Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508

www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Design and construction of a LiBrwater absorption machine

G.A. Florides a, S.A. Kalogirou a,*
, S.A. Tassou b, L.C. Wrobel b

a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Higher Technical Institute, P.O. Box 20423, Nicosia 2152, Cyprus
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UB8 3PH, UK
Received 22 July 2002; accepted 11 December 2002

Abstract
The objective of this paper is to present a method to evaluate the characteristics and performance of a
single stage lithium bromide (LiBr)water absorption machine. The necessary heat and mass transfer
equations and appropriate equations describing the properties of the working uids are specied. These
equations are employed in a computer program, and a sensitivity analysis is performed. The dierence
between the absorber LiBr inlet and outlet percentage ratio, the coecient of performance of the unit in
relation to the generator temperature, the eciency of the unit in relation to the solution heat exchanger
area and the solution strength eectiveness in relation to the absorber solution outlet temperature are
examined. Information on designing the heat exchangers of the LiBrwater absorption unit are also pre-
sented. Single pass, vertical tube heat exchangers have been used for the absorber and for the evaporator.
The solution heat exchanger was designed as a single pass annular heat exchanger. The condenser and the
generator were designed using horizontal tube heat exchangers. The calculated theoretical values are
compared to experimental results derived for a small unit with a nominal capacity of 1 kW. Finally, a cost
analysis for a domestic size absorber cooler is presented.
2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Absorption cooling; Lithium bromide; Sensitivity analysis; Heat exchangers

1. Introduction

In hot climates, the heating and cooling demand of domestic dwellings can be reduced sub-
stantially with various measures such as good insulation, double glazing, use of thermal mass and
ventilation. However, due to the high summer temperatures, the cooling demand cannot be re-
duced to the level of thermal comfort with passive and low energy cooling techniques, and

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +357-22-406466; fax: +357-22-494953.
E-mail address: skalogir@spidernet.com.cy (S.A. Kalogirou).

0196-8904/03/$ - see front matter 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0196-8904(03)00006-2
2484 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508

Nomenclature

A total heat transfer area (m2 )

CIN solution inlet concentration (mass fraction)
COUT solution outlet concentration (mass fraction)
CEQ solution equilibrium concentration (mass fraction) XEQ =100
Di , Do inside and outside diameters of tube, respectively (m)
f factor equal to: 1:82 log10 ReD  1:642
F correction factor depending on type of the heat exchanger
Fi , Fo fouling factors at inside and outside surfaces of tube (m2 K/W)
g gravitational acceleration (m/s2 )
hi , ho heat transfer coecients for inside and outside ow, respectively (W/m2 K)
hfg latent heat of condensation (kJ/kg)
hm average heat transfer coecient (W/m2 K)
hs solution convective heat transfer coecient (W/m2 K)
k thermal conductivity of tube material, solution thermal conductivity (W/m K)
K1 factor equal to: 1 3:4f
K2 factor equal to: 11:7 1:8=Pr1=3
kl thermal conductivity of liquid (W/m K)
M mass ow rate (kg/s)
NuD Nusselt number hi Di =K
P pressure (Pa)
Pr Prandtl number
Prs solution Prandtl number
Re solution Reynolds number for vertical tube
ReD Reynolds number Vm Di =m 4m=pDi l
U average overall heat transfer coecient (W/m2 K)
Vm mean velocity (m/s)
Tv vapour saturation temperature (C)
Tw wall surface temperature (C)
X concentration of LiBr in solution (%)
Greek symbols
C mass ow rate per wetted perimeter (kg/m s)
d lm thickness (m)
DTln logarithmic mean temperature dierence (LMTD) (K)
DT0 temperature dierence between hot and cold uid at inlet (K)
DTL temperature dierence between hot and cold uid at outlet (K)
q density (kg/m3 )
ql liquid density (kg/m3 )
qv vapour density (kg/m3 )
l dynamic viscosity (N s/m2 ) mq
 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508 2485

ll absolute viscosity of liquid (N s/m2 )

m kinematic viscosity (m2 /s)

therefore, an active cooling system is required. It is preferable that such a system is not powered
by electricity, the production of which depends entirely on fuel.
Solar energy, which is available in such climates, could be used to power an active cooling
system based on the absorption cycle. Lithium bromide (LiBr)water absorption units are the
most suitable for solar applications, since low cost solar collectors may be used to power the
generator of the machine. Such absorption units though, are not yet readily available in small
residential sizes. After a search in the world market, only one manufacturer was found com-
mercially producing LiBrwater absorption refrigerators (Yazaki of Japan). Therefore, the pos-
sibility of producing absorption air conditioning systems in small sizes for residential buildings
and the economics of using such a refrigerator, assisted by solar energy, needs to be investigated.
The objective of this paper is to present a method to evaluate the characteristics and perfor-
mance of a single stage LiBrwater absorption machine. The necessary heat and mass transfer
equations and appropriate equations describing the properties of the working uids are specied.
These equations are employed in a computer program, and a sensitivity analysis is performed.
Information on designing the heat exchangers of the LiBrwater absorption unit is also presented.
Single pass, vertical tube heat exchangers have been used for the absorber and for the evaporator.
The solution heat exchanger was designed as a single pass annular heat exchanger. The condenser
and the generator were designed using horizontal tube heat exchangers. The calculated theoretical
values are compared to experimental results derived for a small unit with a nominal capacity of
1 kW. Finally, a cost analysis for a domestic size absorber cooler is presented.

2. Absorption cooling

Absorption machines are thermally activated, and for this reason, high input (shaft) power is
not required. In this way, where power is expensive or unavailable, or where there is waste, gas,
geothermal or solar heat available, absorption machines provide reliable and quiet cooling [1]. A
number of refrigerantabsorbent pairs are used, for which the most common ones are LiBrwater
and ammoniawater. These two pairs oer good thermodynamic performance, and they are en-
vironmentally benign.
Absorption refrigeration system uid pairs should meet a number of important requirements,
which are [1]:

1. Absence of solid phaseThe refrigerantabsorbent pair should not form a solid phase over the
range of composition and temperature to which it will be subjected. The formation of solids
may stop the ow and cause problems to the equipment.
2. Volatility ratioThe refrigerant should be more volatile than the absorbent so that it can be
separated easily by heating.
2486 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508

