Basement character and basin formation in Gorontalo Bay, Sulawesi,

Indonesia: new observations from the Togian Islands

M. A. COTTAM1*, R. HALL1, M. A. FORSTER2 & M. K. BOUDAGHER-FADEL3
1
SE Asia Research Group, Department of Earth Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London,
Egham, Surrey, UK
2
Department of Earth Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 0200, Australia
3
Department of Earth Sciences, University College London, London, UK
*Corresponding author (e-mail: m.cottam@es.rhul.ac.uk)

Abstract: We present a new stratigraphy for the Togian Islands, Sulawesi, and interpret the age,
character and evolution of Gorontalo Bay. At its western end the bay is underlain by continental
crust. The central part is underlain by Eocene to Miocene oceanic and arc rocks, although the
area south of the Togian Islands could have continental crust of the Banggai-Sula microcontinent
thrust beneath this and the East Arm ophiolite. Gorontalo Bay was not a significant deep bathy-
metric feature before the Miocene. Field relationships indicate a latest Miocene to Pliocene age
for inception of the basin. Medium-K to shoshonitic volcanism in the Togian Islands is not due
to subduction but reflects crustal thinning and extension in the Pliocene and Pleistocene, causing
the underlying mantle to rise, decompress and melt. Extension is continuing today and is probably
the cause of volcanism at Una-Una. Volcanic activity migrated west with time and volcanic pro-
ducts have been offset by dextral strike-slip displacement along the Balantak Fault. Extension and
subsidence was driven by rollback of the subduction hinge at the North Sulawesi Trench with a
possible contribution due to flow of the lower crust.

Gorontalo Bay is one of the most enigmatic basins
in East Indonesia. It is relatively deep with water
depths up to 2000 m, and Hamilton (1979) showed
up to five kilometres of sediment in its western
depocentre. It is surrounded by land on three sides
and receives large volumes of sediment from
nearby mountains up to three kilometres high.
Miocene carbonates are widespread in these areas
(van Leeuwen & Muhardjo 2005) and suggest that
the deep basin formed since their deposition but
the timing and mechanism of basin inception
remain unclear.
The nature and age of the crust beneath
Gorontalo Bay is also unknown. To the north, the
North Arm of Sulawesi is interpreted as a volcanic
arc built on Eocene oceanic crust (Taylor & van
Leeuwen 1980; Elburg et al. 2003; van Leeuwen
& Muhardjo 2005). In contrast, at the western end
of Gorontalo Bay, there are two kilometre high
mountains with young metamorphic ages and evi-
dence of continental crust, Miocene extension and
core complex formation (Sukamto 1973; Elburg
et al. 2003; van Leeuwen et al. 2007). To the south,
the East Arm of Sulawesi comprises ophiolitic rocks
of the East Sulawesi Ophiolite (Simandjuntak 1986;
Monnier et al. 1995; Bergman et al. 1996; Parkinson
1998; Kadarusman et al. 2004). Silver et al. (1983b)
suggested that Gorontalo Bay was a fore-arc basin,
underlain by ophiolitic crust equivalent to the East
Arm ophiolite, situated in front of the North Arm
volcanic arc that has been thrust south onto the
Banggai-Sula microcontinent.
The Togian Islands, situated in the centre of
Gorontalo Bay (Fig. 1), offer a unique opportunity
to investigate aspects of the basins origin and evol-
ution. The archipelago forms a broadly WSWENE
trending ridge that continues to the west as a sub-
marine feature. Geological maps of the islands
show igneous rocks and contrasting interpretations
of them. Kundig (1956) reported andesitic intrusive
rocks in the central islands, and older ophiolitic
rocks in the eastern islands suggesting a possible
link to the East Sulawesi Ophiolite. In contrast,
Rusmana et al. (1982) reported widespread tuffs
and sedimentary formations of Mio-Pliocene age.
The volcanic rocks could therefore be part of the
ophiolite, could form part of the North Arm volcanic
arc, or could be subduction-related products that
predate the collision (Garrard et al. 1988; Davies
1990) of the Banggai-Sula microcontinent with the
East Arm.
The Togian Islands are also close to the isolated
active volcano of Una-Una, just NW of the Togian
archipelago, which has a K-rich chemistry and
erupted violently in 1983 (Katili et al. 1963; Katili
& Sudradjat 1984). It is not a typical subduction

