses of these zones and mudstones were measured in cores and adjusted to the gamma-ray log.

Fig. 18. Histogram showing the distribution of average content of kaolinite of Chang 8 in distributary channel.
966 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971

characterized by high porosity and permeability immediately after

Fig. 19. Histogram showing the difference in average compaction rate for different
sandstone lithofacies in this study.
than in lithofacies i and ii. Given a sufcient source of iron, growth
space condition is a crucial factor for the development of coarse-
sized euhedral chlorite crystals. Conditions for the diagenetic for-
mation of chlorite rims precipitating from formation water can be
related to the availability free and clean pore space, which is
affected by the intensity of compaction, carbonate cementation
(early cementation before formation of chlorite rims) and matrix
content. Dense carbonate cementation will result in the pore space
being occupied by ferroan calcite, closing many pore throats before
chlorite formation. During diagenesis, sandstones, which are
deposition, experience a decrease in pore space with increasing
compaction. Finer-grained sandstone with higher matrix content
experiences stronger compaction when chlorite precipitates from
formation water. Because the formation time of coarse-sized
euhedral chlorite cannot be accurately inferred, and reservoirs in
the study area have the same thermal history, the pore space
available for formation of coarse-sized euhedral chlorite is assumed
to correspond to the COPL in this study. As presented in Fig. 19,
lithofacies iii losts more free pore space for the growth of chlorite
due to strong compaction. Furthermore, due to the higher matrix
content of lithofacies ii, matrix material is adsorbed onto crystal
surfaces and inhibits chlorite crystal growth. Lithofacies i and ii
with coarse grain size, low matrix content and no diagenetic
cement occupying the pore space, have better developed coarse-
sized chlorite rims for the more and cleaner pore space.
The thickness of the chlorite rims is thicker in the clean sand-
stones with coarser grain sizes and lower content of ductile com-
ponents. Some of the ductile components (such as biotite and
volcanic rock fragments) may also provide precursor material for
chlorite precipitation, resulting in chlorite rim thickness that may
be somewhat thicker along volcanic rock fragments than along
quartz and feldspar grains due to the poor uid connection in tight
sandstones. Overall, the thickness of chlorite rims in lithofacies i is
thicker than in lithofacies ii. Sandstones with coarser grains and
lower ductile component content are less compacted and thus have
more free pore space left (Fig. 19). During crystal growth, larger
pores and pore throats result in lower pressure along grain surfaces.
This lower pressure would be benecial to vertical growth of the

Fig. 20. Photomicrographs show the geometry of pore and throat. (a) Intergranular pores (white arrow) between grains. (b) Intragranular pores (white arrow) left by feldspar
dissolution. (c) Interstitial cement pores(white arrow) are originated from the kaolinite dominated pores and the group of interstitial cement pores (yellow arrow) occurs in the
intergranular pores. (d) The sheet-like long throats (white arrow) between particles. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the
web version of this article.)
 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971 967

crystals (Li et al., 2013; Ni et al., 2009), which further leads to

thicker chlorite rims.

5.1.2. Pore-lling ferrocalcite

Fig. 21. Plot of main throat radius versus saturation of movable uid. The main throat
radius was calculated by the pore throat radius data of RCP experiments, which was
the weighted average value of pore throat radius with contribution to permeability
being 95%. The saturation of movable uid was measured in NMR experiments.
Pore-lling ferrocalcite appears to be the latest diagenetic phase
after the ne-sized particles of chlorites. The intergranular pore
volume of the dense ferrocalcite cemented sandstone may indicate
that the early formed ferrocalcite was precipitated during an early
diagenetic process and prior to signicant compaction. The IGV is
around 30% based on observation from thin-section (Fig. 8d) and
the COPL is 17.81% (the average COPL of this lithofacies is 30%). The
assumed initial porosity is 40%. The monophase aqueous uid in-
clusions in the dense ferrocalcite zones suggest that precipitation of
pore-lled ferrocalcite in the condition of under surface 1300 m
(Tb70-100  C).
Carbonate cements are related to the supply of CO2 and the
availability of Ca2, Mg2 and Fe2 ions in the formation water. The
carbon in the cements is derived from organics, the corresponding
carbon isotope ratios (d13C) can reach - 8 to 23 (Sensula et al.,
2006); whereas the carbon in the cements is derived from

Table 4
Characteristics of pore-structures in distributary channel sandstone.

