Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Third Edition
J. Ahmad
G. Kumar
I. P. Meulenberg
G.S. Singh
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported
License. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ or send a letter to Creative
Commons, 444 Castro Street, Suite 900, Mountain View, California, 94041,
USA.
The teams teaching introductory chemistry at the University of Botswana over the
years have felt a need for a textbook that is more aligned to the curriculum
compared to the available textbooks in the market. A typical textbook available
these days is an encyclopedic tome running to over a thousand pages. Even if the
high cost of such a book to students of a middle-income country such as Botswana
were not a factor, the sheer range of topics covered is daunting. The vast scope of
these books is understandable in that their authors want to cater to the diversity of
approaches to the subject followed in various institutions.
This concise and affordable book was written to fulfil that need. It has been made
available to the students taking the two general chemistry courses in the
University, with other books now being additional recommended reading. Each
chapter contains solved examples and ends with exercises. Every attempt has been
made to present material concisely in clear language and is augmented with figures
where necessary.
This book will cater to the needs of undergraduate students taking general
chemistry courses (General Chemistry-I and General Chemistry-II) of the
University of Botswana and other institutions offering similar courses. The first
few chapters deal with fundamental concepts such as structure of the atom, moles,
stoichiometry, periodicity in the properties of the elements, and quantum numbers.
The latter half of the book covers such phenomenological areas as
thermochemistry, solutions, chemical kinetics, chemical equilibrium, and an
introductory treatment of carbon-containing compounds.
J. Ahmad
G. Kumar
I. P. Meulenberg
G.S. Singh
Contents
PREFACE TO 3RD EDITION 7
CHAPTER 1 8
INTRODUCTION: MATTER AND MEASUREMENT 8
CHAPTER 2 23
ATOMS, MOLECULES AND IONS 23
CHAPTER 3 42
STOICHIOMETRY: CHEMICAL CALCULTIONS 42
1
3.5 Calculations with Balanced Reaction Equations 53
3.6 Limiting Reactants; Reaction Yield 54
3.7 Exercises 57
CHAPTER 4 60
REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION 60
2
6.2 Photons; Quantization of Energy 96
6.3 Line Spectrum of Hydrogen Atom; the Bohr Model 98
6.4 Wave Nature of the Electron 101
6.5 The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom 103
6.6 Electron Configuration of Atoms 107
6.7 Electron Configurations of Monoatomic Ions 112
6.8 Exercises 112
CHAPTER 7 115
PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF THE ELEMENTS 115
CHAPTER 8 129
BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMICAL BONDING 129
CHAPTER 9 146
3
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY 146
CHAPTER 10 158
INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 158
CHAPTER 11 197
THERMOCHEMISTRY 197
CHAPTER 12 218
4
SOLUTIONS 218
CHAPTER 13 253
THE RATES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS 253
CHAPTER 14 278
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM 278
5
14.3 Heterogeneous Equilibrium 283
14.4 Calculations with Kc and Kp 285
14.5 Le Chtelier Principle 291
14.6 Exercises 298
CHAPTER 15 300
ACIDS AND BASES 300
CHAPTER 16 318
AQUEOUS EQUILIBRIA 318
INDEX 332
6
PREFACE to 3rd Edition
This concise and affordable book was written to fulfil that need. It has
been made available to the students taking the two general chemistry
courses in the University, with other books now being additional
recommended reading. Each chapter contains solved examples and ends
with exercises. Every attempt has been made to present material concisely
in clear language and is augmented with figures where necessary.
J. Ahmad
G. Kumar
I. P. Meulenberg
G.S. Singh
7
CHAPTER 1
Introduction: Matter and Measurement
1.1 Some Basic Concepts
Matter, classification of matter
Chemistry studies the properties and structure of matter and the
changes that matter can undergo. Matter is usually defined as
anything that has mass and takes up space. The book you are reading,
the air you are breathing and the food you eat, are all examples of
matter.
Matter can be classified according to its physical state (whether it is a
gas, a liquid, a solid), or its composition (whether it is an element, a
compound, a mixture).
Composition of matter
All matter is either a (pure) substance or a mixture. Most matter we
meet in everyday life are mixtures; for example many of our drinks,
our food, the air we breathe are all mixtures. A mixture is not pure,
8
but contains various substances mixed together. It can be separated by
physical means to give its components. (Physical means are
methods which use a difference in physical property for separation,
like a difference in boiling point in the case of distillation.)
Components of a mixture have retained their chemical identity. For
example, in a solution of common sugar (sucrose, C12H22O11) in water
(H2O), both substances are still present as water and sucrose
molecules.
Note: Mixtures are either homogeneous (uniform throughout, even at a
microscopic level) or heterogeneous (not uniform throughout). A
homogeneous mixture is also called a solution, while a suspension is
an example of a heterogeneous mixture.
In contrast to a mixture, a substance is a single pure form of matter. It
cannot be separated by physical means and has a set of properties
which are distinct from those of other substances. Water, sucrose,
sodium chloride (NaCl) and oxygen gas (O2) are examples of
substances.
Substance Mixture
9
Elements
An element is a fundamental substance from which all matter is built.
The smallest particle of an element is an atom. A few elements, the
noble gases like helium and neon, exist naturally as individual atoms.
Some others occur naturally as molecules, for example the halogens
(Cl2, Br2), oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), phosphorus (P4), and sulphur
(S8). (A molecule is a particle consisting of two or more atoms, of the
same or different elements, chemically bound together.) Many
elements exist as a giant lattice, a huge regular arrangement of atoms:
carbon, silicon, metals.
Most elements are solids under room conditions, several are gases
(noble gases, halogens, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen), while only two
(bromine, mercury) are liquids. The Periodic Table shows all known
elements, arranged in a special way (see chapter 2).
Table 1.1: Names and symbols for selected elements
Name - Symbol Name - Symbol Name - Symbol
Actinium Ac Copper Cu Oxygen O
Aluminium Al Fluorine F Phosphorus P
Antimony Sb Gold Au Platinum Pt
Argon Ar Helium He Potassium K
Arsenic As Hydrogen H Scandium Sc
Barium Ba Iodine I Selenium Se
Beryllium Be Iron Fe Silicon Si
Bismuth Bi Krypton Kr Silver Ag
Boron B Lanthanum La Sodium Na
Bromine Br Lead Pb Strontium Sr
Cadmium Cd Lithium Li Sulphur S
Calcium Ca Magnesium Mg Tin Sn
Carbon C Manganese Mn Titanium Ti
Cerium Ce Mercury Hg Uranium U
Cesium Cs Molybdenum Mo Vanadium V
Chlorine Cl Neon Ne Xenon Xe
Chromium Cr Nickel Ni Zinc Zn
Cobalt Co Nitrogen N Rubidium Rb
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Each element has a unique name and chemical symbol. This chemical
symbol consists of 1 or 2 letters; the first letter is always a capital
letter, the second letter is always a small letter. Table 1.1 shows the
names and symbols of selected elements.
10
Example 1.1:
Carbon = C, potassium = K, sodium = Na, gold = Au
Be careful not to write the second letter as a capital: silicon = Si; not SI,
which indicates a combination of the elements sulphur, S, and iodine, I.
Compounds
There are many more compounds than elements. A compound is a
substance consisting of two or more elements in a definite mass ratio
(Law of Constant Composition). No matter its source or how it was
made, a compound has always the same composition. For example,
NaCl obtained from seawater, a salt mine or prepared in the lab
consists of 39.34% Na and 60.66% Cl. Classification and
nomenclature of compounds are discussed in chapter 2.
Chemical formulas
In chemistry, a substance is represented by its chemical formula. It
shows the number and kind of element(s) present in the basic particle
of the substance (but see ionic compounds in chapter 2). For example,
hydrogen gas consists of hydrogen molecules in which two hydrogen
atoms are chemically bound together. The chemical formula of
hydrogen gas is the formula of the molecule, H2; the subscript 2
indicates that 2 hydrogen atoms have combined to form a hydrogen
molecule. The chemical formula of carbon dioxide gas is CO2; it
consists of molecules in which 1 carbon atom is combined with 2
oxygen atoms.
It was mentioned before that noble gases exist naturally as isolated
atoms. Their chemical formula is the symbol of the atom, for
example, argon gas is Ar. Although elements like carbon and the
metals form a giant lattice in which many atoms are linked, their
chemical formula is simply the symbol of the element; for example,
the chemical formula for graphite, a form of carbon, is C, and that for
iron is Fe.
11
Properties of substances
Its properties characterise and identify a substance. Some properties
could be the same as, or very similar to, those of other substances;
however, there are always some which are different and unique to that
particular substance.
Properties can be divided into physical and chemical properties:
Physical properties are observed without changing the chemical
identity of a substance, e.g. melting point. (Determining the melting
point of water involves a change of state from solid to liquid only, not
a chemical change of water H2O molecules remain H2O molecules.)
Chemical properties are observed by changing the chemical identity of
the substance they concern the chemical reactions of a substance,
e.g. reactivity with oxygen. (Investigating the reactivity of the metal
magnesium with oxygen implies that Mg could react with O2 and
change to magnesium oxide, MgO.)
Note: A physical change is a change of state. A chemical change is the
reaction of one substance to give another substance or substances.
Example 1.2:
Colour is a physical property but also an intensive property.
Mass is a physical property as well as an extensive property.
Reactivity with water is a chemical property and an intensive property.
Note that some non-SI units are still widely used. For example, the
unit degree Celsius (oC) is used for temperature. The English
system of units is still in common use in the USA.
Prefixes
Prefixes are often added to units in order to give more convenient
numbers. They are used to indicate decimal fractions or multiples of
units (see table 1.3). Examples of units are discussed in the following
sections.
Table 1.3: SI prefixes
Prefix Name Meaning
p pico 10-12
n nano 10-9
micro 10-6
m milli 10-3
c centi 10-2
d deci 10-1
k kilo 103
M mega 106
13
Temperature
Units used for temperature are degrees Celsius (oC) and Kelvin (K).
Kelvin is the SI unit, but oC is widely used. The relationship between
these two is:
(K) = (oC) + 273.15 or (oC) = (K) 273.15
Absolute zero is a temperature of 0 K (= - 273.15oC).
The Kelvin scale and degrees Celsius scale have the same size of unit;
a temperature difference in Kelvin is the same as a temperature
difference in degrees Celsius:
T (in K) = T (in oC) ( = difference)
Example 1.3:
A temperature of 25oC will be (25 + 273.15) K = 298 K.
A temperature of 400 K is the same as (400 273.15)oC = 127oC.
14
Example 1.4:
The density of a piece of pure iron with a mass of 117.4 g and volume of
14.9 cm3 is
m 117.4 g
d 7.87 g / cm3
V 14.9 cm3
We included the units in our calculation - you are strongly advised to do
the same. Units are a first indication of a possible error in a calculation.
In the example above, we expected the units for our answer to be units for
density and these were the units we obtained. If mass and volume were
exchanged, we would have obtained the unit cm3 / g, clearly not a density
unit.
Example 1.5:
The mass of 25.0 cm3 of ethanol which has a density of 0.789 g/mL at
20oC is
m = d V = 0.789 g/mL 25.0 mL = 19.7 g
(Volume and density have different volume units, but 1 cm3 = 1 mL.)
Example 1.6:
The density of Br2(l) = 3.12 g/cm3 at 20oC. Volume of liquid bromine that
is required to obtain a mass of 55.0 g is
m 55.0 g
V 17.6 cm3
d 3.12 g/cm3
Note that g/cm3 is the same as g cm-3, or g/mL is the same as g mL-1.
15
We should know the relationship between unit given and unit required
in order to set up the conversion factor. For example, from our
knowledge of prefixes we can state that 1 mg = 10-3 g; possible
conversion factors are then
mg 10 -3 g
and .
10 -3 g mg
Note that the value of a conversion factor is 1.
Example 1.6:
Conversion of a mass of 4.8 g to mg:
The relationship between g and mg and the possible conversion factors
were given above. Since we have to change g to mg we choose the
conversion factor which has g in its denominator.
mg
4.8 g 4.8 g 4.8 103 mg
-3
10 g
A conversion often requires multiple conversion factors, as shown below.
Example 1.7:
A volume of 15 mm3 expressed in dm3:
Required unit relationships are 1 mm = 10-3 m and 1 dm = 10-1 m. Then,
Example 1.8:
Conversion of a speed of 10 m/s to km/hr:
The relevant unit relationships are: km = 103 m, hr = 60 min, min = 60 s,
so that
16
10 m 10 m km 60 s 60 min 10 60 60 m km s min
s s 103 m min hr 103 s m min hr
36 km/hr
Experimental uncertainty
Quantitative measurements have an uncertainty. This uncertainty has
a human cause (e.g. the way the instrument is operated, estimation of
the last digit on the scale) and an instrumental cause (the way the
device is manufactured, electronic noise). Each instrument has
therefore an uncertainty value (or tolerance), which is indicated on the
device or included in the manufacturers manual. This uncertainty
value:
determines the number of digits in a reading,
gives the range within which the true value for the reading can
be found.
The uncertainty value normally implies that the reading should have
one more digit than the smallest scale division.
Example 1.9:
The 25 mL measuring cylinder has an uncertainty of 0.3 mL.
A reading will then be taken to 1 decimal place, like 14.7 mL. The true
17
value of the liquid volume contained in the cylinder will be in the range
14.7 + 0.3 mL = 14.4 15.0 mL. In the reading, the numbers 1 and 4 are
certain, the 7 is uncertain.
Significant figures
The + notation can be used to indicate the uncertainty in a measured
value. However, very often the concept of significant figures is used
for that purpose.
Measured values should be reported with (only) the last digit
uncertain, all preceding digits are certain. Digits reported are called
significant figures. The rules for counting significant figures are:
All non-zero digits are significant.
5.37 cm has 3 significant figures.
Zeros between non-zero digits are significant.
1.002 g has 4 significant figures.
Zeros to the right of the decimal point at the end of the number
are significant.
A volume of 8.00 mL has 3 significant figures, 8.0 mL has 2 significant
figures, while 8 mL has only 1 significant figure. Note that these three
volumes are not the same but differ in precision.
Zeros preceding the first non-zero digit in a number are not
significant - these indicate the decimal point. (To avoid
confusion, it is advisable to rewrite the number in scientific
notation: 1 10 10n)
0.00751 g has 3 significant figures (7.51 10 -3); 0.751 also has 3
significant figures (7.51 10-1).
Note: The value 7500 is ambiguous, it could have 2 (7.5 103), 3
(7.50 103), or 4 significant figures (7.500 103). It is
therefore advisable to report a value in scientific notation.
18
round up if the last digit dropped is 5 or above.
16.750 g rounded to 1 decimal place = 16.8 g
round down if the last digit dropped is below 5.
6.94 g/mL rounded to 2 significant figures = 6.9 mL
Rounding is done (only once) in the final step of the calculation.
Examples 1.10:
36.95 g - 2.366 g = {34.584 g} = 34.58 g (2 decimal places)
13.56 g + 0.9447 g = {14.5047 g} = 14.50 g (2 decimal places)
To avoid confusion, it is convenient to clearly indicate the non-significant
figures, for example as subscripts (see examples above or below).
125 g
142.2556 mL 142 mL (3 significan t figures)
0.8787 g mL-1
(45.1755 - 43.765) g 1.4105 g
2.861.... g/L 2.86 g/L
(0.150 0.3430) L 0.4930 L
(3 significan t figures)
19
Accuracy indicates the agreement with the true (or accepted) value
(how close is the average to the true value). Certain statistical
methods can be applied to obtain an idea about the accuracy if the
actual true value is not known. Such a discussion is however outside
the scope of this book.
1.5 Exercises
Elements, compounds, mixtures
1.1 Indicate if the following statements are true or false. If false, correct
the statement.
(a) Homogeneous mixtures are also known as suspensions.
(b) A solution is an example of a compound.
(c) Bromine is an element since it exists naturally as molecules.
(d) A pure substance consists of the same kind of atoms.
1.3.A Give the name or chemical symbol, where appropriate, for the
following elements:
(a) calcium (b) Zn (c) phosphorus (d) F
(e) neon (f) Br (g) potassium (h) S
1.3.B Write the name or chemical symbol, where appropriate, for the
following elements:
(a) copper (b) Mg (c) nitrogen (d) Cl
(e) argon (f) Li (g) silicon (h) Ag
1.6.B Express:
(a) 1.02 g/cm3 in kg/L, (b) 9.68 cm/s in m/hr,
(c) 3.75 g/dm3 in ng/mL, (d) 2.45 mg/ml in kg/m3.
(e) 6.4 mg/m2 in g/nm2
1.7.B In gold trading, the weight of gold is expressed in troy ounce (1 troy
ounce = 31.1035 g). What is the volume of a piece of gold of 25.0
troy ounce? (The density of gold = 19.32 g/cm3.)
Significant Figures
1.8.A What is the number of significant figures in the following
experimental values?
(a) 7.99 mL (b) 0.0466 kg (c) 1.890 mg/L (d) 10.5 mm
2 -2
(e) 2.3 x 10 g (f) 7.11 x 10 L (g) 30 min (h) 30.0 0C
1.8.B How many significant figures does each one of the following
measurements have?
(a) 215.0 cm (b) 0.0034 L (c) 37.1 oC (d) 550 mg
-3 2
(e) 0.100 mL (f) 1.9 x 10 m (g) 2.6 x 10 g (h) 40.8 sec
1.9.A Give the answer of the following calculation to the correct number of
significant figures.
2.331 m3 (18.1 - 12.20) g
(a) (b)
(0.026 m)(2.55 m) (15.0 cm)(1.9 cm2 )
21
1.9.B Perform the following calculations and give your answer to the
correct number of significant figures.
(84.05 - 75.8) g (6.73 - 0.451) L
(a) (b)
23.05 mL (45.5 - 12.85) min
Experimental errors
1.10 The percentage of carbon in a compound was determined in triplicate
by two students. Their data were as follows:
student 1: 13.16%, 13.14%, 13.15%
student 2: 13.16%, 13.36%, 13.26%
The true value for the percentage of carbon was 13.27%. Which
student had the more accurate results, and which student the more
precise results?
22
CHAPTER 2
Atoms, Molecules and Ions
2.1 Atomic Structure
Protons, neutrons, electrons
Atoms are made up of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and
electrons. (More subatomic particles are known, but the three
mentioned here are relevant to Chemistry.) Protons and neutrons form
a compact (very small, dense) central body of the atom, the nucleus.
Electrons are distributed in space like a cloud around the nucleus.
Table 2.1 gives properties of these particles.
Table 2.1: Properties of subatomic particles
Relative Actual charge Mass Mass
Particle Symbol
charge (in Coulomb) (in g) (in amu*)
proton p 1+ +1.602 1019 1.673 1024 1.0073
neutron n 0 0 1.675 1024 1.0087
electron e 1 1.602 1019 9.109 1028 5.486 104
* amu = atomic mass unit = 1.6606 10-24 g
Example 2.1:
Which number of electrons has the same mass as a tiny grain of sand with
mass of 15 mg?
Solution:
Convert the mass of the grain of sand to grams since the mass of an
electron is given in the unit grams (table 2.1):
10-3 g
15 mg 15 mg 1.5 10- 2 g
mg
The number of electrons will be the mass of the grain of sand divided by
the mass of one electron:
23
1.5 10 - 2 g
no. of electrons 1.6 10 25 e _
- 28 _
9.109 10 g /e
24
The following symbol is used to indicate an isotope:
A
ZX with superscript A = mass number, subscript Z = atomic
number, and X = chemical symbol of the element.
A possible charge of the isotope is shown as a superscript to the right
of the symbol.
Example 2.2:
What is the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in 129 53 I
(pronounced as 53 iodine 129), an isotope of the element iodine?
Solution:
Z, the atomic number = 53, therefore the number of protons = 53.
Since this is an atom, which is electrically neutral, the number of electrons
= number of protons = 53.
A, the mass number = 129, which equals number of protons + neutrons.
The number of neutrons is then A Z = 129 53= 76.
Example 2.3:
Give the isotopic symbol for a particle with 11 protons, 12 neutrons and
10 electrons.
Solution:
The number of protons = 11, therefore the atomic number Z is 11. We
can conclude that this particle is an isotope of the element sodium, Na.
The mass number = number of protons + neutrons = 11 + 12 = 23.
Finally, the number of electrons = 10. This is one less than the number of
protons. This particle is therefore an ion with charge 1+.
The isotopic symbol will be: 23 11 Na
Example 2.4:
The element copper has two naturally occurring isotopes: copper-63 with
mass = 62.9298 amu and abundance = 69.09%; and copper-65 with mass
= 64.9278 amu and abundance = 30.91%. Determine the atomic weight
of copper.
Solution:
69.09% 30.91%
At. wt.Cu 62.9298 amu 64.9278 amu
100% 100%
= 43.478 amu + 20.069 amu = 63.55 amu
Note: Although the values are numerically very close (see example
above), the mass number of an isotope is not the same as its atomic
weight. Atomic weight is a mass with mass units (g, amu) while
mass number is a (whole) number without any units.
26
2.3 The Periodic Table
Features of the Periodic Table
All known elements are included in the Periodic Table. It lists the
elements according to increasing atomic number but arranged such
that elements with similar chemical and physical properties occur in
vertical columns. These vertical columns are called groups (or
families) and horizontal rows periods. The position of an element in
the Periodic Table gives a general idea of its properties.
18
1 1 2 H 13 14 15 16 17
Period numbers
2 Group numbers
Noble gases
Alkaline earth metals
3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Alkali metals
Halogens
4
5
6
7
Lanthanides
Actinides
28
= metals 18
1 1 2 = metalloids H 13 14 15 16 17
2 = nonmetals B
3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Si
4 Ge As
5 Sb Te
6 Po
7
Metals are found in the lower left side of the Periodic Table the
majority of elements are metals. They conduct electricity, show
metallic lustre (shine), are malleable (can be hammered into sheets)
and ductile (can be drawn into wires). Non-metals are hydrogen plus
the elements in the upper right section of the Table. They are
electrical insulators, brittle if a solid; some are gases. Metalloids are a
diagonal line of elements, separating metals and non-metals: boron
B, silicon Si, germanium Ge, arsenic As, antimony Sb,
tellurium Te, and polonium Po. They show the physical properties
of metals but chemical properties of non-metals; some, like silicon,
are semiconductors.
Note: Many text books also show ball-and-stick models (geometry of the
molecule) and space filling models (geometry of the molecule and
relative size of the atoms).
30
Figure 2.4: Crystal structure of NaCl
Ions
An atom which has lost one or more electrons is called a cation. Loss
of an electron leaves an excess positive charge. The charge of the ion
is shown as a superscript.
For example:
Na (atom) e + Na+ (cation)
(11 protons, 11 electrons) (11protons, 10 electrons)
31
Example 2.5:
Consider the three elements before and after neon, Ne, the noble gas at the
end of period 2:
Element: N O F Ne Na Mg Al
Group number: 15 16 17 18 1 2 3
No. of e in atom: 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Common ion: N3 O2 F Na+ Mg2+ Al3+
No. of e in ion: 10 10 10 10 10 10
Table 2.2 shows the general formula of monoatomic ions for each
main group in the Periodic Table. Common charges for ions of the
transition metals are difficult to predict and will have to be
memorized.
Table 2.2.: General formula for common monoatomic ions
Common cations
Group 1 M+ (Li+, Na+, etc.)
Group 2 M2+ (Mg2+, Ca2+, etc.)
Groups 3 - 12 Most transition metals have multiple charges (e.g. Fe2+,
Fe3+, Cu+, Cu2+); a few have only one common charge
(e.g. Ag+, Zn2+)
Group 13 M3+ (Al3+); the heavier elements also form M+ (e.g. In+,
In3+)
Group 14 The heavier elements form two cations, M2+ and M4+
(e.g. Pb2+, Pb4+)
Group 15 The heavier elements form two cations, M3+ and M5+
(e.g. Bi3+, Bi5+)
Common anions
Group 15 M3 for the lighter elements (N3, P3)
Group 16 M2 (O2, S2, etc.)
Group 17 M (F, Cl, etc.)
Example 2.6:
Predict the most likely monoatomic ion for strontium (Sr), bromine (Br),
selenium (Se), and rubidium (Rb).
Sr is in group 2, it is a metal, most likely ion is Sr2+.
Br is a member of group 17, a non-metal, most likely ion is Br .
32
Se belongs to group 16, it is a non-metal, most likely ion is Se2.
Rb is in group 1, it is a metal, most likely ion is Rb+.
Polyatomic ions
A polyatomic ion is a group of two or more atoms bonded together as
a unit that has lost or gained electron(s) and has a net positive or
negative charge. Note that the charge of a polyatomic ion belongs to
the group as a whole and not to one particular atom. An oxyanion is a
polyatomic anion with one or more oxygen atoms around another
central atom.
For example:
NH4+ = ammonium ion; H3O+ = hydronium ion (not an oxyanion);
PO43 = phosphate ion; CO32 = carbonate ion; NO3 = nitrate ion (all three
are oxyanions)
Example 2.7:
Write the chemical formula for the ionic compounds calcium chloride,
lithium nitride, and aluminium sulphate.
Calcium chloride consists of Ca2+ (calcium) and Cl (chloride) ions. Two
Cl ions are required to balance the charge of one Ca2+ ion. The formula
is therefore CaCl2.
Lithium nitride consists of Li+ (lithium) and N3(nitride) ions. Three Li+
are needed to balance one N3. Chemical formula is Li3N.
Aluminium sulphate consists of Al3+ (aluminium) and SO42 (sulphate)
ions. Two Al3+ will balance three SO42. Chemical formula is Al2(SO4)3.
(The sulphate ion is included in brackets to indicate that the subscript 3
multiplies the whole SO42-.)
33
Table 2.3: Names and formulas of selected ions
Monoatomic cations Monoatomic anions
Hydrogen H+ Hydride (rare) H
Lithium Li+ Fluoride F
Sodium Na+ Chloride Cl
Potassium K+ Bromide Br
Rubidium Rb+ Iodide I
Cesium Cs+ Oxide O2
Magnesium Mg2+ Sulphide S2
Calcium Ca2+ Nitride N3
Strontium Sr2+
Barium Ba2+ Polyatomic anions
Aluminium Al3+ Sulphate SO42
Tin Sn2+, Sn4+ Sulphite SO32
Lead Pb2+, Pb4+ Thiosulphate S2O32
Phosphate PO43
Transition metal cations Phosphite PO33
Chromium Cr2+ , Cr3+ Hydroxide OH
Manganese Mn2+, Mn3+ Cyanide CN
Iron Fe2+, Fe3+ Cyanate OCN
Cobalt Co2+, Co3+ Thiocyanate SCN
Nickel Ni2+ Peroxide O22
Copper Cu+, Cu2+ Permanganate MnO4
Zinc Zn2+ Chromate CrO42
Silver Ag+ Dichromate Cr2O72
Cadmium Cd2+ Carbonate CO32
Platinum Pt2+, Pt4+ Hypochlorite ClO
Gold Au+, Au3+ Chlorite ClO2
Mercury Hg22+, Hg2+ Chlorate ClO3
Cerium Ce3+, Ce4+ Perchlorate ClO4
Silicate SiO44
Polyatomic cations Nitrate NO3
Ammonium NH4+ Nitrite NO2
Hydronium H3O+ Acetate CH3COO (C2H3O2)
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
If an element can form cations with more than one charge, then
the charge is indicated with a Roman numeral in brackets after
the name of the element. This applies to most transition metals
and the heavier metals in groups 13-15. (The suffix -ous or -
ic to indicate different charges is officially no longer in use.)
For example: Fe2+ = iron(II) ion (not ferrous ion),
Fe3+ = iron(III) ion (not ferric ion)
Some special cases are NH4+, the ammonium ion, and H3O+, the
hydronium ion.
Naming anions
The name of a monoatomic anion is the stem of the element name
+ suffix ide + ion.
For example: F is an ion from fluorine; its name is fluoride ion,
O2 is an ion from oxygen; it is named oxide ion,
S2 is from sulphur; its name is sulphide ion.
35
SO42 = sulphate ion, SO32 = sulphite ion (sulphur)
PO43 = phosphate ion, PO33 = phosphite ion (phosphorus)
# If the same central atom can form four oxyanions (e.g. the
halogens) then:
- use the prefix hypo with suffix ite for the ion with the
fewest O atoms,
- use the suffix ite and ate for the ion with the 2 nd and
3rd fewest O atoms respectively,
- use the prefix per with suffix ate for the ion with most
O atoms.
For example: ClO = hypochlorite ion,
ClO2 = chlorite ion,
ClO3 = chlorate ion,
ClO4 = perchlorate ion
Example 2.8:
KClO3 consists of K+ (potassium ion) and ClO3 (chlorate ion); its name is
potassium chlorate.
Cu(OH)2 consists of Cu2+ (copper(II) ion, from the transition metal Cu
which can form more than one cation) and OH (hydroxide ion); its name
is copper(II) hydroxide.
36
NaH2PO4 consists of Na+ (sodium ion) and H2PO4 (dihydrogen
phosphate ion); its name is sodium dihydrogenphosphate.
NH4Fe(SO4)2 consists of NH4+ (ammonium ion), SO42 (sulphate ion) and
a cation of Fe. To get a neutral formula, the charge of the Fe ion must be
3+ (iron(III) ion, Fe can form more than one cation). The name of the
compound is ammonium iron(III) sulphate.
Acids
An acid is a hydrogen containing compound that produces H+ (also
referred to as H3O+) when dissolved in water. Although pure acids are
molecular compounds, they ionise in water to give the hydrogen ion
and an anion. The names of acids are based on the name of the anion
produced. (Acids will be discussed in more detail in chapter 4.)
If the name of the anion ends in ide, add hydro as a prefix
and ic acid as a suffix to the stem of the anion name.
For example:
HCl(aq) = hydrochloric acid (from Cl = chloride ion)
HCN(aq) = hydrocyanic acid (from CN = cyanide ion)
If the name of the anion ends in ite, add ous acid as a suffix
to the stem of the anion name.
For example:
HClO(aq) = hypochlorous acid (from ClO = hypochlorite ion)
H2SO3(aq) = sulphurous acid (from SO32 = sulphite ion)
Note: Many compounds that are acids in water solution are molecular
when pure, or decompose outside water solution (see table below
for some examples). Therefore, always include (aq) (from
aqueous) to indicate an acid!
37
For example:
Acid Pure compound
HCl(aq) = hydrochloric acid HCl(g) = hydrogen chloride
H2S(aq) = hydrosulphuric acid H2S(g) = dihydrogen sulphide
H2CO3(aq) = carbonic acid CO2(g) = carbon dioxide
H2SO3(aq) = sulfurous acid SO2(g) = sulfur dioxide
38
Example 2.9:
NF3 = nitrogen trifluoride SF6 = sulphur hexafluoride
N2O4 = dinitrogen tetroxide P4O10 = tetraphosphorus decoxide
N2O = dinitrogen monoxide (or nitrogen oxide)
CO = carbon monoxide
Hydrates
A hydrate is an ionic salt that contains H2O molecules as part of the
crystal these belong to the compound and should be included in the
formula. We use a Greek prefix to indicate the number of H 2O
molecules.
Example 2.10:
CuSO4.5H2O = copper(II) sulphate pentahydrate
CoCl3.6H2O = cobalt(III) chloride hexahydrate
Potassium chromium(III) sulphate dodecahydrate = KCr(SO4)2.12H2O
2.7 Exercises
Atomic structure
2.1.A Complete the following table.
Isotopic No. of No. of No. of Atomic Mass
Charge
symbol protons electrons neutrons number number
47 61 47
9 9 19
56
Fe3+
30 31 69
79 117 1+
39
2.1.B Fill in the blanks in the table below.