From: Hall, R., Cottam, M. A. & Wilson, M. E. J. (eds) The SE Asian Gateway: History and Tectonics
of the Australia Asia Collision. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 355, 177202.
DOI: 10.1144/SP355.9 0305-8719/11/$15.00 # The Geological Society of London 2011.
178 M. A. COTTAM ET AL.
Fig. 1. Tectonostratigraphic provinces of Sulawesi. Modified after Hall & Wilson (2000), Calvert (2000) and
van Leeuwen & Muhardjo (2005).
volcano in position (about 200 km above the
Benioff zone) and, if related to this subduction, is
unusual in being the only volcano.
We present a stratigraphy for the Togian Islands
based on new field observations and dating. In many
cases dating was restricted by the intense tropical
weathering typical of SE Asia, and/or a lack of
datable material. We combine these new data with
earlier studies and observations of the physio-
graphy, bathymetry and seismicity of the northern
Sulawesi region, to elucidate the Cenozoic history
of Gorontalo Bay.
Tectonic setting
Sulawesi comprises a complex association of mag-
matic arcs, metamorphic rocks (varying in grade
from low to high), ophiolites and microcontinental
fragments that have been variously assembled and
deformed during the Late Mesozoic and Cenozoic
(e.g. Audley-Charles 1974; Hamilton 1979; Hall
2002). It has been subdivided into four tectonostra-
tigraphic terranes separated by major faults (e.g.
Hamilton 1979). The composition of the terranes
surrounding the study area is described below.
Following recent studies (e.g. Calvert 2000; van
Leeuwen & Muhardjo 2005; van Leeuwen et al.
2007) we do not use the term Western Sulawesi
Plutono-Volcanic Arc Terrane. Instead, we follow
previous authors in separating this terrane in to
two different entities based on the recognition of
significant differences in age and character of
rocks (e.g. Taylor & van Leeuwen 1980; Calvert
2000; Elburg et al. 2003). We adopt the terms
Western Sulawesi Province and Northern Sulawesi
Province (e.g. van Leeuwen et al. 2007; see
Fig. 1). The position of the boundary between these
provinces remains uncertain (Elburg et al. 2003).
Western Sulawesi Province
The Western Sulawesi Province (Fig. 1) represents a
continental margin segment (van Leeuwen et al.
2007). It has a metamorphic basement that includes
the Malino and Palu Metamorphic Complexes,
exposed at the NW and SW corners of Gorontalo
Bay respectively (Elburg et al. 2003; van Leeuwen
et al. 2007). These rocks form part of an arcuate
zone of dismembered accretionary complexes
(Parkinson 1998) and continental fragments, meta-
morphosed in the mid-Cretaceous during emplace-
ment along the SE margin of Sundaland by NW
directed subduction (Parkinson 1998).
The basement is overlain by weakly metamor-
phosed Upper Cretaceous sedimentary rocks of the
Latimojong Formation, which are in turn overlain
by a sequence of weakly metamorphosed Palaeo-
gene sedimentary rocks and subordinate volcanic
rocks belonging to the Older Series of Elburg
 TOGIAN ISLANDS AND GORONTALO BAY
et al. (2003). The exact nature of the contact
(depositional or faulted) is not known. Close to the
study area these rocks include the Tinombo For-
mation (Brouwer et al. 1947), fore-arc basin sedi-
ments characterized by a transition from syn-rift
sedimentation to platform carbonates and deeper
marine sedimentation between the Late Eocene
and Middle Miocene (Coffield et al. 1993; Wilson
& Bosence 1996; Calvert 2000). The contempora-
neous Tinombo Formation volcanic rocks (c. 51 to
17 Ma) range from basalt to rhyolite and include
dykes, volcanic piles and co-magmatic intrusive
stocks (Elburg et al. 2003).
Intrusive and extrusive rocks of the Younger
Series (Elburg et al. 2003) include an acidic
high-K calc-alkaline (CAK) suite of plutons
(Kavalieris et al. 1992) and comagmatic volcanic
rocks (van Leeuwen et al. 1994; Elburg et al.
2003), and a high-K calc-alkaline, shoshonitic and
ultra-potassic alkaline (HK) suite of dykes, small
stocks and less common extrusive rocks (Elburg
et al. 2003).
Northern Sulawesi Province
The Northern Sulawesi Province (Fig. 1) comprises
a dominantly tholeiitic Tertiary volcanic arc built
on Eocene oceanic crust (Taylor & van Leeuwen
1980; Elburg et al. 2003; van Leeuwen & Muhardjo
2005). Volcanism was driven by the northward sub-
duction of Indian Ocean lithosphere beneath the
North Arm (e.g. Hall 1996, 2002; Rangin et al.
1997). The Papayato Volcanic rocks are the pro-
ducts of this arc, a bimodal suite of mafic and
