Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Structure of electric power system Current scenario Complex power Concepts of real
and
reactive power Per phase analysis Modeling of generator, transformer with off-nominal
tap
ratio, transmission line Per unit system One-line, Impedance and reactance diagrams
Change
of base Primitive network and network matrices Y-bus formulation by direct inspection
and
singular transformation methods.
L: 45 T: 15 Total: 60
TEXT BOOKS
1. Grainger, J.J. and William D. Stevenson Jr., Power System Analysis, Tata McGraw Hill,
2005.
2. Gupta, B.R., Power System Analysis and Design S.Chand and Co., Ltd, 2005.
REFERENCES
1. Gupta, J.B., A Course in Electrical Power, S.K.Kataria and Sons, 2002.
UNIT I
Power system
The purpose of the single line diagram is to supply in concise form of the
significant information about the system.
The impedance diagram is the equivalent circuit of power system in which the
various components of power system are represented by their approximate or
simplified equivalent circuits. The impedance diagram is used for load flow studies.
Approximation:
(i) The neutral reactances are neglected.
(ii) The shunt branches in equivalent circuit of transformers are neglected.
The per unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the actual value of
the any quantity to the base value of the same quantity as a decimal.
A generator rated at 30MVA, 11KV has a reactance of 20%.Calculate its per unit
reactance for a base of 50 MVA and 10KV.
MVA new = 50 ; KV new = 10 ; MVA old = 30 ; KV old = 11
X p.u = 20% = 20/100 = 0.2 p.u
New p.u impedance if the new base MVA is twice the old base MVA
Draw the per unit reactance diagram for the power systems shown below. Neglect
resistance and use a base of 100MVA, 220KV in 50 ohms line. The ratings of the
generator, motor and transformers are
T1 T2
j 50
G1 M
Solution:
Base MVA, MVAb, new = 100MVA
Base KV, KVb, new = 220KV
Reactance of the transmission line:
;
; =?
= 33 KV
;
; = 33
;
; =?
= 11 KV
;
; = 11
Reactance Diagram
j 0.287 j 0.6
Eg Em
1. Draw the reactance diagram using a base of 50MVA and 13.8KV on generatorG1
T1 T3
Line 1 Line 2
G1 G3
j80 j100
T2
G2
G1: 20MVA, 13.8KV, X=20% ; G2: 30MVA, 18.0KV, X=20%
G3: 30MVA, 20.0KV, X=20% ; T1: 25MVA, 220/13.8 KV, X =10%
T2:3Single phase unit each rated 10MVA, 127/18 KV, X =10%
T3: 35MVA, 220/22 KV, X =10%
Solution:
Base MVA, MVAb, new = 50MVA
Base KV, KVb, new = 13.8KV
Reactance of the Generator G1:
;
; = 13.8
;
; = 13.8
= 220 KV
;
; =220?
= 18KV
;
; = 220
;
; =?
= 22KV
Reactance Diagram
j 0.2 j 0.0826 j 0.1033 j 0.1667
1000VA T1 T2 2500VA
250V G1 400V
Z = j0.2 p.u
Z=40 + j 150
Load
Solution:
Base MVA, MVAb, new = 5000 VA = 5MVA
Base KV, KVb, new = 250V = 0.25KV
Impedance of the Generator G1:
;
; = 0.25
;
; = 0.25
= 800 V
;
; = 0.8
Reactance Diagram
j 1.0
j 0.25 0.3125 + j 1.17 j 0.0585 j0.5
Load
j 0.75
2. The single line diagram of a three phase power system is shown in fig. Select a
common base of 100MVA and 13.8KV on the generator side. Draw per unit
impedance diagram
T1 T2
j 50 2
G M
T3 T4
j70 4
Solution:
Base MVA, MVAb, new = 100MVA
Base KV, KVb, new = 13.8KV
Reactance of the Generator G1:
;
; = 13.8
= 220 KV
;
; = 220
;
; = 13.8
= 132KV
;
; = 132
;
; =?
= 11KV
The load is at 0.8 p.f lagging is given by
Reactance Diagram
Part-A
Part-B
1. Explain the modeling of generator, load, transmission line and transformer for power
flow, short circuit and stability studies.