3. AnityThe absorbent should have a strong anity with the refrigerant under the conditions
in which absorption takes place. This anity allows less absorbent to be circulated for the same
refrigerating eect, and therefore, sensible heat losses are less. Also, a smaller liquid heat ex-
changer is required to transfer heat from the absorbent to the pressurised refrigerantabsorbent
solution. A disadvantage is that extra heat is required in the generator to separate the refrige-
rant from the absorbent.
4. PressureModerate operating pressures should be used in order to avoid the use of heavy-
walled equipment and reduce the electrical power required to pump the uids from the low
pressure side to the high pressure side. Also, very low pressure (vacuum) will require the use
of large volume equipment and special means of reducing pressure drop in the refrigerant va-
pour ow.
5. StabilityHigh chemical stability is required to avoid the undesirable formation of gases, solids
or corrosive substances.
6. CorrosionThe uids should be non-corrosive. If the uids are corrosive, corrosion inhibitors
should be used, which may inuence the thermodynamic performance of the equipment.
7. SafetyIdeally, the uids must be non-toxic and non-inammable.
8. Latent heatTo keep the circulation rate of the refrigerant and absorbent at a minimum, the
latent heat of the refrigerant should be as high as possible.

The ammoniawater pair is not suitable for use with solar collectors because of the high
temperature needed in the generator (125170 C). This temperature can only be obtained with
medium concentration ratio parabolic collectors, which have increased maintenance requirements
due to the need for tracking the sun.
The generator temperatures needed for the LiBrwater pair are lower (75120 C). These
temperatures can be achieved with high performance at plate collectors, compound parabolic
collectors and evacuated tube collectors that are of lower cost and easier to install and operate
than medium concentration ratio parabolic collectors.

3. Lithium bromidewater cooling

This type of equipment is classied by the method of heat input to the primary generator (ring
method) and whether the absorption cycle is single or multiple eect. The single eect absorption
technology provides a peak cooling coecient of performance (COP) of approximately 0.7 and
operates with heat input temperatures in the range of 75120 C. The multiple eect technology
gives higher COPs but can only be utilised when higher temperature heat sources are available.
Double eect systems can be achieved by adding an extra stage as a topping cycle on the single
eect cycle. In this way, the heat rejection from the high temperature stage is used to power the
lower temperature stage. It should be noted that the refrigerant in the LiBrwater system is water
and the LiBr acts as the absorbent, which absorbs the water vapour, thus making pumping from
the absorber to the generator easier and economic. A single eect LiBrwater chiller is illus-
trated in Fig. 1, and its schematic presentation on a pressuretemperature diagram is illustrated in
Fig. 2.
 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508 2487

CONDENSER

7
3

4 GENERATOR

SOLUTION
HEAT EXPANSION
8
EXCHANGER VALVE

5 10,11

6
9
ABSORBER
EVAPORATOR

1
2

PUMP

Fig. 1. Single eect, LiBrwater absorption cycle.

Qc Qg
CONDENSER GENERATOR
7 3 4

8 SOLUTION HEAT
P
R REFRIGERANT EXCHANGER
E FLOW
S RESTRICTOR
S 2
5
U
R 9 PUMP
SOLUTION
E FLOW
1 6 RESTRICTOR
10
EVAPORATOR ABSORBER
11
Qe Qa

TEMPERATURE

Fig. 2. Two shell, LiBrwater cycle cooling system [1].

With reference to the numbering system shown in Fig. 1, at point (1), the solution is rich in
refrigerant and a pump (2) forces the liquid through a heat exchanger to the generator (3). The
temperature of the solution in the heat exchanger is increased.
2488 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508

WEAK
PURE WATER ABSORBENT
LINE LINE
STRONG ABSORBENT
LINE
P 7
R 4
8
E 3
S
S 5
U 9,10 1,2 6
R
E CRYSTALLIS-
ATION LINE

TEMPERATURE

Fig. 3. Duhring chart of the LiBrwater absorption cycle [1].

In the generator, thermal energy is added and the refrigerant boils o the solution. The re-
frigerant vapour (7) ows to the condenser, where heat is rejected as the refrigerant condenses.
The condensed liquid (8) ows through a ow restrictor to the evaporator (9). In the evaporator,
the heat from the load evaporates the refrigerant, which ows back to the absorber (10). A small
portion of the refrigerant leaves the evaporator as liquid spillover (11). At the generator exit (4),
the uid consists of the absorbentrefrigerant solution, which is cooled in the heat exchanger.
From points (6)(1), the solution absorbs refrigerant vapour from the evaporator and rejects heat
through a heat exchanger.
The above procedure can also be presented in a Duhring chart (Fig. 3). This chart is a pressure
temperature graph where the diagonal lines represent constant LiBr mass fraction, with the pure
water line at the left and crystallisation line at the right.

4. Design of a single eect lithium bromidewater absorption cycle system

To perform estimations of equipment sizing and performance evaluation of a single-eect LiBr

water absorption cooler, basic assumptions and input values must be considered. With reference
to Figs. 13, the basic assumptions are:

1. The steady state refrigerant is pure water.

2. There are no pressure changes except through the ow restrictors and the pump.
3. At points 1, 4, 8 and 11, there is only saturated liquid.
4. At point 10, there is only saturated vapour.
5. Flow restrictors are adiabatic.
6. The pump is isentropic.
7. There are no jacket heat losses.

The method of design is demonstrated below. The design parameters considered are listed in
Table 1.
 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508 2489

Table 1
Design parameters for the single eect LiBrwater absorption cooler
Parameter Symbol Example-value
Capacity Q_ e 10 kW
Evaporator temperature T10 6 C
Generator solution exit temperature T4 90 C
Weak solution mass fraction X1 55% LiBr
Strong solution mass fraction X4 60% LiBr
Solution heat exchanger exit temperature T3 65 C
Generator (desorber) vapour exit temperature T7 85 C
Liquid carryover from evaporator m_ 11 0:025m_ 10

4.1. Evaporator analysis

Since, in the evaporator, the refrigerant is saturated water vapour and the temperature T10 is
assumed to be 6 C, the saturation pressure at point 10, as calculated from curve ts [2] presented
in Appendix A, is 0.934 kPa, and the enthalpy is 2511.8 kJ/kg. Since, at point 11, the refrigerant is
saturated liquid, its enthalpy is 23.5 kJ/kg. The enthalpy at point 9 is determined from the
throttling process applied to the refrigerant ow restrictor, which yields that h9 h8 : To deter-
mine h8 , the pressure at this point must be determined. Since, at point 4, the solution mass fraction
is 60% LiBr and the temperature at the saturated state was assumed to be 90 C, the LiBr gives a
saturation pressure of 9.66 kPa and h4 212:2 kJ/kg. Considering that the pressure at point 4 is
the same as in point 8, then h8 h9 185:3 kJ/kg.
Once the enthalpy values at all ports connected to the evaporator are known, mass and energy
balances can be applied to give the mass ow of the refrigerant and the evaporator heat transfer
rate.
The mass balance on the evaporator is:
m_ 9 m_ 10 m_ 11 1
The energy balance on the evaporator is:

Q_ e m_ 10 h10 m_ 11 h11  m_ 9 h9 2
Since the evaporator output power Q_ e is 10.0 kW and m_ 11 2:5%m_ 10 the mass ow rates can be
calculated. The results are shown in Table 2.