Isotopic No. of No. of No. of Atomic Mass
Charge
symbol protons electrons neutrons number number
42 42 53
17 35 1-
207
Pb2+
25 30 2+
45 45 103
Atomic weights
2.3.A Naturally occurring boron consists of two isotopes: boron-10 (mass
10.01 amu) and boron-11 (mass 11.009 amu). The abundance of
boron-11 is 80.22%. What is the atomic weight of the element
boron?
2.3.B The atomic weight of the element lithium is 6.941 amu. It has two
naturally occurring isotopes: lithium-6 with mass 6.015 amu, and
lithium-7 with mass 7.016 amu. Determine the abundance of both
isotopes.
40
Molecular and ionic compounds
2.6. Give the empirical formula for the following compounds:
(a) hydrogen peroxide, H2O2 (b) glucose, C6H12O6
(c) hydrazine, N2H4 (d) oxalic acid, H2C2O4
2.8. Explain if the following formulas for ionic compounds are correct
or incorrect. If incorrect, write the correct formula.
(a) Al3(SO4)2 (b) NaH2PO4 (c) CaHCO3 (d) AgS
(e) Cr3Br (f) KMnO4 (g) Mg(NO3)2 (h) NaH
(i) NaCr2O7 (j) Zn2(CO3)2 (k) Sr(OH)2 (l) RbI2
41
CHAPTER 3
Stoichiometry: Chemical Calcultions
3.1 Chemical Reaction Equations
Representing a chemical reaction
Reactions are at the heart of chemistry. A reaction equation shows a
chemical change: atoms from one or more substances are rearranged
to give another substance or substances. Reactants undergo a
chemical change, products result following the chemical change. A
reaction arrow indicates the direction of the reaction, and normally
points from left to right. Reactants are then placed left of the arrow,
products on the right hand side of the arrow:
Reactants Products
Example 3.1:
Combustion of charcoal (carbon) produces carbon dioxide gas. (A
reaction with oxygen gas is called combustion.). The reaction equation is:
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
Example 3.2:
Calcium (a solid metal) reacts with oxygen gas to give calcium oxide (a
solid). Write the balanced reaction equation.
Solution:
The skeleton equation is: Ca + O2 CaO
Just looking at this equation shows that it will be balanced by adding a 2
in front of both Ca and CaO:
2 Ca + O2 2 CaO
(Remember, a coefficient multiplies the whole formula; the coefficient of
O2 , which is 1, is not written.)
Add the physical states of each substance to get the final balanced
reaction equation:
2Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s)
Example 3.3:
Butane gas (C4H10) burns in oxygen (from the air) to form carbon dioxide
gas and water vapour. Give the balanced reaction equation.
Solution:
First write the skeleton equation: C4H10 + O2 CO2 + H2O
H and C appear in only two formulas, O in three. Therefore, balance C
and H first. There is 4 C on the left (in C4H10), so we place a 4 in front of
CO2 to give us 4 C on the right as well. We find 10 H on the left (in
C4H10); on the right we find H in H2O, one H2O already contains 2 H so
43
we multiply H2O by 5 to give us also (5 2 =) 10 H on the right.
C4H10 + O2 4 CO2 + 5 H2O
Formula weights
The formula weight of a substance is the sum of the atomic weights of
all atoms in the formula. We distinguish three types:
Atomic weight (AW) is the weight of an atom. Atomic weights
for atoms of all elements can be found in the Periodic Table.
Molecular weight (MW) is the weight of a molecule of the
substance as given by the molecular formula. It applies to
molecular substances (compounds and elements which exist as
molecules).
Formula weight (FW) is the weight of the formula unit. Although
its definition includes atomic and molecular weight, formula
weight is especially used for ionic compounds. These
compounds do not exist of molecules, but of ions. Their formula
is an empirical formula giving the simplest whole number ratio of
the ions making up the compound.
44
Example 3.4:
Fructose is a sugar found in fruits. It is a molecular compound and has
the formula C6H12O6. What is its molecular weight?
Solution:
The molecular formula shows that one molecule of fructose consists of 6
C atoms, 12 H atoms, and 6 O atoms. Therefore
MW = 6 AW(C) + 12 AW(H) + 6 AW(O)
= 6 12.01 amu + 12 1.01 amu + 6 16.00 amu = 180.18 amu
Example 3.5:
The detergent (cleansing agent) washing soda is a hydrated ionic
compound with formula Na2CO3.10H2O. Give its formula weight.
Solution:
FW = 2 AW(Na) + 1 AW(C) + (3+10) AW(O) + 10 2 AW(H)
= (2 22.99 + 12.01 amu + 13 16.00 + 20 1.01) amu = 286.19 amu
Note that the units are atomic mass units (amu). The atomic weights
used were given to two decimal places. This number of decimal
places will normally give sufficient precision in the value for the
calculated formula weight. However, include more decimal places if a
higher precision (more significant figures) is required.
45
Often the word mass is omitted and percentage composition is used
to mean mass percentage composition.
Example 3.6:
Vitamin C is a molecular compound with the official name ascorbic acid
and formula C6H8O6. What is its % composition?
Solution:
MW(C6H8O6) = 6 AW(C) + 8 AW(H) + 6 AW(O)
= {(6 12.01) + (8 1.01) + (6 16.00)} amu = 176.14 amu
6 12.01 amu
%C 100% 40.91%
176.14 amu
8 1.01 amu
%H 100% 4.59%
176.14 amu
6 16.00 amu
%O 100% 54.50%
176.14 amu
Check, the sum of the mass percentages should be 100%:
%C + %H + %O = 40.91% + 4.59% + 54.50% = 100.00%
46
no. of particles of X
no. of moles of X
N A
no. of particles of X = NA no. of moles of X
Example 3.7:
What is the number of C atoms in 0.200 mol acetic acid, CH 3COOH, the
active ingredient in vinegar?
Solution:
No. of CH3COOH molecules = no. of moles CH3COOH NA
= 0.200 mol 6.022 1023 mol-1 = 1.204 1023
Each CH3COOH molecule contains two C atoms, therefore
No. of C atoms = 2 no. of CH3COOH molecules
= 2 1.204 1023 = 2.41 1023
Example 3.8:
Natural gas is methane, CH4; propane, C3H8, is a component in LPG,
bottle gas. Which contains the larger number of hydrogen atoms, 2.0
mol of CH4 molecules or 5.0 1023 C3H8 molecules?
Solution:
Comparing numbers of H atoms is the same as comparing numbers of
moles of H atoms. We therefore express both in either number of moles
of H atoms, or in number of H atoms.
Comparing number of moles of H atoms:
Each CH4 molecule contains 4 H atoms. Therefore, no. of moles of H
atoms in 2.0 mol CH4
4 H atoms
= 2.0 mol CH 4 8.0 mol H atoms
CH 4
47
5.0 10 23 C3 H8 molecules 8 H atoms
= 6.6 mol H atoms
23 -1
6.022 10 molecules mol C 3 8
H
Comparing both number of moles of H atoms shows that 2.0 mol of CH4
contains the larger number of H atoms.
Molar mass
The mass of one mole of a substance is called its molar mass. Units
are g/mol. Molar mass of a substance can be calculated from the
molar masses of the elements it contains. The mass (in g) of 1 mol of
atoms of an element is numerically equal to the mass of 1 atom (in
amu) of that element.
Example 3.9:
The Periodic Table shows us that the mass of 1 copper (Cu) atom (its
AW) = 63.55 amu. Therefore, the mass of 1 mol of Cu atoms (its molar
mass, MM) = 63.55 g/mol.
Since the mass of an electron is negligible compared to that of an atom,
we use the same AW, and thus MM, for an ion and its parent atom: MM
of Cu = MM of Cu+ = MM of Cu2+ = 63.55 g/mol.
Example 3.10:
Sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3) is used in baking powder (under
the common name, bicarbonate of soda).
Its molar mass is MM (Na) + MM (H) + MM (C) + 3 MM (O)
= (22.99 + 1.01 + 12.01 + 3 16.00) g/mol = 84.01 g/mol
48
Example 3.11:
What is the mass of 0.250 mol Na2SO4 (sodium sulphate)?
Solution:
Mass (Na2SO4) = MM (Na2SO4) no. of mol Na2SO4
Therefore, we must first find the molar mass (MM) of Na2SO4:
MM (Na2SO4) = 2 MM (Na) + MM (S) + 4 MM (O)
= (2 22.99 + 32.06 + 4 16.00) g/mol = 142.04 g/mol
Then: mass (Na2SO4) = 142.04 g/mol 0.250 mol = 35.5 g
Example 3.12:
What is the number of moles of CH3OH (methanol) in 4.96 g of this
compound?
Solution:
mass of CH 3OH
No. of moles of CH 3OH
molar mass of CH 3OH
Therefore, first calculate the MM of CH3OH. Addition of the molar
masses of the atoms in the molecule gives a value of 32.05 g/mol.
4.96 g
Then : no. of moles of CH 3OH 0.155 mol
32.05 g/mol
Example 3.13:
A sample of 0.0150 mol ZnBr2 (zinc bromide) has a mass of 3.38 g. What
is its molar mass?
Solution:
mass ZnBr2 3.38 g
molar mass ZnBr2 225 g/mol
no. of moles ZnBr 2 0.0150 mol
The mole is the link between mass and number of particles. Using
molar mass, we convert mass to number of moles. Number of moles
can be converted to actual number of particles (molecules, atoms)
using Avogadros number.
49
Example 3.14:
What is the number of carbon atoms in 5.00 g sucrose (C12H22O11,
sugar), about the mass of a tea spoon full?
Solution:
Mass divided by molar mass will give the no. of moles of sucrose:
Molar mass C12H22O11 = 342.34 g/mol (check).
5.00 g
No. of moles C12 H 22 O11 0.01461 mol
342.34 g/mol
Number of C12H22O11 molecules is its no. of moles Avogadros number:
= 0.01461 mol 6.022 1023 mol1 = 8.798 1021
One C12H22O11 molecule contains 12 C atoms. Then, the number of C
atoms will be the number of C12H22O11 molecules multiplied by 12:
= 12 8.798 1021 = 1.06 1023
MM NA
Figure 3.1: Converting mass, no. of moles and no. of particles
50
Example 3.15:
A chlorinated organic compound contained 49.02% C, 2.74% H, and
48.23% Cl by mass. What is its empirical formula?
Solution:
It is easiest to consider exactly 100 g of the compound. Then the masses
of the elements (in g) equal their mass percentages:
In exactly 100 g of compound there is 49.02 g C, 2.74 g H and 48.23 g Cl.
Next, we must calculate the number of moles of each element in the 100 g
of compound:
no. of mol C = mass / MM = 49.02 g / 12.011 g mol1 = 4.0813 mol
no. of mol H = 2.74 g / 1.008 g mol1 = 2.718 mol
no. of mol Cl = 48.23 g / 35.453 g mol1 = 1.3604 mol
We then have the ratio of the no. of moles of each element:
no. of mol C : H : Cl = 4.0813 : 2.718 : 1.3604
We set the smallest number of moles at 1 by dividing each by the smallest
number (in this case, divide by 1.3604):
4.0813 2.718 1.360 4
ratio of no. of moles C : H : Cl = : :
1.3604 1.360 4 1.360 4
= 3.0001 : 1.998 : 1.0000
Rounded to whole numbers, the ratio of the number of moles C : H : Cl
=3:2:1
The empirical formula is then C3H2Cl.
Note that we used molar masses to three decimal places in order to
minimize rounding errors.
Molecular formula
The next step in identifying a molecular compound is finding its
molecular formula (the real formula). (Remember, for ionic
compounds we cannot go further than the empirical formula.) The
molecular formula is normally a multiple of the empirical formula:
molecular formula = (empirical formula)n (n = whole number)
The value for n can be found if the molar mass of the compound is
known:
molar mass compound
n
molar mass empirical formula
Example 3.17:
Consider the halogenated organic compound from example 3.15, with
empirical formula C3H2Cl. Its molar mass was found to be 147 g/mol.
Molecular formula (MF) = (empirical formula (EF))n
The molar mass (MM) of the empirical formula = 73.50 g/mol. Then:
MM compound 147 g/mol
n 2.00 2
MM empirical formula 73.50 g/mol
The molecular formula = (C3H2Cl)2 = C6H4Cl2
52
There are various methods to find the molecular formula of a
compound. One method, which can be used for volatile substances, is
discussed in chapter 5.
Example 3.18:
In the complete combustion of a sample of propane gas (C3H8), 10.0 g
CO2 gas is collected. What mass of propane burned, and what mass of O2
was required?
Solution:
The balanced reaction equation is
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
giving a ratio of the no. of moles C3H8 : O2 : CO2 : H2O = 1 : 5 : 3 : 4.
53
Molar masses: C3H8 = 44.11 g/mol, O2 = 32.00 g/mol, CO2 = 44.01 g/mol.
No. of moles CO2 collected:
= mass CO2 / MM CO2 = 10.0 g / 44.01 g mol1 = 0.2272 mol
Therefore, the no. of moles C3H8 which reacted:
1 mol C3H8
= 0.2272 mol CO 2 0.07573 mol C3H8
3 mol CO 2
The mass of C3H8 which reacted = no. of mol C3H8 MM C3H8
= 0.07573 mol 44.11 g/mol = 3.34 g
Note: we could have combined the previous three steps into one:
10.0 g CO 2 1 mol C3 H8
mass C3H8 44.11 g/mol 3.34 g
44.01 g/mol 3 mol CO 2
no. of moles
C3H8
We will do the calculation of mass of O2 required in one step:
10.0 g CO 2 5 mol O 2
mass O 2 32.00 g/mol 12.1 g
44.01 g/mol 3 mol CO 2
Limiting reactant
Consider the reaction of hydrogen with nitrogen to give ammonia:
Reaction equation: 3H2(g) + N2(g) 2NH3(g)
Imagine that 2.0 mol H2 and 2.0 mol N2 were mixed.
54
If all 2.0 mol H2 reacts, then no. of moles of N2 needed will be
1 mol N 2
2.0 mol H 2 0.67 mol N 2
3 mol H 2
More N2 (2.0 mol) is available, thus N2 is in excess and H2 is
limiting. Some N2 will be left after the reaction, but all H2 reacts
the number of moles of H2 determines the mass of product.
Therefore, 2.0 mol H2 and 0.67 mol N2 react.
No. of moles of N2 left = no. of moles (available - needed)
= (2.0 0.67) mol = 1.3 mol
No. of moles of NH3 produced
2 mol NH3
= 2.0 mol H 2 1.3 mol NH3
3 mol H 2
We reach the same conclusion if we had started our calculation with
the number of moles of N2:
If all 2.0 mol N2 reacts, then no. of moles of H2 needed will be
3 mol H 2
2.0 mol N 2 6.0 mol H 2
1 mol N 2
Less, only 2 mol, H2 is available, thus H2 is limiting and N2 is in
excess.
Example 3.19:
Which reactant is limiting when 50.0 g of water is added to 50.0 g
calcium carbide, CaC2(s)? What mass of acetylene, C2H2(g), is produced,
and what mass of excess reactant will be left?
Reaction equation: CaC2(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + C2H2(g)
Solution:
Required molar masses are:
CaC2 = 64.10 g/mol, H2O = 18.02 g/mol, C2H2 = 26.04 g/mol
No. of moles CaC2 available = 50.0 g / 64.10 g mol1 = 0.7800 mol
No. of moles H2O available = 50.0 g / 18.02 g mol1 = 2.775 mol
If all 0.7800 mol CaC2 reacts, then no. of moles H2O required will be
55
2 mol H 2O
0.7800 mol CaC 2 1.560 mol H 2O
1 mol CaC 2
More H2O is available (2.775 mol). Therefore, H2O is in excess, and CaC2
is limiting. All CaC2 reacts, it will determine the mass of C2H2 formed.
No. of moles of C2H2 produced:
1 mol C 2 H 2
0.7800 mol CaC 2 0.7800 mol C 2 H 2
1 mol CaC 2
Mass of C2H2 produced = 0.7800 mol C2H2 26.04 g/mol = 20.3 g
Example 3.20:
Consider the reaction from example 3.19:
CaC2(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + C2H2(g)
We calculated that mixing 50.0 g of each reactant would produce 20.3 g
C2H2. This is the theoretical yield.
If 18.5 g of C2H2 was actually obtained, then the percent yield is
(18.5 g / 20.3 g) 100% = 91.1%
56
3.7 Exercises
Chemical equations
3.1. Balance the following reaction equations:
(a) _ MgCl2(aq) + _ KOH(aq) _ Mg(OH)2(s) + _ KCl(aq)
(b) _ Cu(NO3)2(s) _ CuO(s) + _ NO2(g) + _ O2(g)
(c) _ NH3(g) + _ NO(g) _ N2(g) + _ H2O(l)
(d) _ C2H6(g) + _ O2(g) _ CO2(g) + _ H2O(l)
Mole calculations
3.2 A. Perform the following mole calculations:
(a) Determine the molar mass of copper(II) sulphate pentahydrate,
CuSO4.5H2O.
(b) What is the number of moles of aspirin, C9H8O4, in a 500 mg
sample of this compound?
(c) Find the number of hydrogen atoms in 4.67 g of ethanol,
C2H6O?
Empirical formulas
3.5.A A compound of nitrogen and oxygen only contains 63.65% N by
mass. What is the empirical formula of this compound?
3.5.B A mass of 1.76 g tin reacted with excess fluorine to give 2.88 g of a
tin fluoride. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound.
57
3.6.A The empirical formula for an organic compound is C3H4. Its molar
mass is 120.2 g/mol. Determine its molecular formula.
3.6.B A certain compound has the empirical formula CH2O and a molar
mass of 60.0 g/mol. Find its molecular formula.
3.7.B Calculate the empirical formula and the molecular formula for a
compound containing 5.26% H, 12.2% N, 55.6% O, and 26.9% P.
Its molar mass is 115 g/mol.
58
(b) what volume of water results (density of H2O = 1.00 g/mL)?
(Assume 100% yield.)
3.13. Lithium can react with nitrogen gas to form lithium nitride:
6Li(s) + N2(g) 2Li3N(s)
When 10.5 g of Li is made to react with 25.0 g of N2,
(a) what is the limiting reactant,
(b) which mass of lithium nitride, Li3N, is produced,
(c) how much of the excess reactant is left?
3.14. Upon heating, sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide react to form
elemental sulphur and water:
SO2(g) + 2H2S(g) 3S(s) + 2H2O(l)
If 1.00 L of SO2 is mixed with 1.00 L of H2S,
(a) what is the limiting reactant (the density of SO2 is 2.81 g/L and
that of H2S is 1.49 g/L),
(b) what mass of sulphur is formed,
(c) how much of the excess reactant is left after the reaction?
59
CHAPTER 4
Reactions in Aqueous Solution
4.1 Introduction to Aqueous Solutions
Solutions
A solution consists of a solvent and one or more solute(s). The
solvent is the substance which does the dissolving and the solute the
substance which dissolves. Often, but not always, is the solvent
present in a larger amount.
We commonly mean by solution a liquid solution, a solution in which
the solvent is a liquid. However, air (a homogeneous mixture of
different gases) and some metal alloys (a homogeneous mixture of
different metals, like copper and zinc in brass) can also be considered
examples of a solution.
60
For example, when sucrose dissolves in water:
C12H22O11(s) C12H22O11(aq)
Almost all molecular compounds (except acids, ammonia) are
nonelectrolytes.
61
Solubility in water
Based on its solubility in water we distinguish between:
soluble solutes: dissolves readily in water, 0.1 mol or more can
dissolve per litre solution,
insoluble solutes: do not dissolve significantly, less than 0.01 mol
can dissolve per litre,
slightly (or sparingly) soluble solutes: have an intermediate
solubility (between 0.01 0.1 mol can dissolve per litre).
Note that no substance is really completely insoluble in water;
however, the amount dissolved could be so small that, for all practical
purposes, we call the substance insoluble.
62
magnesium). Note that the solubility of the group 2 hydroxides
increases going down the group:
Mg(OH)2 < Ca(OH)2 < Sr(OH)2 < Ba(OH)2
insoluble - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -> soluble
Example 4.1:
Predict if a precipitate forms when aqueous solutions of the following
strong electrolytes are mixed.
(a) (NH4)2S + CuSO4 (b) NaClO4 + AgNO3
Solution:
First, we must determine which ions are present in each solution, noting
that all compounds are strong electrolytes and thus completely dissociated
in water.
Then we must determine if possible combinations of cations with anions
result in the formation of an insoluble compound.
(a) (NH4)2S + CuSO4
The (NH4)2S solution contains NH4+(aq) and S2(aq) ions; the CuSO4
solution contains Cu2+(aq) and SO42(aq) ions.
Check if the combination of the cation from the first salt + anion of the
second salt produces an insoluble compound:
NH4+ + SO42 could give (NH4)2SO4. However, this compound is
soluble since all NH4+ salts are soluble.
Do likewise for the anion from the first salt + cation from the second salt:
S2 + Cu2+ could give CuS. This compound is insoluble since, with a
few exceptions which do not include Cu2+, all sulphides are insoluble.
Therefore, a precipitate will form; this precipitate is CuS.
63
Cation (second salt) + anion (first salt) = Ag+ + ClO4 which could give
AgClO4. However, this compound is soluble as all perchlorates are
soluble.
Conclusion: no precipitate forms (no reaction takes place).
Example 4.2:
Mixing aqueous solutions of BaCl2 and Na2CO3 produces a precipitate.
Write the net ionic equation for this precipitation reaction.
Solution:
Added together were the following ions: Ba2+(aq), Cl(aq), Na+(aq) and
CO32(aq).
Using the solubility rules, only a combination of Ba 2+ and CO32 will give
an insoluble compound, BaCO3.
The balanced molecular equation is then:
BaCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + BaCO3(s)
All soluble compounds are strong electrolytes, the full ionic equation is:
Ba2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + CO32(aq)
2Na+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) + BaCO3(s)
64
Cancel species which appear unchanged on the left and right hand side of
the reaction equation: Cl(aq) and Na+(aq). These are the spectator ions.
The result is the net ionic equation:
Ba2+(aq) + CO32(aq) BaCO3(s)
Note that BaCO3, although an ionic compound, was not written in its
dissociated form since it is insoluble.
We can classify acids based on different criteria. One uses the number
of hydrogen ions which can be given off per acid molecule:
A monoprotic acid gives one hydrogen ion per acid molecule.
For example, nitric acid:
HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3(aq) (strong acid)
A diprotic acid can give, stepwise, two hydrogen ions per acid
molecule.
For example, sulphuric acid:
H2SO4(aq) H+(aq) + HSO4(aq) (strong acid)
HSO4(aq) H+(aq) + SO42(aq) (weak acid)
Finally, a triprotic acid can give three hydrogen ions.
For example, phosphoric acid:
H3PO4(aq) H+(aq) + H2PO42(aq) (weak acid)
H2PO42(aq) H+(aq) + HPO42(aq) (weak acid)
HPO42(aq) H+(aq) + PO43(aq) (weak acid)
Bases
A base is a molecular or ionic compound that produces OH(aq) when
dissolved in water, and reacts with H+(aq). Bases can be classified
using the same criteria as those for acids.
66
The oxide ion, O2-, reacts with water to give OH.
For example, adding lithium oxide to water:
Li2O(s) + H2O(l) 2Li+(aq) + 2OH(aq)
{ O2- + H2O(l) 2OH(aq) }
Neutralization reactions
A reaction between an acid and a base is called a neutralization
reaction. It has the general form:
acid + base salt + water
For example, the reaction between hydrochloric acid and aqueous
sodium hydroxide:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
The salt is formed from the cation of the base and anion from the acid.
The net ionic equation for the reaction of any strong acid with any
strong base is:
H+(aq) + OH(aq) H2O(l)
If the reaction involves a weak acid or weak base, then the net ionic
equation includes the weak acid or weak base in its molecular form
(since that is the major species of the weak electrolyte present in
solution).
For example, acetic acid and potassium hydroxide solutions:
molecular: CH3COOH(aq) + KOH(aq) KCH3COO(aq) + H2O(l)
net ionic: CH3COOH(aq) + OH(aq) CH3COO(aq) + H2O(l)
67
or ammonia and hydrochloric acid solutions:
molecular: NH3(aq) + HCl(aq) NH4Cl(aq)
net ionic: NH3(aq) + H+(aq) NH4+(aq)
Note that the reaction equation for ammonia only shows a (soluble)
salt but not water.
The net ionic equation for the reaction of acids with insoluble metal
hydroxides or oxides includes the formula of the solid.
For example, addition of hydrochloric acid to magnesium oxide:
MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
MgO(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2O(l)
Some reactions of acids with salts produce gases: H2S from S2-, CO2
from CO32-, SO2 from SO32-.
For example (molecular equations are given, write the net ionic
equations yourself):
NiS(s) + 2HCl(aq) NiCl2(aq) + H2S(g)
CaCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + { H2CO3(aq) }
H2CO3 is unstable, then: { H2CO3(aq) } CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2HI(aq) + K2SO3(aq) 2KI(aq) + { H2SO3(aq) }
H2SO3 is unstable, then: { H2SO3(aq) } SO2(g) + H2O(l)
Oxidation numbers
The oxidation number is the real or hypothetical charge which can be
assigned to an atom. It is used to recognize a redox reaction, and to
distinguish between the oxidation and reduction part in such a
reaction.
The rules for assigning oxidation numbers to atoms are the following:
For atoms in free (uncombined) elements: oxidation number is
zero.
For example, the atoms in He(g), H2(g) and S8(s) all have an
oxidation number = 0.
For atoms in monoatomic ions: oxidation number (ox. no.) is the
ionic charge.
For example, in Mg2+: ox. no. Mg = +2; in Br : ox. no. Br = 1
The sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a species = total
charge of that species:
For example,
in H3PO4: (3 ox. no. H) + (ox. no. P) + (4 ox. no. O) = 0
in HSO4: (ox. no. H) + (ox. no. S) + (4 ox. no. O) = 1
Oxidation number for alkali metals (group 1) in compounds is
always +1: Li+, Na+, K+ etc.
Oxidation number for alkaline earth metals (group 2) in
compounds is always +2: Be2+, Mg2+, Ca2+ etc.
F in compounds always has oxidation number 1: F.
The oxidation number for H in compounds is usually +1, except
in binary compounds with active metals when it is 1 (hydride
ion).
For example, in HF: ox. no. F = 1 and H = +1; in NaH: ox. no.
Na = +1, thus H = 1.
69
Oxidation number for O in compounds is usually 2, except in:
peroxides (O22, ox. no. O = 1), superoxides (O2 , ox. no. O =
), or in binary compounds with F (OF2 : ox. no. F = 1, thus O
= +2).
The oxidation number for the halogens Cl, Br and I, is usually 1,
except in oxyanions or when combined with a more active
halogen (F is the most active, F > Cl > Br > I):
For example, in CaBr2: ox. no. Ca = +2 and Br = 1; in IF5: ox.
no. F = 1, therefore I = +5)
Aluminium and some transition metal cations have one charge:
Al3+, Zn2+, Cd2+, Sc3+.
Example 4.3:
Give the oxidation number of Cr in K2Cr2O7, P in H2PO4.
Solution:
Cr in K2Cr2O7: (2 ox. no. K) + (2 ox. no. Cr) + (7 ox. no. O) = 0
(2 +1) + (2 ox. no. Cr) + (7 2) = 0
ox. no. Cr = (+ 14 2) / 2 = +6
P in H2PO4: (2 ox. no. H) + (ox. no. P) + (4 ox. no. O) = 1
(2 +1) + (ox. no. P) + (4 2) = 1
ox. no. P = (1 + 8 2) / 2 = +5
70
Example 4.4:
Identify the oxidising and reducing agents in the following reaction:
3Cu(s) + 2NO3(aq) + 8H+(aq) 3Cu2+(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)
Solution:
Since an element in both oxidising and reducing agent undergoes a change
in oxidation number, we first assign oxidation numbers to each atom in
the reaction equation (we will write the oxidation number below each
atom):
3Cu(s) + 2NO3(aq) + 8H+(aq) 3Cu2+(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)
(0) (+5)(2) (+1) (+2) (+2)(2) (+1)(2)
71
The half-reaction method
More complex redox reactions are not that easily balanced by visual
inspection. For these reactions, we use the half-reaction method. The
principle of this method is:
Oxidation and reduction are written as two separate half-reactions
(including electrons gained and lost).
Each half-reaction is balanced separately, then combined such
that number of electrons lost = number of electrons gained.
72
8. Add the two half-reactions and simplify (cancel species,
coefficients should be smallest whole numbers).
Example 4.5:
Balance the following reaction in acidic solution: iron(II) ion reacts with
the permanganate ion to give the iron(III) and manganese(II) ions.
Solution:
First write the skeleton equation (the unbalanced overall equation), and
assign oxidation numbers to each atom in order to identify the oxidation
and reduction step:
Skeleton equation:
Fe2+(aq) + MnO4(aq) Fe3+(aq) + Mn2+(aq)
ox. no.: (+2) (+7)(-2) (+3) (+2)
The oxidation is Fe2+(aq) Fe3+(aq) since the oxidation number of Fe
increases fom +2 to +3. (Fe2+ is the reducing agent.)
The reduction is MnO4-(aq) Mn2+(aq) since the oxidation number of
Mn decreases from +7 to +2. (MnO4 is the oxidising agent.)
Reduction half-reaction:
1. MnO4 Mn2+
2. not required.
3. MnO4 Mn2+ + 4H2O
4. 8H+ + MnO4 Mn2+ + 4H2O
+7 +2
73
(Note that step 5 was not required since we are in acidic solution.)
Example 4.6:
Solid bismuth(III) oxide reacts with the aqueous hypochlorite ion to give
the aqueous bismuthate ion (BiO3) and chloride ions (in basic solution).
Give the balanced reaction equation.
Skeleton equation:
Bi2O3(s) + ClO(aq) BiO3(aq) + Cl(aq)
ox.no.: (+3)(-2) (+1)(2) (+5)(2) (1)
Oxidation: Bi2O3(s) BiO3(aq) (Bi2O3 is the reducing agent)
(+3) (+5)
Reduction: ClO(aq) Cl(aq) (ClO is the oxidising agent)
(+1) (1)
Oxidation half-reaction:
1. Bi2O3 BiO3
2. Bi2O3 2BiO3 (balance Bi)
3. 3H2O + Bi2O3 2BiO3
4. 3H2O + Bi2O3 2BiO3 + 6H+
5. The solution is basic, so the H+ on the right is neutralized with 6OH;
6OH should also be added to the left to keep O and H balanced:
6OH + 3H2O + Bi2O3 2BiO3 + 6H+ + 6OH
6OH + 3H2O + Bi2O3 2BiO3 + 6H2O
6OH + Bi2O3 2BiO3 + 3H2O (number of H2O simplified)
6 2
6. 6OH + Bi2O3 2BiO3 + 3H2O + 4e
74
Reduction half-reaction:
1. ClO Cl
3. ClO Cl + H2O
4. 2H+ + ClO Cl + H2O
5. 2OH + 2H+ + ClO Cl + H2O + 2OH
2H2O + ClO Cl + H2O + 2OH
H2O + ClO Cl + 2OH (number of H2O simplified)
1 3
6. 2e + H2O + ClO Cl + 2OH
7. 1 oxidation + 2 reduction (then each half-reaction has 4e-)
8. Overall reaction:
6OH + Bi2O3 + 4e + 2H2O + 2ClO
2BiO3 + 3H2O + 4e + 2Cl + 4OH
(simplify and add physical states)
2OH(aq) + Bi2O3(s) + 2ClO(aq) 2BiO3(aq) + H2O(l) + 2Cl(aq)
75
No. of moles of Ca(NO3)2 = 25.0 g / 164.10 g mol1 = 0.1523 mol
Molarity Ca(NO3)2 = 0.1523 mol / (500 103) L = 0.305 mol/L
Example 4.8:
What is the molarity of the aqueous ions in 0.150 M aq. Na3PO4?