3. Draw the per unit reactance diagram for the power systems shown below. Neglect
resistance and use a base of 100MVA, 220KV in 50 ohms line. The ratings of the
generator, motor and transformers are Draw the reactance diagram using a base of
50MVA and 13.8KV on generatorG1
T1 T3
Line 1 Line 2
G1 G3
j80 j100
T2
G2
G1: 20MVA, 13.8KV, X=20% ; G2: 30MVA, 18.0KV, X=20%
G3: 30MVA, 20.0KV, X=20% ; T1: 25MVA, 220/13.8 KV, X =10%
T2:3Single phase unit each rated 10MVA, 127/18 KV, X =10%
T3: 35MVA, 220/22 KV, X =10%
4. A simple power system is shown in fig. Redraw this system where the per unit
impedance of the components are represented on a common 5000 VA base and
common system base voltage of 250V.
1000VA T1 T2 2500VA
250V G1 400V
Z = j0.2 p.u
Z=40 + j 150
Load
1. The single line diagram of a three phase power system is shown in fig. Select a
common base of 100MVA and 13.8KV on the generator side. Draw per unit
impedance diagram
T1 T2
j 50 2
G M
T3 T4
j70 4
UNIT-II
System model The power flow equations (PFE) System variables PFE in real form
Basic
problems, modified specification Bus classification Solution technique Gauss-seidel
method
Newton-raphson method Fast-decoupled method Comparison of solution techniques.
Bus
The meeting point of various components in a power system is called a bus.
The bus is a conductor made of copper or aluminium having negligible resistance .At
some of the buses power is being injected into the network, whereas at other buses it
is being tapped by the system loads.
The matrix consisting of the self and mutual admittance of the network of the
power system is called bus admittance matrix (Ybus).
The information obtained from a load flow study is magnitude and phase angle
of voltages, real and reactive power flowing in each line and the line losses. The load
flow solution also gives the initial conditions of the system when the transient
behavior of the system is to be studied.
Need for load flow study
The load flow study of a power system is essential to decide the best operation
of existing system and for planning the future expansion of the system. It is also
essential foe designing a new power system.
Each bus in a power system is associated with four quantities and they are real
power (P), reactive power (Q), magnitude of voltage (V), and phase angle of
voltage ().
Different types of buses in a power system, buses are classified and its types
Load or PQ bus P, Q V,
The slack bus is needed to account for transmission line losses. In a power
system the total power generated will be equal to sum of power consumed by loads
and losses. In a power system only the generated power and load power are specified
for buses. The slack bus is assumed to generate the power required for losses. Since
the losses are unknown the real and reactive power are not specified for slack bus.
The load flow equations are non linear algebraic equations and so explicit
solution as not possible. The solution of non linear equations can be obtained only by
iterative numerical techniques.
The Gauss seidal method, Newton Raphson method and Fast decouple
methods.
If the reactive power constraints of a generator bus violates the specified limits
then the generator is treated as load bus.
Advantages: Faster, more reliable and results are accurate, require less
number of iterations; Disadvantages: Program is more complex, memory is more
complex.
Compare the Gauss seidel and Newton raphson methods of load flow study
2 Computation time per Computation time per Computation time per iteration
iteration is less iteration is more is less
1 0.02+j0.04 2
0.01+j0.03 0.0125+j0.025
3
y12 = 10 - j 20
y13 = 10 - j 30
y32 = 16 - j 32
Ybus =
1-2 2-j8.0
1-3 1-j4.0
2-3 0.666-j2.664
2-4 1-j4.0
3-4 2-j8.0
1 - - 1.06 Slack
Solution
= 1.01187-j0.02888
Fig shows that the one line diagram of a simple three bus system with generation at
bus 1.The magnitude of voltage at a bus 1 is adjusted to 1.05 p.u. The scheduled loads
at buses2 and 3 are as marked on the diagram. Line impedances are marked in n p.u
on a 100MVA base and the line charging susceptances are neglected.
a. Using the Gauss-Seidel method, determine the phasor values of the
voltages at the load buses 2 and 3(P-Q buses) accurate to decimal places.
b. Find the slack bus real and reactive power.
c. Determine the line flows and line losses. Construct a power flow diagram
showing the direction of line flow.
1 0.02+j0.04 2
256.6MW
0.01+j0.03 0.0125+j0.025
Slack bus
110.2MVAR
V1=1.05/_0
3
138.6 45.2
MW MVAR
Newton raphson seidel load flow problem.