4.2. Absorber analysis

Since the values of m_ 10 and m_ 11 are known, mass balances around the absorber give:
m_ 1 m_ 10 m_ 11 m_ 6 3
and
x1 m_ 1 x6 m_ 6 4
2490 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508

Table 2
Data for single eect LiBrwater cooling system
Point # h (kJ/kg) m_ (kg/s) p (kPa) T (C) X (%LiBr) Remarks
1 83 0.053 0.934 34.9 55
2 83 0.053 9.66 34.9 55
3 145.4 0.053 9.66 65 55 Sub-cooled liquid
4 212.2 0.0486 9.66 90 60
5 144.2 0.0486 9.66 54.8 60
6 144.2 0.0486 0.934 44.5 60
7 2628 0.0044 9.66 85 0 Superheated steam
8 185.3 0.0044 9.66 44.3 0 Saturated liquid water
9 185.3 0.0044 0.934 6 0
10 2511.8 0.0043 0.934 6 0 Saturated vapour
11 23.5 0.00011 0.934 6 0 Saturated liquid water

The mass fractions x1 and x6 in Eq. (4) are inputs, and therefore, m_ 1 and m_ 6 can be calculated. The
results are shown in Table 2.
The heat transfer rate in the absorber can be determined from the enthalpy values at each of the
connected state points. At point (1), the enthalpy is determined from the input mass fraction
(55%) and the assumption that the state is saturated liquid at the same pressure as the evaporator
(0.934 kPa). This value is h1 83 kJ/kg. The enthalpy value at point 6 is determined from the
throttling model, which gives h6 h5 .
The enthalpy at point 5 is not known but can be determined from the energy balance on the
solution heat exchanger, assuming an adiabatic shell as follows:

m_ 2 h2 m_ 4 h4 m_ 3 h3 m_ 5 h5 5

The temperature at point 3 is an input value (65 C), and since the mass fraction for points 1 to 3
is the same, the enthalpy at this point is determined as 145.4 kJ/kg. Actually, the state at point 3
may be subcooled liquid. However, at the conditions of interest, the pressure has an insignicant
eect on the enthalpy of the subcooled liquid, and the saturated value at the same temperature
and mass fraction can be an adequate approximation. The enthalpy at point 2 is determined from
an isentropic pump model. The minimum work input w can, therefore, be obtained from:

w m_ 1 v1 p2  p1 6

In Eq. (6), it is assumed that the specic volume (v, m3 /kg) of the liquid solution does not change
appreciably from point (1)(2). The specic volume of the liquid solution can be obtained from a
curve t [3] (see Appendix A).
For the present study, since all variables are known (Table 2), the pump power can be calcu-
lated as:
w 0:29 W
Eq. (5) can now be solved for the unknown enthalpy value at point 5, giving h5 144:2 kJ/kg. The
temperature at point 5 can also be determined from the enthalpy value and is 54.8 C.
 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508 2491

Finally, the energy balance on the absorber is:

Q_ a m_ 10 h10 m_ 11 h11 m_ 6 h6  m_ 1 h1 7
which gives Q_ a 13:42 kW.

4.3. Generator (desorber) analysis

The heat input to the generator is determined from the energy balance, which is:
Q_ g m_ 4 h4 m_ 7 h7  m_ 3 h3 8
and results in: Q_ g 14:2 kW.
The enthalpy at point 7 can be determined, since the temperature at this point is an input value.
In general, the state at point 7 will be superheated water vapour, and the enthalpy can be de-
termined once the pressure and temperature are known.

4.4. Condenser analysis

The condenser heat can be determined from an energy balance, which gives:
Q_ c m_ 7 h7  h8 9
and therefore, Q_ c 10:78 kW.

4.5. Coecient of performance

The COP is dened as:

Q_ e
COP 10
Q_ g
which gives a value of 0.704.
A summary of the energy ows at the various components of the system is given in Table 3.
To nd suitable conditions for specic applications, a sensitivity analysis can be performed
utilising a computer program, which follows the sequence described above and the mathematical

Table 3
Energy ows at the various components of the system
Description Symbol kW
Capacity (evaporator output power) Q_ e 10.0
Pump minimum work input w 0.29
Absorber heat, rejected to the environment Q_ a 13.42
Heat input to the generator Q_ g 14.2
Condenser heat, rejected to the environment Q_ c 10.78
Coecient of performance COP 0.704
2492 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508

45 1
0.9

Absorber exit temperature (C)

Pump mass flow (kg/s) and COP

40
35 0.8
0.7
30
0.6
25
0.5
20
Absorper exit temp 0.4
15 Pump mass flow
COP 0.3
10 0.2
5 0.1
0 0
45 47.5 50 52.5 55 57.5
Absorber inlet LiBr percentage
Fig. 4. Eect of absorber inlet LiBr percentage ratio.

correlations for the uid properties shown in Appendix A. Such a sensitivity analysis is presented
below.

4.6. Sensitivity analysis

4.6.1. Eect of absorber inlet LiBr percentage ratio

To check this eect, the following conditions were assumed:

1. Solution heat exchanger exit temperature, T 3 55 C.

2. Generator solution exit temperature, T 4 75 C.
3. Condenser temperature, T 7 70 C.
4. Evaporator capacity 10 kW.
5. Evaporator temperature 6 C.
6. Absorber exit LiBr percentage ratio 60%.
7. Pressure in generator and condenser 4.82 kPa.
8. Pressure in absorber and evaporator 0.934 kPa.