Types Simple Proportion of different pore types (%) Main throat Porosity Permeability
Code radius (mm) (%) (mD)
Intergranular Intragranular Group of interstitial
pore pore cement pores

intergranular pore e wide sheet-like throat Inter-Sw >70 <30 <30 >1 >15 >1
intergranular pore - intragranular pore e wide sheet-like Inter- >50 >30 <30 >1 10e15 0.6e1
throat Intra-Sw
intergranular pore - intragranular pore e narrow sheet-like Inter- >50 >30 <30 0.5e1 9e14 0.2e0.8
throat Intra-Sn
intragranular pore - group of interstitial cement pores e Intra- <30 >50 >30 0.5e1 8e11 0.2e0.3
narrow sheet-like throat Intst-Sn
intragranular pore - group of interstitial cement pores e Intra- <30 >50 >30 <0.5 8e11 0.1e0.2
extremely narrow sheet-like throat Intst-Sen
group of interstitial cement pores e extremely narrow sheet- Intst-Sen <30 <30 >50 <0.5 <8 <0.1
like throat

Fig. 22. Histogram showing the distribution of each pore-structure in this distributary channel.
968 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971
inorganics, the corresponding carbon isotope ratios (d13C) can
reach 3 (Friedman and Neil, 1977; Myrttinen et al., 2012). The
similar d13CVPDB values of ferrocalcite and calcite in mudstone,
which range between e 4.0 and 2.3, suggest that dissolved
carbon in the ferrocalcite and mudstone was the same source and
mainly derived from the alteration of inorganic matter.
The oxygen isotopic compositions of uids are mainly distrib-
uted in the atmospheric water zone with a mean value of 9
during the pore-lled ferrocalcite precipitation (Fig. 23). It suggests
precipitation from uids could be attributed to the inuence of
freshwater during meteoric diagenes.
Ferrocalcite exists in the sandstones of lithofacies i and ii near
the sandstone-mudstone bounding-surface. There is a positive
relationship between the thickness of the calcite cementation zone
and its adjacent mudstone thickness (Fig. 17), which indicates that
these carbonate cements are external and are most likely related to
the diagenesis of the nearby mudstones (Milliken and Land, 1993;
Li et al., 2014). The observed ostracoda fossils in mudstones of
Chang 8 reservoir in this area suggest that there is abundant Ca2
(Wu et al., 2004). The pore pressure of mudstone is higher than that
of sandstone during compaction. The solubility of carbonate is high
due to the high pressure in mudstone. Then the CO2 and Ca2 in
uids from the nearby mudstone enter into the pore space of
sandstones by compaction and precipitate due to the reduced
pressure (Zhang et al., 2009). The initial chemical balance of
sandstone was disturbed by water-rock reactions, and carbonate
cements formed along the edges of the sandstones (Milliken and
Land, 1993; Dutton, 2008; Chen et al., 2009; Day-Stirrat et al.,
2010, 2011; Dutton and Loucks, 2010; Li et al., 2014; Wang et al.,
2016).
The abundances of carbonate cement in individual sandbodies
(Fig. 16) suggest that the concentration of CO2 and Ca2 in uids
gradually decreased due to the dilution and precipitation of ma-
terials moving from the bounding-surface to the centre. The thicker
the mudstones, the higher the concentration of CO2 and Ca2 in
uids and the further diffusion goes. Finally the zones of cemen-
tation are larger (Fig. 17).
5.1.3. Kaolinite
Paragenetic relationships between kaolinite cements and the
coarse-sized chlorite rims suggest that kaolinite cementation
Fig. 23. Relationship between precipitation temperature and oxygen isotope ratio of authigenic calcite. The boxes mark the distribution ranges of pore-lling ferrocalcite cements of
the distributary channel sandstone. The small circle represents the average of the pore lling ferrocalcite samples. The contours (SMOW) represent oxygen isotopic composition of
calcite balanced uids; the calculated formula is after Friedman and Neil (1977); seawater d18O value is based on modern seawater; the meteoric water d18O value is based on 15
modern rainwater samples of Western Pacic (after Ren et al., 2000).
commenced after the coarse-sized chlorite rims (Fig. 15b). The most
abundant kaolinite is found in sandstone with dissolved feldspar.
These dissolved feldspars (resulted by meteoric water and organic
acid) are related to the supply of Al and Si ions in the formation
water which would help to precipitate kaolinite (Rossel, 1982;
Bjrlykke, 1998). The meteoric water migrated along with these
ions and nally led to kaolinite precipitation (Rossi et al., 2001).
Kaolinite is most abundant in the more proximal sandstones of area
B (Fig. 18). This suggests that the more proximal distributary
channel sandstones of area B were strongly inuenced by meteoric
water.
5.1.4. Compaction and dissolution
Fig. 19 shows that the porosity reduction of this distributary
channel sandstones caused by mechanical compaction varies
among lithofacies. The degrees of mechanical compaction are
reduced by the dense carbonate cement (Fig. 8d).
Ramm (1992) showed that clay content is critical factor con-
cerning porosity reduction in sandstones during mechanical
compaction. The COPL is higher in sandstones with ner grain sizes
and higher content of ductile components (Fig. 19). Considering
grain crushing is rare and fracture in the grains are not large enough
to result in rupturing of grains in sandstones (Fig. 8), the coarser
grain-size cannot reduce the sorting of the sandstones. Therefore
lithofacies i based on coarser grain-size and lower concentrations of
ductile components go through weaker compaction (average
COPL 30%). Lithofacies iii with silt grain-size go through strong
compaction (average COPL 36%).
Early ferrocalcite cements that formed prior to signicant
compaction are lled in the intergranular pores in sandstones near
the bounding-surface. These cements postdate early compaction.
Compaction is weaker in sandstones which have lled in inter-
granular pores by early ferrocalcite cements.
Intergranular dissolution pores are most common in sandstones
of lithofacies i and ii (Fig. 8a and b), indicating that the water-rock
interaction are relatively stronger in coarser grained sandstones.
5.2. Relationships between diagenetic alterations and pore-
structures
Diagenetic alterations are linked to depositional lithofacies,
 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971 969