Fast decoupled load flow problem.
Part-A
1. What is a bus?
2. What is bus admittance matrix?
3. What are the methods available for forming bus admittance matrix?
4. What is power flow study or load flow study?
.
5. What are the informations that are obtained from a load flow study?
6. What is the need for load flow study?
.
7. What are the quantities associated with each bus in a system?
8. What are the different types of buses in a power system? Or how the buses are
classified and what are its types?
9. What is the need for slack bus?
10. Why do we go for iterative methods to solve load flow problems?
11. What are the methods mainly used for solution of load flow study?
12. What do you mean by a flat voltage start?
13. Discuss the effect of acceleration factor in load flow study.
14. When the generator buses are treated as load bus.
Part-B
1. Find out the Y matrix of the sample power system as shown in fig. Data for this
system is given in table.
1. 2. Find out the Y matrix of the sample power system network diagram as shown in
fig.
3. Consider the system shown in fig. It shows a transmission network with impedance
of transmission lines all in p.u as shown. Compute Ybus matrix.
1 0.02+j0.04 2
0.01+j0.03 0.0125+j0.025
3
UNIT-III
Internal voltages of loaded machines under fault conditions Balanced three phase fault
Fault
calculations using bus impedance matrix Algorithm for formation of the impedance matrix
Fault
A fault in a circuit is any failure which interferes with the normal flow of
current. The faults are associated with abnormal change in current, voltage and
frequency of the power system.
This type of fault is defined as the simultaneous short circuit across all the
three phases. It occurs infrequently, but it is the most severe type of fault encountered.
Because the network is balanced, it is solved by per phase basis using Thevenins
theorem or bus impedance matrix or KVL, KCL laws.
Short circuit studies are essential in order to design or develop the protective
schemes for various parts of the system .To estimate the magnitude of fault current for
the proper choice of circuit breaker and protective relays.
The faults or short circuits are associated with sudden change in currents.
Most of the components of the power system have inductive property which opposes
any sudden change in currents, so the faults are associated with transients.
Doubling effect
If a symmetrical fault occurs when the voltage wave is going through zero
then the maximum momentary short circuit current will be double the value of
maximum symmetrical short circuit current. This effect is called doubling effect.
The synchronous reactance is the ratio of induced emf and the steady state rms
current. It is the sum of leakage reactance (Xl) and the armature reactance (Xa).
Fault
Fault
Transient reactance
The synchronous reactance is the ratio of induced emf on no load and the transient
symmetrical rms current.
Fault
Short circuit capacity (SCC) or Short circuit MVA or fault level at a bus is defined
as the product of the magnitude of the prefault bus voltage and the post fault current.
SCC or Short circuit MVA =
Or
SCC =
fault current in fig., if the prefault voltage at the fault point is 0.97 p.u.
j0.2 F
j0.15 j0.15
j0.2 and j 0.15 are in series. j0.2+ j 0.15 = j 0.35
J0.35 is in parallel with j 0.15
Form bus admittance matrix and take the inverse to get bus impedance matrix.
Using bus building algorithm.
Using L-U factorization of Y-bus matrix.
Solution
Reactance diagram
9.Write equation for subtransient internal voltage and transient internal voltage of motor and
generator.
10.Find the momentary current through the circuit breaker if the initial symmetrical short
circuit current through it is 5270.9A.
Part-B
1). A synchronous generator and motor are rated for 30,000KVA,13.2KV and both have
subtransient reactance of 20%.The line connecting them has a reactance of 10% on the base
of machine ratings. The motor is drawing 20,000KW at 0.8 pf leading.The terminal voltage
of the motor is 12.8KV.When a symmetrical three-phase fault occurs at motor terminals,find
the subtransient current in generator,motor and at the fault point. (16)
2. Explain in detail about transients due to a short circuit in 3-Phase alternator and in
transmission line.
4) Explain about the symmetrical fault current estimation using kirchoffs laws and using a
Thevenins theorem.
(7)
5. ) The bus impedance matrix of four bus system with values in p.u. is given by
UNIT- IV
120
120 Ia1
120
Ib1
120
120 Ia2
120
Ic2
Ia0
Ib0
Ic0 Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0
Sequence operator
The sequence impedances are the impedances offered by the power system
components or elements to +ve, -ve and zero sequence current.