Since the absorber exit LiBr percentage ratio is kept constant at 60%, the greater the dierence
between the absorber LiBr inlet and outlet percentage ratios is, the smaller will be the mass cir-
culating in the absorber. Additionally, as seen in Fig. 4, the COP increases with decreasing pump
mass ow. On the other hand, to keep the cycle running at the specied stage, the temperature at
the exit of the absorber has to be maintained at a lower level. However, this presents diculties
with the cooling water temperature of the absorber heat exchanger. Normally, this temperature
may be between 20 and 25 C, which means that the lowest temperature at the exit of the absorber
would be around 30 C.
 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508 2493

0.9

Pump mass flow (kg/s) and COP

28
0.8

Generator pressure (kPa)

24 0.7
Generator pressure
20 0.6
16 Pump mass flow 0.5
0.4
12 COP
0.3
8
0.2
4 0.1
0 0
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115
Generator exit temperature, T4 (C)

Fig. 5. Eect of generator temperature.

4.6.2. Eect of generator temperature

To check this eect, the following conditions were assumed:

1. Solution heat exchanger exit temperature, T 3 55 C.

2. Evaporator capacity 10 kW.
3. Evaporator temperature 6 C.
4. Absorber inlet LiBr percentage ratio 52.5%.
5. Absorber exit LiBr percentage ratio 60%.
6. Absorber exit temperature, T 1 30:4 C.
7. Pressure in absorber and evaporator 0.934 kPa.

As seen in Fig. 5, when the generator temperature is increased, the generator pressure is
also increased, and this has the eect of lowering the COP of the unit, considering that the pressures
and temperatures at other points of the unit are kept constant. The pump mass ow changes
slightly from 0.04 kg/s at a generator exit temperature of 65 C to 0.037 kg/s at 115 C.

4.6.3. Eect of heat exchanger temperatures

To check this eect, the following conditions were assumed:

1. Evaporator capacity 10 kW.

2. Evaporator temperature 6 C.
3. Pressure in generator and condenser 4.82 kPa.
4. Absorber inlet LiBr percentage ratio 52.5%.
5. Absorber exit LiBr percentage ratio 60%.
6. Absorber exit temperature, T 1 30:4 C.
7. Pressure in absorber and evaporator 0.934 kPa.

The solution heat exchanger increases the eciency of the unit. The greater the heat exchanger
area is, the greater its eect will be, since useful energy can be extracted from the generator so-
lution fed to the absorber and be transferred to the solution returning to the generator, where it
2494 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508

80
70
60

Te mperat ure C 50
40
30
20 Generator exit solution temp
Absorber inlet solution temp
10 Absorber oulet solution temp
Generator inlet solution temp
0
0.7 2 0.74 0.76 0.78 0.8 0.82 0.84
COP

Fig. 6. Eect of heat exchanger temperatures.

will be heated to the evaporating point. As is observed in Fig. 6, the COP of the unit under the
specied conditions is increased from 0.72 to a maximum of 0.84.

4.6.4. Eect of solution strength

To check the solution strength eectiveness, a constant dierence of 6% between the absorber
inlet LiBr percentage ratio and absorber outlet ratio was considered. Also, the following condi-
tions were assumed:

1. Evaporator capacity 10 kW.

2. Evaporator temperature 6 C.
3. Generator solution exit temperature, T 4 75 C.

70 0.9
0.8
Temperature (C) - Pressure kPa

60
Pump mass flow (kg/s) - COP

0.7
50
0.6
40 0.5

30 0.4
absorber inlet LiBr%
Generator pressure 0.3
20 Absorber exit temp
COP 0.2
10 Pump mass flow
0.1
0 0
52 54 56 58 60 62 64
Absorber exit LiBr percentage ratio

Fig. 7. Eect of solution strength.

 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508 2495

4. Solution heat exchanger exit temperature, T 3 55 C.

5. Pressure in absorber and evaporator 0.934 kPa.

The results shown in Fig. 7 indicate that a smaller percentage ratio in LiBr solutions will have
slightly better results, since the solution will absorb the extra water vapour more readily. The COP
for the selected conditions will vary from 0.79 to 0.75. The pump mass ow will be smaller for
smaller percentage ratios in LiBr solutions and will vary from 0.038 kg/s to about 0.045 kg/s. The
main draw back is the absorber solution outlet temperature (T 1), which will have to be kept at a
low temperature for the smaller percentage ratios in LiBr solutions. As mentioned before, a
reasonable temperature at the exit of the absorber would be around 30 C, which would result in
an absorber outlet LiBr percentage of above 58%.

5. Crystallization

LiBr is a salt, and in its solid state, it has a crystalline structure. When LiBr is dissolved in
water, there is a specic minimum solution temperature for any given salt concentration. The salt
begins to leave the solution and crystallize below this minimum temperature.
In an absorption machine, if the solution concentration is too high or the solution temperature
is reduced too low, crystallization may occur. This is most likely to occur in the solution heat
exchanger, interrupting the machine operation. 1 In such a case, the concentrated solution tem-
perature needs to be raised above its saturation point so that the salt crystals will return to the
solution, freeing the machine.
The most frequent cause of crystallization is air leakage into the machine, which results in
increased pressure in the evaporator. This, in turn, results in higher evaporator temperatures and,
consequently, lower capacities. At high load conditions, the control system increases the heat
input to the generator, resulting in increased solution concentrations to the point where crys-
tallization may occur. Non-absorbable gases, like hydrogen, produced during corrosion, can also
be present, which reduce the performance of both the condenser and the absorber [4]. A direct
method for keeping the required pressure is to evacuate the vapour space periodically with a
vacuum pump.
Excessively cold condenser water, coupled with a high load condition, is another cause for
crystallization. In modern designs, the cooling tower water temperature is allowed to oat with
variations of load and outdoor air temperature. In this way, by using cooling water temperatures
that are below design, the unit performance is improved. However, in the solution heat exchanger
under high load conditions, the entering temperature of the dilute solution may be low enough to
reduce the temperature of the highly concentrated solution returning from the generator to the
crystallization point.
A third reason is electric power failure. During normal shutdown, the machine undergoes a
dilution cycle, which lowers the concentration of the solution throughout the machine. In such a
case, the machine may cool to ambient temperature without crystallization occurring in the

1
Absorption Refrigeration. Trane Air Conditioning Clinic. The Trane Company, La Crosse, Wisconsin 54601.
2496 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508

solutions. Crystallization is most likely to occur when the machine is stopped while operating at
full load, when highly concentrated solutions are present in the solution heat exchanger.