sandstone architecture and porewater chemistry as discussed conditions of porewater chemistry (a-inuenced by meteoric wa-
above. Since there are three types of lithofacies (lithofacies i, ii and ter; b-strongly inuenced by meteoric water), twelve patterns of
iii), two types of sandstone architecture (A-away from the diagenetic alterations will be presented according to the combi-
bounding-surface; B- near the bounding-surface) and two nation. However lithofacies iii always presents strong compaction

Fig. 24. Schematic diagenetic model displaying the (a) spatial and temporal distribution of diagenetic minerals and (b) evolution pathways and the resulting pore-structures in
distributary channel sandstones in the lower delta plain.
970 Z. Li et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 950e971
and weak cementation, and sandstones of lithofacies i and ii near
the bounding-surface are strongly cemented by ferrocalcite, there
are nally six patterns of diagenetic alterations in this distributary
channel. Diagenetic alterations that are common in the distributary
channel sandstones include the constant compaction, formation of
grain-coating chlorite, cementation by ferrocalcite and kaolinite
and dissolution of feldspar and lithic fragments. The various
diagenetic alternations result in various pore-structures.
Pattern I that occurred in sandstones of lithofacies i-A-a include
(i) thicker coarse-grained euhedral chlorite rim, which resulted
from the larger free pore space due to weaker compaction and little
carbonate cementation; and (ii) dissolution of feldspar and weak
kaolinite cementation. This pattern retained large intergranular
pore and wide sheet-like throat due to the weak compaction and
poorly cementation and resulted in the intergranular pore e wide
sheet-like throat and intergranular pore - intragranular pore e
wide sheet-like throat.
Pattern II that occurred in sandstones of lithofacies i-A-b include
(i) same formation of coarse-grained euhedral chlorite rim as
pattern I; and (ii) dissolution of feldspar and strong cementation by
kaolinite. Sandstone with this pattern retained large intergranular
pore at rst, then the strong cementation by kaolinite destroyed the
intergranular pore space and formed group of interstitial cement
pores. The degree of compaction increased because of the strong
kaolinite cementation and the diameters of the throat decreased.
The intragranular pore - group of interstitial cement pores e nar-
row sheet-like throat nally formed.
Pattern III and IV that occurred in sandstones of lithofacies ii-A-a
and lithofacies ii-A-b respectively is almost the same diagenetic
alterations with pattern I and II respectively but the chlorite rim is
thinner (the compaction is stronger and then the free pore space is
smaller). Pattern III favoured the intergranular pore - intragranular
pore e narrow sheet-like throat and pattern IV favoured the
intragranular pore - group of interstitial cement pores e extremely
narrow sheet-like throat.
Pattern V that occurred in sandstones of lithofacies i/ii-B-a/b is
just the formation of dense carbonate cement. The dense ferro-
calcite cementation destroyed the pore space.
Pattern VI that occurred in sandstones of lithofacies iii is the
strong compaction during diagenesis and formed the group of
interstitial cement pores e extremely narrow sheet-like throat.
5.3. Summary model for the diagenetic alterations and reservoir
quality evolution within distributary channel
A general model for the distribution of diagenetic alterations in
the distributary channel sandstones, reecting the lithofacies dis-
tribution, the distance from sandstone-mudstone bounding-sur-
face and changes in porewater chemistry in the distributary
channel, is outlined in Fig. 24.
In the distributary channel on the lower delta plain, lithofacies i