The single phase equivalent circuit of power system consisting of impedances
to current of any one sequence only is called sequence network.
Solution:
A balanced delta connected load is connected to a three phase system and supplied to
it is a current of 15 amps. If the fuse is one of the lines melts, compute the
symmetrical components of line currents.
Draw zero sequence network of the power system as shown in fig. Data are given below.
A 50MVA, 11KV, synchronous generator has a sub transient reactance of 20%.The
generator supplies two motors over a transmission line with transformers at both ends
as shown in fig. The motors have rated inputs of 30 and 15 MVA, both 10KV, with
25% sub transient reactance. The three phase transformers are both rated 60MVA,
10.8/121KV, with leakage reactance of 10% each. Assume zero sequence reactance
for the generator and motors of 6% each. Current limiting reactors of 2.5 ohms each
are connected in the neutral of the generator and motor number 2. The zero sequence
reactance of the transmission line is 300 ohms. The series reactance of the line is 100
ohms. Draw the positive, negative and zero sequence networks.
A 30 MVA, 13.2KV synchronous generator has a solidly grounded neutral. Its
positive, negative and zero sequence impedances are 0.30, 0.40 and 0.05 p.u
respectively. Determine the following:
a) What value of reactance must be placed in the generator neutral so that
the fault current for a line to ground fault of zero fault impedance shall
not exceed the rated line current?
b) What value of resistance in the neutral will serve the same purpose?
c) What value of reactance must be placed in the neutral of the generator
to restrict the fault current to ground to rated line current for a double
line to ground fault?
d) What will be the magnitudes of the line currents when the ground
current is restricted as above?
e) As the reactance in the neutral is indefinitely increased, what are the
limiting values of the line currents?
2. Two alternators are operating in parallel and supplying a synchronous motor which
is receiving 60MW power at 0.8 power factor lagging at 6.0 KV. Single line
diagram for this system is given in fig. Data are given below. Compute the fault
current when a single line to ground fault occurs at the middle of the line through a
fault resistance of 4.033 ohm.
Part-A
--
9.Write the equation to determine fault current for L-G, L-L and L-L-G fault
with impedance.
10.Draw the equivalent sequence network diagram for L-G, L-L and L-L-G
fault .
Part-B
1.A balanced delta connected load is connected to a three phase system and supplied to it is a
current of 15 amps. If the fuse is one of the lines melts, compute the symmetrical components
of line currents
3.A 50MVA, 11KV, synchronous generator has a sub transient reactance of 20%.The
generator supplies two motors over a transmission line with transformers at both ends as
shown in fig. The motors have rated inputs of 30 and 15 MVA, both 10KV, with 25%
sub transient reactance. The three phase transformers are both rated 60MVA,
10.8/121KV, with leakage reactance of 10% each. Assume zero sequence reactance for
the generator and motors of 6% each. Current limiting reactors of 2.5 ohms each are
connected in the neutral of the generator and motor number 2. The zero sequence
reactance of the transmission line is 300 ohms. The series reactance of the line is 100
ohms. Draw the positive, negative and zero sequence networks.
4.A 30 MVA, 13.2KV synchronous generator has a solidly grounded neutral. Its
positive, negative and zero sequence impedances are 0.30, 0.40 and 0.05 p.u
respectively. Determine the following:
f) What value of reactance must be placed in the generator neutral so that
the fault current for a line to ground fault of zero fault impedance shall
not exceed the rated line current?
g) What value of resistance in the neutral will serve the same purpose?
h) What value of reactance must be placed in the neutral of the generator
to restrict the fault current to ground to rated line current for a double
line to ground fault?
i) What will be the magnitudes of the line currents when the ground
current is restricted as above?
j) As the reactance in the neutral is indefinitely increased, what are the
limiting values of the line currents?
UNIT- V
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY
Rotor dynamics and swing equation Stability classification Small signal stability Large
signal
stability Equal area criterion and solution of SMIB system problems Solution of swing
equation Point-by-point method, R-K method and modified euler method Techniques for
stability improvement.
Steady state stability is defined as the ability of the power system to bring it to
a stable condition or remain in synchronism after a small disturbance.