felsic volcanic rocks cut by co-magmatic stocks of
gabbro and diorite (Trail et al. 1974; Kavalieris
et al. 1992; van Leeuwen et al. 1994; Elburg et al.
2003) belonging to the Older Series of Elburg
et al. (2003). Limited isotopic and palaeontological
ages suggest a Middle Eocene to earliest Miocene
age (van Leeuwen et al. 2007) making them the
broad age equivalent of the Tinombo Formation in
the Western Sulawesi Province. However, contrast-
ing volcanic sedimentary proportions suggest that
they were formed in different tectonic environments
(van Leeuwen et al. 2007).
The Papayato Volcanic rocks are overlain by a
thick series of Neogene volcanic rocks and volcani-
clastics of calc-alkaline composition and cut by
co-magmatic intrusives (CA Suite of Polve et al.
1997), which are accompanied by marine sedimen-
tary rocks (Kavalieris et al. 1992) that include well-
bedded shallow marine sediments and limestones of
Early to Middle Miocene age (e.g. Sukamto 1973;
Norvick & Pile 1976; Ratman 1976). All these
rocks are cut by Neogene volcanic rocks belonging
to the Younger Series (Elburg et al. 2003). They
include andesitic and dacitic stocks, dykes and
179
epiclastic rocks of the calc-alkaline CA Suite,
and associated Early Middle Miocene marine sedi-
ments (Elburg et al. 2003).
East Sulawesi Ophiolite
The East Sulawesi Ophiolite (Fig. 1) comprises a
sequence of dunite, lherzolites and harzburgites,
ultramafic cumulates, layered gabbros, isotropic
gabbros, sheeted dykes and basaltic pillows and
lavas (e.g. Simandjuntak 1986; Parkinson 1991,
1998). Field mapping (Kadarusman et al. 2004)
and geophysical studies (Silver et al. 1978) sug-
gest an abnormally large reconstructed strati-
graphic thickness of at least 15 km. The origin of
the East Sulawesi Ophiolite has been variously
attributed to a typical mid-oceanic ridge (e.g.
Soeria-Atmadja et al. 1974; Simandjuntak 1986),
supra-subduction zone (Monnier et al. 1995;
Bergman et al. 1996; Parkinson 1998) and oceanic
plateau settings (Kadarusman et al. 2004). K Ar
dating of the ophiolite ranges in age from Cretac-
eous to Eocene (Simandjuntak 1986). They are
interpreted to reflect Cretaceous, specifically
Cenomanian, ocean floor with younger seamounts
(Simandjuntak 1986). K Ar dating (Parkinson
1998) has been interpreted to suggest intra-oceanic
thrusting of the ophiolite at c. 30 Ma.
Microcontinental fragments
The Banggai-Sula block (Fig. 1) has a basement of
Palaeozoic or older metamorphic rocks intruded
by Permo-Triassic granites associated with acid vol-
canic rocks. These rocks are overlain by undated,
probably Lower Jurassic, terrestrial sediments and
by Jurassic and Cretaceous marine shales and lime-
stones. In the western parts of the islands there are
Eocene to Neogene limestones (Garrard et al.
1988; Supandjono & Haryono 1993; Surono &
Sukarna 1993).
The block is a continental fragment derived from
northern Australia (e.g. Audley-Charles et al. 1972;
Hamilton 1979; Pigram et al. 1985) which collided
with a subduction margin represented by the ophio-
lites and associated rocks of East Sulawesi.
Hamilton (1979) suggested it was sliced from New
Guinea and carried westward along a strand of the
Sorong Fault system and this view has become
widely accepted and incorporated in many tectonic
models (e.g. Pigram et al. 1985; Garrard et al.
1988; de Smet 1989; Daly et al. 1991; Smith &
Silver 1991; Hall et al. 1995; Hall 1996, 2002).
The collision is generally thought to have occurred
in the Neogene (Simandjuntak & Barber 1996) but
a wide range of ages has been suggested includ-
ing Late Oligocene or Early Miocene (Milsom
et al. 2001), within the Miocene (Hamilton 1979),
180 M. A. COTTAM ET AL.
Early to Middle Miocene (Bergman et al. 1996),
Middle Miocene (Sukamto & Simandjuntak 1983;
Simandjuntak 1986), Middle Miocene to Pliocene
(Garrard et al. 1988) and Late Miocene (Silver
et al. 1983b; Davies 1990; Smith & Silver 1991;
Parkinson 1998). ButonTukang Besi has been
suggested to be another microcontinental fragment
(Hamilton 1979) that collided in the Early or
Middle Miocene (Fortuin et al. 1990; Smith &
Silver 1991), after strike-slip faulting sliced it from
New Guinea.
Although these microcontinents are small, their
collisions are often interpreted to be responsible
for widespread deformation in Sulawesi and
Borneo. Westward thrusting of the central Sulawesi
metamorphic belt, a foreland fold and thrust belt in
west Sulawesi, deformation in the Makassar Straits,