6. Heat exchangers sizing

In single pass heat exchangers, the temperature dierence DT between the hot and the cold
uids is not constant but varies with distance along the heat exchanger. In the heat transfer
analysis, it is convenient to establish a mean temperature dierence (DTm ) between the hot and
cold uids such that the total heat transfer rate Q_ between the uids can be determined from the
following simple expression:
Q_ AU DTm 11
For Eq. (11),
 
DT0  DTL
DTm F DTln F 12
ln DT0 =DTL
Also, for Eq. (11), the overall heat transfer coecient U based on the outside surface of the tube
is dened as [5]:
1
U 13
Do =Di 1=hi Do =Di Fi 1=2kDo lnDo =Di Fo 1=ho
The above equations can be used in a computer program for designing the unit heat exchangers.
For the design of the heat exchangers, the cooling water inlet and outlet temperatures must be
assumed. The cooling water inlet temperature depends exclusively on the available source of
water, which may be a cooling tower or a well.

6.1. Condenser heat exchanger design

The overall heat transfer coecient is given by Eq. (13). For this equation, the value of the
fouling factors (Fi ; Fo ) at the inside and outside surfaces of the tube can be taken as 0.09 m2 K/kW
[6]. For a copper heat exchanger, k can be calculated from curve tting [5] (Appendix A). The heat
transfer coecients, hi , ho , for the inside and outside ow need to be calculated.
The PetukhovPopov equation in Ref. [7] for turbulent ow inside a smooth tube gives:
f =8ReD Pr
NuD 14
K1 K2 f =81=2 Pr2=3  1
where f 1:82 log10 ReD  1:642 , K1 1 3:4f , K2 11:7 1:8=Pr1=3 .
Eq. (14) applies for Reynolds numbers 104 < ReD < 5  106 and Prandtl numbers, 0:5 < Pr <
2000. The PetukhovPopov equation agrees with experimental results for the specied range
within 5%. The water properties are evaluated at a mean temperature.
The Nu number can be equated to hi Di =K, and therefore, hi can be evaluated.
Nusselts analysis of heat transfer for condensation on the outside surface of a horizontal tube
gives the average heat transfer coecient as [8]:
 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508 2497
 0:25
gql ql  qv hfg kl3
hm 0:725 15
ll Tv  Tw Do

The physical properties in Eq. (15) should be evaluated at the mean wall surface and vapour
saturation temperatures.
The above equation is recommended in the case of condensation on a single horizontal tube,
although a comparison of the average heat transfer coecient for vertical surfaces with that found
by experiments has shown that the measured heat transfer coecient is about 20% higher than the
values suggested by theory [5].
By substituting the above values in Eq. (13), a resulting overall heat transfer coecient (U ) may
be determined.
The logarithmic mean temperature dierence may be evaluated from Eq. (12), and Eq. (11) is
used to evaluate the necessary heat transfer area of the pipe.

6.2. Generator heat exchanger design

The generator provides sensible heat and the latent heat of vaporisation. The sensible heat
raises the inlet stream temperature to the saturation temperature. This amount of heat is normally
about 13% of the total heat required [4]. The heat of vaporisation consists of the heat of va-
porisation of pure water and the latent heat of mixing of the liquid solution. Typically, the heat of
mixing is about 11% of the heat of vaporisation for water/LiBr.
The above analysis indicates that the heat to be provided by the generator can be based on the
heat of vaporisation of pure water, increased by about 23% in a typical design.
Although considerable research work has been done in the past on pool boiling of liquids, data
on water/LiBr solutions are not extensive [9]. Experimental results indicate that boiling is not
signicantly aected by the tube diameter but is aected signicantly by the solution concen-
tration. As the solution concentration increases, the heat transfer coecient decreases. Also, the
heat transfer coecient increases as the heat ux increases. Average heat transfer coecients were
found to vary between 1600 and 7500 W/m2 K [9]. For the above work, stainless steel tubes were
used. The tube material also aects the heat transfer coecient as shown by an empirical relation
developed by Rohsenow in Ref. [7] for nucleate boiling. Since no formula is available for cal-
culating the exact heat transfer coecient of the generator heat exchanger, the exact heat transfer
coecient needs to be determined experimentally.

6.3. Solution heat exchanger design

For the solution heat exchanger design, Eq. (13) is used to calculate the overall heat transfer
coecient. As before, the value of the fouling factors (FI ; Fo ) at the inside and outside surfaces of
the tube are taken as 0.09 m2 K/kW [6] and k for copper at a mean temperature may be evaluated.
The heat transfer coecients, hi , ho , for the inside and outside ow are determined as detailed
below.
The LiBr solution properties at a mean temperature are calculated (Appendix A) and Re is
determined from
2498 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508

Re 4m_ =pDl
For laminar ow, the Nusselt number (Nu) is [6]:
Nu hi Di =K 3:66 16
Therefore, hi may be evaluated.
The hydraulic diameter DH for the annulus is the dierence between the inside diameter of the
external tube D2 and the outside diameter of the internal tube D1 [7].
The Reynolds number based on the hydraulic diameter and the bulk temperature properties is:
qUDH mD_ H
ReDH
l Al
For laminar ow, as before Nu ho D=K 3:66, and therefore, ho may be evaluated.
By substituting the above values in Eq. (13), the resulting overall heat transfer coecient U
based on the outside surface of the tube is subsequently evaluated.
The logarithmic mean temperature is then calculated, and nally, from Eq. (11), the needed
area of the heat exchanger is determined.

6.4. Tube absorber

For this design, the solution lm can ow downward either on horizontal or on vertical tubes.
The construction of the horizontal tube absorber may be more costly because of the large
length of welds, which may present problems with maintaining a vacuum. For this reason, an
alternative design with vertical tubes, housed in a cylindrical shell, may be employed, as shown in
Fig. 8. The theoretical analysis of the vertical tube absorber is presented below.