The steady sate stability limit is the maximum power that can be transferred
by a machine to receiving system without loss of synchronism
Transient stability
The transient stability limit is the maximum power that can be transferred by a
machine to a fault or a receiving system during a transient state without loss of
synchronism.
Transient stability limit is always less than steady state stability limit
Dynamic stability
Voltage stability
Swing equation for a SMIB (Single machine connected to an infinite bus bar)
system.
M
Where H = inertia constant in MW/MVA
f = frequency in Hz
M = inertia constant in p.u
Swing curve
The swing curve is the plot or graph between the power angle and time t.
From the nature of variations of the stability of a system for any disturbance can be
determined.
3 machine system having ratings G1, G2 and G3 and inertia constants M1, M2 and
M3.What is the inertia constants M and H of the equivalent system.
The equal area criterion for stability states that the system is stable if the area
under P curve reduces to zero at some value of .
This is possible if the positive (accelerating) area under P curve is equal to
the negative (decelerating) area under P curve for a finite change in . hence
stability criterion is called equal area criterion.
The critical clearing angle , is the maximum allowable change in the power
angle before clearing the fault, without loss of synchronism.
The time corresponding to this angle is called critical clearing time, .It can
be defined as the maximum time delay that can be allowed to clear a fault without loss
of synchronism.
The sending end and receiving end voltages of a three phase transmission line at a
200MW load are equal at 230KV.The per phase line impedance is j14 ohm. Calculate
the maximum steady state power that can be transmitted over the line.
Equal area criterion in transient stability.
A single line diagram of a system is shown in fig. All the values are in per unit on a common
base. The power delivered into bus 2 is 1.0 p.u at 0.80 power factor lagging. Obtain the
power angle equation and the swing equation for the system. Neglect all losses.
Explain critical clearing angle and critical clearing time in transient stability.
A 50Hz synchronous generator capable of supplying 400MW of power is connected to a
larger power system and is delivering 80MW when a three phase fault occurs at its terminals,
determine (a) the time in which the fault must be cleared if the maximum power angle is to be
-85 assume H=7MJ/MVA on a 100MVA base (b) the critical clearing angle.
A 2220 MVA, 24KV and 60 Hz synchronous machine is connected to an infinite bus
through transformer and double circuit transmission line, as shown in fig. The infinite
bus voltage V=1.0 p.u .The direct axis transient reactance of the machine is 0.30 p.u,
the transformer reactance is 0.20 p.u, and the reactance of each the transmission line
is 0.3 p.u,all to a base of the rating of the synchronous machine. Initially, the machine
is delivering 0.8 p.u real power and reactive power is 0.074 p.u with a terminal
voltage of 1.0 p.u. The inertia constant H=5MJ/MVA. All resistances are neglected. A
three phase fault occurs at the sending end of one of the lines, the fault is cleared, and
the faulted line is isolated. Determine the critical clearing angle and the critical fault
clearing time.
The transfer reactance between internal voltage and the infinite bus before
fault is
X = Xg +XT +Xtr.line
X = 0.3 + 0.2 +0.3/2 = 0.65
The transient internal voltage is
E = V +j X I = 1.0+ (j0.65) (0.8- j0.074)
= 1.17
Since both lines are intact when the fault is cleared, the power angle equation
before and after the fault is
c =
Numerical integration methods of power system stability? Explain any one methods.
v. Point by point method or step by step method
vi. Euler method
vii. Modified Euler method
viii. Runge-Kutta method(R-K method)
Step by step method
Part-A
.
11.Write the power angle equation and draw the power angle curve.
Part-B
1.Derive swing equation for a single machine connected to infinite bus system
1. A 400 MVA synchronous machine has H1=4.6 MJ/MVA and a 1200 MVA
machines H2=3.0 MJ/MVA. Two machines operate in parallel in a power plant.
Find out Heq relative to a 100MVA base.
2.
A 100 MVA, two pole, 50Hz generator has moment of inertia 40 x 103 kg-
m2.what is the energy stored in the rotor at the rated speed? What is the
corresponding angular momentum? Determine the inertia constant h
3. The sending end and receiving end voltages of a three phase transmission line at
a 200MW load are equal at 230KV.The per phase line impedance is j14 ohm.
Calculate the maximum steady state power that can be transmitted over the
line.