deformation in the Meratus Mountains, and inver-
sion in the Kutei basin have been attributed to the
collision (e.g. van de Weerd & Armin 1992;
Coffield et al. 1993; Simandjuntak & Barber 1996;
Pubellier et al. 1999; McClay et al. 2000). Many
authors suggest the collision, or collisions, followed
westward subduction of ocean lithosphere (e.g.
Garrard et al. 1988) interpreted to have produced a
magmatic arc in West Sulawesi (e.g. Hamilton
1979; Parkinson 1991) or alternatively post-
collisional magmatism (e.g. Bergman et al. 1996;
Polve et al. 1997; Elburg et al. 2003).
The age of collision is difficult to determine and
could vary within Sulawesi. It requires dating of ter-
restrial clastic rocks (Celebes Molasse) that rest
unconformably on deformed sedimentary, meta-
morphic and ophiolitic rocks. In the East Arm
Umbgrove (1938) reported a Lower Miocene
unconformity, Brouwer et al. (1947) recorded iso-
clinal folding of Early to Middle Miocene age, and
Kundig (1956) interpreted a Middle Miocene oro-
genic phase followed by molasse sedimentation
and later Pliocene folding. Hamilton (1979)
reported that lower Miocene strata are fully
involved in the imbrication and upper Miocene
clastic rocks were derived from the thrust belt.
Other authors have reported Middle Miocene
folding and thrusting (e.g. Audley-Charles et al.
1972; Audley-Charles 1974; Katili 1978; Parkinson
1991). Surono (1995) suggested that conglomerates
from the SE Arm are the oldest Lower to Middle
Miocene parts of the Langkowala Formation which
rests unconformably upon the ophiolite. In Buton,
Smith & Silver (1991) interpreted a deformed
complex including Upper Eocene or Lower Oligo-
cene pelagic limestones to be overlain by Lower
Miocene conglomerates, but because of the lack of
ophiolite detritus interpreted the conglomerates to
be the product of erosion associated with slicing of
the block from New Guinea rather than collision.
They suggested that separate microcontinents may
have collided with East Sulawesi or that a single
large microcontinent may have been fragmented
during oblique collision.
Recent work has cast doubt on the existence of a
subduction-related volcanic arc in West Sulawesi
during most of the Palaeogene and Neogene
(Polve et al. 1997; Elburg et al. 2003). There is
also little evidence for a collision that affected
West Sulawesi (Hall & Wilson 2000; Calvert &
Hall 2007), and it is now known that the North
Banda basin formed by oceanic spreading during
the Middle Miocene (Hinschberger et al. 2000).
Spakman & Hall (2010) have proposed a tectonic
model for the Banda and Sulawesi region that recon-
ciles these and other observations with earlier
interpretations, and offers an alternative to the pre-
viously accepted idea of slicing of continental
slivers from New Guinea. There was an Early
Miocene collision of the Sula Spur with the North
Arm volcanic arc and East Arm ophiolite, and this
continental area was then fragmented during exten-
sion caused by subduction rollback into the Banda
embayment.
Celebes Molasse
Pre-Miocene rocks of the different provinces are
unconformably overlain by the Celebes Molasse
a weakly to moderately consolidated association
of interbedded sedimentary formations that is wide-
spread across Sulawesi (Sarasin & Sarasin 1901;
van Bemmelen 1949). Sediments include conglom-
erate, quartz sandstone, greywacke and mudstone
with subordinate intercalations of breccia, marl
and coral limestone (e.g. van Bemmelen 1949; van
Leeuwen et al. 2007). They have been interpreted
to reflect deposition in a coastal alluvial plain
environment situated along the flanks of rapidly
uplifting and eroding mountains (Calvert 2000).
The Celebes Molasse was originally interpreted to
relate to a single Miocene collision (Kundig
1956). More recently it has been suggested to be
diachronous across Sulawesi, representing several
tectonic events (Hall & Wilson 2000). Within
West Sulawesi and the East Arm it is interpreted
to represent latest Miocene to Plio-Pleistocene
uplift and erosion (Hall & Wilson 2000).
Stratigraphic observations
We present a new stratigraphy (Fig. 2) for the
western, central and eastern Togian Islands
(Fig. 3). Based on new field observations and lab-
oratory analyses, we define three new units, the
Walea Formation, Peladan Formation and Benteng
Intrusives, and integrate them with the previously
recognized Lamusa Formation (Rusmana et al.
 TOGIAN ISLANDS AND GORONTALO BAY 181