6.5. Absorber heat exchanger design

In the case of this study, the water vapour produced in the evaporator (Fig. 6) is absorbed in
the ow of the LiBrwater solution and is not condensing directly on the heat exchanger tubes.
The design of the heat exchanger, therefore, requires values for the heat and mass transfer co-
ecients.
A number of researchers have studied the absorption of water vapour in falling lms of LiBr
water solutions. Morioka et al. [10] conducted experiments on steam absorption for lms owing
down a vertical pipe. They obtained experimental results, which show that for lm Reynolds
numbers in the range of 40400, the heat transfer coecients of the lm are between 1500 and
3000 W/m2 K. The average absorption of mass ux (kg/m2 s) is compared with the numerical
results derived from a laminar ow theoretical model proposed by the authors. The agreement of
the results is good for lm Reynolds numbers up to 100, but the experimental values are far higher
above lm Reynolds numbers of 200.
Grossman [11] described a theoretical analysis of the combined heat and mass transfer process
in the absorption of gas or vapour into a laminar liquid lm. Simultaneous equations are de-
scribed that give the temperature and concentration variations at the liquidgas interface and at
the wall. A constant temperature and an adiabatic wall case were considered. The Nusselt and
 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508 2499

Cooling water outlet

Concentrated
LiBr-water
solution

Water vapour
produced in the
evaporator
Falling film

Solution outlet

Cooling water inlet

Fig. 8. Schematic representation of the vertical tube absorber.

Sherwood numbers were found to depend on the Peclet and Lewis numbers as well as on the
equilibrium characteristics of the working uids.
Conlisk [12] developed a design procedure for predicting the absorption capacity of a given
tube based on the governing geometrical and physical parameters. The theoretical approach
developed can predict the amount of mass absorbed in a given length of tube.
Patnaik et al. [13] presented a model based on the solution of dierential equations to calculate
the axial solution concentration and temperature distributions along a vertical tube absorber. The
absorption of water vapour into the falling lm of the solution of LiBr was modelled, employing
equations extracted from the literature, incorporating information on wavy-laminar ows. The
usefulness of the model was demonstrated by generating absorber performance charts.
A practical model for absorption of vapours into a laminar lm of water and LiBr falling along
a constant temperature vertical plate was described in Andberg and Vliet [14]. The model de-
veloped considers non-isothermal absorption, and the equations showed good agreement with
experimental results. The objective of the study was to develop an eective model of the ab-
sorption process in order to facilitate the study of absorber design from a theoretical viewpoint.
For this reason, some simplications were made, like assuming that the bank of tubes of an actual
absorption unit are replaced with a constant temperature vertical at plate. Also, because of the
complexity of the problem involving the solution of momentum, energy and diusion equations
with their boundary conditions, a simplied method was developed for determining the various
quantities involved. Because of the simplicity and the good agreement with experimental results,
this method was chosen for determining the number of absorber tubes required.
2500 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508

The independent variables, which aect the absorption of vapours, are solution mass ow rate,
solution inlet concentration, absorber pressure and wall temperature.
The length of plate (L) is correlated to the solution mass ow rate by the expression:

L amb 17

where a 132ln100  AP =86:0, b 1:33, m mass ow rate per unit width of plate (kg/m s)
and Ap absorption percentage.
The absorption percentage (Ap ), is dened as:
CIN  COUT
Ap  100 18
CIN  CEQ
Determination of the equilibrium concentration, CEQ , requires the solution of the following set of
expressions:

A 2:00755 0:16976X  3:133362  0:001X 2 1:97668  0:00001X 3

B 321:128  19:322X 0:374382X 2  2:0637  0:001X 3
C 6:21147
D 2886:373
E 337269:46
T 0 2E=D D2  4EC  LOGP =6894:80:5  459:72
TW 5=9AT 0 B  32

The above set of expressions requires an iterative type of solution to nd CEQ , given TW and P .
In the case of this study, TW and P are known, and therefore, CEQ may be evaluated. Eq. (18) may
then be solved to calculate AP .

Assuming a certain length for every tube of the absorber, Eq. (17) gives the mass ow m, and
since the tube external area per meter length is known, the required number of tubes can be
calculated.
The next step is to check the area of tubes needed to cool the solution to the required level.
Patnaik et al. [13] suggest that Wilkes correlation, valid for a constant heat ux wall with pro-
gressively decreasing dierence from isothermal wall outside the entrance region, can be used for
the falling lm. It is assumed that the ow is fully developed in a wavy, laminar regime and that
the bulk solution temperature prole is linear with respect to the transverse coordinate. Wilkes
correlation is:
ks  
hs 0:029Res 0:53 Prs0:344 19
d
The lm thickness d (m) is given by:
 1=3
3lC
d 20
q2 g
and the solution Reynolds number (Res ) for the vertical tube is:
Res 4C=l 21
 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508 2501

Water outlet

Entering Entering
water water

Vapour
outlet

Falling film

Water inlet

Fig. 9. Schematic representation of the vertical tube evaporator.

In the case of this study, the mean properties of the solution are evaluated. Assuming the number
of pipes to be used and substituting the above values into Eqs. (19)(21), a solution convective
heat transfer coecient hs results.
Subsequently, the cooling water properties at the mean temperature are evaluated and sub-
stituted into Eq. (14). By replacing Nu hi Di =K, hs is determined. By substituting the above
values into Eq. (13), the resulting overall heat transfer coecient (U ) based on the outside surface
of the tube is also determined. DTln also needs to be evaluated, and from Eq. (11), the resulting
length of each pipe is determined. This length needs to be equal to the initial length assumed. The
above procedure may be repeated until the pipe length matches.

6.6. Evaporator heat exchanger design

To facilitate construction, the evaporator heat exchanger may be constructed in a similar way
to the absorber heat exchanger. Fig. 9 shows a schematic representation of the vertical tube
evaporator. Water passing through the evaporator tubes supplies the required heat to vaporise the
falling lm of water around every tube.
A search of the literature has shown that the preferred construction method is to allow the liquid
to enter inside a tube. The uid inside the tube is heated by the run of uid at the outer surface of the
tube, so that progressive vaporisation occurs. The heat transfer coecient increases with distance
from the entrance, since heat is added continuously to the uid. It is also not yet possible to predict
all of the characteristics of this process quantitatively because of the great number of variables upon
which the process depends and the complexity of the various two phase ow patterns that occur as
the quality of the vapourliquid mixture increases during vaporisation [7]. Therefore, in the case of
this study, the mean heat transfer coecient needs to be determined experimentally.
2502 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508

Table 4
LiBrwater absorption refrigeration system calculations based on a generator temperature of 75 C and a solution heat
exchanger exit temperature of 55 C.
Point H (kJ/kg) m_ (kg/s) P (kPa) T (C) %LiBr (X) Remarks
1 83 0.00517 0.93 34.9 55
2 83 0.00517 4.82 34.9 55
3 124.7 0.00517 4.82 55 55 Subcooled liquid
4 183.2 0.00474 4.82 75 60
5 137.8 0.00474 4.82 51.5 60
6 137.8 0.00474 0.93 44.5 60
7 2612.2 0.000431 4.82 70 0 Superheated steam
8 131.0 0.000431 4.82 31.5 0 Saturated liquid
9 131.0 0.000431 0.93 6 0
10 2511.8 0.000421 0.93 6 0 Saturated vapour
11 23.45 0.000011 0.93 6 0 Saturated liquid
Description Symbol kW
Capacity (evaporator output power) Q_ e 1.0
Absorber heat, rejected to the environment Q_ a 1.28
Heat input to the generator Q_ g 1.35
Condenser heat, rejected to the environment Q_ c 1.07
Coecient of performance COP 0.74