Solution:
Na3PO4 is a soluble salt, a strong electrolyte and dissolves as:
Na3PO4(s) 3Na+(aq) + PO43-(aq)
The ratio no. of moles Na3PO4(s) : Na+(aq) : PO43(aq) = 1 : 3 : 1
Molarity Na+(aq) = 3 molarity Na3PO4 = 3 0.150 M = 0.450 M
Molarity PO43(aq) = molarity Na3PO4 = 0.150 M
Example 4.9:
What is the number of moles of Na3PO4 in 250 mL of a 0.150 M solution?
Solution:
No. of moles Na3PO4 = molarity Na3PO4 volume (L)
= 0.150 mol/L 250 103 L = 0.0375 mol
Example 4.10:
What volume of 0.200 M Ca(NO3)2 solution contains 0.0500 mol of
Ca(NO3)2?
Solution:
Volume needed (L) = no. of moles Ca(NO3)2 / molarity Ca(NO3)2
= 0.0500 mol / 0.200 mol L1 = 0.250 L (250 mL)
Dilutions
Commercially available solutions of ammonia and acids like nitric
acid are concentrated solutions. They often have to be diluted to
prepare solutions of the required molarity. A dilution is the
conversion of a concentrated solution to a more dilute solution by
adding solvent.
Since only solvent is added, the number of moles of solute in the
concentrated solution (before dilution) = the number of moles of
76
solute in the dilute solution (after dilution). If M = molarity and V =
volume, then:
M1 V1 (before dilution) = M2 V2 (after dilution)
Example 4.11:
What volume of 11.0 M HNO3 is required to prepare 1.00 L of 1.00 M
HNO3?
Solution:
M1 = 11.0 M, V1 = unknown, M2 = 1.00 M, V2 = 1.00 L, then:
11.0 M V1 = 1.00 M 1.00 L
V1 = (1.00 M 1.00 L) / 11.0 M = 0.0909 L (90.9 mL)
Example 4.12:
If 45.75 mL of 0.0513 M HCl(aq) neutralizes a 20.00 mL sample of
Ba(OH)2(aq), what is the concentration of the aq. Ba(OH)2? And what is
the mass of Ba(OH)2 in the 20.00 mL?
Solution:
The reaction equation is:
2HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) BaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
No. of moles HCl reacting
= 0.0513 mol/L 45.75 103 L = 2.347 103 mol
Using the ratio of the no. of moles HCl and Ba(OH)2 in the reaction
equation,
1 mol Ba(OH) 2
no. moles Ba(OH) 2 in 20.00 mL 2.347 10-3 mol HCl
2 mol HCl
1.173 10-3 mol
77
= 1.173 103 mol / 20.00 103 L = 0.0587 mol/L
The mass of Ba(OH)2 in the 20.00 mL sample
= no. of moles in 20.00 mL MM = 1.173 103 mol 171.35 g/mol
= 0.201 g (201 mg)
4.7 Exercises
Electrolytes
4.1. Explain if the following statements are true or false.
(a) Acetic acid is a weak acid because it is only sparingly soluble in
water.
(b) A solution of 1 mol of glucose (a sugar, C6H12O6) is a better
conductor of electricity than a solution of 1 mol of potassium
chloride, KCl, because it contains more ions.
(c) Aqueous NaCl is a good conductor of electricity since it
contains anions, Cl(aq), which will give electrons to the
solution.
4.3. Which of the following pairs of reagents could you use to prepare
solutions that will give a precipitate of BaSO4 upon mixing?
(a) K2SO4 and BaCO3 (b) Ba(OH)2 and PbSO4
(c) Ba(NO3)2 and MgSO4 (d) BaCl2 and SrSO4
4.4. Write the molecular equation and the net ionic equation for the
reaction, if any, between aqueous solutions of:
(a) ammonium carbonate and calcium iodide
(b) silver nitrate and magnesium bromide
(c) copper(II) chloride and potassium acetate
(d) magnesium bromide and sodium hydroxide
78
Acids, bases, neutralisation reactions
4.5.A Indicate which of the following acids are weak acids.
Hydrofluoric acid (HF(aq)), hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq)),
hydrobromic acid (HBr(aq)), hydroiodic acid (HI(aq)), sulphuric
acid (H2SO4(aq)), sulphurous acid (H2SO3(aq)).
4.6. Write the molecular equation and the net ionic equation for the
reaction, if any, between aqueous solutions of:
(a) sodium hydroxide and hydrobromic acid
(b) barium hydroxide and sulphuric acid
(c) ammonia and nitric acid
(d) hydrofluoric acid and potassium hydroxide
Oxidation-reduction reactions
4.7. Give the oxidation number of
(a) Cr in K2Cr2O7 (b) Mo in MoO42 (c) P in CaHPO4
(d) S in Na2S2O3 (e) C in H2C2O4 (f) S in S4O62
79
Solution concentrations
4.11. (a) What mass of Li2SO4 is required to prepare 100 mL of an
aqueous solution which is 0.150 M Li2SO4.
(b) What volume of concentrated (= 12.0 M) hydrochloric acid is
needed to prepare 1.00 L of 0.200 M aq. HCl?
Solution stoichiometry
4.15. What volume of 0.150 M hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq), is required to
neutralise 2.58 g of calcium carbonate, CaCO3? Reaction equation:
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
80
CHAPTER 5
Gases
5.1 Pressure, Pressure Units
Example 5.1:
Express 0.690 atm in (i) mmHg, and (ii) kPa.
760 mmHg
(i). 0.690 atm 0.690 atm 524 mmHg
1.00 atm
101.325 kPa
(ii). 0.690 atm 0.690 atm 69.9 kPa
1.00 atm
Boyles Law
We know from experience that the volume of a gas decreases if its
pressure increases. This is more precisely given in Boyles law which
81
states that the volume (V) of a fixed amount (n) of gas, kept at a
constant temperature (T), is inversely proportional to its pressure (P).
In terms of an equation:
1
V constant (at constant n and T)
P
or: P V = constant (at constant n and T)
so that: P1V1 = P2V2 (comparing the gas under two different
conditions at constant n and T)
Figure 5.1 shows a graphical representation of Boyles law.
100 100
75 75
Volume, V (L)
Volume, V (L)
50 50
25 25
0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Pressure, P (atm) 1 / Pressure, 1/P (atm-1)
(a) (b)
Figure 5.1: Boyles law: V vs. P (graph (a)) and V vs. 1/P (graph (b))
for a fixed amount of gas at constant temperature.
Charless Law
Volume of a sample of gas increases with temperature. This is stated
in (a reworded) Charless Law: the volume (V) of a fixed amount (n)
of gas at constant pressure (P) is directly proportional to the absolute
(Kelvin) temperature (T).
V = constant T (at constant n and P)
V
or: constant (at constant n and P)
T
V1 V2
so that: (the gas under two different conditions)
T1 T2
82
A graph showing Charless law is given in figure 5.2.
20
15 The line in figure 5.2 is
10 extrapolated to absolute zero, a
5 temperature of 0 K. At this
0 temperature, the volume of the gas
0 200 400 600
is predicted to be zero, which is
Temperature (K) not realistic.
Example 5.2:
A sample of argon gas is stored in a cylinder with volume of 100 mL at
695 Torr and 15 0C. The gas is allowed to expand into a total volume of
1.00 L and stored at 27 0C. What is the final gas pressure?
Solution:
Call the original condition 1, and the new condition 2. Then
P1 = 695 Torr, V1 = 100 mL = 0.100 L, V2 = 1.00 L
T1 = 10 0C = (10 + 273.15) K = 283.15 K,
T2 = 27 0C = (27 + 273.15) K = 300.15 K
P1V1 P2 V2 PVT
so that P2 1 1 2
T1 T2 V2T1
695 Torr 0.100 L 300.15 K
P2 73.7 Torr
1.00 L 283.15 K
83
Gay-Lussac / Avogadros Law
The relationship between volume of a gas and its number of moles is
given by the (restated) law of Avogadro Gay-Lussac: the volume
(V) of a gas at constant temperature and pressure is directly
proportional to the number of moles (n) of the gas.
V = constant n (at constant P and T)
The molar volume, VM, of a gas is the volume occupied by one mole
of that gas:
V
VM (units are L/mol)
n
It is about the same for all gases at the same T and P. Since the
volume of a sample of gas depends on temperature and pressure, these
will have to be stated when a molar volume is given. For example:
VSTP = 22.4 L/mol (STP = 0 0C and 1 atm)
(STP stands for standard temperature and pressure.)
Note: Molar volumes for gases are much larger (~1000 times) than for
solids and liquids.
Example 5.3:
Find the value for the molar volume of a gas under room conditions
(which is 25 0C and 1 atm).
84
Solution:
The molar volume is the volume of 1 mol of gas, thus n = 1.00 mol
P = 1.00 atm, T = 25 0C = (25 + 273.15) K = 298.15 K
Since P is expressed in atm, we use R = 0.08206 L atm mol1 K1
Then:
nRT 1.00 mol 0.08206 L atm mol-1 K -1 298.15 K
VM 24.5 L
P 1.00 atm
Example 5.4:
A 10.0 L bottle contains oxygen gas at a pressure of 25.0 atm and
temperature of 24 0C. What is the mass of oxygen in the bottle?
Solution:
We can calculate the number of moles of O2 gas in the bottle using the
ideal gas law. Multiplying this number of moles with the molar mass of
O2 gives the mass of O2.
V = 10.0 L, P = 25.0 atm, T = (24 + 273.15) K = 297.15 K
PV 25.0 atm 10.0 L
n 10.25 mol
RT 0.08206 L atm mol-1 K -1 297.15 K
Mass of O2 = 10.25 mol x 32.00 g/mol = 328 g
Any gas that obeys the Ideal Gas Law under all conditions is called an
ideal gas; it shows ideal behaviour. Real gases approximate this
behaviour at low pressures and high to moderate temperatures (room
conditions).
85
Multiplying both sides by the molar mass (MM) will give:
n MM P MM
(eq.2)
V RT
but: n MM = mass (eq.3)
mass
and: d ( density) (eq.4)
V
P MM
substitute (eq.3) and (eq.4) in (eq.2): d (eq.5)
RT
d RT
rearrange (eq.5): MM (eq.6)
P
Equation 5 will be used to find the density of a gas when its molar
mass is known; equation 6 can be applied when the density is known
and the molar mass has to be determined.
Example 5.5:
At a pressure of 715 mmHg and temperature of 23 0C, a pure gas in a
flask of volume 504 mL had a mass of 1.83 g. Find the molar mass of the
gas.
Solution:
The density of the gas can be calculated since the mass and volume of the
gas are known:
m 1.83 g
d 3.631 g/L (express volume in litre)
V 0.504 L
Knowing density, we can then find the molar mass using:
d RT
MM
P
P = 715 mmHg = (715 mmHg / 760 mmHg) 1.00 atm = 0.9408 atm
T = 23 0C = (23 + 273.15) K = 296.15 K
3.631 g/L 0.08206 L atm mol-1 K -1 296.15 K
MM 93.8 g/mol
0.9408 atm
86
(see chapters 3 and 4) allows us to include volumes of gases in our
calculations with reactions equations.
Example 5.6:
Potassium superoxide can be used to purify air. It reacts with carbon
dioxide and releases oxygen according to the balanced equation:
4KO2(s) + 2CO2(g) 2K2CO3(s) + 3O2(g)
What mass of KO2 is needed to react with 1.00 L of CO2(g) at 20 0C and
1.00 atm ?
Solution:
Convert the volume of carbon dioxide to number of moles using the ideal
gas law. Then use the balanced reaction equation to determine the
number of moles of potassium superoxide required. Multiply this number
of moles by the molar mass of the superoxide to find the mass required.
PV 1.00 atm 1.00 L
n (CO 2 ) 0.04157 mol
RT 0.08206 L atm mol-1 K -1 293.15 K
4 mol KO 2
No. of moles KO 2 0.04157 mol CO 2 0.08314 mol KO 2
2 mol CO 2
Mass KO2 = 0.08314 mol 71.10 g/mol = 5.91 g
87
n RT n RT n RT
P1 1 , P2 2 , .. , Pn n
V V V
In a gas mixture, all gases have the same volume V and temperature
T, so that
n RT n 2 RT n RT RT
Ptotal 1 ....... n (n1 n 2 ..... n n )
V V V V
but: (n1 + n2 + . + nn) = ni = ntotal
n totalRT
so that: Ptotal
V
Example 5.7:
Ignoring the small amounts of carbon dioxide and noble gases, dry air
consists of 76% N2 by mass and 24% O2 by mass. What are the partial
pressure of each gas, and the total pressure of a sample of 1.00 g of dry air
with a volume of 1.00 L at 30 0C?
Solution:
First calculate the masses of nitrogen and oxygen in the sample of air:
mass N2 = (76% / 100%) 1.00 g = 0.760 g
mass O2 = (24% / 100%) 1.00 g = 0.240 g
We can then find the number of moles of both gases in the air sample:
no. of moles N2 = 0.760 g / 28.02 g mol1 = 0.0271 mol
no. of moles O2 = 0.240 g / 32.00 g mol1 = 0.00750 mol
Using the ideal gas law will give the partial pressure of each:
0.0271 mol 0.08206 L atm mol-1 K -1 303.15 K
P(N2 ) 0.67 4 atm
1.00 L
0.00750 mol 0.08206 L atm mol-1 K -1 303.15 K
P(O2 ) 0.187 atm
1.00 L
Ptotal = Pdry air = P(N2) + P(O2) = (0.674 + 0.187) atm = 0.86 atm
Mole fraction
The mole fraction, X, of component A in a mixture is the number of
moles of A expressed as a fraction of the total number of moles of all
88
components in the mixture:
XA = nA / ntotal
Since all gases in a mixture have the same temperature and volume,
the ratio of partial pressure of component A and the total pressure will
equal the mole fraction of A:
PA n RT / V n
A A A
Ptotal n totalRT / V n total
n
then: PA A Ptotal A Ptotal
n total
Note that the sum of the mole fractions of all components in the
mixture equals 1. For example, for a mixture of two components:
n1 n2 (n1 n 2 )
1 2 1
n total n total n total
Example 5.8:
The mole fraction of NO2 in a mixture of NO2 and CO2 kept at 760 Torr is
0.64. Calculate the mole fraction of CO2, and the partial pressure of NO2
and CO2.
Solution:
The sum of the mole fractions equals 1, therefore:
X(CO2) = 1.00 X(NO2) = 1.00 0.64 = 0.36
We can calculate the partial pressures knowing the mole fractions and
total pressure:
P(CO2) = X(CO2) Ptotal = 0.36 760 Torr = 2.7 x 102 Torr
P(NO2) = X(NO2) Ptotal = 0.64 760 Torr = 4.9 x 102 Torr
89
Example 5.9:
When heated, ammonium nitrite decomposes into nitrogen and water:
NH4NO2(s) N2(g) + 2H2O(l)
At 28 0C and an atmospheric pressure of 0.908 atm, 355 mL of N2 was
collected over water. What mass of NH4NO2 decomposed? (The water
vapour pressure at 28 0C = 28.35 Torr)
Solution:
Number of moles of N2 and NH4NO2 are related through the balanced
equation. We can find the number of moles of N2 using the ideal gas law,
once we know the partial pressure of N2.
The partial pressure of the nitrogen gas is the difference between the total
pressure of the gas collected (which equals atmospheric pressure) and the
water vapour pressure.
Pwater = 28.35 Torr = 28.35 Torr (1.00 atm/760 Torr) = 0.0373 atm
Ptotal = Patm = 0.908 atm
P(N2) = Ptotal Pwater = (0.908 0.0373) atm = 0.8707 atm
T = (28 + 273.15) K = 301.15 K , V = 355 mL = 0.355 L
0.8707 atm 0.355 L
n(N 2 ) 0.01251 mol
0.08206 L atm mol-1 K -1 301.15 K
In the reaction equation, 1 mol of N2 is produced by 1 mol of NH4NO2 ,
therefore the no. of moles NH4NO2 = no. of moles N2 = 0.01251 mol.
Mass NH4NO2 = 0.01251 mol 64.04 g/mol = 0.801 g
90
rateA MM B
(eq.8)
rateB MM A
The effusion rate has the units of volume (of gas) over time (for
example, mL/min), so that:
1
rate (eq.9)
time
Combining (eq.7) and (eq.9) will give:
1 1
(eq.10)
time MM
or comparing two gases A and B under identical conditions:
time A MM A
(eq.11)
time B MM B
Example 5.10:
A certain amount of neon gas takes 25 s to effuse through a porous
barrier. How long does it take for the same amount of methane gas
(CH4(g)) to effuse under the same conditions ?
Solution:
MM (Ne) = 20.18 g/mol, MM (CH4) = 16.05 g/mol
time (CH 4 ) MM (CH 4 )
Use (eq.11):
time (Ne) MM (Ne)
time (CH 4 ) 16.05 g/mol
Substitute values: 0.8918
25 s 20.18 g/mol
time (CH4) = 0.8918 25 s = 22 s
91
5.7 Kinetic Theory of Gases
The gas laws discussed in this chapter can be explained by the kinetic
theory of gases. This theory is summarised as follows:
1. A gas is a collection of particles (atoms for noble gases,
molecules for other gases) that are in continuous, random motion.
2. The gas particles move in a straight line path until they collide
with each other and with objects around them. These collisions
are elastic - although the kinetic energy of individual particles
will change, there is no net loss of kinetic energy. No kinetic
energy is converted to heat.
3. The volume of gas particles themselves is ignored. They are
considered to be infinitely small and are treated as point masses.
4. Gas particles do not attract or repel each other.
5. The average translational kinetic energy of the particles is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature:
Ekin T
The average kinetic energy of all particles of a gas is the same at
any given temperature. This implies that a heavier particle will
have a lower average speed:
T
average speed
MM
5.8 Exercises
Simple gas laws
5.1. (a) A gas sample of 16.5 mL at 14.5 oC is heated to 70.0 oC at
constant pressure. What is the new volume of the gas?
92
(b) Calculate the mass of Cl2 that has the same volume as 8.59 g of
SO2 gas if both are at the same temperature and pressure.
(c) A 1.0 L gas sample at 35 0C and 760 mmHg is compressed to a
final volume of 100 mL. What is the new pressure?
5.4. (a) What is the molar volume of a gas at 1.00 atm and 100 oC.
(b) A sample of Ne gas with a mass of 0.500 g has a volume of 1.00
L at 25 oC. What is the temperature of a 0.500 g sample of Ar if
it has the same volume and pressure as the Ne sample?
5.6. A gas containing 79.9 mass% carbon and 20.1 mass% hydrogen has
a density of 1.34 g/L at STP conditions.
(a) Find the molar mass of the gas.
(b) Determine the empirical formula of the gas.
(c) What is the molecular formula of the gas?
5.8. Small quantities of hydrogen gas can be prepared in the lab by the
reaction of zinc metal with excess hydrochloric acid.
(a) Write the balanced equation for the reaction.
(b) If 250 mL of H2 gas is required and collected at 22 0C and 0.968
atm, what mass of zinc has to be added to the hydrochloric
acid?
(c) Explain if the hydrogen gas can be collected over water.
Gas mixtures
5.9. A gas mixture consisting of 0.200 g of He, 0.0228 mol of Ne and
0.0551 mol of Ar, has a volume of 600 mL at 30 oC.
(a) What is the partial pressure of each gas?
(b) What is the total pressure of the mixture?
5.10. The mole fraction of argon in air is about 0.009. What is the partial
pressure of Ar in air at an atmospheric pressure of 715 mmHg?
Grahams Law
5.11. The rate of effusion of an unknown gas is 0.79 times that of Ar
under the same conditions.
(a) Find the molar mass of the unknown gas.
(b) The unknown gas is an oxide of sulphur, SOx. Determine the
value for x, and thus the molecular formula of the gas.
5.12. An unknown gas takes 1.42 times longer to effuse than oxygen
under the same conditions.
(a) What is the molar mass of the gas?
(b) The unknown gas is a mono-halogenated ethane, i.e. ethane in
which one hydrogen atom has been replaced by an atom of a
halogen; it therefore has the formula C2H5X, where X is the
halogen. Find the identity of X, and then give the molecular
formula of the gas.
94
CHAPTER 6
Electronic Structure of Atoms
6.1 Electromagnetic Radiation
Wavelength, frequency
Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy that sometimes acts like
a wave, and other times acts like a particle. Visible light is a well-
known example. All forms of electromagnetic radiation have two
inversely proportional properties: wavelength () and frequency ().
Wavelength is the distance from one wave peak to the next, which can
be measured in meters (1nm = 109 m) see figure 6.1. Frequency is
the number of waves that passes by a given point per second. It is
measured in Hertz (1 Hz = 1 s1).
Example 6.1:
The frequency of violet light is 7.31 1014 s1. What is its wavelength?
Solution:
Rearranging the expression = c gives = c / .
Therefore, = 3.00 108 m s1 / 7.31 1014 s1 = 4.10 107 m
95
The electromagnetic spectrum
Based on its wavelength (or frequency), we can differentiate between
different types of electromagnetic radiation. These are shown in the
electromagnetic spectrum (see figure 6.2). As can be seen, visible
light is only a tiny part of it. (Note that a logarithmic scale is used for
the wavelength.)
Example 6.2:
What is the energy of a photon of light of wavelength 500 nm (which
appears blue-green to the human eye)?
Solution:
The frequency of this light is
= c / = (3.00 108 ms1) / (5.00 107 m) = 6.00 1014 s1
The energy carried by a single photon of this frequency is
E = h = 6.63 1034 Js 6.00 1014 s1 = 4.00 1019 J
96
Example 6.3:
Consider the light with wavelength of 500 nm which we discussed in
example 6.2. What is the number of photons emitted if a total energy of
20J is given off by the source of this light?
Solution:
Number of photons emitted will be the total energy divided by the energy
of 1 photon:
= 20 J / 4.00 1019 J photon1 = 5.0 1019 photons
Quantization of energy
Energy can be absorbed or emitted by atoms or subatomic particles
(electrons, protons or neutrons) only as fixed discrete amounts. A
quantum is the smallest amount of energy that can be emitted or
absorbed. It could be considered as the energy (equivalent) of a
photon of radiation.
Electrons in atoms can only be in certain discrete energy states their
energy is quantized (restricted). Therefore, atoms have a series of
precisely defined energy states only. (The energy of all moving
objects is quantized but it is only observable for atoms or subatomic
particles because the allowed energies are so close together.)
98
lines (wavelengths) that are observable in the visible and near-UV
region of the spectrum are called the Balmer series, named after the
person who first observed them. Other examples of sets of related
lines in the hydrogen spectrum are the Lyman series (in the ultraviolet
region) and the Paschen, Brackett and Pfund series (in the infrared
region).
A simple mathematical formula shows the relationship of the lines in
each series. This formula is called the Rydberg equation:
1 1
1
RH
n 2 n 2
1 2
where RH (= Rydberg constant) = 1.097 107 m1
n1 and n2 are integers, with n2 > n1
This equation reproduces all the experimental line series for the
hydrogen atom in the IR, visible and UV regions see table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Values of n1 and n2 for the various line series in the
emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen
Example 6.4:
Calculate the wavelength (in nm) for the second Balmer line.
Solution:
For the Balmer series (see table 6.1):
n1 = 2; for the 1st line, n2 = 3; for the 2nd line, n2 = 4
Use the Balmer equation to find wavelength in m, then convert to nm.
1 1 1 1 1
RH 1.097 107 m -1 0.20569 107 m -1
n 2 n 2 22 42
1 2
99
1
4.862 10- 7 m
0.20569 107 m -1
nm
4.862 10-7 m 486.2 nm (visible region)
-9
10 m
100
in an atom is lower than that of a free electron (when n = ).
After absorbing energy, the electron moves to an excited state,
say n2. When it then emits energy, it drops to a lower energy
state, say n1. (This lower energy state may be either another
excited state or the ground state.) The difference between the
energies of the initial (n1) and final (n2) states is:
hR hR 1 1
E E n E n
hR
2 1 2 2 2 2
n2 n1 n
1 n 2
101
Consider Einsteins relationship between mass and energy of matter:
E = mc2 (eq.1)
where E = energy of the particle, m = mass of the particle,
c = speed of light.
The energy of a photon is given by the equation:
c
E h h (eq.2)
Equating (eq.1) and (eq.2):
hc h
mc 2 which gives (eq.3)
mc
For all moving particles (objects), (eq.3) can be written as:
h
where v = velocity (eq.4)
mv
This equation which relates mass and wavelength of a moving object
is called the de Broglie equation. It shows that a particle in motion
can be treated as a wave, and a wave can exhibit the properties of a
particle.
Example 6.5:
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an electron travelling at 1% of the
speed of light (mass of an electron = 9.11 1031 kg).
Solution:
The speed of light is 3.00 108 m/s; 1% of that is 3.00 106 m/s.
Masses in the de Broglie equation are expressed in kg. Therefore we
change the units for Plancks constant (Js) to include kg as one of the
units: 1 J = 1 kg m2 s2, so that Js = kg m2 s2 s1 = kg m2 s1.
6.63 10 34 kg m 2 s 1
2.43 10 10 m (0.243 nm)
h
mv 9.11 10 31 6 -1
kg 3.00 10 m s
102
6.5 The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
Although the Bohr model was successful in explaining the spectrum
of the hydrogen atom, it failed to do so in a satisfactory manner for
atoms with more than one electron. This required a new model of the
atom which also took the wave properties of the electron into account.
Quantum numbers
An electron in an atom is at some location relative to the nucleus, and
is associated with some energy. According to quantum mechanics,
there is a finite probability of finding an electron around the nucleus.
The region of space, in which the probability of finding the electron is
large, is called an orbital or atomic orbital.
103
Principal quantum number (n)
Principal quantum number n determines the shell of the orbital in
which the electron can be found. It is the main determinant of the
energy of the electron (higher n corresponds to higher energy), as well
as nuclear distance (higher n means farther from the nucleus).
The principal quantum number can have any positive integral value: n
= 1, 2, 3, 4, ... . Maximum number of electrons in a shell is given by
2n2. The number of the period in which an element is found in the
Periodic Table indicates the number of electron-containing shells, for
example, helium (n = 1), neon (n = 2), argon (n = 3).
Subshells
Each type of subshell is represented by the letters s, p, d, f, .. :
a subshell with = 0 is called s-subshell;
for = 1 we have a p-subshell;
a d-subshell has = 2;
while the subshell with = 3 is called an f-subshell.
104
the fourth shell, n = 4, has four subshells: a s-, p-, d- and f-
subshells.
(Note that the value for n is also the number of subshells in that shell.)
105
The values of the three quantum numbers n, and m are summarized
in the following table (table 6.2).
Example 6.6:
Determine the total number of orbitals in the shell with n = 4.
Solution:
For n = 4, there are four subshells: 4s, 4p, 4d, and 4f.
Each s-subshell has 1 orbital, each p-subshell has 3 orbitals, an d-
subshells has 5 orbitals while an f-subshell has 7 orbitals.
The total number of orbitals = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16
Aufbau Principle
The German word Aufbau means "building up". This term has
traditionally been used to describe the manner in which electrons are
assigned to orbitals as we carry out the imaginary task of constructing
atoms of elements with successively larger atomic numbers. In doing
so, we are effectively "building up" the Periodic Table of the
elements.
Electrons occupy preferably orbitals with the lowest possible
energy; lower-energy orbitals are filled with electrons before
orbitals with higher energy.
No more than two electrons can occupy any orbital.
The order of filling up subshells is as follows: 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p
< 4s 3d < 4p < 5s 4d < 5p < 6s 4f 5d < 6p < 7s 5f 6d < 7p.
107
(See fig. 6.7) It shows how the energies of the various subshells in the
same shell differ as a result of electron-electron repulsion. Energies of
d- and f-orbitals depend on the number of electrons they contain: once
they are filled their energy is lowered and then: 3d <4s ; 4d < 5s ; 4f <
5d <6s ; 5f < 6d < 7s.
Electron configuration
An electron configuration describes the arrangement of electrons in
the subshells of an atom. For a certain atom, the electron
configuration associated with the lowest energy levels corresponds to
the ground state and all others correspond to excited states.
Hydrogen is a single electron atom. This electron will be in the 1s
orbital in the ground state. Its electron configuration can be written
as: 1s1.
108
Orbital diagram
In an orbital diagram, the number of electrons in each orbital is also
shown. An electron is represented by an arrow; a box or horizontal
line represents an orbital. The arrow can point upwards or
downwards, depending on the spin of the electron:
(ms = +) and (ms = ).
Therefore, the electron configuration for the hydrogen atom in the
form of an orbital diagram is:
1s1
The first two elements in period 4 will have the following electron
configuration:
110
K (19): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 or [Ar] 4s1
Ca (20): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 or [Ar] 4s2
The ten elements after calcium form the first transition series (Sc
through to Zn). These elements fill the 3d subshell. Their electron
configuration and orbital diagram can be written using the Aufbau
Principle and Hunds rule. For example,
Sc (21): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1 or [Ar] 4s2 3d1
Zn (30): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 or [Ar] 4s2 3d10
However, there are two irregularities:
Cr (24): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
and not: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d4 4s2 as expected.
Cu (29): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
and not: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9 4s2 as expected.
These irregularities are partly a consequence of the reduced electron-
electron repulsion when electrons remain unpaired (Hund's rule), as is
evident in chromium, which contains six unpaired electrons. In
addition, a subshell is particularly stable if it is half full (s 1, d5) or full
(s2, d10). This also applies to atoms in the same group as chromium
and copper.
The orbital diagrams for the first series of transition elements are
shown below:
3d orbital 4s
21
Sc
22
Ti
23
V
24
Cr
25
Mn
26
Fe
27
Co
28
Ni
29
Cu
30
Zn
111
6.7 Electron Configurations of Monoatomic Ions
When atoms form a cation, the highest energy electrons will be lost.
Often, the number of electrons lost is such that a closed shell
configuration results. Similarly, when atoms accept one or more
electrons to form an anion, the number of electrons gained is often
such so as to give a closed shell configuration. For example,
Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 ([Ne] 3s1) will form Na+: 1s2 2s2 2p6 (=[Ne])
F: 1s2 2s2 2p5 ([He] 2s2 2p5) will form F: 1s2 2s2 2p6 (=[Ar])
If a transition metal forms a cation, then the electrons lost will first
come from the outermost s subshell, and then from the outermost d
subshell. For example, the electron configuration of Cu + is [Ar] 3d10
(4s1 electron lost); the electron configuration of Cu2+ is [Ar] 3d9 (4s1
electron and one 3d10 electron lost).
6.8 Exercises
Electromagnetic radiation, photons
6.1. Calculate the wavelength of radiation with the following frequency;
indicate to which part of the electromagnetic spectrum it belongs.
(a) 2.3 1015 Hz (b) 1.2 1010 Hz (c) 6.4 1019 Hz
6.2. (a) Find the energy of a photon of light with wavelength 540 nm.
(b) Calculate the energy (in J) of 2.0 mol of photons that has a
wavelength of 755 nm.
(c) A lamp emits a total energy of 30 J of light with a wavelength
of 465 nm. What is the number of photons emitted by the
lamp?
6.4. Calculate the wavelength for the second line of the Paschen series
in the emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom. (For the Paschen
series, n1 = 3)
112
Wave nature of the electron
6.6. Calculate the wavelength corresponding to
(a) an electron having a velocity of 5.0 106 m/s (the mass of an
electron = 9.109 1028 g).