Fig. 2. Schematic Neogene stratigraphy of the western, central and eastern Togian Islands, incorporating the age ranges
derived in this study. Age (Ma) from Gradstein et al. (2004); PZ, Planktonic Foraminiferal biozones from
BouDagher-Fadel (2008); LS, Far East Letter Stages from BouDagher-Fadel (2008). Note that the timescale is
not linear.

1982, 1993), Bongka Formation (Rusmana et al. (Rusmana et al. 1982, 1993) and Luwuk Formation
1993) of the Celebes Molasse (Sarasin & Sarasin (Garrard et al. 1988). Our new stratigraphy ranges
1901; van Bemmelen 1949), Lonsio Formation in age from possible Mesozoic basement rocks
 182
M. A. COTTAM ET AL.
Fig. 3. Simplified geological map of the Togian Archipelago, modified from Rusmana et al. (1982, 1993) based on new field observations. Island names in bold italics; population
centres in regular. Open circles and/or underlined dip measurements indicate locations examined in this study. Other structural information from Rusmana et al. (1982, 1993).
Arrows and bold numbers (all prefixed RTG-) highlight the location of samples explicitly discussed in the text, for which GPS locations (decimal degrees) are listed in the inset table.
 TOGIAN ISLANDS AND GORONTALO BAY
through to Quaternary deposits (Fig. 2). The most
complete section is seen in the eastern islands
(Walea Kodi and Walea Bahi; Fig. 3) where base-
ment rocks, possibly of Eocene to Oligocene age,
are overlain by Middle Miocene, Pliocene and
Quaternary strata. The central and western islands
expose more restricted sections dominated by Plio-
cene volcaniclastics and clastics respectively.
Lamusa formation
Indurated sedimentary rocks of different types occur
in several small exposures at the southern end of the
channel between the islands of Batu Daka and
Togian (Fig. 3). The rocks are weakly bedded and
dip to the north. Lithologies include calcareous
sandstones, interbedded with non-calcareous sand-
stones and dark mudstones, and dark, fine-grained
recrystallized limestones. They are heavily brec-
ciated and crushed. All lithologies are cut by small
extensional faults. No fossils or sedimentary struc-
tures were identified. The formation has a min-
imum thickness of 3 m, but neither the top, nor the
base was seen. Following Rusmana et al. (1993)
we assign these rocks to the Mesozoic Lamusa
Formation. Their highly indurated and veined char-
acter is consistent with the Mesozoic age suggested
by Rusmana et al. (1993) and suggests that they may
form part of the basement of the Togian Islands.
Walea formation
Arc-related volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks are
observed in exposures along the western coast of
Walea Bahi and eastern coast of Walea Kodi.
They include volcanic breccias, pillow lavas and
arc-derived volcanogenic sediments. Well-bedded
volcanogenic sedimentary rocks are exposed as a
large, possibly fallen, block on the west coast of
the southern peninsula of Walea Bahi. Medium-
grained, feldspar-rich, grey-brown beds are inter-
bedded with green and blue-grey units with a fine-
grained green matrix on a scale of c. 5 cm. All
show internal stratification and possible grading.
Further north, just south of a large coastal embay-
ment, a larger outcrop exposes an in-situ section
of gently dipping (19298 to the east) volcanogenic
sediments (Fig. 4a) including interbedded sands