Table 5
Overall heat transfer coecients of the various heat exchangers of the 1 kW unit
Heat exchanger Cooling/heating water Overall heat transfer coecient,
temperature (C) U (W/m2 K)
Entering Leaving Theoretically estimated Actual value
Generator 92 88 16007500 2300
Condenser 27 28.5 2980 3265
Evaporator 13 11 195
Absorber 30 31 625 400
Solution heat exchanger 130 130

7. Experimental results

To investigate the accuracy of the theoretical procedure described above for the design of the
various heat exchangers, a 1 kW model was designed and constructed [15]. The designed condi-
tions chosen are indicated in Table 4.
A summary of the experimental results is presented in Table 5.

8. General observations

Because of corrosion problems, the life expectancy of LiBr absorption machines is approximately
20 years. The presence of oxygen can greatly accelerate the degradation, and thus, leaks must be
avoided. If the vacuum must be broken for any reason, it is important to ll the vapour space with
nitrogen or other inert gas to a pressure above atmospheric to avoid introduction of oxygen. Metals
 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508 2503

Table 6
Comparative cost of a 1 kW and a 10 kW LiBrwater absorption unit
Item Cost of the 1 kW unit (C) Cost of the 10 kW unit (C)
Generator and condenser unit 50 400
Evaporator 150 1000
Absorber 150 1000
Piping 30 100
Pumps 370 500
Automatic controls, sensors and valves 600 700
LiBr salt 200 600
Total cost 1550 4300

like copper and iron in the presence of aqueous LiBr, which is an electrolyte, produce ions that leave
the solid surface and combine with oxygen at a distance from the surface. This leaves the solid
surface of the base metal available for more attack. By controlling the solution pH level to be
slightly basic instead of acidic, oxides are formed directly on the solid surface, forming a relatively
stable oxide coating (passivation), protecting the surface. The pH level can be controlled by adding
small amounts of hydrobromic acid (HBr). Since both elements constituting HBr are already
present within the solution, the solution properties are not signicantly altered. Corrosion inhibi-
tors can also reduce corrosion rates. Such inhibitors are lithium chromate (Li2 CrO4 ) lithium mo-
lybdate (Li2 MoO4 ) or lithium nitrate (LiNO3 ) in amounts on the order of 1% by solution weight [4].

9. Cost analysis

The unit manufactured for this project is a prototype unit, and the total cost of its construction
is about C 3000. 2 A large part of this amount was spent for purchasing ow meters (C 500),
auxiliary equipment like vacuum pumps, glass tubes etc. (C 500) and experimentation with
dierent types of valves and materials.
The actual cost of a working unit of 1 kW capacity can be as low as C 1550. A breakdown of
this cost is shown in Table 6. Based on the 1 kW unit, the cost of a 10 kW unit, which can cover
the needs of a typical insulated house, can be estimated as C 4300 (Table 6).
It must also be stated that the above unit cannot be produced in a basic workshop. Automatic
or semi-automatic welding machines and personnel specialised on welding components for va-
cuum are necessary. Also special equipment for weld testing and soundness is necessary. The cost
of such infrastructure is not included in the unit costing. On the other hand, the produced unit is
only a prototype, and a lot of research can be done in order to improve the eciency of the heat
exchangers by using a surfactant additive, called octyl alcohol. Such an additive can increase the
heat transfer performance in the absorber. Also, other types of heat exchanging surfaces, like
rough or nned surfaces may increase the eciency and reduce the size of the unit.
It must also be noted that in order to complete the requirements of a 10 kW unit, a cooling
tower or water from a well is necessary to provide adequate cooling water for the condenser and

2
Exchange rates: 1C 1:6 US$ (July 2002).
2504 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508

absorber heat exchangers. The cost of such a tower is about C 400. Also the installation of the
absorption unit and cooling tower will demand about C 100 extra cost for pumps and piping,
compared to the installation cost of a conventional 10 kW electric chiller.

10. Conclusions

A method to evaluate the characteristics and performance of a single stage LiBrwater ab-
sorption machine was presented, and the necessary heat and mass transfer equations and ap-
propriate equations describing the properties of the working uids were specied. These equations
were used in a computer program, and a sensitivity analysis was performed. This analysis shows
that the greater the dierence between the absorber LiBr inlet and outlet percentage ratios is, the
smaller will be the mass circulating in the absorber. On the other hand, to keep the cycle running
at a specied stage, the temperature at the exit of the absorber has to be maintained at a lower
level when the absorber exit LiBr percentage ratio is lower.
Considering that the pressures and temperatures at other points of the unit are kept constant,
the COP of the unit is lowered when the generator temperature is increased, leading to an increase
of the generator pressure.
The solution heat exchanger increases the eciency of the unit. The greater the heat exchanger
area, the greater its eect is.
Finally, when checking the solution strength eectiveness for a constant dierence of 6% be-
tween the absorber inlet LiBr percentage ratio and absorber outlet ratio, it was found that a smaller
percentage ratio in LiBr solutions would have slightly better results. The main draw back is the
absorber solution outlet temperature (T 1), which will have to be kept at a low temperature for
smaller percentage ratios in LiBr solutions. A reasonable temperature at the exit of the absorber
would be around 30 C, which would result in an absorber outlet LiBr percentage above 58%.
Information on designing the heat exchangers of the LiBrwater absorption unit are also
presented. The calculated theoretical values are compared to experimental results derived for a
small unit with a nominal capacity of 1 kW.
The cost for a nominal 10 kW unit that can cover the needs of a typical insulated house was
estimated to be C 4300. The total cost of an absorption unit together with all necessary sec-
ondary devices and installation cost is estimated as C 4800. The price, therefore, of a LiBrwater
absorption refrigeration unit is high compared to a similar capacity electric chiller that is only C
1500. It should be noted, however, that the absorption units oer possibilities of use of renewable
energy sources and waste heat, whereas the electric chiller uses electricity that is produced from
fossil fuels and have harmful eects on the environment.