(b) a neutron with a velocity of 5.0 107 m/s (the mass of a
neutron = 1.674 1024 g).
Electron configurations
6.10. Explain which electron configuration is possible:
(a) 1s2 2s3 2p5 (b) 1s2 2s2 2p5
(c) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p7 3d9 (d) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 3d10 4s2
113
6.13. Write the orbital diagram of the condensed ground state electron
configuration for the following species, and give the number of
unpaired electrons.
(a) S (b) Fe (c) F (d) Ge (e) Fe3+
114
CHAPTER 7
Periodic properties of the Elements
7.1 Electronic Configuration and the Periodic Table
The relative orbital energies (discussed in chapter 6) and the Pauli
Exclusion Principle constitute the fundamental basis of the Periodic
Table of the elements. The Periodic Table consists of horizontal rows
known as periods and vertical columns known as groups.
Periods
There are seven periods (1 to 7) in the Periodic Table. The first period
has two elements, hydrogen and helium. The second and third periods
have eight elements which are, respectively, lithium (Li) to neon (Ne)
and sodium (Na) to argon (Ar). The fourth, fifth and sixth periods
consist of 18 (K to Kr), 18 (Rb to Xe) and 32 (Cs to Rn) elements
respectively. The seventh period starts from francium (Fr) and is
incomplete. Two rows of elements from La to Yb and Ac to No are
placed below the main body of the periodic table to save space but
they actually belong to the main body of the Periodic Table. (Note the
jump in atomic number going from Ba (56) to Lu (71) where the
elements La (57) Yb (70) should be placed, and from Ra (88) to Lr
(103) where the elements Ac (89) No (102) belong.)
Groups
In the past, two different systems of Roman numerals and letters were
used to denote the various groups. In the USA, the letter B denoted
the d-block groups while the letter A was used for the others. The rest
of the world used the letter A for the d-block elements and B for the
others. In 1985, a new international (IUPAC) system was adopted in
which the columns were simply labelled 1-18. This is what is shown
in the Periodic Table on the next page.
The elements on the left side of the periodic table are metals and those
on the right side are non-metals. Elements at the boundary between
metals and non-metals are known as metalloids.
115
Fig. 7.1: The Periodic Table of the elements
116
Periodic Table and electron configuration
Each period commences with two s-block elements (electron
configuration of the valence shell is ns1 and ns2) and continues
through the p block. At the end of each row corresponding to the
principal quantum number n > 1, there is an element that has an np6
configuration for the valence shell, a so-called noble gas element. At
n values of 3 and 4, d- and f-block element sequences are added.
Due to the periodicity in the properties, the elements that have similar
properties appear in the same group. Elements of groups 1 and 2 are
called alkali and alkaline earth elements respectively or s-block
elements. These elements have a filled inner shell and have one or
two electrons in their outer-most orbital. The general electron
configuration of s-block elements is ns1-2. Elements from groups 13 to
17 are called main group elements or p-block elements. In these
elements, p-orbitals are successively filled up. Their inner orbitals are
completely filled up. The general electron configuration of p-block
elements is ns2 np1-5 and they are placed towards the right of the
Periodic Table. It must be noted here that in noble gases, the last
electron goes into the p-orbital and therefore, they could be considered
as p-block elements. However, as they acquire a stable configuration
and have different properties, they are classed separately as inert or
noble gases. Both s- and p-block elements are collectively called
representative elements.
Elements in the two rows placed below the main part of the Periodic
Table are called lanthanides and actinides, or f-block elements. They
are also referred to as inner transition elements. These elements are
filling a f-subshell; general electron configuration is (n-2)f1-14 ns2, but
note that there are several exceptions whereby an electron can also be
found in the (n-1)d subshell.
117
Elements in group 18 are called noble or inert gases. Except helium
(1s2), all noble gases have completely filled p-orbitals and have a
general electron configuration ns2 np6.
Summary
In summary, where n indicates the period number (and the shell
number), the general electron configuration of the groups is:
Groups 1-2: [preceding noble gas] ns1-2
Groups 3-12, Periods 4-5: [preceding noble gas] (n-1)d1-10 ns2
Periods 6-7: [noble gas] (n-2)f14 (n-1)d1-10 ns2
Groups 13-18, Periods 1-3: [noble gas] ns2 np1-6
(but note He with 1s2 only)
Periods 4-5: [noble gas] (n-1)d10 ns2 np1-6
Periods 6-7: [noble gas] (n-2)f14 (n-1)d10 ns2 np1-6
Lanthanides, actinides (Period 6-7): [noble gas] (n-2)f1-14 ns2
Note that exceptions to these general rules occur, especially with the
heavier elements.
18
1 1 2 H 13 14 15 16 17
2
3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
s block
4
p block
5
d block
6
7
f block
118
7.2 Size of Atoms and Ions
The concept of "size" is somewhat ambiguous when applied to the
scale of atoms and molecules. The reason for this is that an atom has
no definite boundary. There is a finite (but negligibly small)
probability of finding the electron of a hydrogen atom, for example, 1
cm, or even 1 km from the nucleus. It is not possible to specify a
definite value for the radius of an isolated atom; the best we can do is
to define a spherical shell within whose radius some arbitrary
percentage of the electron density can be found.
Atomic radii
The atomic radius of an element is defined as half the distance
between the centres of neighbouring atoms. In a metallic element, it is
the distance between the centres of neighbouring atoms in a solid
sample, and is called the metallic diameter. For example, this distance
in solid copper is 256 pm, the atomic radius of copper is half of it i.e.
128 pm.
119
If the element is a non-metal, atomic radius is the appropriate distance
between the centres of atoms joined by a chemical bond. Half of this
distance is also called covalent radius of the element. For example,
since the distance between the nuclei in chlorine molecule is 198 pm,
the atomic (covalent) radius of chlorine is 99 pm.
The other important factor is the nuclear charge; the higher the atomic
number, the more strongly will the electrons be drawn toward the
nucleus, and the smaller the atom. This effect is responsible for the
contraction we observe as we move across the Periodic Table from
left to right.
Ionic radii
The ionic radius of an element is the sharing distance between
neighbouring ions in an ionic solid. The inter-nuclear distance
between the nuclei of a cation and anion is the sum of the two ionic
radii. The radius of the oxide ion is generally used to find the radius
of the other ion. For example, if the inter nuclear distance in
magnesium oxide is 205 pm, and the radius of the oxide ion is 140
pm, then the radius of the magnesium ion is (205-140) = 65 pm.
Anions are always larger than the parent atoms; the addition of one or
more electrons to an existing shell increases electron-electron
121
repulsion which results in a general expansion of the atom. The
variation of ionic radii follows the same trend as that for atoms and
cations, with the smallest at the upper right of the Periodic Table,
close to fluorine.
Isoelectronic species
An isoelectronic series is a sequence of species all having the same
number of electrons (and thus the same extent of electron-electron
repulsion) but differing in nuclear charge. Of course, only one
member of such a sequence can be a neutral atom (neon in the series
shown below.) The effect of increasing nuclear charge on the radius
is clearly seen.
122
Example 7.1:
From each of the following pairs of species, choose the one with the
largest ionic radius: (i) Ar and Ne, (ii) Te and Te2, (iii) Ti and Ti4+.
Solution:
(i) Electron configurations of Ne and Ar are :
Ne (10): 1s2 2s2 2p6 (outer n = 2)
Ar (18): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 (outer n = 3)
The size of the atom increases down the group, hence argon atom has a
larger radius than the neon atom.
(ii) Te and Te2- : Anions are larger than their parent atoms. Therefore,
Te2- ion has the larger radius.
(iii) Ti and Ti4+ : A cation is smaller than its parent atom. Hence, Ti atom
has the larger radius.
Fig. 7.7: Successive ionizations (MJ mol-1) of the first ten elements
Example 7.2:
Arrange the following elements in order of increasing first
ionization energy: Na, Si, Mg, Al
125
Solution:
(i) Write the electron configuration of elements:
Na (11): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1; Si (14): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
Mg (12): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2; Al (13): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
The first ionization energy of elements increases across a period in the
Periodic Table. Therefore, the arrangement is Na, Mg, Al, Si.
126
electrons in the atom.
1 2
H He
73 -21
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
60 -19 27 122 -7 141 328 -29
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
53 -19 43 134 72 200 349 -35
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
48 -10 18 8 51 64 16 64 112 118 -47 29 116 78 195 325 -39
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
47 30 41 86 72 53 101 110 54 126 -32 29 116 103 190 295 -41
55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
45 31 79 14 106 101 205 223 -61 20 35 91 183 270 -41
87
Fr
44
127
7.5 Exercises
7.1. Arrange the following particles in order of increasing radius:
(a) Al, Al3+, Na, Rb (b) Cs, Cr, Ca, Ge2+
7.3. Which one of following species most likely has the lowest second
ionization energy: Na, Mg, Cl, Si?
7.5. (a) Write the reaction equations corresponding to the first and
second electron affinity of oxygen, O.
(b) Give the reaction equations corresponding to the first and
second ionization energy of copper, Cu.
128
CHAPTER 8
Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding
A chemical bond is a strong force of attraction that holds atoms
together in a molecule and ions in an ionic compound. The formation
of a chemical bond usually involves the valence shell electrons of
atoms. Chemical bonds can be classified into two types: ionic and
covalent bonds.
: :
: :
, Mg :
.
The formation of potassium chloride using Lewis dot symbols can be
written as:
-
:
:
K . + . Cl : K+ : Cl :
:
:
In many cases charges on the cation and anions are not the same. The
formation of calcium chloride and aluminum oxide shown below
illustrates this.
- -
:
:
: Cl :
: :
. Cl : : 2+
Ca : + 2 Cl : Ca
:
:
2-
: :
2 Al3+ 3 :O : Al2O3
Example 8.1:
Describe the formation of Mg3N2 using Lewis dot symbols.
Solution:
The formation of Mg3N2 involves participation of three magnesium atoms
and two nitrogen atoms.
3 Mg + N2 Mg3N2
131
Electron configurations of Mg and N atoms are:
Mg(12) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 or [Ne] 3s2
N(7) 1s2 2s2 2p3 or [He] 2s2 2p3
A magnesium atom has two valence electrons. A nitrogen atom has five
valence electrons and hence needs three electrons to acquire a stable noble
gas configuration. In the process three magnesium atoms will transfer a
total of six valence electrons and the two nitrogen atoms will gain a total
of six valence electrons to acquire the noble gas configuration. The
formation of Mg3N2 using Lewis dot symbols can be depicted as follows.
..
.. .. ..
Mg
.. ..
N
Mg . Mg3N2
.
Mg N
..
8.2 Covalent Bonds
A covalent bond is formed by the sharing of one or more pair of
electrons. The compounds thus formed are called covalent
compounds. When the electrons are shared equally by the bonded
atoms in a molecule, single, double or triple bonds are formed. In
covalent bonds atoms tend to share electrons until a closed shell
configuration is obtained for each atom (octet rule, based on ns2 np6
configuration). Octet rule is strictly applicable to the elements of
period two only. First period elements (1s2) need only two electrons,
3rd, 4th, 5th periods elements (for example P, S, Cl, Br and As) can
have expanded octet but may also follow octet rule in some cases.
132
. + . . .
H(1s1) H(1s1) H2
Both electrons are shared by/attracted to both nuclei which is a
stronger force than nuclei-nuclei repulsion but since both 1s electrons
have n = 1, = 0 and m = 0, the electrons must be spin-paired.
H . + .H H .. H or H H
The single line represents the shared pair of electrons, the single
covalent bond, between two atoms.
133
bonding
electrons
.. .. .. ..
..
..
..
F F
..
More simply
.. F
..
.. F
.. ..
non bonding
non bonding electrons
electrons
Lone pair repulsion on fluorine atoms weakens F-F bond, making the
F2 molecule more reactive than Cl2, Br2, or I2, which having larger
atoms and the lone pairs are farther apart leading to lower repulsion.
Double bond
Two shared electron pairs form a double bond. For example, a double
bond between a carbon atom and an oxygen atom, C : : O C O or
a double bond between two carbon atoms, C : : C C C.
Triple bond
Three shared pairs of electrons form a triple bond. For example, a
triple bond between two carbon atoms or a triple bond between two
nitrogen atoms.
..
C .. C
..
..
..
..
..
N N
..
.. C C or N .. N
Other examples are:
.... -
.... .... C H; C .. N
..
..
; H
..
C
.. O
..
..
..
..
O O S O
S O
2-
SO2 = OSO SO3 = O O SO4 =
(c) Central atom is usually written first: NH4+, PO43- etc.
(d) In oxyacids, acidic hydrogen is bonded to the O atom.
H2SO4 (HO)2 SO2 ; H3PO4 (HO)3PO
HClO2 (HO) ClO ; HClO4 (HO)ClO3
2. Calculate the total number of valence electrons for the molecule
by adding up the number of valence electrons for each atom.
For example: In a methane (CH4) molecule total number of
valence electrons is C (4) + H (1 4) = 8.
In a polyatomic anion the number of electrons for each negative
charge is added up to this total. Thus for the SO42- ion, total
number of electrons is S (6) + O (4 6) + 2 = 32 electrons.
In a polyatomic cation, the number of electrons for each positive
charge is subtracted from the total. Thus for the NH4+ ion, total
number of electrons is N (5) + H (1 4) - 1 = 8 electrons.
3. Draw a single bond between the central atom and each of the
surrounding atoms or place a pair of electrons for each bond.
4. Distribute electrons to the atoms surrounding the central atom to
complete the octet. For hydrogen atoms only two electrons are
required. If the central atom does not complete its octet, multiple
135
bonds are written between the surrounding atoms and the central
atom with non-bonding electrons on the surrounding atoms.
5. Place any additional electron (s) on the central atom if they are
not involved in bonding; even if doing so results in more than an
octet.
Example 8.2:
Write the Lewis structures for (i) CBr4 (ii) HNO3 (iii) CO32-
Solution:
(i) CBr4 (Carbon tetrabromide)
Step 1: The skeletal structure of CBr4 is
Br
Br C Br
Br
Step 2: The total number of valence electrons in CBr4 is C (4) + Br (4 x
7) = 32
Step 3: Place one single bond or a pair of electrons between carbon atom
and each of the bromine atom.
Br
Br
:
Br : C : Br or Br C Br
:
Br
Br
136
:
: Br :
:
: Br :
:
: :
:
:
: :
: Br : C : Br : or : Br C Br :
:
: :
: Br :
: Br :
:
Since all atoms in CBr4 molecule have a complete octet, steps 4 and 5 are
not needed.
:
: :
:
O : : :O :
: :
H O N H O N
: :
:
O
:O :
:
:
O :O : :O :
:
:
O C
:O : C :O : C
O
: O: :O :
:
137
ended arrow ( ) is used between the possible Lewis structures to
show a resonance form of a molecule or ion.
Consider, for example, the nitrate ion NO3. The Lewis dot structure
satisfying the octet rule can be written as follows.
-
: :
O
:
: O N O
:
:
:
:
: :
O : : : :
O O
:
:
:
:
: : : :
O N O O N O O N O
:
:
:
:
Example 8.3:
Write three non-equivalent resonance structures for SCN (thiocynate
ion.)
Solution:
138
Three possible non-equivalent structures for the thiocynate ion are:
_ _ _
:
:
:
:
: S C N
: : S C N
: S C N
:
:
:
:
Example 8.4:
Write a Lewis structure for the NO3 ion assuming that the ion obeys the
octet rule and then find the formal charge(s) on each atom.
Solution:
Lewis structure for the nitrate ion can be written as follows:
-
: :
O
:
: O N O
:
:
:
: O N O
:
:
:
(+1)
Example 8.5:
Find the formal charge on each atom in the SCN ion.
Solution:
The following are the three resonance structures for the SCN ion.
_ _ _
:
:
:
:
: S C N
: : S C N
: S C N
:
:
:
:
140
Atom Structure (a) Structure (b) Structure(c)
S FC = 6-6-(2) = -1 6-2-(6) = +1 6-4-2 = 0
C FC = 4-0 -(8) = 0 4-0-(8) = 0 4-0-4 = 0
N FC = 5-8-(6) = 0 5-6-(2) = -2 5-4-2 = -1
:
:
:
:
: S C N
: : S C N
: S C N
:
:
:
:
141
If, 0 , the bond is purely covalent ( equally shared electron
pair) and non-polar.
0 < < 2, increasingly polar covalent bond (unequal sharing of
electron pair)
2, the bond is ionic (electron transfer).
The following examples will illustrate the use of this scale.
NaCl = 3.2 0.93 = 2.3, ionic bond
CsF = 4.0 0.79 = 3.2, more ionic bond
Al-Cl = 3.2 1.60 = 1.6, highly polar but ionic bond
Al- F = 4.0 1.60 = 2.4, ionic bond (AlF3)
CH = 2.2 2.60 = 0.4, essentially non polar
142
.. ..
..
..
..
.. F F
..
.. ..
.. ..
..
.. F
..
F
.. ..
.. P
F
.. ..
F
.. S ..
.. ..
..F
..
F
..
..
..
F
..F ..
..
..
..F
2. Molecules in which additional lone pairs of electrons are placed
on the central atom.
Lewis structures of PCl3 and XeF4 shown below with one and two
lone pairs of electrons on the central atom P and Xe respectively.
.. ..
..
..
..
..
.. .. F
.. .. Xe
F
..
P Cl
.. .. ..F
..
Cl
.. ..
..
..
..
F
..
..
..
Cl
..
3. Sometimes expanded octet provides better resonance structures
than an octet. For example , SO42, SO2
(a) SO42
2- 2- 2-
(-1) (-1) (-1)
.. .. ..
..
..
..
O (0) O
..
(-1) (0) O
..
..
(-1)
.. .. .. ..
(-1)
.. ..(0)
..
..
..
S(+2) O O S O S O
(+1) ..
O O
.. .. .. .. (0) ..
..
..
..
..
..
..
O O O
.. .. ..
(-1) (-1) (-1)
(a) (b) (c)
Atom Structure (a) Structure (b) Structure (c)
S FC = 6-0-4 = +2 6-0-5 = +1 6-0-6 = 0
O FC = 6-6 -1= -1 6-6-1 = -1 6-6-1 = -1
O FC = N/A 6 -4-2 = 0 6-4-2 = 0
143
Structure (c) is the best structure because negative charges are on
the more electronegative oxygen atom.
(b) SO2
..
S O O S O O S O
.. .. .. .. .. ..
(a) (b) (c)
Structures (a) and (b) are equivalent, (c) is a non-equivalent
structure.
Atom Structure (a) Structure (b) Structure (c)
S FC = 6-2-3 = +1 6-2-3 = +1 6-2-4 = 0
O FC = 6-6-1 = -1 6-6-1 = -1 6-4-2 = 0
O FC = 6-4-2 = 0 6-4-2 = 0 6-4-2 = 0
Structure (c) is the best Lewis structure because the sum of all the
charges is zero.
8.7 Exercises
8.1. (a) What is the Lewis symbol of an element. Give an example.
(b) What is meant by the octet rule. Explain with an example.
(c) What is a resonance hybrid? Show using an example.
(d) What is an expanded octet? Mention three elements which
could show this in their compounds.
8.2. Which compound most likely has the largest lattice energy:
(a) MgS or MgO (b) NaCl or NaBr (c) NaCl or MgS
8.4. For the following species, draw the Lewis structure (if resonance is
possible, draw the non-equivalent resonance structures), calculate
the formal charges on all atoms, and indicate which structure is
most reasonable based on the calculated formal charges.
(a) OCN (b) PO43 (c) SO42
144
8.5. (a) Arrange the following elements in the expected order of
increasing electronegativity: In, Se, Sb, S.
(b) Which one is the most electronegative element: N, Sn, B, F, S?
145
CHAPTER 9
Molecular Geometry
Molecules are three-dimensional objects that occupy a three-
dimensional space. In general, only the smallest molecules can have a
fixed geometrical shape. In most molecules, those parts joined by
single bonds can rotate with respect to each other, giving rise to many
different geometric forms. However, the overall geometry surrounding
a given atom that is covalently bound to its neighbors is constant.
The Lewis electron-dot structures have no geometrical significance
other than depicting the order in which the various atoms are
connected to one another. Nevertheless, a slight extension of the
simple shared-electron pair concept is capable of rationalizing and
predicting the geometry of the bonds around a given atom in a wide
variety of situations.
146
Thus the two electron clouds contained in a simple triatomic molecule
AX2 will extend out in opposite directions; an angular separation of
180 places the two bonding orbitals as far away from each other they
can get. Therefore the two chemical bonds are expected to extend in
opposite directions, producing a linear molecule.
If the central atom also contains one or more pairs of nonbonding
electrons, these additional regions of negative charge will behave very
much like those associated with the bonded atoms. The orbitals
containing the various bonding and nonbonding pairs in the valence
shell will extend out from the central atom in directions that minimize
their mutual repulsions.
If the central atom possesses partially occupied d-orbitals, it may be
able to accommodate five or six electron pairs, forming an expanded
octet.
..
A
X X
AX4 molecules (tetrahedral): In such molecules, the central atom (A)
has four pairs of bonding electrons and has no lone pair of electrons
around it. The molecular geometry is tetrahedral.
148
For example, methane, CH4, contains a carbon atom bonded to four
hydrogen atoms. What bond angle would lead to the greatest possible
separation between the electrons clouds associated with these bonds?
In analogy with the above cases, where the bond angles were 360/2 =
180 (AX2) and 360/3 = 120, you (AX3) might guess 360/4 = 90;
if so, you would be wrong. The latter calculation would be correct if
all the atoms were constrained to be in the same plane. Consequently,
the four equivalent bonds will point in four geometrically equivalent
directions in three dimensions corresponding to the four corners of a
tetrahedron centered on the carbon atom. The angle between any two
bonds will be 109.5.
149
about above or below!) The fatter orbital containing the non-
bonding electrons pushes the bonding orbitals together slightly,
making the HNH bond angles 109.5o.
(2) AX2E2 molecules: The central atom (A) has two pairs of
bonding electrons and two lone pairs of electrons. Such molecules
show a bent (angular) geometry.
For example, in the water molecule, the central atom is O, and the
Lewis electron dot formula predicts that there will be two pairs of
nonbonding electrons. The oxygen atom will therefore be tetrahedrally
bonded, meaning that it sits at the center of the tetrahedron as shown
below. Two of the bonded positions are occupied by the shared
electron-pairs that constitute the OH bonds, and the other two by the
non-bonding pairs. Thus although the oxygen atom is tetrahedrally
coordinated, the bonding geometry (shape) of the H2O molecule is
described as bent.
150
orbitals push the bonding orbitals closer together, making the HOH
angle 104.5 instead of the tetrahedral angle of 109.5.
(2) AX3E2 molecules: The central atom is (A) has three bonding
pairs of electrons (X) and two lone pair of electrons (E). The bond
angle between two bonded atoms is 90o and the molecule (ICl3)
shows T-shaped geometry as given below. Other examples are ClF3.
(3) AX2E3 molecules: The central atom (A) has two pairs of
bonding electrons (X) and three lone pairs of electrons (E). The
geometry of such molecules or ions such as I3 (shown below) is linear
with 180o bond angle. Other examples are XeF2.
X A X
X
X
152
Octahedral molecules with lone pairs
(1) AX5E molecules: The central atom (A) has five pairs of
bonding electrons and one lone pair of electrons. The molecule (ClF 5)
has square pyramid geometry as shown below. Other examples: BrF5 ,
XeOF4
(2) AX4E2 molecules: The central atom (A) has four pairs of
bonding electrons and two lone pairs of electrons. The geometry of
such molecules (e.g.XeF4) is square planar. Other examples : ICl4-.
Example 9.1:
Use VSPER theory to predict the geometry of: (i) AsH3; (ii) AlCl4-
Solution:
(i) AsH3 molecule
Total number of valence electrons in AsH3 molecule is 8 (4 pairs of
electrons). Therefore the Lewis structure of AsH3 molecule is
..
H As H
H
The central atom As has three pairs of bonding (X) and one pair of lone
pair (E) of electrons. This combination is similar to AX3E molecule which
corresponds to trigonal pyramid geometry. Therefore the geometry of
AsH3 molecule is trigonal pyramid.
153
(ii) AlCl4 ion:
Follow the above procedure. The central atom, aluminum, has four
bonding pairs of electrons having no lone pair of electrons. Hence the ion
is similar to AX4 molecule. Therefore the geometry of AlCl4- ion is
tetrahedral.
154
In SI units, q (charge) is expressed in coulombs and r in meters. The
unit of the dipole moment () is Debey (D) and is expressed in C.m.
If one entire electron charge is displaced by 100 pm (a typical bond
length), then
= (1.6022 1019 C) (1010 m) = 1.6 1029 C-m = 4.8 D
- + + -
|
|
..
..
C
.O. .O.
155
(2) Water (H2O) molecule
Water molecule has a bent geometry and has a very large dipole
moment which results from the two polar HO bonds oriented at an
angle of 104.5. The non-bonding pairs of electrons on oxygen are a
contributing factor to the high polarity of the water molecule. The
bond dipoles point from the hydrogen atom to the more
electronegative oxygen atom. The individual bond dipoles do not
cancel completely and give a non-zero dipole moment. Thus water is a
polar molecule.
Resultant or
net dipole moment
O
..
..|
|
|
H H
156
9.4 Exercises
9.1. What is the geometry of the following species (also indicate the
bond angles):
(a) PF6 (b) ClF3 (c) BF4 (d) H2S (e) NO3
9.2. (a) Which bond is the most polar: CF, CBr, CN, CO, CS?
(b) Which of the following molecules is expected to be polar: SF6,
PF5, CF4, NF3, OF2, HF?
(c) Which one of the following chlorides is expected to be non-
polar: HCl, ClO2, NCl3, SiCl4, ICl5?
9.3. Give the number of bonds, bonds and lone pairs of valence
electrons in a molecule of
(a) HCN (b) CO2 (c) N2 (d) CH2F2 (e) NH3
157
CHAPTER 10
Introduction to Organic Chemistry
10.1 Carbon-based Materials
The word organic is derived from the Greek word organ meaning life.
It is interesting to know how a word signifying life relates to carbon-
based materials.
In ancient times, chemists curiosity about living beings led them to
study the substances obtained from animals and plants. It soon
became clear that compounds obtained from living beings were
different from those obtained from non-living things such as minerals.
Most compounds from animals and plants were made up of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulphur and phosphorus.
Carbon was present in all the compounds. The chemists thus believed
that these compounds are only formed inside the living beings and that
is why the term organic was used to describe such compounds. This
belief gave birth to the vital force theory according to which some
vital force was present in the living beings which was responsible
for the synthesis of these carbon-based materials. This belief was
disproved in 1828 by a German Chemist Friedrich Wohler, only 28
years old at that time, who synthesized an organic compound urea, a
constituent of urine, in the laboratory by heating ammonium cyanate,
a compound occurring in minerals.
The synthesis of urea led to the development of a new era in the study
of organic compounds. Chemists started investigating method to
synthesize other compounds isolated from plants and animals.
Synthesis of compounds for the study of their properties was
necessary because many time the amounts extracted from plants and
animals were small. Soon thousands of organic compounds were
synthesized. One might be led to think that the word organic is now
a misnomer because its origin is not limited to living beings. This is,
however, not true. The use of this word is justified in the sense that
carbon compounds form the basis of our lives.
The major constituents of living beings, amino acids, carbohydrates,
fat, nucleic acids and hormones, are organic compounds. A simple
example of each of a carbohydrate, an amino acid and a fat is shown
in Fig 10.1. Almost all the reactions in plants and animals involve
158
organic compounds.
CHO
H OH H
HO H O H OC(O)(CH2)14CH3
H OH H2N CHC OH H OC(O)(CH2)14CH3
H OH CH3 H OC(O)(CH2)14CH3
CH2OH H
159
The present day definition of organic chemistry is that it is the branch
of chemistry, which deals with the chemistry of carbon compounds.
Thus, all organic compounds have carbon as a central atom. This
definition has a broad scope. It takes into account both synthetic
compounds and the compounds obtained from nature. However, we
exclude carbon oxides, carbonate and bicarbonates because they
greatly resemble inorganic compounds.
160
into four half-filled orbitals in the valence shell. Each of these half-
filled orbitals can now accommodate an additional electron to become
completely filled and form four covalent bonds.
The study of the simplest possible organic compound methane, CH4,
showed that all four covalent bonds were identical having the same
length, energy and bond angle even though the bond forming orbitals
2s and 2p had different energy levels. It led to the concept of
hybridization. It is the mixing of atomic orbitals of nearly the same
energy and redistribution of energy among themselves leading to the
formation of an equal number of hybrid orbitals having the same
energy. Three types of hybridization are shown by carbon.
sp3 hybridization
One 2s orbital and three 2p orbitals hybridize to form four hybrid
orbitals called sp3 hybrid orbitals, all having the same energy. They
arrange themselves equally in space leading to a tetrahedron shape.
These hybridized orbitals are used to form -bonds (sigma bonds)
with other atoms. All single bonds in organic compounds are thus
sigma bonds. The bond angle between any of the two bonds formed is
109.5o. See figure 10.3.
H
C
H H
H
H H
H
sp3
bonds
sp2 hybridization
One 2s orbital and two 2p orbitals hybridize to form three equivalent
hybrid orbitals called sp2 hybrid orbitals. They arrange themselves in
a trigonal planar shape in space and form -bonds with other atoms.
The angle between any two bonds is 120o.
161
The remaining 2p orbital, that is not hybridized, exist perpendicular to
the plane of hybrid orbitals. It overlaps sideways (laterally) with
another non-hybridized 2p orbital parallel to it, leading to the
formation of a covalent bond that is called a -bond. Thus, in the
structure shown below, one of the two bonds between two carbon
atoms is a sigma bond while the other is a pi bond. The pi bond is
loosely bound due to sidewise overlapping and hence the electron pair
involved in a pi bond formation is readily available for an electron
deficient species. Therefore, hydrocarbons containing double bonds
or triple bonds are generally more reactive in comparison to saturated
hydrocarbons. See figure 10.4.
H H
C C
H H
sp2
sp hybridization
One 2s orbital and only one of the 2p orbitals hybridize resulting into
the formation of two equivalent hybrid orbitals called sp hybrid
orbitals. These orbitals extend in opposite directions from the centre,
taking a linear geometry. They are able to form two bonds with
bond angle of 180o. The remaining two 2p orbitals, which are
perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the hybrid
orbitals, overlap sideways with properly aligned (parallel) orbitals on
adjacent atoms to form two pi bonds. See figure 10.5.
-bond, sideways overlap
sp hybrid carbon
p-orbital
H H H C C H
sp orbital
Bond types:
a. All single bonds are sigma bonds.
b. A double bond is made up of a sigma and a pi bond.
c. A triple bond is made up of a sigma and two pi bonds.
longest shortest
Bond strength is the energy required to break the bond. Thus, more
energy will be required to break a strong bond, and less energy will be
required to break a weak bond. The bond strength increases as the
bond length decreases. Thus, least energy is required to break a
carbon-carbon single bond and highest energy is required to break the
carbon-carbon triple bond:
C C < C C < C C
weakest strongest
163
10.3 A Simple Classification of Organic Compounds
Hydrocarbons Compounds
(contain only C and H) containing other atoms
besides C and H
Cycloalkenes Aromatic
Cycloalkynes (arenes)
164
10.4 Hydrocarbons
A. Alkanes
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons, meaning they contain single bond
only. They are also called paraffins due to their little affinity towards
other reagents (Latin, Para = little; ffin = affinity). The general
molecular formula of this class of compounds is CnH2n+2. The
simplest compound with n = 1 has molecular formula CH4 and is
called methane.
The names of all alkanes end with ane. Before ane, the prefixes
meth, prop, but, pent, hex and so on are used for three,
four, five and six carbon atoms, respectively (see table 10.1).