and silts, some of which are calcareous. Mostly
beds are laterally persistent with normal grading,
parallel and cross-lamination and ripple cross
bedding. Bedding parallel bioturbation and water
escape structures are evident in the more sandy
layers. Finer-grained siltstones dominate the upper
part of the exposed sequence. The volcanogenic
sedimentary rocks are interpreted to have been
deposited as turbidites and debrites in a deepwater
arc-related setting.
183
Volcanic rocks occur along the west coast of
the southern peninsula of Walea Bahi and in coastal
outcrops along the channel between Walea Bahi
and Walea Kodi. They include breccias, pillow
lavas and more massive and layered lavas of basal-
tic to andesitic composition. The rocks have a fine-
grained groundmass of feldspar, pyroxene and
altered olivine + phenocrysts of plagioclase
feldspar + amygdales (up to 1 cm) of zeolite and/
or calcite. Large blocks (1  0.6 m) of breccia are
exposed in the beach along the west coast of the
southern peninsula of Walea Bahi. There are large,
sub-rounded, clasts of dark grey (c. 10 cm) and
green (c. 6 cm) material within a light grey matrix.
The clasts have within them feldspar phenocrysts
and amygdales of low-grade epidote-rich alteration
products. Further north, pillows are exposed in
several outcrops along the channel between Walea
Bahi and Walea Kodi, often forming small head-
lands. Pillows are grey greenish in colour, weather-
ing to grey brown. In most places they are heavily
weathered and altered with late-stage alteration
along fractures. Where relatively fresh, pillows
show spectacular teardrop shapes (around 30 cm
across), picked out by dark, glassy chilled rims of
between 0.5 and 3 cm and fine-grained interpillow
material (Fig. 4b), which provide right way-up
criteria. Pillows contain abundant zeolite and/or
calcite amygdales up to 1 cm in size; chilled rims
contain small (5 mm) amygdales and alter to rusty
coloured skins where weathered. More massive,
layered lavas are also present; individual flows are
marked by craggy tops and brecciated areas.
Rusmana et al. (1982) reported similar pillow
lavas, breccias, conglomerates and sandstones
from Poh Head (Fig. 1), at the east end of the East
Arm, and within the eastern Togian Islands, assign-
ing them both to the Miocene Malik Formation.
Simandjuntak (1986) assigned basaltic rocks from
Poh Head to the basalt zone of the Balantak Ophio-
lite, and suggested a Late Cenomanian to Eocene
age based on K Ar ages. In a later revision,
Rusmana et al. (1993) assigned these rocks to the
Cretaceous Mafic Complex, whilst those in the
eastern Togian Islands were reassigned to the Mio-
Pliocene Lonsio Formation (see below).
Based on new observations we assign the basal-
tic lavas and volcanogenic sedimentary rocks of
the Togian Islands to the Walea Formation, a new
formation named from the type localities on the
islands of Walea Bahi and Walea Kodi. Neither
the top, nor the base, of the Walea Formation is
observed but there is a minimum thickness of 5 m
of pillows and 7 m of volcanogenic sediments.
The total thickness of the formation is probably
much greater. The exact age of the Walea Formation
is unknown, but it is the stratigraphically oldest and
structurally lowest unit seen in the eastern islands.
184 M. A. COTTAM ET AL.