Appendix A. Material properties

A.1. LiBr solution enthalpy [4]

Range 0% < X < 40% LiBr

CT temperature (C)
h enthalpy (kJ/kg)
 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508 2505

X %LiBr
T CT  9=5 32
CA0 33:1054264, CA1 0:13000636, CA2 0:00097096, CB0 1:0090734,
CB1 0:01377507, CB2 0:000085131
h CA0 CA1 X CA2 X 2 T CB0 CB1 X CB2 X 2 2:326

A.2. LiBr solution and refrigerant pressure and temperatures [1]

Range 45% < X < 70% LiBr

Tsol solution temperature (C), range 5 < Tsol < 175 C
Tref refrigerant saturated temperature (C), range 15 < Tref < 110 C
P saturation pressure (kPa)
A0 2:00755, A1 0:16976, A2 0:003133362, A3 0:0000197668
B0 124:937, B1 7:71649, B2 0:152286, B3 0:0007959
RA A0 X 0 A1 X 1 A2 X 2 A3 X 3
RB B0 X 0 B1 X 1 B2 X 2 B3 X 3
C 7:05, D 1596:49, E 104095:5
Log P C D=Tref 273 E=Tref 2732
Tref 2E=D D2  4EC  log P 0:5  273
Tsol RB Tref RA

A.3. Enthalpy of LiBr solution [1]

Range 40% < X < 70% LiBr

T solution temperature (C)
h enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Solution temperature range 15 C < T < 165 C
A0 2024:33, A1 163:309, A2 4:88161, A3 0:06302948, A4 0:0002913704
B0 18:2829, B1 1:1691757, B2 0:03248041, B3 0:0004034184, B4 0:0000018520569
C0 0:037008214, C1 0:0028877666, C2 0:000081313015
C3 0:00000099116628, C4 0:0000000044441207
RA A0 X 0 A1 X 1 A2 X 2 A3 X 3 A4 X 4
RB B0 X 0 B1 X 1 B2 X 2 B3 X 3 B4 X 4
RC C0 X 0 C1 X 1 C2 X 2 C3 X 3 C4 X 4
h RA T RB RC T 2

A.4. Density of LiBr solution [3]

Range 20% < X < 60%

T solution temperature (C), 0 < T < 200 C,
qx LiBr solution density (kg/m3 )
X0 X =100
qx 1145:36 470:84X0 1374:79X02  0:333393 0:571749X0 273 T
2506 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508

A.5. Absolute viscosity of LiBr solution [3]

Range 45% < X < 65%

TK solution temperature (K)
l absolute viscosity (kg/m s)
A1 494:122 16:3967X  0:14511X 2
A2 28606:4  934:568X 8:52755X 2
A3 70:3848  2:35014X 0:0207809X 2
B A1 A2 =TK A3 lnTK
l EXPB=1000

A.6. Specic heat of LiBr solution (curve t from Ref. [1]R2 0:9997)

X %LiBr
CP specic heat of LiBr solution (J/kg K)
CP 0:0976X 2  37:512X 3825:4

A.7. Thermal conductivity of LiBr solution (Data extrapolated from Ref. [16])

T temperature of solution (K)

X %LiBr
K thermal conductivity of LiBr solution (W/m K)
For T P 313
K1 0:3081X =100 0:62979
K2 0:3191795X =100 0:65388
D12 K2  K1 =20T  313
K K1 D12
For T < 313
K1 0:3081X =100 0:62979
K3 0:291897X =100 0:59821
D13 K3  K1 =20313  T
K K1 D13

A.8. Saturation pressure of water vapour (curve ts from data presented in Ref. [2]R2 0:9999)

P saturation pressure (kPa)

T temperature (C)
P 0:000000000002T 6  0:000000003T 5 0:0000002T 4 0:00003T 3 0:0014T 2 0:0444T
0:6108

A.9. Saturated watervapour enthalpy (curve ts from data presented in Ref. [2]R2 0:9999)

hg vapour enthalpy (kJ/kg)

T temperature (C)
hg 0:00125397T 2 1:88060937T 2500:559
 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508 2507

A.10. Latent heat of condensation of water vapour (curve t Ref. [1]R2 0:9999

hfg latent heat of condensation (kJ/kg)

T saturation temperature (C)
hfg 0:00132635T 2  2:29983657T 2500:43063

A.11. Density of saturated water (curve t Ref. [1]R2 0:9986)

qg density of saturated water (kg/m3 )

T saturation temperature (C)
qg 1=0:00001147965T 4  0:00297197798T 3 0:28077931731T 2  11:83083758T
202:9035477661

A.12. Enthalpy of superheated steam (curve ts from data presented in Ref. [2]R2 0:992)

Hsh enthalpy of superheated steam (kJ/kg),

Tref refrigerant (water) saturated temperature [see Section 2] (C)
Tactual temperature of vapour (C)
P pressure of vapour (kPa)
T degrees of superheat (C)
T Tactual  Tref
HSH1 32:508 lnP 2513:2
HSH2 0:00001P 2  0:1193P 2689
Hsh HSH2  HSH1 =100T HSH1

A.13. Water properties (curve ts from data presented in Ref. [2])

T temperature of water (C)

K thermal conductivity (W/m K) [R2 0:9999]
l absolute viscosity (N s/m2 ) (kg/m s) [R2 0:9999]
m kinematic viscosity (m2 /s) [R2 0:9999]
q density (kg/m3 ) [R2 0:9999]
cp specic heat (J/kg K) [R2 0:9994]
K 6:5104167D)10T 4 0:00000018923611T 3  2:671875E)05T 2
0:0027103175T 0:5520119
l 0:0000010:000031538716146T 4  8:913055428199999D)03T 3
0:9795876934T 2  55:4567974T 1791:74424
m 0:00013:17708333331008 T 4  0:0000089652777778T 3 0:00098270833333T 2
 0:055322222222T 1:7876666667
q 0:000015451T 3  0:0059003T 2  0:019075T 1002:3052
cp 0:000003216145833T 4  0:000798668982T 3 0:0780295139T 2  3:0481614T
4217:7377
2508 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 24832508

A.14. Thermal conductivity of copper (curve t Ref. [5]R2 =1)

Kcopper thermal conductivity of copper (W/m K)

T temperature (C)
Kcopper 4:583333E)09T 4  2:916667E)06T 3 6:541667E)04T 2  0:1108333T 386

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