Nomenclature of Alkanes
To be able to name so many compounds, it became necessary to
devise a systematic method of nomenclature. The International Union
of Pure and Applied Chemistry developed what are known as the
IUPAC rules of nomenclature, which are accepted worldwide. These
rules as applied to simple hydrocarbons are described below.
(a) Identify the longest carbon chain (treat it as the parent chain) in
the molecule.
(c) Number the parent chain from the side that gives the minimum
number to the substituent see example below.
6 4 2
5 3 1
The name and position of the substituent are shown in the name
of the compound by an Arabic numeral before the name of the
parent chain. Thus, the structure above is named as 3-
methylhexane.
167
Some other common branches you will encounter during your
studies are shown below.
(d) If there is more than one substituent, number the chain from the
side giving the minimum number to the first branch and arrange
them in an alphabetical order.
8 7 6 4 3 2 1 3 5 6 7
5 1 2 4 8
5-ethyl-3-methyloctane 4-ethyl-6-methyloctane
correct wrong
Fractional distillation
It is a distillation process for separating the components of crude
oils. Distillation of a liquid depends on the boiling point. Figure 10.9
shows a fractional distillation apparatus. Crude oil is heated to vapour
state and introduced in the column where a gradation in temperature.
The various fractions condense and are collected. The gaseous
components escape on the top where they are collected.
170
The boiling range and uses of the main fractions are given below.
C1C4: -164 to 20oC, natural gases; C3 and C4 are major
components of cooking gas
C5C11: 30 to 200oC, gasoline: C8 principle component of petrol
C11C18: 200-370oC, paraffin, kerosene and diesel
C17C22: > 370oC, lubricating oils
C23C34: solids, mostly wax such as Vaseline
C35: solids such as asphalt
Cracking
Cracking is the process by which high molecular weight hydrocarbons
(those containing larger number of C atoms) are converted to low
molecular weight hydrocarbons, which are more useful for syntheses
of other compounds. Cracking is carried out either thermally
(heating) or catalytically. The main catalysts for this purpose are
silica and alumina. Cracking results into formation of large amounts
of the hydrocarbons with lower molecular weights, for example:
171
C8H18 + C8H16
C10H22 C5H12 + C5H10
C4H10 + C4H8
Physical Properties
Solubility
Hydrocarbons are insoluble in water but soluble in solvents like ether
and benzene. The general rule for the solubility states that like
dissolves like. Water molecules are polar, whereas hydrocarbons are
non-polar. A large difference in the electronegativity of oxygen and
hydrogen makes the O-H bond in a water molecule polar. In
hydrocarbons, C-C and C-H bonds are nearly non-polar covalent
bonds. Ether and benzene molecules are also non-polar, so
hydrocarbons dissolve in them.
Density
Hydrocarbons are less dense than water and will float on its surface.
This is the reason why oil spilled on water remains on the surface.
Boiling points
Boiling point increases in a homologous series with the number of C
atoms for most classes of organic compounds. For a particular
molecular weight, however, it decreases with increased branching of
the chain. Branching decreases mutual forces of attraction among
molecules, since branches reduce the area of contact between
molecules. This reduces the attractive forces between molecules
leading to easier separation, hence lower boiling points compared to
straight-chain molecules. (See figure 10.10 below.)
172
Alkenes have lower boiling points than their saturated counterparts.
For example, pentene has a lower boiling point than pentane. This is
due to increased repulsion in alkenes because of the presence of the
double bond.
Chemical Properties
Chemical properties of organic compounds are described as their
reactions with particular reagents. In fact, all the reactions of organic
compounds can be divided into a few general types such as
substitutions, additions, eliminations, oxidations, reductions, and
molecular rearrangements.
Alkanes have a very limited reactivity because they are saturated
molecules. The two main reactions of alkanes are with oxygen
(combustion an oxidation reaction) and with halogens
(halogenation), which are substitution reactions.
Combustion
It is the most important reaction of alkanes as it provides both light
and heat energy. Heat energy is convertible to several other forms
such as moving of limbs, machines etc. In the presence of excess
oxygen, alkanes burn with a clear flame. The accounting of heat
energy produced will be studied in thermochemistry.
Examples: CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + heat
2C4H10 + 13O2 8CO2 + 10H2O + heat
We can see from the above reaction equation that the hydrogen atoms
in alkanes are substituted by oxygen atoms. Thus, combustion is an
oxidation reaction. If oxygen present is insufficient, carbon monoxide
can also be produced as a result of combustion.
Example: 2CH4 + 3O2 2CO + 4H2O
Halogenation
Halogenation reactions are examples of substitution reactions. One or
more hydrogen atoms of the hydrocarbon are replaced by halogen (Cl
or Br) atoms. The reaction is usually carried out by exposing a
mixture of alkanes and halogen to light. Remember that the organic
173
product(s) of a halogenation reaction is no more a hydrocarbon. It
contains halogen atoms besides carbon and hydrogen atoms. These
products are called haloalkanes. Example:
Initiation:
It involves homolytic cleavage of the Cl-Cl bond by light energy.
Homolytic cleavage is the cleavage of a covalent bond in which an
electron pair is shared equally between the two atoms joined by that
covalent bond. Thus, each of the chlorine atoms gets away with one
electron to form two chlorine radicals that are shown in the equation
below with the symbol of a chlorine atom and a dot over it, which
represents an unshared electron.
light
Cl Cl Cl + Cl
Propagation:
It involves the reaction of a radical with a neutral molecule forming a
new radical and a neutral product (the main reaction product).
H
H H + Cl CH3 + HCl
H
CH3 + Cl Cl Cl CH3 + Cl
Termination:
It involves a reaction between two similar or different radicals
forming molecules. Now you can see that the main product of the
reaction, chloromethane, is formed during propagation and
termination steps. The formation of a small amount of ethane in the
halogenation of alkanes supports the free radical mechanism.
CH3 + Cl Cl CH3
Cl + Cl Cl2
175
B. Cycloalkanes
The cyclic or ring analogs of the open chain alkanes shown above are
called cycloalkanes. The prefix cyclo is included in their names to
indicate the presence of the ring. Since the two ends of chain will be
joined in such compounds, they will have two hydrogen atoms less
than their open chain counterpart.
Thus, the general molecular formula of cycloalkanes is CnH2n.
Propane has the molecular formula C3H8 while cyclopropane has
molecular formula C3H6. The study of cycloalkanes is of immense
importance in organic chemistry because such rings are often present
in compounds found in nature. Examples are shown below.
H2 H2
C C
H2C CH2
- 2H
H H H2C CH2
If a cycle has a branch, always start numbering the cycle from the
carbon that bears the branch. If there is more than one branch, then
give alphabetical priority to the branches and number from the side
that gives the minimum number to other branches. Some examples
are:
methylcyclopentane 1-ethyl-2-methylcyclohexane
NOT 2-ethyl-1-methylcyclopentane
or
1-ethyl-6-methylcyclohexane
176
cyclopentane. Chemical properties are also similar to those of
alkanes. Thus, cycloalkanes undergo combustion and halogenation
reactions.
CH CH3 CH CH
H2C CH H2C CH2 H2C CH2
177
cis-1,3-dimethylcyclobutane trans-1,2-dimethylcyclobutane
geometrical isomers
C. Alkenes
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons also known as olefins. They
contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond. The carbon atoms in
C=C are sp2 hybridized with bond angles of 120o. One of the double
bonds is a sigma bond and the other is a pi bond. The general
molecular formula of this class of compounds is CnH2n. The simplest
compound with n = 2 has molecular formula C2H4 and is called
ethene.
Table 10.2: Naming of alkenes
The names of all the alkenes end with ene. Prefixes prop, but,
pent and so on are used for three, four and five carbons respectively,
as used for alkanes (Table 10.2). Analogous to cycloalkanes, cyclic
analogs of alkenes are called cycloalkenes. Their general molecular
formula has two hydrogen atoms less than the open-chain counterpart
(CnH2n-2).
178
Nomenclature
In alkenes containing four or more carbon atoms, the position of the
carbon-carbon double has to be indicated. The carbon chain is
numbered from the side that gives the minimum number to the first
carbon attached to the carbon-carbon double bond. Example:
179
Classification of carbon and hydrogen atoms
Sometimes common names are used to denote some particular types
of carbon and hydrogen atoms present in olefinic systems. For
example, the carbon and hydrogen atoms of a CH2 attached to C=C
are called allylic carbon and allylic hydrogen. However, if the C=C to
which the CH2 is attached is present in benzene ring, then the carbon
and hydrogen are referred to as benzylic carbon and hydrogen (see
figure below). A H2C=CH system is referred as vinyl group in alkene
chemistry.
180
Reactions of Alkenes
Alkenes undergo many more reactions than alkanes. This is because
of the presence of pi-electrons in the double bond, which are loosely
bound.
Combustion
Alkenes, like alkanes, are easily oxidized to carbon dioxide and water
when burnt in excess oxygen. The flames are sooty, unlike alkanes,
because of a higher carbon to hydrogen ratio.
181
Addition of halogens
These reactions take place at room temperature without any catalyst or
necessity of light. Note again that the product of halogen addition is
no more a hydrocarbon. Furthermore, two halogen atoms are added to
alkene molecules, hence, the products are dihaloalkanes. These
reactions do not need any control because the addition will stop if
there is no more unsaturation (double bond) in the alkene molecule.
Thus, only two halogen atoms can be added to one alkene molecule.
Bromine-water solution is used to test the presence for unsaturation in
alkenes and cycloalkenes. Such hydrocarbons decolorize the brown
bromine solution.
182
addition of hydrogen halides to alkenes will always give only one
monohaloalkane as long as the carbon atoms joined by the double
bond are symmetrically substituted. Examples:
H H H H
+ H-Cl H Cl
H H H H
ethene chloroethane
H CH3
H CH3
+ H-Br H Br
H3C H
H3C H
trans-2-butene 2-bromobutane
In the above examples, the alkenes are symmetrical; the atom or group
present on both carbon atoms joined by the double bond is the same.
Each carbon has one hydrogen atom and one methyl group. If the
alkenes are unsymmetrical, two products are possible from addition
reactions.
For example, 1-butene is an unsymmetrical molecule because one of
the carbon atoms attached to the double bond has two hydrogen atoms
while the other carbon attached to the double bond has one hydrogen
atom and one ethyl group. The main addition product in reactions of
unsymmetrical alkenes with unsymmetrical reagents is governed by
Markovnikovs rule.
According to this rule, the hydrogen atom (or the proton) goes to that
carbon of the double bond which has the larger number of hydrogen
atoms. That means that the remaining part of the reagent attaches to
the carbon with the lower number of hydrogen atoms. Thus, in the
example below, the reaction of 1-butene with hydrogen bromide, the
proton goes to the 1st carbon which has two hydrogen atoms, and
bromine (bromide ion) goes to the 2nd carbon, which has only one
hydrogen atom.
183
H Br
H 1 2 + H-Br Br +
H 1-butene 1-bromobutane 2-bromobutane
(main product)
In the reaction shown below, the carbons attached by the double bond
have one hydrogen atom each, but the alkyl groups attached to them
are not same. One carbon has an ethyl group and the other carbon
atom has a propyl group. In this case, the halogen addition will give a
mixture of products.
H H Cl H H
+
+ H-Cl
H H H Cl
H
3-chloroheptane 4-chloroheptane
184
higher number of hydrogen atoms. The explanation for this is beyond
the scope of this chapter and will be explained at higher levels.
185
D. Alkynes
Alkynes are also unsaturated hydrocarbons. They contain at least one
carbon-carbon triple bond. Remember that two carbon-carbon bonds
in the triple bond are pi bonds and the third one is the sigma bond.
Alkynes greatly resemble alkenes in their chemical properties. The
general molecular formula of this class of compounds is CnH2n-2. The
simplest compound with n = 2 has molecular formula C2H2 and is
called ethyne. Its common name is acetylene.
The names of all alkynes end with yne. The rules for naming
alkynes are the same as those for alkenes (Table 10.3). The smallest
cycloalkyne known is cyclooctyne (its structure is shown below). Due
to the linear geometry of the carbon atoms involved in triple bond
formation, formation of smaller cycloalkyne rings is not possible.
Reactions of Alkynes
Alkynes do burn like other hydrocarbons. Their flames are smoky due
to an increased proportion of carbon atoms to hydrogen atoms in
186
comparison with alkanes and alkenes. Alkynes are highly reactive
compounds because of the presence of pi-electrons and undergo
addition reactions like alkenes. They incorporate two equivalents of
reagents, instead of one equivalent in the case of alkenes. Some
examples are given below.
Addition of hydrogen
Alkynes are converted into alkanes using two mole equivalents of
hydrogen in the presence of platinum, palladium or nickel as a
catalyst. For example:
Addition of halogens
To each molecule of an alkyne, two halogen molecules or four
halogen atoms can be added to give tetrahaloalkanes:
187
Addition of hydrogen halides
This represents an addition of an unsymmetrical reagent. Since one
alkyne molecule can accommodate two hydrogen halide molecules,
the final product of the reaction will contain two halogen atoms and
two more hydrogen atoms in comparison to the reactant alkyne. The
final product is thus a dihaloalkane. Addition of the first molecule of
hydrogen halide to the carbon-carbon triple bond will form a
monohaloalkene. In this type of alkene, the carbon-carbon double
bond is unsymmetrically substituted. Hence, it would react with
another molecule of hydrogen halide in accordance with
Markovnikovs rule forming the dihaloalkane. However, if the alkyne
itself is unsymmetrical, it would react with the first molecule of
hydrogen halide also according to Markovnikovs rule. Example:
Addition of water
Addition of water to alkynes gives a ketone. This reaction requires a
mercury(II) salt such as Hg(COOCH3)2 as a catalyst besides an acid.
The immediate product of hydration is called an enol (because it
contains ene and ol). This product can exist in two isomeric forms.
The more stable form is a ketone (contains C=O group).
188
The two isomers are called tautomers. It is a special type of
isomerism in which two forms of the product are in dynamic
equilibrium, with the more stable product dominating in the
equilibrium mixture.
E. Arenes
Arenes are highly unsaturated hydrocarbons with a cyclic structure.
They are also called aromatic hydrocarbons due to their typical aroma
(flavour). You will see later that even though these compounds are
highly unsaturated, they do not show the typical chemical reactions of
alkenes, such as addition reactions, under normal conditions. This is
the reason why we study them as a separate class.
The simplest aromatic hydrocarbon, benzene, has a six-membered
carbon ring. Each carbon has one hydrogen giving it the molecular
formula C6H6. Thus, it has six hydrogen atoms less than its saturated
analog cyclohexane, indicating the presence of three double bonds in
it, see the following figure.
Structure of Benzene
As mentioned earlier, benzene does not undergo the typical addition
reactions of alkenes. All carbon atoms in benzene are sp2 hybridized.
Thus, each carbon atom has a non-hybridized p orbital containing one
electron. These orbitals overlap with each other, forming a ring of six
pi electrons. The pi electron pairs/bonds are not associated with a
particular carbon atom. These electrons are said to be delocalized. As
a result, there is neither any true carbon-carbon double bond nor any
true carbon-carbon single bond. It means that the structure of
benzene shown above is not a true representation. Benzene is
represented by a hexagon and a circle inside it which represents the
delocalized pi bonds (or a ring of pi electrons).
189
Delocalization of pi electrons provides additional strength to the ring.
It is thus very difficult to break an aromatic structure, and benzene
does not undergo an addition reaction. However, under the influence
of some catalysts it can undergo substitution reactions, in which the
aromatic ring remains intact.
Some common products of substitution of benzene are nitrobenzene,
alkyl benzenes, halobenzenes, benzenesulfonic acids and ketones.
These benzene derivatives can be further transformed to a number of
other compounds containing a benzene ring. For example, the methyl
group in methylbenzene is oxidized to get benzoic acid. The nitro
group (NO2) in nitrobenzene is reduced to an amino group (NH2),
forming benzenamine, commonly known as aniline. These derivatives
are summarised in Figure 10.11.
190
Table 10.4: Functional groups and nomenclature
191
Carboxylic Remove e from the end of alkyl group
acids and add oic acid.
192
NH2 Amines Amines are organic derivatives of ammonia
formed by the replacement of one or more
hydrogen atoms. Remove e from the end
of the alkyl group and add amine.
193
10.6 Exercises
10.1 Write the detailed structural formula and molecular formula of the
following compounds:
a. b. c. d.
10.3 Count the total number of sigma and pi bonds in each of the
molecules shown in Exercise 10.2.
10.8 Write the structural formulas and names of two cycloalkanes with
molecular formula C4H8.
194
10.9 Identify each of the following pairs as structural isomers, geometrical
isomers, or not isomers:
(a) pentane and cyclopentane (b) 1-butene and cyclobutane
(c) diethyl ether and 2-butanol (d) 1-butene and 2-butene
H H H3C H
H H H3C H and H2
e. and f. H3C C CH3
C CH3 H C C
H3C CH3 H CH3 H2 H2 H2
10.10 Write all the monochlorination product(s) possible from the
reaction of the compounds shown below with chlorine in the
presence of light. Classify the reaction as substitution or addition
reaction.
a. b. c.
10.11 Why do alkenes react more easily with chlorine and bromine in
comparison to alkanes?
b. + HBr
c. + excess Cl2
Ni
d. + H2
e. Lindlar'catalyst
+ H2
H2SO4 (catalyst)
f. + H2O
H2SO4 (catalyst)
g. + H2O
Hg2+
h. HCl
+ HCl
195
10.13 Reactions of some alkenes were performed to get the products
shown in the following incomplete chemical equations. Complete
these equations by providing the structures of the appropriate
alkene and other reagents as shown in the equations of question 12.
a. CH3CHBrCHBrCH3
b. Br
CHBrCH3
c.
H3C
d. OH
H3C
CH3
H OH O
N OH
COOH
O H3CO
196
CHAPTER 11
Thermochemistry
11.1 Introduction: the Basics of Energy, Heat and Work
Energy
All chemical changes are accompanied by the absorption or release of
heat. The branch of chemistry dealing with release or absorption of
heat during chemical processes is called Thermochemistry. The
intimate connection between matter and energy has been a source of
wonder and speculation from the most primitive times; it is no
accident that fire was considered one of the four basic elements (along
with earth, air, and water) as early as the fifth century BC. In this
chapter, we will review some of the fundamental concepts of energy
and heat and the relation between them.
Energy units
Like work, heat is also measured in energy units. Heat (or thermal
197
energy) can be transferred from one body to another. We often refer
to this as a "flow" of heat, recalling the 18th century notion that heat
was an actual substance called caloric that could flow like a liquid.
We know that heat can only flow from a system at a higher
temperature to one at a lower temperature. This special characteristic
is often used to distinguish heat from other modes of transferring
energy across the boundaries of a system.
Heat capacity
As a body loses or gains heat, its temperature changes in direct
proportion to the amount of thermal energy q transferred:
q = C T
The proportionality constant C is known as the heat capacity:
C = q / T
198
If T is expressed in kelvins and q in joules, the units of C are J K1.
In other words, heat capacity tells us how many joules of energy it
takes to change the temperature of a body by 1 K or 1C, since a
difference of one degree is the same on the two scales. The greater
the value of C, the smaller will be the effect of a given energy change
on the temperature.
Example 11.1:
How many joules of heat must flow into 150 mL of water at 0C to raise
its temperature to 25C?
Solution:
The mass of the water is (150 mL) (1.00 g mL1) = 150 g. The specific
heat of water is 4.18 J K1 g1.
From the definition of specific heat, the quantity of energy q is
(150 g) (25.0 K) (4.18 J K1 g1) = 15675 J = 1.57 x 104 J.
Example 11.2:
A piece of nickel weighing 2.40 g is heated to 200.0C, and is then
dropped into 10.0 mL of water at 15.0C. The temperature of the metal
falls and that of the water rises until thermal equilibrium is attained and
both are at 18.0C. What is the specific heat of the metal?
Solution:
The mass of the water is (10 mL) (1.00 g mL1) = 10 g.
The specific heat of water is 4.18 J K1 g1, and its temperature increased
by 3.0C (= 3 K), indicating that it absorbed:
(10 g) (3 K) (4.18 J K1 g1) = 125 J of energy.
The metal sample lost this same quantity of energy, undergoing a
temperature drop of 182C as the result. The specific heat capacity of the
metal is (125 J) / (2.40 g 182 K) = 0.287 J K1 g1.
199
Notice that no "formula" is required here, as long as you know the units of
specific heat; you simply place the relevant quantities in the numerator or
denominator to make the units come out correctly.
11.3 Calorimetry
The reaction is carried out in the cup. Suppose that the reaction is
exothermic reaction. Since the foam is a good insulator, heat does not
escape but results in increasing the temperature of the contents of the
calorimeter. Heat given to the solution,
qsoln = (specific heat of solution) (grams of solution) T
Then, if the reaction gives heat, the solution takes it,
qsoln = qreaction
For dilute aqueous solutions, the specific heat of the solution will
approximately be the same as that of water, 4.18 J/g K.
If the specific heat of the solution is not available, the calorimeter can
be calibrated by doing another experiment, in which a known amount
200
of heat is supplied to the calorimeter, keeping the contents as nearly
the same as in the actual experiment. This heat can be supplied
electrically or by carrying out a reaction which releases a known
amount of heat.
For reactions that cannot be carried out in dilute aqueous solution, the
reaction vessel is commonly placed within a larger insulated container
of water. During the reaction, heat passes between the inner and outer
containers until their temperatures become identical. Again, the
temperature change of the water is observed, but in this case the value
of q cannot be found just from the mass and the specific heat capacity
of the water, for we now have to allow for the absorption of some of
the heat by the walls of the inner vessel. Instead, the calorimeter is
calibrated by measuring the temperature change that results from
the introduction of a known quantity of heat. The resulting
calorimeter constant, expressed in J K1, can be regarded as the heat
capacity of the calorimeter. The known source of heat is usually
produced by passing an electric current through a resistor within the
calorimeter.
Bomb calorimeter
For reactions involving gases, such as combustion reactions, a special
type of calorimeter is used. It is schematically shown in figure 11.2.
Since the process takes place at constant volume, the reaction vessel
must be constructed to withstand the high pressure resulting from the
combustion process, which amounts to a confined explosion. The
vessel is usually called a bomb, and the technique is known as bomb
201
calorimetry. In order to ensure complete combustion, the bomb is
initially charged with pure oxygen usually up to 25 atmosphere
pressure. The reaction is initiated by discharging a capacitor through
a thin wire which ignites the mixture. The bomb is immersed in water
contained in an outer jacket. The jacket has a stirrer and a
thermometer. The rise in temperature in the surrounding water is
noted.
Water Sample
Example 11.3:
(a) 32.7 kJ of energy is supplied electrically to a calorimeter. The
temperature of the calorimeter rises from 24.70 to 26.83 oC. What is the
heat capacity of the calorimeter?
(b) A reaction was carried out in the above calorimeter. The temperature
rose by 2.00 oC. Find the heat released by the reaction.
Solution:
(a) T = 2.13 K (or oC); q = 32.7 kJ
Ccal = q / T = 32.7 kJ / 2.13 K = 15.4 kJ/K
202
(b) qcal = heat released by the reaction =
Ccal T = 15.4 kJ/K 2.0 K = 30.8 kJ
Example 11.4:
A sample of biphenyl (C6H5)2 weighing 0.526 g was ignited in a bomb
calorimeter initially at 25C, producing a temperature rise of 1.91 K. In a
separate calibration experiment, a sample of benzoic acid C6H5COOH
weighing 0.825 g was ignited under identical conditions and produced a
temperature rise of 1.94 K. For benzoic acid, the heat of combustion at
constant pressure is known to be 3226 kJ mol1. Use this information to
determine the standard enthalpy of combustion of biphenyl.
Solution:
The heat capacity of the calorimeter, Ccal, is given by
3226 kJ mol-1 0.825 g
11.2 kJ K -1
1.94 K 123 g mol-1
The heat released by the combustion of the biphenyl at constant pressure
is then:
- 11.2 kJ K -1 1.91 K 154 g mol-1
6260 kJ mol-1
0.526 g
The negative sign indicates that heat is released in this process, from the
reaction equation:
(C6H5)2(s) + 14 O2(g) 12 CO2(g) + 5 H2O(l)
This is the amount of heat that is lost by the system if reaction takes place
at constant pressure and the temperature is restored to its initial value.
11.4 Enthalpy
Enthalpy change
If an object absorbs a quantity of heat, say 160 kJ, at a constant
pressure, its enthalpy (H) is said to have increased by 160 kJ as a
203
result of the process. The object has then undergone a change in its
enthalpy during the process, H = 160 kJ in this example. Enthalpy is
not measured directly, only its change, or H, which equals q at
constant pressure, is measured. If, on the other hand, a reaction gives
out 160 kJ of heat, the energy of the reactants will decrease by 160 kJ,
and H = 160 kJ. This later case is depicted in figure 11.3 below.
The arrow indicates H = 160 kJ. H is negative for an exothermic
reaction and positive for an endothermic reaction.
H of reactants
H
H of products
State property
Enthalpy is a state property which means that it always depends on
the current state of the system and is independent of how the system
has been brought in that state. Lets consider two processes, (a) in
which 100 g of water at 25oC is heated to 35oC, the change in
enthalpy, H, would be 4.18 kJ; and (b) in which water is first cooled
from 25oC to 18oC and then heated to 35oC, in this case H would
also be 4.18 kJ. Process (a) is shown by a double headed arrow on the
left in figure 11.4 below. Process (b) is shown by the two single
headed arrows on the right. In both cases, the net H is the same.
(a) (b)
o
35 C
H
25oC
18oC
Figure 11.4: Heating water at 250C to 350C: (a) directly to 350C; and
(b) via 180C to 350C
204
We will apply these ideas to actual processes, first physical, and then
chemical processes.
Vaporization
Imagine one mole of liquid water at 100oC is changed to steam by
supplying it heat. The enthalpy of H2O(g) is higher than that of liquid
water, since heat has been given to the liquid to change it to vapour.
The process would be endothermic and enthalpy change would be
positive. The enthalpy change when one mole of a liquid vaporizes is
called the enthalpy of vaporization, Hvaporization. The enthalpy of
vaporization of water at 100oC is +40.7 kJ/mol:
H = Hvapour Hliquid = +40.7 kJ/mol at 100 oC
for the process: H2O(l) H2O(g)
Melting
Likewise, the enthalpy change of H2O when it melts is positive, since
heat is supplied to ice to melt it. The process of melting, or fusion, is
thus endothermic. The enthalpy change when one mol of a substance
melts is called enthalpy of fusion: Hfusion> 0. The enthalpy of fusion
of water at 0oC is 6.0 kJ/mol.
Freezing
The process of freezing is opposite that of melting. The change in
enthalpy per mole when a liquid turns into a solid is called the
enthalpy of freezing. Liquids are frozen by taking out heat from them
(cooling). So, the process would be exothermic and H would be
negative. The enthalpy of freezing of water at 0oC is 6.0 kJ/mol:
Hfreezing = 6.0 kJ/mol.
Sublimation
205
property, we simply add enthalpy of fusion and enthalpy of
vaporization to find enthalpy of sublimation.
Hvaporization = Hvapour Hliquid
Hfusion = Hliquid Hsolid
Hence, we get by adding the above two equations:
Hvaporization + Hfusion = Hvapour Hsolid = Hsublimation
Enthalpy of reaction
Consider, for example, the oxidation of a lump of sugar to carbon
dioxide and water:
C12H22O11(s) + 12 O2(g) 12 CO2(g) + 11 H2O(l)
This process can be carried out in many ways, for example by burning
the sugar in air, or by eating the sugar and letting your body carry out
the oxidation. Although the mechanisms of the transformation are
completely different for these two pathways, the overall change in the
enthalpy of the system will be identical if the reactants and products
are the same in each transformation. The enthalpy of the products
minus that of the reactants in the above example is found to be -5606
kJ.
The same quantity of heat is released whether the sugar is burnt in the
air or oxidized in a series of enzyme-catalyzed steps in your body.
When a chemical equation is written together with its H, it is called a
thermochemical equation. The thermochemical equation for the
process of combustion of sucrose would be:
C12H22O11(s) + 12 O2(g) 12 CO2(g) + 11 H2O(l) H = 5606 kJ
If we write the reverse equation, the sign of H would change. The
thermochemical equation then becomes:
12 CO2(g) + 11 H2O(l) C12H22O11 + 12 O2(g) H = +5606 kJ
206
example, the enthalpy of neutralization of a strong acid by a
strong base is
H+(aq, 1M) + OH(aq, 1M) H2O(l) H = 56.9 kJ mol1
The abbreviation aq refers to the hydrated ions as they exist in
aqueous solution.
Since most thermochemical equations are written for the standard
conditions of 298 K and 1 atm pressure, we can leave these
quantities out if these conditions apply both before and after the
reaction. If, under these same conditions, the substance is in its
preferred (most stable) physical state, then the substance is said to
be in its standard state. Thus the standard state of water at 1 atm
is the solid below 0C, and the gas above 100C. A
thermochemical quantity such as H that refers to reactants and
products in their standard states is denoted by H.
Any thermodynamic quantity such as H that is associated with a
thermochemical equation always refers to the number of moles of
substances explicitly shown in the equation. Thus, for the
synthesis of water we can write
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(l) H = 572 kJ
If now the chemical equation is multiplied or divided by a factor,
the value of H is also multiplied or divided by the same factor.
Thus, when the above equation is divided by 2, we get the
following thermochemical equation:
H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(l) H = 286 kJ
Hesss law
You probably know that two or more chemical equations can be
combined algebraically to give a new equation. Even before the
science of thermodynamics developed in the late nineteenth century, it
was observed that the heats associated with chemical reactions can be
combined in the same way to yield the heat of another reaction. For
example, the standard enthalpy changes for the oxidation of graphite
and diamond can be combined to obtain H for the transformation
between these two forms of solid carbon, a reaction that cannot be
studied experimentally.
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C(graphite) + O2(g) CO2(g) H = 393.51 kJ mol1
C(diamond) + O2(g) CO2(g) H = 395.40 kJ mol1
Subtraction of the second reaction from the first (i.e., writing the
second equation in reverse and adding it to the first one) yields
C(graphite) C(diamond) H = +1.89 kJ mol1
This principle, known as Hesss law of independent heat summation is
a direct consequence of the enthalpy being a state function. Hesss
law is one of the most powerful tools of chemistry, for it allows the
change in the enthalpy of huge numbers of chemical reactions to be
predicted from a relatively small base of experimental data.
Enthalpy of formation
The standard enthalpy of formation of a compound is defined as the
heat associated with the formation of one mole of the compound from
its elements in their standard states.
The enthalpy change for a chemical reaction is the difference
H = Hproducts Hreactants
If the reaction in question represents the formation of one mole of the
compound from its elements in their standard states, as in
H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(l) H = 285.8 kJ
then we can arbitrarily set the enthalpy of the elements in their
standard states to zero and write
Hf = Hf products Hf reactants= 285.8 kJ 0 = 285.8 kJ mol1
which defines the standard enthalpy of formation of water at 298K.
208
the standard enthalpies of formation of the products and reactants,
which are widely available in tables. Table 11.1 gives the values of
the enthalpies of formation of some compounds.
Table 11.1:
Compound Hfo
C6H6(l) -49.04 kJ/mol
CO(g) -110.5 kJ/mol
CO2(g) -393.5 kJ/mol
HF(g) -271.1 kJ/mol
H2O(g) -241.8 kJ/mol
H2O (l) -285.8 kJ/mol
NH3(g) -46.1 kJ/mol
NO(g) 90.25 kJ/mol
NO2(g) 33.18 kJ/mol
N2O4(g) 9.16 kJ/mol
SO2(g) -296.8 kJ/mol
SO3(g) -395.7 kJ/mol
All values are in the units of kJ/mol and the physical conditions of
298.15 K and under 1 atm of pressure, which is referred to as the
"standard state", and are the conditions in which you will generally
find values of standard enthalpies of formation.