is often represented in the middle part of distributary channel
sandstone bodies. The sandstone thickness of lithofacies i is much
thicker in the thick sandstones (thickness >15 m) than in the thin
sandstones (thickness <15 m) (Fig. 6). The thicker distributary
channel sandstone (thickness >15 m) is interpreted as the stacking
sandbodies which may result from a deeper incision due to the
convergence of two channels (Cowan, 1991). Due to the strong
hydrodynamic conditions, grain sizes are coarser and the sediment
is better sorted (ductile components such as micas are easily
washed onto the channel edge by currents) in sandstones. The
slightly weaker hydrodynamic condition would result in ner grain
sizes and the poorly-sorted sediment in thinner sandstones and
thus lithofacies ii is prevalent in thinner sandstones. The proximal
sandstones in distributary channel are strongly inuenced by
meteoric water. Therefore, as showed in Fig. 24, pattern I is prev-
alent in the middle part of thick sandstones at the convergence of
two channels in the more distal area and pattern II occurs in the
middle part of thick sandstones in the more proximal area of dis-
tributary channel. Pattern III and IV are prevalent in the middle part
of thinner sandstones in the more distal/proximal area, respec-
tively. Sandstones near the bounding-surface develop pattern V no
matter where they locate and sandstones in the edge of the dis-
tributary channel laterally favours pattern VI.
6. Conclusion
The spatial distribution of diagenetic alterations, which include
the constant compaction, formation of chlorite rim, cementation by
ferrocalcite and kaolinite, and dissolution of feldspar and lithic
fragments, show fairly systematic correlation with the depositional
lithofacies, sandstone architecture and porewater chemistry of the
distributary channel sandstones. Depositional lithofacies, which
relate to ductile component concentration and grain size, have a
strong inuence on the quality of the chlorite rims and degrees of
mechanical compaction and dissolution. Distance from sandstone-
mudstone bounding-surface affect the intensity of ferrocalcite
cementation. Porewater chemistry operates to control the disso-
lution of feldspar, which in turn impact the intensity of kaolinite
cement.
Diagenetic alterations and reservoir heterogeneity that occurred
in the distributary channel sandstone include (i) thicker coarse-
grained euhedral chlorite rim, dissolution of feldspar and weak
kaolinite cementation resulting in the intergranular pore e wide
sheet-like throat and intergranular pore - intragranular pore e
wide sheet-like throat (F>15%, k > 1mD) are favoured in the middle
part of thick sandstones at the convergence of two channels in the
more distal area; (ii) kaolinite is most abundant in the more
proximal distributary channel sandstones and the strong pore-
lling kaolinite cementation leads to the formation of intra-
granular pore - group of interstitial cement pores e narrow sheet-
like throat/extremely narrow sheet-like throat (8%<F<11%,
0.1mD<k<0.3mD); (iii) the thinner chlorite rims are common in the
middle part of thinner sandstones and the intergranular pore -
intragranular pore e narrow sheet-like throat (9%<F<14%,
0.2mD<k<0.8mD) form due to the compaction; (iv) sandstones
near the bounding-surface develop dense ferrocalcite cement
zones and the pore-lling ferrocalcite destroy the pore space; and
(v) the strong compaction forming the group of interstitial cement
pores e extremely narrow sheet-like throat (F<8%, k<0.1mD)
presents in sandstones of the distributary channel edge laterally.
Acknowledgement
We thank our colleagues, Shuangcai He, Jiajia Zhang, Wenjie
Feng for their help on the data analysis and English writing.
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