Note that while the majority of the values of standard enthalpies of
formation are exothermic, or negative, there are a few compounds
such as NO(g) and N2O4(g) that actually require energy from its
surroundings during its formation; these endothermic compounds are
generally unstable.
[Source: http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu]
Example 11.5:
Calculate Horxn of the following reaction:
209
C6H6(l) + 7 O2(g) 6 CO2(g) + 3 H2O (l)
Given the following values of the standard enthalpy of formation:
Hf o [C6H6(l)] = 49.04 kJ/mol; Hf o [CO2(g)] = 393.5 kJ/mol;
Hf o [H2O(l)] = 285.8 kJ/mol
Solution:
The standard reaction enthalpy, Horxn
= 3Hf o[H2O(l)] + 6Hf o[CO2(g)] Hf o[C6H6(l)] 7Hf o[O2(g)]
= 3(-285.8 kJ) + 6(-393.5kJ) (-49.04 kJ) 7(0) = -3169 kJ
211
Enthalpy diagrams and their uses
Comparison and interpretation of enthalpy changes is materially aided
by a graphical construction in which the relative enthalpies of various
substances are represented by horizontal lines on a vertical energy
scale. The zero of the scale can be placed anywhere, since energies
are always arbitrary; it is generally most useful to locate the elements
at zero energy, which reflects the convention that their standard
enthalpies of formation are zero.
The very simple enthalpy diagram for carbon and oxygen and its two
stable oxides shows the changes in enthalpy associated with the
various reactions this system can undergo (see figure 11.5). Notice
how Hesss law is implicit in this diagram; we can calculate the
enthalpy change for the combustion of carbon monoxide to carbon
dioxide, for example, by subtraction of the appropriate arrow lengths
without writing out the thermochemical equations in a formal way.
The zero-enthalpy reference states refer to graphite, the most stable
form of carbon, and gaseous oxygen. All temperatures are 298 K.
Bond enthalpy
Bond enthalpy is the enthalpy change for the breaking of a particular
bond in one mole of a gaseous substance. Thus the enthalpy change
associated with the reaction:
HI(g) H(g) + I(g) Ho = +299 kJ/(mol of HI)
is the enthalpy of dissociation of the HI molecule; it is also the bond
enthalpy of the hydrogeniodine bond in this molecule. Bond
enthalpy is expressed in kJ/mol. Since energy needs to be supplied to
break bonds, bond enthalpy is always positive. Stronger bonds have
higher bond enthalpies.
213
Average bond enthalpy
214
C2H6(g) 2 C(g) + 6H(g) H = +2823 kJ
which gives the total bond enthalpy for ethane, C2H6(g): +2823 kJ.
215
Example 11.6:
Estimate Hrxn for the reaction:
H CH3(g) + Br Br(g) Br CH3(g) + H Br(g)
Solution:
Bonds broken: 1 mol H C, 1 mol Br Br
Bonds made: 1 mol Br C, 1 mol H Br
From Table 11.1: HB values are
415 kJ/mol for H C, 190 kJ/mol for Br Br,
275 kJ/mol for Br C, and 370 kJ/mol for H Br.
Energy needed to break the bonds = 415 kJ + 190 kJ = 605 kJ
Energy given out in making the bonds = 275 + 370 = 645 kJ
Net energy change = 645 605 = 40 kJ. This energy is given out, so:
Hrxn = 40 kJ.
The reaction is exothermic because bonds being formed are stronger than
those being broken.
11.7 Exercises
11.1 Given the thermochemical equation
MgCl2(s) + 2Na (l) 2NaCl (s) + Mg(s) Ho = 180.2 kJ
Calculate the heat evolved when 7.34 g Mg is produced by this
reaction.
11.2 How much heat is given out when 18.7 g copper metal is cooled
from 32.0 oC to 27.4 oC? The specific heat capacity of Cu(s) is 0.387
J g1 K1.
11.4 Calculate the heat needed to change one mole ice at 0.0 oC to liquid
water at 22.8 oC. The enthalpy of fusion of water is 6.01 kJ at 0 oC;
specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J g1 K1. Hfusion =6.01
kJ/mol.
216
11.5 250.0 mL of 0.940 M HCl is mixed with 250.0 mL of 0.470 M
Ba(OH)2 in a coffee cup calorimeter. The initial temperature of both
solutions is 23.80 oC. The thermochemical equation is:
H+(aq) + OH(aq) H2O(l) Ho = 56.2 kJ/mol
Calculate the final temperature of the mixture.
11.9 Use the bond enthalpies given in Table 11.1 to estimate the enthalpy
changes for the following reactions:
(a) H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)
(b) Cl2(g) + C2H4(g) C2H4Cl2(g)
217
CHAPTER 12
Solutions
12.1 Introduction to Solutions
When you stop to think about it, we live in a world of solutions! The
air we breathe is a huge gaseous solution, the oceans are solutions of
about fifty different salts in water, and many of the rocks and minerals
of the earth are solid solutions. We ourselves are largely aqueous
solutions, most of it within our cells (whose water content contributes
to about half our body weight) and in our blood plasma and the
interstitial fluid, that bathes our cells (about 5 L in the adult). So in
order to understand the world in which we live and the organisms that
inhabit it, we need to know something about solutions.
Solutions
Solutions are homogeneous (single phase) mixtures of two or more
components. For convenience, we often refer to the majority
component as the solvent; minority components are solutes. However,
there is really no fundamental distinction between them.
Solutions play a very important role in Chemistry because they allow
intimate and varied encounters between molecules of different kinds, a
condition that is essential for rapid chemical reactions to occur.
Several, more explicit reasons can be cited for devoting a significant
amount of effort to the subject of solutions:
For the reason stated above, most chemical reactions that are
carried out in the laboratory and in industry, and that occur in
living organisms, take place in solution.
Solutions are so common; very few pure substances are found in
nature.
Solutions provide a convenient and accurate means of introducing
known small amounts of a substance to a reaction system.
Advantage is taken of this in the process of titration, for example.
The physical properties of solutions are sensitively influenced by
the balance between the intermolecular forces of like and unlike
(solvent and solute) molecules. The physical properties of
218
solutions thus serve as useful experimental probes of these
intermolecular forces.
We usually think of a solution as a liquid made by adding a gas, a
solid or another liquid solute in a liquid solvent. Actually, solutions
can exist as gases and solids as well. Gaseous mixtures don't require
any special consideration beyond what you learned about Daltons
Law earlier. Solid solutions are very common; most natural minerals
and many metallic alloys are solid solutions.
Still, it is liquid solutions that we most frequently encounter and must
deal with. Experience has taught us that sugar and salt dissolve
readily in water, but that oil and water dont mix. Actually, this is
not strictly correct, since all substances have at least a slight tendency
to dissolve in each other. This raises two important and related
questions: why do solutions tend to form in the first place, and what
factors limit mutual solubility of substances?
219
Mass percent, volume percent, mass by volume percent
In the consumer and industrial world, the most common method of
expressing the concentration is based on the quantity of solute in a
fixed quantity of solution. The quantities referred to here can be
expressed in mass, in volume, or both (i.e., the mass of solute in a
given volume of solution.) In order to distinguish among these
possibilities, the abbreviations (w/w), (v/v) and (w/v) are used.
In most applied fields of chemistry, (w/w) measure is often used, and
is commonly expressed as weight percent concentration, or simply
"percent concentration". For example, a solution made by dissolving
10 g of salt with 200 g of water contains "1 part of salt per 20 g of
water". It is usually more convenient to express such concentrations
as "parts per 100", which we all know as "percent". The solution
described is then a "5% (w/w) solution" of NaCl in water.
In clinical chemistry, (w/v) is commonly used, with weight expressed
in grams and volume in mL.
Example 12.1:
The Normal Saline solution used in medicine for nasal irrigation, wound
cleaning and intravenous drips is a 0.91% (w/v) solution of sodium
chloride in water. How would you prepare 1.5 L of this solution?
Solution:
The solution will contain 0.91 g of NaCl in 100 mL of water, or 9.1 g in 1
L. Thus you will add (1.5 9.1g) = 13.6 g of NaCl to 1.5 L of water.
Example 12.2:
Describe how you would prepare 30 g of a 20 percent (w/w) solution of
KCl in water.
Solution:
The weight of potassium chloride required is 20% of the total weight of
the solution, or 0.2 (30 g) = 6.0 g of KCl. The remainder of the solution
(30 6 = 24) g consists of water. Thus you would dissolve 6.0 g of KCl
in 24 g of water.
220
Percent means parts per 100; we can also use parts per thousand (ppt)
for expressing concentrations in grams of solute per kilogram of
solution. For more dilute solutions, parts per million (106; ppm) and
parts per billion (109; ppb) are used. These terms are widely
employed to express the amounts of trace pollutants in the
environment.
It is sometimes convenient to base concentration on a fixed volume,
either of the solution itself, or of the solvent alone. In most instances,
a 5% by volume solution of a solid will mean 5 g of the solute
dissolved in 100 ml of the solvent.
Example 12.3:
Fish, like all animals, need a supply of oxygen, which they obtain from
oxygen dissolved in the water. The minimum oxygen concentration
needed to support most fish is around 5 ppm (w/v). How many moles of
O2 per litre of water does this correspond to?
Solution:
5 ppm (w/v) means 5 grams of oxygen in one million mL (1000 L) of
water, or 5 mg per litre. This is equivalent to
(0.005 g)/(32.0 g mol1) = 1.6 104 mol.
Molarity: mole/volume
Molarity is the method most used by chemists to express
concentration, and it is the one most important for you to master.
Molar concentration (molarity) is the number of moles of solute per
litre of solution.
221
The important point to remember is that the volume of the solution is
different from the volume of the solvent; the latter quantity can be
found from the molarity only if the densities of both the solution and
of the pure solvent are known. Similarly, calculation of the weight
percentage concentration from the molarity requires information of
density.
Example 12.4:
How would you make 120 mL of a 0.10 M solution of potassium
hydroxide in water?
Solution:
The amount of KOH required is
(0.120 L) (0.10 mol L1) = 0.012 mol.
The molar mass of KOH is 56.1 g, so the mass of KOH required is
(0.012 mol) (56.1 g mol1) = 0.67 g.
We would dissolve this mass of KOH in a volume of water that is less
than 120 mL, and then add sufficient water to bring the volume of the
solution up to 120 mL.
Comment: if we had simply added the KOH to 120 mL of water, the
molarity of the resulting solution would not be the same. This is because
volumes of different substances are not strictly additive when they are
mixed. Without actually measuring the volume of the resulting solution,
its molarity would not be known.
222
i 1
i
In the case of ionic solutions, each kind of ion acts as a separate
component.
Example 12.5:
Find the mole fraction of water in a solution prepared by dissolving 4.5 g
of CaBr2 in 84.0 mL of water. Assume the species in the solution to be
Ca2+ and Br-, in addition to water.
Solution:
The molar mass of CaBr2 is 200 g/mol. Thus the number of moles of
CaBr2 in the solution is (4.50 g) / (200 g mol1) = 0.0225 mol.
Because this salt is completely dissociated in solution, the solution will
contain 0.0225 mol of Ca2+ and (2 0.0225) = 0.0450mol of Br ions.
84.0 mL of H2O has a mass very close to 84.0 g at its assumed density of
1.00 g mL1. The number of moles of water is
(84.0 g) / (18.0 g mol1) = 4.67 mol.
The mole fraction of water is then
(4.67 mol) / (0.0225 + 0.0450 + 4.67) mol = 4.67 / 5.47 = 0.986.
Thus, H2O constitutes 986 out of every 1000 molecules + ions in the
solution.
Molality: mole/mass
A 1 molal solution contains one mole of solute per 1 kg of solvent.
Molality is a hybrid concentration unit, retaining the convenience of
mole measure for the solute, but expressing it in relation to a
temperature independent mass rather than a volume. Molality, like
mole fraction, is used in applications dealing with certain physical
properties of solutions.
223
Example 12.6:
A solution prepared by dissolving 66.0 g of urea (NH2)2CO in 950 g of
water had a density of 1.018 g mL1. Express the concentration of urea in
a) weight-percent; b) mole fraction; c) molarity; d) molality.
Solution:
a) The mass percent of solute is
(100%) (66.0 g) / (950 + 66.0 g) = 6.50%
b) The molar mass of urea is 60.06, so its number of moles is
(66.0 g) /(60.06 g mol1) = 1.10 mol.
The number of moles of H2O is
(950 g) / (18.02 g mol1) = 52.8 mol.
Mole fraction of urea: (1.10 mol) / (1.10 + 52.8 mol) = 0.0204
c) Volume of solution is
(66.0 + 950) g / (1018 g L1) = 0.998 L.
The number of moles of urea (from a) is 1.10 mol.
Its molarity is then (1.10 mol) / (0.998 L) = 1.10 mol L1.
d) The molality of urea is
(1.10 mol) / (0.950) kg = 1.16 mol kg1.
Example 12.7:
Ordinary dry air contains 21% (v/v) oxygen. How many moles of O2 can
be inhaled into the lungs of a typical adult woman with a lung capacity of
4.0 L?
Solution:
The number of molecules (and thus the number of moles) in a gas is
directly proportional to its volume (Avogadros law), so the mole fraction
of O2 is 0.21.
The number of moles of a gas occupying 4.0 L volume at 25 C and 1.0
atm pressure are given by the Ideal Gas Law:
n = PV/RT = (1.0) (4.0) /(0.08206 298) = 0.164 mol
The number of moles of O2 in 4.0 L of air will be
mole fraction n = 0.21 0.164 = 0.034 mol O2.
224
Dilution calculations
Example 12.8:
Commercial hydrochloric acid is available as a 10.17 molar solution.
How would you use this to prepare 500 mL of a 4.00 molar solution?
Solution:
The desired solution requires (0.50 L) (4.00 mol L1) = 2.0 mol of HCl.
This quantity of HCl is contained in (2.0 mol) / (10.17 mol L1) = 0.197 L
of the concentrated acid.
So one would add 197 mL of the concentrated acid to some water, and
then add more water to make the total volume 500 mL.
Example 12.9:
Calculate the molarity of the solution produced by adding 120 mL of 6.0
M HCl to 150 mL of 0.15 M HCl. What important assumption must be
made here?
Solution:
The assumption, of course, is that the density of HCl within this
concentration range is constant, meaning that their volumes will be
additive.
Moles of HCl in 1st solution: (0.120 L) (6.0 mol L1) = 0.72 mol
Moles of HCl in 2nd solution: (0.150 L) (0.15 mol L1) = 0.0225 mol
Molarity of mixture is
(0.72 + 0.0225) mol / (0.120 + 0.150) L = 2.7 mol L1.
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12.3 Solution Types; Why Solutions Form (or Dont)
Why do solutions form in the first place except when they don't?
In this section, we look at some of the underlying physical phenomena
that govern the transformation of mixtures into solutions.
To see what type of substances are likely to be mutually soluble, let us
consider the individual steps that must be carried out when a solute is
dissolved in a solvent:
If the solute is a solid or liquid, it must first be dispersed that
is, its molecular units must be pulled apart. This requires energy,
and so this step always works against solution formation.
Similarly, solvent molecules have to separate. Solute particles
are then incorporated among solvent molecules. This step
releases energy. If the second step releases more energy than is
consumed in the first step, this will favour solution formation,
and we can generally expect the solute to be soluble in the
solvent.
226
Even if the dissolution process is slightly endothermic, there is a third
important factor, the entropy increase that will very often favour the
dissolved state.
228
can therefore predict that solutes of these kinds will be only sparingly
soluble in water.
Have you ever noticed the tiny bubbles that form near the bottom of a
container of water when it is placed on a hot stove? These bubbles
contain air that was previously dissolved in the water, but reaches its
solubility limit as the water is warmed. You can completely rid a
liquid of any dissolved gases (including unwanted ones such as Cl 2 or
H2S) by boiling it in an open container.
229
where, S = solubility, P = partial pressure of the gas above the
solution, and kH = Henrys constant, which depends on the gas, the
solvent and the temperature.
This direct proportionality is shown in figure 12.2 below.
O2
N2
Molar solubility
1.0
He
mol/L
0.5
0.5 1.0
Partial pressure (atm)
Example 12.10:
If the partial pressure of oxygen gas over a sample of water is 2.0 atm,
what would be the solubility of the gas in water?
Solution:
Solving Henry's law for the concentration, we get
S= kH P = 1.30 103 mol/(L atm) 2.0 atm = 0.0026 mol L1
230
12.5 Solubility of Solids
Since the coulombic forces that bind ions and highly polar molecules
into solids are quite strong, we might expect these solids to be
insoluble in just about any solvent. Ionic solids are insoluble in most
non-aqueous solvents, but the high solubility of some (including
NaCl) in water suggests the need for some further explanation.
The key factor here turns out to be the interaction of the ions with the
solvent. The electrically-charged ions exert a strong coulombic
attraction on the end of the water molecule that has the opposite
partial charge. As a consequence, ions in solution are always
hydrated; that is, they are quite tightly bound to water molecules
through ion-dipole interaction. The number of water molecules
contained in the primary hydration shell varies with the radius and
charge of the ion.
231
Figure 12.3 shows the hydration shells around some ions in a sodium
chloride solution. The average time an ion spends in a shell is about
2-4 nanoseconds; this is about two orders of magnitude longer than
the lifetime of an individual H2OH2O hydrogen bond.
232
Gaseous ions
Lattice Energy
Hydration Energy
Ionic solid
Heat of solution
Hydrated ions
233
electrostatic interaction between two ions, or between an ion and a
(polar) water molecule.
Example 12.11:
When calcium chloride, CaCl2, is dissolved in water, will the temperature
immediately after mixing rise or fall?
Solution:
Estimate the heat of solution of CaCl2.
Lattice energy of solid CaCl2: +2258 kJ mol1
Hydration energy of the three gaseous ions is
(1562 381 381) = 2324 kJ mol1
Heat of solution: (2258 2324) kJ mol1 = 66 kJ mol1
Since the process is exothermic, this amount of heat will be released,
warming the solution.
Lattice energies are not measured directly, but are estimates based on
electrostatic calculations which are reliable only for simple salts.
Enthalpies of solution are observable either directly or, for sparingly
soluble salts, indirectly. Hydration energies are not measurable; they
are estimated as the sum the other two quantities.
It follows that any uncertainty in the lattice energies is reflected in
those of the hydration energies. For this reason, tabulated values of
the latter will vary depending on the source.
As often happens for a quantity that is the sum of two large terms
having opposite signs, the overall dissolution process can come out as
either endothermic or exothermic, and examples of both kinds are
common see Table 12.3.
Table. 12.3: Energy terms of some salts (kJ mol1)
234
12.6 Colligative Properties
235
Figure 12.4: Vapour pressure of solutions: Raoult's law
.
In the container on the right, we have replaced a fraction of the water
molecules with a substance that has zero or negligible vapour pressure
a non-volatile solute such as salt or sugar. This has the effect of
diluting the water, reducing its tendency to escape into the vapour
phase and thus its vapour pressure.
What is important to remember is that the reduction in the vapour
pressure of a solution of this kind is directly proportional to the mole
fraction of the solvent. The reduced vapour pressure is given by
Raoult's law (1886): P = X Po, where P is the vapour pressure of the
solution, X is the mole fraction of the solvent and P o is the vapour
pressure of the pure solvent.
Figure 12.5:
Raoults Law
Example 12.12:
Estimate the vapour pressure of a 40 percent (w/w) solution of ordinary
cane sugar (C22O11H22, 342 g mol1) in water. The vapour pressure of
pure water at this particular temperature is 26.0 torr.
236
Solution:
100 g of solution contains (40 g) (342 g mol 1) = 0.12 mol of sugar and
(60 g) (18 g mol1) = 3.3 mol of water.
The mole fraction of water in the solution is 3.3/(3.3 + 0.12) = 0.96, and
its vapour pressure will be 0.96 26.0 torr = 25 torr.
Example 12.13:
The vapour pressure of water at 10C is 9.2 torr. Estimate the vapour
pressure at this temperature of a solution prepared by dissolving 0.200
mole of CaCl2 in 1.00 L of water.
Solution:
Each mole of CaCl2 dissociates into one mole of Ca2+ and two moles of
Cl1, giving a total of 0.600 of solute particles. The mole fraction of water
in the solution will be
55.5/(0.600 + 55.5) = 0.989
The vapour pressure will be 0.989 9.2 torr = 9.1 torr.
This is an approximate value, since the effective concentration of the ions
will be less than 0.600 because of interaction between the ions in the
solution.
237
solutions the elevation of the boiling point is directly proportional to
the molal concentration of the solute:
Tb = Kb m
where Tb is the boiling point elevation, m is the molality (mol solute
/ mass solvent in kg), and Kb is a constant which depends on the
nature of the solvent - it has the units K kg mol-1.
Bear in mind that the proportionality constant Kb is a property of the
solvent, because this is the only component that contributes to the
vapour pressure in the model we are considering in this section see
Table 12.4.
Table.12.4: Boiling point elevation constants
Example 12.14:
Sucrose (C22O11H22, 342 g mol1), like many sugars, is highly soluble in
water; almost 2000 g will dissolve in 1 kg of water, giving rise to what
amounts to pancake syrup. Estimate the boiling point of such a sugar
solution.
Solution:
No. of moles of sucrose: (2000 g) / (342 g mol1) = 5.85 mol
Mass of water: assume 1000 g
The molality of the solution is (5.85 mol) (1.00 kg) = 5.85 m
Using the value of Kb from the table, the boiling point will be raised by
(0.514 K kg mol1) (5.85 mol kg1) = 3.01 K,
so the boiling point will be 103 C
238
equilibrium. Under these conditions, molecules pass between the two
phases at equal rates because their escaping tendencies from the two
phases are identical.
Suppose that a liquid solvent and its solid (water and ice, for example)
are in equilibrium, and we add a non-volatile solute (such as salt,
sugar, or automotive antifreeze liquid) to the water. This will have the
effect of reducing the mole fraction of H2O molecules in the liquid
phase, and thus reduce the tendency of these molecules to escape from
it, not only into the vapour phase (as we saw above), but also into the
solid (ice) phase. This will have no effect on the rate at which H2O
molecules escape from the ice into the water phase, so the system will
no longer be in equilibrium and the ice will begin to melt.
If we wish to keep the solid from melting, the escaping tendency of
molecules from the solid must be reduced. This can be accomplished
by reducing the temperature; this lowers the escaping tendency of
molecules from both phases, but it affects those in the solid more than
those in the liquid, so we eventually reach the new, lower freezing
point where the two quantities are again in exact balance and both
phases can coexist.
If you prefer to think in terms of vapour pressures, you can use the
same argument if you bear in mind that the vapour pressures of the
solid and liquid must be the same at the freezing point. Dilution of the
liquid (the solvent) by the non-volatile solute reduces the vapour
pressure of the solvent according to Raoults law, thus reducing the
temperature at which the vapour pressures of the liquid and frozen
forms of the solution will be equal.
239
Table. 12. 5: Freezing point depression constants
240
combining one volume of ethylene glycol (MW = 62, density 1.11 g cm3)
with two volumes of water.
Solution:
Assume that we use 1 L of glycol and 2 L of water (the actual volumes do
not matter as long as their ratios are as given.) The mass of the glycol will
be 1.10 kg and that of the water will be 2.0 kg, so the total mass of the
solution is 3.11 kg. We then have:
Number of moles of glycol = (1110 g) (62 g mol1) = 17.9 mol
Molality of glycol = (17.9 mol) (2.00 kg) = 8.95 mol kg1
Freezing point depression is
Tf = (1.86 K kg mol1) (8.95 mol kg1) = 16.6 K
so the solution will freeze at 16.6 C.
Figure 12.6:
Example of a phase
diagram
Figure 12.7 below expands on this by plotting lines for both pure
water and for its "diluted" state produced by the introduction of a non-
volatile solute.
242
Figure 12.7: Phase diagram of a pure solvent and its solution
243
sink to the bottom part of the ocean where it gets taken up by the
south-flowing deep current.
If the cell is set up so that the liquid level is initially the same in both
compartments, you will soon notice that the liquid rises in the left
compartment and falls in the right side, indicating that water
molecules from the right compartment are migrating through the semi-
244
permeable membrane and into the left compartment. This migration
of the solvent is known as osmotic flow, or simply osmosis.
What is the force that drives the molecules through the membrane?
This is a misleading question, because there is no real force in the
physical sense other than the thermal energies all molecules possess.
Osmosis is a consequence of simple statistics: the randomly directed
motions of a collection of molecules will cause more to leave a region
of high concentration than return to it. The escaping tendency of a
substance from a phase increases with its concentration in the phase.
245
The osmotic pressure of a solution containing n moles of solute
particles in a solution of volume V is given by the van't Hoff equation:
= nRT/V
in which R is the gas constant (0.0821 L atm mol1 K1) and T is the
absolute temperature. The fraction n/V corresponds to the molarity of
a solution of a non-dissociating solute, or to twice the molarity of a
totally-dissociated solute such as NaCl. In this context, molarity
refers to the summed total of the concentrations of all solute species.
Note therefore, that in contrast to the need to employ solute molality
to calculate the effects of a non-volatile solute on changes in the
freezing and boiling points of a solution, we can use solute molarity to
calculate osmotic pressures.
246
Some practical applications of osmosis
Molecular weight determination by osmotic pressure
247
osmotic pressure is read from the measuring device and substituted
into the vant Hoff equation to find the number of moles of solute.
Reverse osmosis
248
Osmotic generation of electric power
The osmotic pressure of seawater is almost 26 atm. Since a pressure
of 1 atm will support a column of water 10.6 m high, this means that
osmotic flow of fresh water through a semi permeable membrane into
seawater could in principle support a column of the latter by
26 x 10.3 = 276 m!
So imagine an osmotic cell in which one side is supplied with fresh
water from a river, and the other side with seawater. Osmotic flow of
fresh water into the seawater side forces the latter up through a riser
containing a turbine connected to a generator, thus providing a
constant and fuel-less source of electricity.
249
Osmosis in biology and physiology
Because many plant and animal cell membranes and tissues tend to be
permeable to water and other small molecules, osmotic flow plays an
essential role in many physiological processes.
(i) Normal saline solution
The interiors of cells contain salts and other solutes that dilute the
intracellular water. If the cell membrane is permeable to water,
placing the cell in contact with pure water will draw water into the
cell, tending to rupture it. This is easily and dramatically seen if red
blood cells are placed in a drop of water and observed through a
microscope as they burst. This is the reason that "normal saline
solution", rather than pure water, is administered in order to maintain
blood volume or to infuse therapeutic agents during medical
procedures. In order to prevent irritation of sensitive membranes, one
should always add some salt to water used to irrigate the eyes, nose,
throat or bowel. Normal saline contains 0.91% w/v of sodium
chloride, corresponding to 0.154 M, making its osmotic pressure close
to that of blood.
The drying of fruit, the use of sugar to preserve jams and jellies, and
the use of salt to preserve certain meats, are age-old methods of
preserving food. The idea is to reduce the water concentration to a
level below that in living organisms. Any bacterial cell that wanders
into such a medium will have water osmotically drawn out of it, and
will die of dehydration. A similar effect is noticed by anyone who
holds a hard sugar candy against the inner wall of the mouth for an
extended time; the affected surface becomes dehydrated and
noticeably rough when touched by the tongue.
Osmotic flow plays an important role in the transport of water from its
source in the soil to its release by transpiration from the leaves; it is
helped along by hydrogen-bonding forces between the water
molecules. Capillary rise is not believed to be a significant factor.
250
Colligative properties of electrolyte solutions
Colligative properties of solutions are determined by the number of
solute particles in the solution. Since electrolytes dissociate in
solutions, the actual number of particles in solutions is not the same as
the number of units dissolving. Thus, an amount of solvent in which
0.010 mol NaCl is dissolved will have 0.010 mol Na+ and 0.010 mol
Cl. Assuming complete dissociation, there would be 0.020 moles
ions in the solution. A 0.010 molal BaCl2 solution would have an
effective molality of 3 x 0.010 = 0.030 molal. The equations for the
colligative properties have to be modified to take this into account.
The modified equation for the depression of freezing point becomes:
Tf = i Kf m.
The factor i is called the vant Hoff factor. It is the ratio of the actual
number of particles in solution to the number of units initially
dissolved. Since even in dilute solutions, ions of opposite charges do
pair up to certain extent, the vant Hoff factor is usually less than what
the formula of the solute indicates. Thus in a 0.050 molal NaCl
solution, experiment shows that i = 1.9 and not 2.
12.8 Exercises
12.1 Calculate the mass percent, molality and mole fraction of the solute
in an aqueous solution containing 0.468 g Ca(NO3)2 in 270 g water.
12.5 Calculate the vapour pressure of water above a solution which has
17.4 g of urea, CO(NH2)2 in 250.0 g of water. The vapour pressure
of pure water is 23.76 torr.
12.6 Calculate the freezing point and boiling point of a solution that has
3.14 g NaCl in 240 g of water.
251
12.7 To 200 g of water 3.18 g fructose and 2.13 g KI are added. What is
the freezing point and boiling point of the resulting solution?
12.8 A solution of an unknown carbohydrate containing 5.40 g in 100.0
mL of solution has an osmotic pressure of 11.0 atm at 25 oC. What
is the molar mass of the carbohydrate?
252
CHAPTER 13
The Rates of Chemical Reactions
13.1 Reaction Rate
253
[A] [B] [C]
rate rate rate
t t t
Example 13.1:
For the oxidation of ammonia 4NH3 + 3O2 2N2 + 6H2O it was found
that the rate of formation of N2 was 0.27 mol L1 s1.
(a) At what rate was water being formed?
(b) At what rate was ammonia being consumed?
Solution:
6
(a) From the equation stoichiometry, [H2O] = [N2], so the rate of
2
formation of H2O is 3 (0.27 mol L1 s1) = 0.81 mol L1 s1.
(b) 4 moles of NH3 are consumed for every 2 moles of N2 formed, so the
rate of disappearance of ammonia is
2 (0.27 mol L1 s1) = 0.54 mol L1 s1.
Because of the way this question is formulated, it would be acceptable
to express this last value as a negative number.
254
Instantaneous rate
Most reactions slow down as the reactants are consumed.
Consequently, the rates given by the expressions shown above tend to
lose their meaning when measured over longer time intervals t.
Thus for the reaction whose progress is plotted here, the actual rate (as
measured by the increasing concentration of product) varies
continuously, being greatest at time zero. The instantaneous rate of a
reaction is given by the slope of a tangent to the concentration -vs.-
time curve. Three such rates have been identified in Figure 13.1.
Note: Instantaneous rates are also known as differential rates.
255
13.2 Rate Laws and Reaction Order
The expression for the rate law generally bears no necessary relation
to the reaction equation, and must be determined experimentally.
More generally, for a reaction of the form
nA A + nB B + ... products
the rate law will be
rate = k [A]a [B]b
in which the exponents a and b are usually (but not always) integers
and, we must emphasize once again, bear no relation to the
coefficients nA, nB.
The order of a rate law is the sum of the exponents in its concentration
terms. For the N2O5 decomposition with the rate law k[N2O5], this
exponent is 1 (and thus is not explicitly shown); this reaction is
therefore a first order reaction. We can also say that the reaction is
"first order in N2O5".
For more complicated rate laws, we can speak of the overall reaction
order and also the orders with respect to each component. As an
example, consider a reaction
A + 3B + 2C products
with the experimental rate law
rate = k [A] [B]2
We would describe this reaction as third order overall, first order in A,
second order in B, and zero order in C.
Zero order means that the rate is independent of the concentration of
a particular reactant. However, of course enough C must be present to
allow the equilibrium mixture to form.
Example 13.2:
The rate of oxidation of bromide ions by bromate in an acidic aqueous
solution: 6H+ + BrO3 + 5Br 3 Br2 + 3 H2O
is found to follow the rate law: rate = k [Br][BrO3][H+]2
What happens to the rate if, in separate experiments, (a) [BrO3] is
doubled; (b) [H+] is decreased by a factor of 10; (c) the solution is diluted
to twice its volume, but the [H+] is kept constant by use of a buffer?
[Buffers maintain [H+] constant; well study them later].
Solution:
(a) Since the rate is first-order in bromate, doubling its concentration will
double the reaction rate.
(b) Since the reaction is second order in [H+], decreasing [H+] by a factor
of 10 will decrease the rate by a factor of 102 or by 100.
(c) Dilution reduces the concentrations of both Br2 and BrO3 to half their
original values. Doing this to each concentration alone would reduce
the rate by a factor of 2, so reducing both concentration will reduce
the rate by a factor of 4, to () () = of its initial value.
257
13.3 Determining Reaction Orders
258
Figure 13.2.(b): Initial
rate vs. concentration of
N2O5 for the reaction
2N2O5 4 NO2 + O2
The graphs in figure 13.2.(a) and (b) show how the initial rates are
determined using the example of the reaction 2N2O5 4 NO2 + O2.
In figure 13.2.(a), concentrations are plotted against time and the
slopes at time = 0 are obtained. In this example, a series of runs using
five different initial concentrations of N2O5 has been made. The
slopes at t = 0 have been measured. These are the initial rates. The
initial rates can then be plotted against initial concentrations to
determine the order (figure 13.2.(b)).
If suitable initial concentrations of reactants are chosen, the order can
be determined without drawing the graph as in the following example.
Example 13.3:
A study of the gas-phase reduction of nitric oxide by hydrogen
2 NO + 2 H2 N2 + 2 H2O
yielded the following initial-rate data (all pressures in torr):
Experiment P(NO) P(H2) Initial rate (torr s1)
1 300 300 1.03
2 150 300 0.25
3 300 600 2.00
Find the order of the reaction with respect to each component.
259
Solution:
In looking over this data, take note of the following:
All the data are expressed in pressures, rather than in concentrations. We
can do this because the reactants are gases, whose concentrations are
directly proportional to their partial pressures when T and V are held
constant. Since we are only interested in comparing the ratios of
pressures and rates, the units cancel out and don't matter. It is far easier
experimentally to adjust and measure pressures than concentrations.
Experiments 1 and 2: Reduction of the initial partial pressure of NO by a
factor of (300/150) = 2, results in a reduction of the initial rate by a factor
of (1.03/0.25) = about 4, so the reaction is second-order in nitric oxide.
Experiments 1 and 3: Increasing the initial partial pressure of hydrogen by
a factor of 2 (600/300), causes a similar increase in the initial rate
(2.00/1.03), so the reaction is first-order in hydrogen.
The rate law is thus rate = k[NO]2[H2].
261
practical. In this case, it might make more sense to define
"completed" when a reactant concentration has fallen to some
arbitrary fraction of its initial value 90%, 70%, or even only 20%.
The particular fraction one selects depends on the cost of the reactants
in relation to the value of the products, balanced against the cost of
operating the process for a longer time or the inconvenience of
waiting for more product. This kind of consideration is especially
important in industrial processes in which the balances of these costs
affect the profitability of the operation.
The half-life of a reaction
Instead of trying to identify the time required for the reaction to
become completed, it is far more practical to specify the time required
for the concentration of a reactant to fall to half of its initial value.
This is known as the half-life (or half-time) of the reaction.
First-order reactions: the law of exponential change
The rate at which a reactant is consumed in a first-order process is
proportional to its concentration at that time. This general
relationship, in which a quantity changes at a rate that depends on its
instantaneous value, is said to follow an exponential law.
Exponential relations are widespread in science and in many other
fields. Consumption of a chemical reactant or the decay of a
radioactive isotope follows the exponential decay law. Its inverse, the
law of exponential growth, describes the manner in which the money
in a continuously-compounding bank account grows with time, or the
population growth of a colony of reproducing organisms.
The reason that the exponential function y = ex so efficiently describes
such changes stems from the remarkable property that dy/dx = ex; that
is, ex is its own derivative, so the rate of change of y is identical to its
value at any point.
262
Here, [A]o is the starting concentration of A, and [A]t is the
concentration at time t.
This integrated equation is now of the form y = mx + c, representing a
straight line. A plot of ln[A]t against t will be a straight line for a first
order reaction, with slope = k. Thus to test if a reaction is first order,
ln[concentration] values are plotted against time. If the plot is a
straight line, it shows that the reaction is first order.
e kt
[A] 1
[A]o 2
Taking logarithms of both sides (remember that ln ex = x) yields
ln 0.5 = k t1/2
Solving for the half-life, we obtain the simple relation t1/2 = 0.693/k.
263
This tells us that the half-life of a first-order reaction is a constant.
The concentration of a reactant will decrease from 0.80 M to 0.40 M
in the same time as it takes to decrease from 0.10 M to 0.05 M. The
half-life of a first order reaction does not depend on the starting
concentration. Figures 13.4.(a) and (b) show plots of the first order
integrated rate law; figure 13.5 shows the effect of k on t.
(a) (b)
Figure 13.4: Plots of the first order integrated rate law
Example 13.4:
The half-life of a first-order reaction was found to be 10 min at a certain
temperature. What is its rate constant in reciprocal seconds?
Solution:
From the equation t1/2 = 0.693/k, k = 0.693/(600 s) = 0.00115 s1
264
Second-order reactions
Integration of the second-order rate law (rate = k[A]2) yields
1/[A]t 1/[A]o = kt
or 1/[A]t = 1/[A]o + kt
A plot of 1/[A]t against time gives a straight line with slope = k.
12
9
1/[A]t 6
(102 M-1) 3
0
0 20 40 60 80
time (s)
Zero-order processes
In some reactions, the rate is apparently independent of the reactant
concentration, in which case integration of the differential rate law
(rate = k[A]0 = k) yields [A]t = [A]0 kt.
265
Note the word "apparently" in the
preceding sentence; zero-order kinetics
is always an artifact of the conditions
under which the reaction is carried out.
For this reason, reactions that follow
zero-order kinetics are often referred
to as pseudo-zero-order reactions.
Clearly, a zero-order process cannot
continue after a reactant has been
exhausted. Just before this point is
reached, the reaction will revert to
another rate law instead of falling
directly to zero as depicted at the
upper left of figure 13.7.
There are two general conditions that can give rise to zero-order rates:
1. Only a small fraction of the reactant molecules are in a location
or state in which they are able to react, and this fraction is
continually replenished from the larger pool.
This situation commonly occurs when a reaction is catalysed by
attachment to a solid surface (heterogeneous catalysis) or to an
enzyme.
For example, the decomposition of nitrous oxide
N2O(g) N2(g) + O2(g)
in the presence of a hot platinum wire (which acts as a catalyst) is
zero-order, but it follows more conventional kinetics when
carried out entirely in the gas phase.
In this case, the N2O molecules that react are limited to those that
have attached themselves to the surface of the solid catalyst.
Once all of the sites on the limited surface of the catalyst have
been occupied, additional gas-phase molecules must wait until
the decomposition of one of the adsorbed molecules frees up a
surface site.
266
Enzyme-catalysed reactions in organisms begin with the
attachment of the substrate to the active site on the enzyme,
leading to the formation of an enzyme-substrate complex. If the
number of enzyme molecules is limited in relation to substrate
molecules, then the reaction may appear to be zero-order.
2. When two or more reactants are involved, the concentrations of
some are much greater than those of others.
Thus if the reaction
A + B products
is first-order in both reactants so that
rate = k[A][B]
then if B is present in great excess, the reaction will appear to be
zero order in B (and first order overall). This commonly happens
when B is H2O and the reaction is carried out in aqueous solution.
Summary
The following table compares the rate parameters of zero-, first-, and
second-order reactions of the form A products.
Table.13.2: Rate parameters of the three orders of reaction
267
The Arrhenius equation
Experimentally the rate constant is seen to be dependent on T
according to the equation:
k = A exp(Ea/RT)
From a set of k values at various values of T, A and E a can be
determined. The equation above can be written as:
ln k = ln A Ea/RT
A graph of ln k vs. 1/T gives a straight line. The equation is called the
Arrhenius equation and the plot is an Arrhenius plot. Ea is called the
Activation Energy.
Example 13.5:
For the isomerization of cyclopropane to propene: C3H6 (g) C3H6 (g),
the following data were obtained:
T (0C): 477 523 577 623
1/T (K1 103): 1.33 1.25 1.18 1.11
k (s1): 0.00018 0.0027 0.030 0.26
ln k: 8.62 5.92 3.51 1.35
Plot a graph of ln k vs. 1/T:
0
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
-4
ln k
-8 y = -33.1x + 35.6
-12
1/T
Why are some reactions so much faster than others and what is the
explanation for the dependence of rate on temperature described by
Arrhenius equation? To answer these questions, chemists have
proposed theories as to what happens at the molecular level when a
reaction takes place.
There are the central questions discussed here. In doing so, we open
the door to the important topic of reaction mechanisms: what happens
at the microscopic level when chemical reactions take place? We can
thank Svante Arrhenius for unlocking this door!
To keep things as simple as possible, we will restrict ourselves to
reactions that take place in the gas phase. The same principles will
apply to reactions in liquids and solids.
Collision theory of chemical change
In order for molecules to react, they must collide. Consider a collision
between two molecules, A and BC to produce AB and C molecules
A + BC AB + C
269
Clearly, if two molecules A and BC are to react, they must approach
closely enough to disrupt some of their existing bonds and to permit
the creation of any new ones that are needed in the products. Such an
encounter is called a collision.
Not every collision, however, gives rise to products. According to
kinetic theory of gases, at room temperature and normal atmospheric
pressure, there will be about 1033 collisions in each cm3 every second.
If every collision between two reactant molecules yielded products, all
reactions would be complete in a fraction of a second.
During most collisions, molecules just bounce off without undergoing
disruption or rearrangement of the bonds between their atoms. There
are reasons for not every collision producing a reaction. These are
orientation factor and activation energy as explained below.
A B C A B + C
270
molecules have. Only those collisions will be effective that are
between molecules possessing the needed kinetic energy for breaking
bonds. If the total energy of colliding molecules is not large enough,
they will simply bounce off each other and no reaction will take place.
The minimum energy that the molecules must have in order to react is
called activation energy. It is a positive quantity.
Activation Energy Diagrams:
Figure 13.9 is a typical activation energy diagram. It shows the
change in the total energy as the reaction goes from reactants to
products. Along the x-axis is the reaction coordinate or the reaction
path as the mixture progresses from reactants to products. The energy
of the products is shown at the right. The example in the diagram is
an exothermic reaction, where the energy of the products is lower than
that of the reactants. In going from the reactants to the products the
mixture has to cross an energy barrier represented by the peak in the
diagram.
For the case of the hypothetical example of molecule A reacting with
C, the ascending part of the curve represents stages in which a new
bond is forming between A and B at the same time as the bond
between B and C is being broken. At the peak, which represents the
activated complex, or the transition state, the structure might be
A---B---C, where the dotted lines represent partial bonds. Along the
descending part of the curve, the partial bond between B and C
changes to full bond resulting in formation of the molecule AB. At
the same time the partial bond between B and C breaks.
The energy difference between the reactants and the activated
complex is the activation energy of the forward reaction. The
activation energy of the reverse reaction is the difference between the
energy of the activated complex and the products.
271
Figure 13.9: Example of an activation energy diagram
272
According to kinetic molecular theory, a population of molecules at a
given temperature is distributed over a variety of kinetic energies that
is described by the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution law (figure
13.12).
The area under each curve represents the total number of molecules
whose energies fall within particular range. The shaded regions
indicate the number of molecules which are sufficiently energetic to
meet the requirements dictated by the two values of Ea that are shown.
It is clear from these plots that the fraction of molecules whose kinetic
energy exceeds the activation energy increases quite rapidly as the
temperature is raised. This is the reason that virtually all chemical
reactions are more rapid at higher temperatures.
It is important to understand
that a catalyst affects only the
kinetics of a reaction; it does
not alter the thermodynamic
tendency for the reaction to
occur. Thus there is a single
value of H for the two
pathways depicted in the plot
in figure 13.11 on the right.
274
13.8 Enzymes
Catalysts are conventionally divided into two categories:
homogeneous and heterogeneous. Enzymes, natural biological
catalysts, are often included in the former group, but because they
share some properties of both but exhibit some very special properties
of their own, we will treat them here as a third category.
A mechanism that has been proposed for the action of enzyme is the
lock and key mechanism. Enzymes are highly specific. An enzyme is
usually a large protein molecule that has active sites where the
reactants (called substrates) fit like a key fits a lock. The reaction can
take place between the substrate molecules before the products
molecules get desorbed. The following diagram shows the steps of
the process.
Enzyme Complex
13.9 Exercises
275
13.3 The initial rate method was followed to study the reaction:
2NO(g) + Cl2(g) 2NOCl(g).
The following data were obtained for rates at the given initial
concentrations:
[NO]o [Cl2]o Initial Rate
Exp. 1: 0.0240 M 0.0180 M 0.00341 M/s
Exp. 2: 0.0480 M 0.0180 M 0.0136 M/s
Exp. 3: 0.0240 M 0.0360 M 0.00682 M/s
Obtain the rate law. What is the value of the rate constant?
13.8 The rate constant for a first order reaction is 6.40 10-3 s-1 at
280 oC. If the activation energy is 86.0 kJ/mol, find the
temperature at which the rate constant is 1.24 10-2 s-1.
277
CHAPTER 14
Introduction to chemical equilibrium
14.1 Chemical Equilibrium
278
using twice the initial concentration of HI to keep the number of
atoms the same), the composition after equilibrium is attained will be
the same.
The equilibrium composition is independent of the direction from
which it is approached.
Adding reactions
When reactions are added to get an overall reaction, the equilibrium
constant of the overall reaction is obtained by multiplying individual
Kc values. An example is the reaction between P(g) and Cl2(g):
(1) P(g) + 3/2 Cl2(g) PCl3(g); Kc1
(2) PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) PCl5(g); Kc2
280
(3) P(g) + 5/2 Cl2(g) PCl5(g); Kc3
Here reaction (3) is obtained by adding reactions (1) and (2). By
writing out the expressions for all the three equilibrium constants, it
can be verified that
Kc3 = Kc1 Kc2
So, if reactions are added, Ks are multiplied.
Example 14.1:
Given the following equilibrium constants:
(1) CaCO3(s) Ca2+(aq) + CO32(aq) K1 = 106.3
(2) HCO3(aq) H+(aq) + CO32(aq) K2 = 1010.3
Calculate K for the reaction CaCO3(s) + H+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + HCO3(aq)
Solution:
The net reaction is the sum of reaction (1) and the reverse of reaction (2).
So the net reaction can be obtained by (1) (2). Hence, for the net
reaction, K = K1/K2 = 106.3/1010.3 = 10+1.9
Comment:
This net reaction describes the dissolution of limestone by acid; it is
responsible for the eroding effect of acid rain on buildings and statues.
This is an example of a reaction that has practically no tendency to take
place by itself (small K1), being "driven" by a second reaction having a
large equilibrium constant (K2). From the standpoint of the Le Chtelier
principle (to be discussed shortly), the first reaction is "pulled to the right"
by the removal of carbonate by hydrogen ion. Coupled reactions of this
type are widely encountered in all areas of chemistry, and especially in
biochemistry, in which a dozen or so reactions may be linked.
281
Kp = P(N2O4) / [P(NO2)]2
where P(N2O4) and P(NO2) are the partial pressures of the gases in the
mixture.
Kp like Kc is written without units.
282
equilibrium constant that the equilibrium mixture will contain mostly
NO2.
For the reaction: 2NO(g) N2(g) + O2(g), Kc = 2.2 x 1030. The
equilibrium mixture will have mostly products and negligible amounts
of NO will be present.
If the value of Kc is between 0.01 and 100, both reactants and products
are present in appreciable quantities.
Example 14.2:
For the reaction
CO(g) + 3H2(g) CH4(g) + H2O(g),
Kc = 1.38 103 at 800K, and Kc = 3.92 at 1200 K.
Is the formation of methane favoured at higher or lower temperature?
Solution:
The equilibrium constant is larger at the lower temperature, so the forward
reaction is favoured at 800K as compared to 1200 K.
283
Solvent too is not included in the expression for Kc, since the
concentration of the solvent is nearly constant if the solution is dilute.
Thus for the equilibrium:
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq)
Kc = [NH4+] [OH-] / [NH3].
Thus, the substances whose concentrations undergo no significant
change in a chemical reaction do not appear in equilibrium constant
expressions.
But be careful about throwing away H2O whenever you see it. In the
esterification reaction
CH3COOH(l) + C2H5OH(l) CH3COOC2H5(l) + H2O(l)
284
a [H2O] term must be present in the equilibrium expression if the
reaction is assumed to be between the two liquids acetic acid and
ethanol. If, on the other hand, the reaction takes place between a
dilute aqueous solution of the acid and the alcohol, then the [H2O]
term would not be included. The reaction would then be written as:
CH3COOH(aq) + C2H5OH(aq) CH3COOC2H5(aq) + H2O(l)
285
A 2.00 L vessel had 0.0150 mol PCl3, 0.0118 mol PCl5 and 0.0760 mol
Cl2 at a certain temperature. What is the value of Kc for the reaction:
PCl5(g) PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g)
Solution:
Concentrations at equilibrium are: [PCl5] = 0.0118/2.0 mol/L;
[PCl3]= 0.0150/2.00; [Cl2] = 0.0760/2.0 mol/L.
Kc = [PCl3] [Cl2] / [PCl5] = (0.0150)(0.076)/(2 0.0118) = 0.0483
If all the initial concentrations are known and at least one of the
equilibrium concentrations is known, Kc can be calculated. To get the
rest of the concentrations at equilibrium, the use is made of
stoichiometry, as illustrated in the example below:
Example 14.4:
In the contact process for the manufacture of sulphuric acid, sulphur
dioxide is first oxidized to sulphur trioxide which is then reacted with
water. The equilibrium is
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
The initial partial pressures of SO2 and O2 were 0.600 atm and 0.300 atm
at 1000 K; at equilibrium the partial pressure of SO3 is 0.380 atm. Find
Kp.
Solution:
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
Initial 0.600 0.300 0
Change -2x -x +2x
Equilibrium 0.600-2x 0.300-x 2x
From the data given, 2x = 0.380 atm; so, x = 0.380/2 = 0.190 atm
Hence, the equilibrium partial pressure of SO2
= 0.600 2 x 0.190 = 0.220 atm.
For O2 the equilibrium partial pressure
= 0.300 0.190 = 0.110 atm.
All the equilibrium partial pressures are now known, so
Kp = (0.380)2 / (0.220)2 (0.110) = 27.1
286
If we are given the actual concentrations of all substances in a system,
and we need to know in which direction the reaction would go, we
follow the procedure described below. Suppose the reaction is:
a A(g) + b B(g)c C(g) + d D(g)
We are told that a container has some concentrations of each of the
substances. What will be the direction of the reaction? To answer
that we define a quantity called the reaction quotient, Q. Q has the
same form as Kc , but it uses the actual concentrations rather than the
equilibrium ones. For the above reaction, Qc = [C]c [D]d/ [A]a [B]b,
where the concentrations are the actual ones present.
Example 14.5:
For the reaction N2O4 (g) 2NO2(g), Kc = 0.125 at 25 oC.
If a vessel has [N2O4] = 0.0200 M and [NO2] = 0.0580 M, in which
direction will the reaction go?
Solution:
Qc = [NO2]2 / [N2O4] = (0.0580)2/(0.0200) = 0.168
Qc> Kc; so the reaction will go backwards and N2O4 will tend to form.
If it is Kp that we are dealing with rather than Kc, the treatment is similar,
as in the following example.
Example 14.6:
The equilibrium constant for the oxidation of sulphur dioxide is Kp = 0.14
at 900 K: 2 SO2(g) + O2(g) 2 SO3(g)
287
If a reaction vessel is filled with SO3 at a partial pressure of 0.10 atm and
with O2 and SO2 each at a partial pressure of 0.20 atm, what can you
conclude about whether, and in which direction, any net change in
composition will take place?
Solution:
The value of the equilibrium quotient Q for the initial conditions is
Since Q > K, the reaction is not at equilibrium, so a net change will occur
in a direction that decreases Q. This can only occur if some of the SO3 is
converted back into products. In other words, the reaction will "shift to
the left".
288
Example 14.7:
Phosgene (COCl2) is a poisonous gas that dissociates at high temperature
into two other poisonous gases, carbon monoxide and chlorine. The
equilibrium constant Kp = 0.0041 at 600K. Find the equilibrium
composition of the system after 0.124 atm of COCl2 is allowed to reach
equilibrium at this temperature.
Solution:
Start by drawing up a table showing the relationships between the
components:
COCl2 CO Cl2
initial pressures: 0.124 atm 0 0
change: x +x +x
equilibrium pressures: 0.124 x x x
which gives x = 0.0225. To see how good this is, substitute this value of x
into the denominator of the original equation and solve again:
This time, solving for x gives 0.0204. Iterating once more, we get
The partial pressures in the bottom row were found by multiplying the
mole fraction of each gas by the total pressure: Pi = XiPt. The term in the
denominator of each mole fraction is the total number of moles of gas
present at equilibrium: (0.200 x) + (3.00 + x) + x = 3.20 + x.
Substituting the equilibrium partial pressures into the equilibrium
expression, we have
290
Plotting this on a graphical calculator yields x = 0.159 as the positive root.
Substitution of this root into the expressions for the equilibrium partial
pressures in the table yields the following values: P(PCl5) = 0.012 atm,
P(PCl3) = 0.94 atm, P(Cl2) = 0.047 atm.
291
new equilibrium value, the
system is no longer in its
equilibrium state, so a net
reaction now ensues as the
system moves to the new state
The Le Chtelier principle states
that the net reaction will be in a direction that tends to reduce the
effect of the added H2. This can occur if some of the H2 is consumed
by reacting with I2 to form more HI; in other words, a net reaction
occurs in the reverse direction. Chemists usually simply say that "the
equilibrium shifts to the left".
To get a better idea of how this works, carefully examine the diagram
below which follows the concentrations of the three components of
this reaction as they might change in time (the time scale here will
typically be about an hour).
Table. 14. 2
system change result
CO2 + H2 H2O absorbed Shift to the right. Continuous
H2O(g) + CO on drying removal of a product will
agent force any reaction to the right
H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) Some No change; N2 is not a
nitrogen gas component of this reaction
is added system.
NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) HCl (g) escapes from the
Na2SO4(s) + HCl(g) system, the reaction is forced
Container
to the right. This is the basis
opened
for the commercial production
of hydrochloric acid.
H2O(l) H2O(g) Removal of water vapor
Container forces the reaction to the
opened right, so equilibrium is never
achieved.
AgCl(s) some NaCl is
Shift to left due to increase in
Ag+(aq) + Cl(aq) Cl concentration. This is
added to the
known as the common ion
solution
effect on solubility.
N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3 a catalyst is
No change. Catalysts affect
only the rate of a reaction; the
added to
have no effect at all on the
speed up this
composition of the
reaction
equilibrium state.
293
Virtually all chemical reactions are accompanied by the liberation or
uptake of heat. If we regard heat as a "reactant" or "product" in an
endothermic or exothermic reaction respectively, we can use the Le
Chtelier principle to predict the direction in which an increase or
decrease in temperature will shift the equilibrium state. Thus for the
oxidation of nitrogen, an endothermic process, we can write
[heat] + N2(g) + O2(g) 2 NO (g)
Suppose this reaction is at equilibrium at some temperature T1 and we
raise the temperature to T2. The Le Chtelier principle tells us that a
net reaction will occur in the direction that will partially counteract
this change. Since the reaction is endothermic, a shift of the
equilibrium to the right will take place.
Nitric oxide, the product of this reaction, is a major air pollutant which
initiates a sequence of steps leading to the formation of atmospheric
smog. Its formation is an unwanted side reaction which occurs when
the air (which is introduced into the combustion chamber of an engine
to supply oxygen) gets heated to a high temperature. Designers of
internal combustion engines now try, by various means, to limit the
temperature in the combustion region, or to restrict its highest-
temperature part to a small volume within the combustion chamber.
294
It is important to understand that changing the pressure will have a
significant effect only on reactions in which there is a change in the
number of moles of gas as a result of the reaction.
For the above reaction, this change
ng = (nproducts nreactants) = 1 2 = 1.
In the case of the nitrogen oxidation reaction
N2(g) + O2(g) 2 NO (g), ng = 0 and pressure will have no effect.
For reactions involving gases, only changes in the partial pressures of
those gases directly involved in the reaction are important; the
presence of other gases has no effect.
The volumes of solids and liquids are hardly affected by the pressure
at all, so for reactions that do not involve gaseous substances, the
effects of pressure changes are ordinarily negligible. Exceptions arise
under conditions of very high pressure such as exist in the interior of
the Earth or near the bottom of the ocean. A good example is the
dissolution of calcium carbonate CaCO3(s) Ca2+(aq) + CO32(aq).
There is a slight decrease in the volume when this reaction takes
place, so an increase in the pressure will shift the equilibrium to the
right, with the results that calcium carbonate becomes more soluble at
higher pressures.
The skeletons of several varieties of microscopic organisms that
inhabit the top of the ocean are made of CaCO3, so there is a continual
rain of this substance toward the bottom of the ocean as these
organisms die. As a consequence, the floor of the Atlantic Ocean is
covered with a blanket of calcium carbonate. This is not true for the
Pacific Ocean, which is deeper; once the skeletons fall below a certain
depth, the higher pressure causes them to dissolve. Some of the
seamounts (undersea mountains) in the Pacific extend above the
solubility boundary so that their upper parts are covered with CaCO 3
sediments.
The effect of pressure on a reaction involving substances whose
boiling points fall within the range of commonly encountered
temperature will be sensitive to the states of these substances at the
temperature of interest.
Example 14.9:
295
The commercial production of hydrogen is carried out by treating
natural gas with steam at high temperatures and in the presence of a
catalyst (steam reforming of methane):
CH4 + H2O CH3OH + H2
Given the following boiling points: CH4 (methane) = 161C, H2O =
100C, CH3OH = 65, H2 = 253C, predict the effects of an increase
in the total pressure on this equilibrium at 50, 75 and 120C.
Solution:
Calculate the change in the moles of gas for each process:
14.3 For the reaction CO(g) + Cl2(g) COCl2 (g), Kc = 3.4 at 800 K.
Calculate Kp.
14.4 For the reaction 2H2 (g) + S2 (g) 2H2S(g), Kc = 1.8 x 107 at 1000
K. Calculate Kc for the reaction H2S(g) H2 (g) + S2 (g).
298
2NO(g) N2 (g) + O2(g) is 20.1 at 2200 oC. Starting with 2.80
moles of NO in a 14.0 L vessel, calculate the concentration of each
of the gases at equilibrium.
299
CHAPTER 15
Acids and Bases
15.1 What is an Acid and what is a Base?
Acids
The term acid was first used in the seventeenth century; it comes from
the Latin root ac-, meaning sharp, as in acetum, vinegar. Some early
writers suggested that acidic molecules might have sharp corners or
spine-like projections that irritate the tongue or skin.
Acids have long been recognized as a distinctive class of compounds
whose aqueous solutions
taste sour
turn blue litmus to red,
react with active metals to give hydrogen gas
react with carbonates to produce a salt, water and CO2.
300
We know now that H+ does not exist in solution as such; it exists
associated with H2O molecules, mostly as H3O+. This species is called
hydronium ion. For convenience sometimes it is still written as
H+(aq), but it is to be understood that it is the hydronium ion that is
being referred to.
Thus HCl(g) and HNO3 (l) which are molecular substance, ionize in
water to give hydronium ion.
HCl(g) + H2O H3O+ (aq) + Cl(aq)
HNO3 (l) + H2O H3O+ (aq) + NO3 (aq)
In general, for the acid molecule HA, we can write the ionization
process as:
HA + H2O H3O+ (aq) + A(aq), or simply as
HA H+(aq) + A- (aq)
There are three important points to understand about hydrogen in
acids. Although all Arrhenius acids contain hydrogen, not all
hydrogen atoms in a substance are capable of dissociating; thus the
CH3 hydrogens of acetic acid are non-acidic.
Those hydrogens that do dissociate can do so to different degrees. The
strong acids such as HCl and HNO3 are effectively 100% dissociated
in solution. Most organic acids, such as acetic acid, are weak; only a
small fraction of the acid is dissociated in most solutions. HF and
HCN are examples of weak inorganic acids.
Acids that possess more than one dissociable hydrogen atom are
known as polyprotic acids; H2SO4 and H3PO4 are well-known
examples. Intermediate forms such as HPO42, being capable of both
accepting and losing protons, are called ampholytes.
Bases
The name base has long been associated with a class of compounds
whose aqueous solutions are characterized by:
a bitter taste;
a soapy feeling when applied to the skin;
ability to restore the original blue color of litmus that has been
turned red by acids;
ability to react with acids to form salts.
react with certain metals to produce gaseous H2;
302
can nevertheless produce them by reaction with water, and are
therefore also classified as bases. Two classes of such substances are
the metal oxides and the hydrogen compounds of certain nonmetals:
Na2O(s) + H2O [2 NaOH] 2 Na+(aq) + 2 OH(aq)
NH3 + H2O NH4+(aq) + OH(aq)
In general, if we represent a base by B, the process is:
B + H2O B+ (aq) + OH(aq)
303
in addition to NH3 being a base (as it is also according to the
Arrhenius definition), H2O is an acid according to Brnsted and
Lowry definition, since it gives an H+.
304
Examples of strong acids are: HNO3, H2SO4, HCl, HI, HBr, HClO4.
Examples of strong bases are alkali metal hydroxides, such as NaOH
and KOH.
Weak acids are partially dissociated in water. Examples are HNO2,
HF, CH3COOH, and H3PO4. Examples of weak bases are NH3,
CH3NH2, CH3NHC2H5 and other amines, whether primary, secondary
or tertiary.
The relative strength of weak acids depends on how much to the right
the following equilibrium lies:
HA(aq) + H2O(l) A (aq) + H3O+(aq). The equilibrium constant for
such a reaction is denoted by the symbol Ka, and is called acid
dissociation constant.
The larger the Ka for an acid, stronger it is. Similarly the equilibrium
constant for a base:
NH3(aq)+ H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH(aq) is given the symbol Kb, and
called a base dissociation constant.
Larger the kb for a base, stronger it is.
305
A solution in which [H+] = [OH] is said to be neutral. In a neutral
solution, [H+] = [OH] = 1.0 x 107 at 25oC. This is applicable to all
aqueous solutions, not just to pure water. If in a solution [H +] > [OH],
it is acidic; if [H+] < [OH] it is basic.
pH
When dealing with a range of values (such as the variety of hydrogen
ion concentrations encountered in chemistry) that spans many powers
of ten, it is convenient to represent them on a more compressed
logarithmic scale. By convention, we use the pH scale to denote
hydrogen ion concentrations: pH = log10 [H+]; or conversely [H+] =
10pH.
This notation was devised by the Danish chemist Sren Srensen
(1868-1939) in 1909. There are several accounts of why he chose
"pH"; a likely one is that the letters stand for the French term pouvoir
hydrogne, meaning "power of hydrogen" "power" in the sense of
an exponent. It has since become common to represent other small
quantities in "p-notation". Two that you need to know are the
following:
pOH = log10 [OH]
pKw = log Kw (= 14 when Kw = 1.00 1014)
Note that pH and pOH are expressed as numbers without any units,
since logarithms must be dimensionless.
Recall that [H+][OH] = 1.00 1014.
Taking negative logarithms of both sides in the last equation, we find
that:
pKa + pKb = pKw = 14.00 at 25oC.
In a neutral solution at 25C, pH = pOH = 7.0. As pH increases, pOH
diminishes; a higher pH corresponds to an alkaline solution, a lower
pH to an acidic solution. In a solution with [H+] = 1 M, the pH would
be 0; in a 0.00010 M solution of H+, it would be 4.00. Similarly, a
0.00010 M solution of NaOH would have a pOH of 4.00, and thus a
pH of 10.00. A change is the concentration by a factor of 10 causes
the pH to change by 1.
306
Example 15.1:
The pH of blood must be held very close to 7.40. Find the hydroxide ion
concentration that corresponds to this pH.
Solution:
pOH = 14.007.40 = 6.60
[OH] = 10pOH = 106.6 = 2.51 x 107 M
The pH scale
The range of possible pH values runs from about 0 to 14. The word
"about" in the above statement reflects the fact that at very high
concentrations (10 M hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide, for
example) a significant fraction of the ions will be associated into
neutral pairs such as H+Cl, thus reducing the concentration of
available ions to a smaller value which we will call the effective
concentration. It is the effective concentration of H+ and OH that
determines the pH and pOH.
For solutions in which ion concentrations don't exceed 0.1 M, the
formulas pH = log [H+] and pOH = log [OH] are generally reliable,
but don't expect a 10.0 M solution of a strong acid to have a pH of
exactly 1.00!
307
Figure 15.1: pH scale
Figure 15.1 gives a general feeling for where common substances fall
on the pH scale. Notice especially that
most foods are slightly acidic;
the principal "bodily fluids" are slightly alkaline, as is seawater
not surprising, since early animal life began in the oceans.
the pH of freshly-distilled water will drift downward as it takes
up carbon dioxide from the air; CO2 reacts with water to produce
carbonic acid, H2CO3.
the pH of water that occurs in nature varies over a wide range.
Groundwater often picks up additional CO2 respired by
organisms in the soil, but can also become alkaline if it is in
contact with carbonate-containing sediments. "Acid" rain is by
definition more acidic than pure water in equilibrium with
308
atmospheric CO2, owing mainly to nitric and sulfuric acids that
originate from fossil-fuel emissions of nitrogen oxides and SO2.
pH indicators
The colors of many dye-like compounds depend on the pH, and can
serve as useful indicators to determine whether the pH of a solution is
above or below a certain value.
Universal indicators
Most indicator dyes show only one color change, and thus are only
able to determine whether the pH of a solution is greater or less than
the value that is characteristic of a particular indicator. By combining
a variety of dyes whose color changes occur at different pH values, a
"universal" indicator can be made. Commercially-prepared pH test
papers of this kind are available for both wide and narrow pH ranges.
pH can be measured using a pH meter. Acid-base indicators can be
used to measure pH as well. Indicators give different colours in
solutions of different pH values.
Calculating Ka from pH
Ka can be calculated from pH by solving equilibrium problems using
techniques learned in the chapter on equilibrium.
Example 15.2:
A 0.030 M solution of ethanoic acid has pH = 3.13 at 25 oC. Calculate Ka
of ethanoic acid.
Solution:
Represent the acid by HA; for the ionization, we can write:
HA(aq) + H2O(l) A (aq) + H3O+(aq).
HA(aq) H+(aq) + A (aq).
Ka = [H+] [A] / [HA]
Since pH = -log[H+] ; [H+] = antilog [-pH] = 103.13 = 7.41 x 104M
Let us make an equilibrium table:
309
HA(aq) H+(aq) + A- (aq).
Initial 0.030M 0 0
Change 7.41 x 10-4M 7.41 x 10-4M 7.41 x 10-4M
Equil. 0.030- 7.41 x 10-4M 7.41 x 10-4M 7.41 x 10-4M
Example 15.3:
What is the percent ionization of ethanoic acid in the solution in the
example above?
% ionization:
= {[H+]/ [HA]} x 100 = {7.41 x 10-4M/0.030M} x 100 % = 2.5%
The stronger the acid, the greater the percent ionization.
Base dissociation constants of some weak bases at 25 oC
BASE FORMULA Kb
(CH3)2NH dimethylamine 9.6 x 104
CH3NH2 methylamine 4.4 x 104
(CH3)3N trimethylamine 7.4 x 105
NH3 ammonia 1.8 x 105
N2H4 hydrazine 9.2 x 107
C5H5N pyridine 1.5 x 109
C6H5NH2 aniline 4.1 x 1010
310
Acid dissociation constants of some weak acids at 25 oC
ACID FORMULA Ka
Benzoic C6H5COOH 6.28x10-5
1-Butanoic CH3CH2CH2COOH 1.52x10-5
Chloroacetic ClCH2COOH 1.36x10-3
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH 1.75x10-5
Hydrogen Cyanide HCN 6.2x10-10
Hydrofluoric HF 6.8x10-4
Hypochlorous HOCl 3.0 x 10-8
Lactic CH3CHOHCOOH 1.38x10-4
Methanoic HCOOH 1.80x10-4
Nitrous HNO2 7.1 x 10-4
Propanoic CH3CH2COOH 1.34x10-5
Trichloroacetic Cl3CCOOH 3
Using Ka to calculate pH
Equilibrium table:
HCOOH (aq) H+(aq) + HCOO-(aq)
Initial 0.40 M 0 0
Change -x +x +x
Equilibrium 0.40-x x x
311
Ka = x . x / (0.40 x) = 1.8 x 10-4
Now we make an assumption (the validity of which will be tested later):
0.40 x 0.40
Ka = x . x / 0.40 = 1.8 x 10-4;
x2 = (1.8 x 10-4)(0.40) ;
hence x = (1.8 x 10-4)(0.40) =8.49 x 10-3 = [H+]
pH = -log[H+] = -log(8.49 x 10-3) =2.07
Checking the validity of the assumption:
% ionization = 0.00849/0.40 x 100% = 2.12%.
If x is less than 5% of the initial concentration, it is permissible to ignore
it compared to the initial concentration; otherwise the quadratic formula
should be used. The assumption made in the above example is thus valid.
Polyprotic Acids
These are the acids that have more than one ionizable atom. For
example for H3PO4, phosphoric acid, we have
H3PO4(aq) H+(aq) +H2PO4-(aq) Ka1 = 7.5 x 10-3
H2PO4-(aq) H+(aq)+ HPO42-(aq) Ka2 = 6.2 x 10-8
HPO42-(aq) H+(aq) + PO43-(aq) Ka3 = 4.2 x 10-13
Here Ka2 and Ka3 are much smaller than Ka1 since it is more difficult
to remove a proton from a charged species than a neutral one. It
becomes progressively more difficult to remove subsequent protons
after the first one because of the charge on the remaining ion.
For most polyprotic acids Ka1 is much larger than subsequent Ka
values so only the first ionization constant is considered and the acid
is treated as if it is monoprotic.
Weak Bases
Weak bases take part in the equilibrium:
B(aq) + H2O(l) HB+(aq) + OH(aq)
Kb = [HB+][OH]/[B]
Example is: NH3(aq)+ H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH(aq) ;
312
Kb= [NH4+][OH]/[NH3]
There are two types of weak bases. One is those containing N with a
non-bonding pair that can accept a proton. These include NH3 and
organic amines, such as C2H5NH2.The other class is the anions of
weak acids, such as BrO (the conjugate base of HBrO). Thus an
aqueous solution of the salt KBrO dissociates to give BrO and K+
ions. K+ is a spectator ion in acid-base reactions, but BrO acts as a
base in water.
BrO(aq) + H2O(l) HBrO (aq) + OH(aq) Kb = 4.0 x 10-6
15.4 Titrations
313
We can titrate an acid with a base, or a base with an acid. The
substance whose concentration we are determining (the analyte) is the
substance being titrated; the substance we are adding in measured
amounts is the titrant. The idea is to add titrant until the titrant has
reacted with all of the analyte; at this point, the number of moles of
titrant added tells us the concentration of base (or acid) in the solution
being titrated.
Example 15.5:
36.00 ml of a solution of HCl was titrated with 0.44 M KOH. The volume
of KOH solution required to neutralize the acid solution was 27.00 mL.
What was the concentration of the HCl?
Solution:
The number of moles of titrant added was (0.027 L)(0.44 mol L1) =
0.0119 mol. Because one mole of KOH reacts with one mole of HCl, this
is also the number of moles of HCl; its concentration is therefore (0.0119
mol) (0.036 L) = 0.33 M.
Titration curves
314
Fig. 15.2: Titration curves of weak and strong acids titrated with OH
Compare the curve for HCl with that of HAc. For a weak acid, the pH
jump near the neutralization point is less steep. Notice also that the pH
of the solution at the neutralization point is greater than 7.
When enough base has been added to react completely with the
hydrogens of a monoprotic acid, the equivalence point has been
reached. If a strong acid and strong base are titrated, the pH of the
solution will be 7.0 at the equivalence point. However, if the acid is a
weak one, the pH will be greater than 7; the neutralized solution
will not be neutral in terms of pH. For a polyprotic acid, there will
be an equivalence point for each titratable hydrogen in the acid. These
typically occur at pH values that are 4-5 units apart, but they are
occasionally closer, in which case they may not be readily apparent in
the titration curve.
The key to a successful titration is knowing when the equivalence
point has been reached. The easiest way of finding the equivalence
point is to use an indicator dye. One such indicator that is commonly
encountered in the laboratory is phenolphthalein; it is colorless in
acidic solution, but turns intensely red when the solution becomes
alkaline. If an acid is to be titrated, you add a few drops of
phenolphthalein to the solution before beginning the titration. As the
titrant is added, a local red color appears, but quickly dissipates as the
solution is shaken or stirred. Gradually, as the equivalence point is
approached, the color dissipates more slowly; the trick is to stop the
addition of base after a single drop results in a permanently pink
solution.
Different indicators change color at different pH values. Since the pH
of the equivalence point varies with the strength of the acid being
titrated, one tries to fit the indicator to the particular acid. One can
titrate polyprotic acids by using a suitable combination of several
indicators, as is illustrated above for carbonic acid.
316
15.5 Exercises
15.1 Calculate [OH-] and pH for (a) 1.5 x 10-3 M Ba(OH)2 (b) 1.380 g of
NaOH in 200.0 mL of solution, (c) 2.00 mL of 0.235 M KOH
diluted to 2.00 L.
15.2 Calculate [OH-] and pH for a solution formed by adding 10.00 mL
of 0.120 M KOH to 15.0 mL of 8.5 x 10-3 M Sr(OH)2.
15.3 Calculate the pH and pOH of 1.0 x 10-3 M HClO4(aq).
15.4 A 0.20 M solution of chloroacetic acid, HC2H2O2Cl, has a pH =
3.56. Calculate Ka.
15.5 Ka for hydrazoic acid, HN3, is 1.8 x 10-5. Calculate equilibrium
concentrations of H3O+, N3-, and HN3 if the initial concentration of
HN3 is 0.040.
15.6 Calculate the molar concentration of OH- ions in a 0.0030 M
solution of dimethylamine (CH3)2NH (Kb = 9.6 x 10-4). What is the
pH of this solution?
15.7 The percentage protonation of the base octylamine in a 0.100 M
aqueous solution is 6.7%. What is the pH of the solution and the Kb
of the base?
15.8 Calculate the percentage ionization of 0.0045 M chloroacetic acid
(Ka = 1.36 x 10-3)
15.9 Calculate the pH of 0.25 M HCN (aq). Ka for HCN = 6.2x10-10 at
25 oC.
317
CHAPTER 16
Aqueous Equilibria
16.1 pH of Salt Solutions
Solutions of salts
In the previous chapter we came across acidic ions that are conjugate
acids of weak bases, such as NH4+ and CH3NH3+. Examples of basic
ions, which are conjugate bases of weak acids, are ClO, F, BrO,
CN, CO32, CH3COO. Solutions of salts could be acidic, basic or
neutral depending on the aqueous ions they provide. It has to be
emphasized that salts have ions even in solid state. NH4Cl has NH4+
and Cl ions. In solutions these ions take part in equilibrium with
water.
318
Table 16.1: Salt solution and pH
319
whose first stage of "dissociation" can be represented as Fe(H2O)63+ +
H2O Fe(H2O)5(OH)2+ + H3O+
As a consequence of this reaction, a solution of FeCl 3 turns out to be a
stronger acid than an equimolar solution of acetic acid. A solution of
FeCl2, however, will be a much weaker acid; the +2 charge is
considerably less effective in easing the loss of the proton.
It should be possible for a hydrated cation to lose more than one
proton. For example, an Al(H2O)63+ ion should form, successively, the
following species:
AlOH(H2O)52+ Al(OH)2(H2O)4+ Al(OH)3(H2O)30
Al(OH)4(H2O)2 Al(OH)5(H2O)2 Al(OH)63
However, removal of protons becomes progressively more difficult as
the charge decreases from a high positive value to a negative one; the
last three species have not been detected in solution. In dilute
solutions of aluminum chloride the principal species are actually
Al(H2O)63+ (commonly represented simply as Al3+) and AlOH(H2O)52+
("AlOH2+").
Example 16.1:
What is the pH of 0.20 NH4Br(aq)? Ka for NH4+ = 5.6 x 10-10
Solution:
The solution has the ions NH4+ and Br. The former is acidic and
takes part in the equilibrium with water. Br is derived from a strong
acid HBr, and so it is neutral and does not react with water. The
equilibrium is:
NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq).
Ka = [NH3] [H3O+] /[NH4+]
Equilibrium table:
NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq).
Start 0.20
Change -x +x +x
Eq. conc 0.20-x x x
Ka = x2/(0.20 x) = (5.6)(10-10)
320
Make the approximation, 0.20 x 0.20, since x is expected to be
very small as Ka is small.
Ka= x2/0.20 = (5.6)(10-10); solve for x
x = 1.1 x 10-6 = [H3O+]
pH = -log(1.06 x 10-5) = 4.97
Example 16.2:
Calculate the pH of 0.20 M solution of HCOOK.
Kb for HCOO- = 5.56 x 10-11
Solution:
The equilibrium table:
HCOO- (aq) + H2O HCOOH(aq) + OH- (aq)
Start 0.20
Change -x +x +x
Equil. 0.20 x x x
pH of a mixed solution
What is pH of a solution containing mixture of a weak acid and its
conjugate base or a mixture of weak base and its conjugate acid? The
procedure for calculating the pH is similar to the examples done
earlier, except that now starting concentration of the conjugate base
will need to be taken into account. The examples below will illustrate
this.
Example 16.3:
Calculate pH of a solution that is 0.20 M HNO2 and 1.5 x 10-3 M NaNO2.
Given Ka of HNO2 = 4.5 x 10-4
Solution:
The species taking part in the equilibrium are HNO2 and NaNO2. The
321
equilibrium table is:
HNO2(aq) + H2O H3O+(aq)+ NO2(aq)
Start 0.20M 1.5 x 10-3 M
Change -x +x +x
Equil. 0.20 x x 1.5 x 10-3+ x
16.2 Buffers
322
pH of buffers
pH of a buffer solution can be calculated by first setting up an
equilibrium table and proceeding as in the following example.
Example 16.4:
Calculate pH of a buffer solution comprising 0.10 M HNO2 and 0.15 M
NaNO2. Given Ka of HNO2 = 4.5 x 10-4
Solution:
The species taking part in the equilibriumareHNO2 and NaNO2. The
equilibrium table is:
HNO2(aq) + H2O H3O+(aq) + NO2(aq)
Start 0.10M 0.15 M
Change -x +x +x
Equil. 0.10 x x 0.15+ x
Ka = [H3O+] [NO2] / [HNO2] = (x) (0.15+ x ) / (0.10 x) = 4.5 x 10-4
Make the approximation 0.10 x = 0.10; 0.15 + x = 0.15, by neglecting x
compared to 0.10 and 0.15.
(x) (0.15 ) / 0.10 = 4.5 x 10-4
[H3O+] =x = (4.5 x 10-4) (0.10/0.15)
pH = -log [H3O+] = 3.52.
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
Often a quick way of calculating pH is to use the formula derived
below using the above example of a buffer.
Ka = [H3O+] [NO2] / [HNO2]
Taking negative logarithms of both sides,
-logKa = -log [H3O+]- log( [NO2] / [HNO2])
pKa = pH - log( [NO2] / [HNO2])
pH = pKa + log([NO2] / [HNO2])
In general pH = pKa + log([base] / [acid]), which is the Henderson-
Hasselbalch equation.
323
16.3 Solubility Equilibria
324
S = (1.6 x 10-14)1/3 /4 = 6.3 x 10-6 M.
16.4 Exercises
16.5 Calculate Ksp for MgF2; given its solubility is 1.2 x 10-3 mol/L.
326
16.8 What is the molar solubility of CaSO4 in a 0.015 M solution of
K2SO4? Ksp = 2.45 x 10-5 for CaSO4.
327
INDEX
A
accuracy, 19, 20
Acid, 38, 65, 300, 304, 308, 309
Acid dissociation constants, 311
actinides, 28, 117, 118
activation energy, 273, 274
Alcohols, 185, 191
Aldehydes, 191
aliphatic, 165
alkali metals, 28, 69, 319
alkaline earth metals, 28, 69
Alkanes, 165, 167, 169, 173, 174
Alkenes, 173, 178, 180, 181
Amides, 193
Amines, 193
amino acids, 158
ammonia, 30, 39, 54, 60, 61, 67, 68, 76, 79, 193, 228, 254, 276, 296,
297, 310
ammonium ion, 33, 35, 37, 62
amu, 23, 26, 40, 45, 46, 48
angular momentum, 104
anions, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 63, 78, 129, 131, 313
antimony, 29
Arenes, 189
aromatic hydrocarbons, 165, 189
Arrhenius, 268, 269, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304
Arrhenius equation, 268
arsenic, 29
atomic mass unit, 23
Atomic number, 24, 39, 40
Atomic radii, 119
atomic spectrum, 98
atomic weight, 26, 27, 40
Atoms, 23, 24, 95, 119, 190
Aufbau Principle, 107, 111
Avogadros Law, 84
328
Avogadros number, 46, 49, 50, 53, 57
B
Balancing chemical reaction equations, 42
Balancing redox reactions, 71
Balmer series, 99
Base dissociation constants, 310
Bases, 66, 300, 302, 304, 312
benzene, 30, 172, 180, 189, 190, 191, 240, 247
Bohr model, 100, 103, 112
Boiling point elevation, 237, 238
Bomb calorimeter, 201
bond enthalpy, 213, 214, 215
Bond enthalpy, 213
Bond lengths, 163
bond strength, 163
boron, 29, 40, 109
Boyles Law, 81
Brackett, 99
Brnsted and Lowry, 303, 304
Buffers, 257, 322
Butane, 43, 165
C
calorimeter constant, 201
Calorimetry, 200
carbohydrates, 158
carbon, 9, 10, 11, 20, 22, 29, 35, 38, 39, 42, 43, 50, 57, 58, 65, 87, 88,
93, 94, 109, 110, 134, 135, 136, 147, 149, 158, 160, 161, 162, 163,
164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 171, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 179,
180, 181, 183, 184, 186, 188, 189, 191, 194, 206, 207,210, 211, 212,
238, 248, 268, 288, 299, 308
carbon dioxide, 42, 212
carbonate, 33, 35, 78, 80, 93, 138, 160, 281, 295, 304, 308, 315, 316
Carboxylic acids, 192
catalyst, 181, 182, 185, 187, 188, 266, 274, 293, 295, 297
catalysts, 171, 181, 190, 253, 274, 275
Catenation, 160
329
cations, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 62, 63, 70, 122, 123, 129, 319
Charless Law, 82
Chemical Bonding, 129
chemical equilibrium, 61, 278, 297, 325
Chemical properties, 12, 173, 177
chromium, 28, 39, 111
cobalt(III) chloride, 39
Coffee cup calorimeter, 200
Colligative properties, 251
Colligative Properties, 235
collision, 270
Collision, 270
Collision theory, 269
Combined gas law, 83
Combustion, 42, 173, 181
Common-ion effect, 325
compound, 8, 9, 11, 20, 22, 30, 33, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 44, 45, 46,
49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 57, 58, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 114, 119, 129, 130,
139, 144, 158, 159, 161, 164, 165, 167, 178, 180, 186, 192, 194,
208, 210, 232, 242
Concentration, 219, 225, 253
concentration units, 223
Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs, 304
continuous spectra, 98
cooking gas, 171
copper, 20, 24, 26, 28, 36, 39, 48, 57, 60, 71, 78, 111, 119, 128, 216
Cracking, 171
Cycloalkanes, 176, 177
D
Daltons Law, 87, 219
de Broglie, 101, 102
density, 12, 14, 15, 17, 20, 21, 59, 85, 86, 93, 119, 148, 222, 223, 224,
225, 235, 241, 251, 285, 301
deuterium, 26
diatomic molecules, 30, 155
diesel, 171
differential rate laws, 260
330
dihydrogen phosphate ion, 37
dihydrogen sulphide, 38
dilution, 76, 77, 244
Dilution calculations, 225
diprotic acid, 65
Dissociation, 60
E
Effusion, 90
Electrical work, 197
electrolysis, 9
electrolyte, 60, 61, 67, 76, 251
electrolytes, 60, 61, 63, 64, 251, 300
Electromagnetic Radiation, 95
electromagnetic spectrum, 96, 112
Electronegativity, 141
Electronic Structure, 95
Emission and absorption spectra, 98
empirical formula, 30, 33, 41, 44, 50, 51, 52, 57, 58, 93
endothermic, 127, 198, 204, 205, 209, 210, 226, 227, 234, 272, 293,
294, 298
enthalpy, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215,
216, 217, 233, 234
Enthalpy of formation, 208
enthalpy of fusion, 205, 206, 216
enthalpy of neutralization, 207
entropy, 227, 231
enzyme, 206, 266, 267, 275
enzyme-substrate complex, 267
Equilibrium Constant, 279
Esters, 192
Ethers, 191
excited states, 100, 108, 110
exothermic, 123, 126, 198, 200, 201, 204, 205, 209, 210, 211, 216,
226, 234, 272, 293, 296
Exothermic reactions, 198
Extensive properties, 12
extensive property, 12, 199
331
F
first-order reaction, 262, 263, 264, 265
Formal Charge, 139
Formula Weights, 44
fractional distillation, 170
Freezing, 205, 240, 241
Freezing point depression, 238
frequency, 95, 96, 97, 112
functional group, 164, 169, 190
G
Gasoline, 171
Gay-Lussac, 84
geometrical isomers, 169, 180, 194, 195
germanium, 29
gold, 11, 21, 28, 276
Grahams Law, 90, 94
graphite, 11, 207, 208, 210, 211, 212, 214
ground state, 100, 101, 108, 110, 112, 113, 114, 123
H
Haber process, 296
half-life, 260, 262, 263, 264, 265, 276
half-reaction method, 72, 79
Halogenation, 173, 174
halogens, 10, 28, 36, 70, 129, 173, 182, 187
Heat capacity, 198
heat of atomization, 211
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation, 323
Henry's Law, 229
Heptane, 165, 171
Hesss law, 207, 208, 211, 212
heterogeneous catalysis, 266
Heterogeneous Equilibrium, 283
Homogeneous, 20
Homologous series, 160, 166
Hunds rule, 110, 111
332
hybridization, 157, 160, 161, 162, 163, 184, 194
Hydration energy, 232
hydrocarbons, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 170, 171, 172, 178, 182, 186,
189, 227, 231
hydrochloric acid, 37, 38, 59, 61, 67, 68, 79, 80, 93, 94, 225, 293, 307
hydrocyanic acid, 37
hydrogen bonding, 227
hypochlorous acid, 37, 79
I
Ideal Gas Law, 21, 84, 85, 87, 92, 93, 224
indicator, 309, 316
inert gases, 28, 118
Initial rate method, 258
integral rate laws, 260
Intensive properties, 12
ionic compounds, 11, 29, 33, 36, 41, 44, 52, 60, 62, 130
Ionic Compounds, 30
Ionic radii, 121
ionization, 60, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 129, 135, 141, 301, 305, 309,
310, 312, 317
Ions, 23, 31
iron, 9, 11, 15, 28, 35, 37, 58, 73, 319
Isomerism, 160, 169
isooctane, 171
isotopes, 24, 25, 26, 40
IUPAC, 34, 115, 167, 190
K
Kelvin scale, 14
kerosene, 171
Ketones, 191
kinetic energy, 92, 97, 98
Kp and Kc, 282
Ksp, 324, 325, 326
L
lanthanides, 28, 117
333
Lattice Energies, 130
Lattice energy, 130, 232
Law of Constant Composition, 11
Le Chtelier Principle, 291
Lewis Dot Symbols, 131
Lewis structures, 134, 136, 137, 142, 143
Limiting Reactants, 54
line formula, 166
Line Spectrum, 98
lock and key mechanism, 275
lone pairs, 134, 143, 147, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 157
lubricating oils, 171
Lyman series, 99
M
magnesium, 12, 27, 59, 63, 68, 78, 121, 131, 132, 319
magnesium oxide, 12
Magnetic quantum number, 105
mass number, 24, 25, 26
Mass percent, 220
mass percentage, 45, 46, 50, 57
matter, 8, 9, 10, 11, 46, 101, 102, 197, 199, 219, 229, 241, 260, 279
Maxwell-Boltzman distribution law, 273
Mechanical work, 197
mechanism, 174, 175, 184, 275, 302
Mechanism, 174, 184
metalloids, 28, 29, 115
Metals, 28, 29, 141
mineral acids, 65
Molality, 223, 241, 242
Molar Mass, 46
Molarity, 75, 76, 77, 221, 225, 258
Mole, 46, 57, 88, 222, 224
Mole fraction, 222
molecular formula, 30
Molecular Geometry, 146
Molecules, 8, 23, 142, 143, 146
monoprotic acid, 65, 316
334
N
natural gases, 170, 171
Net ionic equations, 64
Neutralization, 67
neutrons, 23, 24, 25, 39, 40, 97
nickel, 28, 187, 199
nitrogen, 10, 20, 35, 39, 43, 54, 57, 59, 88, 90, 93, 127, 131, 132, 133,
134, 139, 149, 158, 193, 277, 293, 294, 296, 297, 309
nomenclature, 11, 167, 191
nonelectrolyte, 60
non-metals, 28, 29, 31, 38, 115, 129, 141
non-polar molecules, 227
nucleic acids, 158
nucleus, 23, 24, 100, 103, 104, 107, 119, 120, 123, 124, 126, 127, 150,
301
O
octane rating, 171
Octane Rating, 171
octet rule, 129, 132, 137, 138, 139, 142, 144
orbital, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111, 113, 114, 115, 117,
120, 121, 123, 126, 127, 149, 150, 161, 162, 189
Orbital diagram, 109, 110
Organic Chemistry, 158
Orientation Factor, 270
Osmosis, 244, 245, 250
Osmotic Pressure, 244
Oxidation numbers, 69
Oxidation-Reduction, 68
oxidising agent, 70, 71, 73, 74
oxyanions, 35, 36, 70
P
paraffin, 171
Partial pressure, 87
Paschen, 99, 112
Pauli Exclusion Principle, 106, 115
335
Paulings Rule, 214, 215
Percent Ionization, 310
perchloric acid, 37
Periodic Table, 10, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 38, 40, 44, 48, 104, 107, 115,
117, 120, 122, 124, 126, 142
petrol, 171
Petroleum, 170
Pfund series, 99
pH, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 311, 312, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319,
320, 321, 322, 323, 326, 327
Phase diagram, 243
Phenols, 191
phosphorus, 10, 20, 36, 52, 57, 151, 158, 290
photoelectric effect, 97, 98
Photons, 96
Physical properties, 12
pi bonds, 162, 163, 186, 189, 194
pKw, 306
Plancks constant, 96, 102
pOH, 306, 307, 317, 321
Polar molecules, 227
polonium, 29
Polyatomic molecules, 30
Polyprotic Acids, 312
potassium, 11, 20, 28, 35, 36, 67, 78, 79, 87, 129, 131, 220, 222, 302
Precision, 19
Pressure, 81, 93
Protons, 23, 24
Q
quantum, 97, 100, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 113, 114, 117, 120, 121
quantum number, 107, 120, 125
quantum numbers, 103, 107
R
radioactive decay, 264
Raoult's law, 236, 239
rare earth elements, 28
336
rate constant, 256, 263, 264, 267, 268, 274, 276
rate law, 256, 257, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 276
reaction kinetics, 255
Reaction Order, 256
reaction quotient, 287
Reaction Rate, 253
redox reaction, 69, 70
reducing agent, 70, 71, 73, 74
Resonance, 137
Reverse osmosis, 248
Rydberg constant, 99
Rydberg equation, 99
S
Saturated solution, 219
Schrdinger equation, 103
second order reaction, 256, 265
Second-order reactions, 265
Semi permeable membranes, 244
semiconductors, 29
SI Units, 13
sigma bonds, 161, 163
Significant figures, 18
silicate, 35
silicon, 10, 11, 20, 29, 35
silver, 28, 62, 63, 71, 78
skeletal isomerism, 169
sodium, 9, 11, 25, 28, 30, 31, 37, 49, 59, 60, 66, 67, 78, 79, 115, 119,
130, 219, 220, 232, 250, 307, 315, 316, 319
Solubility, 62, 78, 172, 219, 229, 231
Solubility Equilibria, 324
solute, 60, 75, 76, 218, 219, 220, 221, 223, 224, 226, 228, 231, 235,
236, 237, 238, 239, 242, 243, 244, 246, 247, 248, 251
Solutions, 60, 218, 226, 231, 235, 318
solvent, 60, 76, 159, 218, 219, 221, 222, 223, 226, 230, 231, 235, 236,
237, 238, 239, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 251, 284
sp Hybridization, 162
sp2 Hybridization, 161
337
sp3 Hybridization, 161
specific heat, 199, 200, 201, 216
spectator ions, 64, 65, 78
Spin quantum number, 106
standard state, 207, 209
State property, 204
Stereoisomerism, 169
Stoichiometry, 42
strong acid, 65, 66, 67, 207, 307, 314, 316, 318, 319, 320
structural formula, 30, 166, 169, 194, 196
Structural isomers, 169
subatomic particles, 23, 97
Sublimation, 205
subshells, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 113, 125
Subshells, 104
sulphur, 10, 11, 30, 35, 36, 39, 57, 59, 94, 158, 286, 287
sulphuric acid, 37, 65, 79, 185, 286
sulphurous acid, 37, 79
surface area, 253
suspensions, 20
T
tellurium, 29
Temperature, 13, 14, 253, 267, 277
theoretical yield, 56
thermal energy, 198
thermal equilibrium, 199
thermochemical equation, 206, 207, 210, 216, 217
Thermochemistry, 197
titration, 80, 218, 313, 314, 316
Titrations, 77, 313
transition metal, 36, 70, 112
Transition metal, 34
transition metals, 28, 32, 35
triprotic acid, 65
tritium, 26
338
U
Units of Measurement, 12
urea, 158, 159, 224, 251
V
van't Hoff equation, 246, 247, 248
Vaporization, 205
Vapour pressure lowering, 235
volume percent, 220
VSEPR, 146, 147
W
Wavelength, 95
Wohler, 158
work, 97, 98, 123, 197, 198, 215, 256, 297, 313
Y
Yield, 56
Z
Zero-order processes, 265
339