a b

30 cm

20 cm

20 cm ~2 m

Fig. 4. Field photographs of the Walea Formation and Lonsio Formation. (a) Arc-related (?) volcaniclastic sediments of
the Walea Formation. (b) Basaltic pillows of the Walea Formation exposed on the west coast of Walea Bahi. (c)
Well-bedded tuffs of the Lonsio Formation. Coarser tuff units (centre of image beneath pen) show rough stratification,
dewatering and cross bedding. Finer tuff units (upper and lower sections of photograph) are more massive, have
irregular bases and show an increase in joint density towards the upper boundary (lower section of photograph). (d)
Syn-sedimentary folding and faulting within the Lonsio Formation.

Volcanic arc sedimentary rocks have not been Peladan formation

reported from the East Arm ophiolite. Their associ-
ation with basaltic lavas is more similar to the oldest
rocks known from the North Arm which formed in
an intra-oceanic arc between the Middle Eocene
and earliest Miocene.
Hard, indurated limestones occur on (at least two)
small islands situated around 250 m off the central
west coast of Walea Bahi. Lithologies include
micritic wackestones and packstones with
 TOGIAN ISLANDS AND GORONTALO BAY
planktonic and benthic foraminifera and fine-
grained volcanogenic material (Table 1). These out-
crops define the type section for the new Peladan
Formation. Benthic and planktonic foraminifera
indicate shallow inner platform or fore-reef shelf
and deeper inner platform environments (Table 1).
The sequence is well-bedded on a decimetre scale,
up to a maximum of around 1 m (mode c. 30 cm)
and dips gently towards the north. The sequence
has a minimum observed stratigraphic thickness of
around 12 m. The top and base of the sequence is
not seen and the true thickness may be much
greater. No other structure (folding/faulting) was
observed. In places the beds have a rubbly texture
interpreted to reflect re-working of components
prior to deposition. Some thin (c. 10 cm), finer
grained horizons appear not to have been reworked.
In places the limestone are partially dolomitized.
EarlyMiddle Miocene limestones of a similar
age and character are reported from the North and
East Arms of Sulawesi (e.g. Sukamto 1973; Norvick
& Pile 1976; Rusmana et al. 1982; Garrard et al.
1988; van Leeuwen & Muhardjo 2005). In the
Togian Islands Rusmana et al. (1982) previously
assigned these rocks to the Salodik Formation and
suggested a Late Paleocene to Early Miocene age.
Later, Rusmana et al. (1993) reassigned them to
the Lonsio Formation tuffaceous units.
Micropalaeontological analyses of larger fora-
minifera and planktonic foraminifera were per-
formed on five samples of the Peladan Formation
(Table 1). Nannofossil dating was not attempted.
We correlate the standard Planktonic Foraminiferal
biozones (PZ) with the Letter Stages (LS) of the
Far East (as defined by BouDagher-Fadel 2008),
relative to the geological timescale of Gradstein
et al. (2004). Analyses indicate a late Middle
Miocene age (PZ: Late N12 Early N17; LS of
the Far East: Late Tf2 Early Tg). Based on their
lithology and age we assign these rocks to the new
Peladan Formation, named for one of the two
islands on which they were observed.
Bongka formation (Celebes Molasse)
Weakly to moderately consolidated interbedded
sediments with characteristic lithic-rich horizons
occur in heavily weathered outcrops along the chan-
nel between the islands of Batu Daka and Togian.
They are sub-rounded, green-brown, medium-
grained sandstones with bands of coarser, angular
lithic fragments, medium-grained sandstones with
a slabby, bedded character, and brecciated material
with possible ultrabasic content. Petrographical
analyses reveal a matrix of serpentinite-rich mate-
rial. The sequence dips moderately (c. 308) to the
north. Sediments with a coarser grain size, but of
comparable composition and structure (moderate
185
c. 308 dips to the NE/NNE) are seen in a more
extensive cliff outcrop on a small island east of
the village of Katupat. Lithologies at this location
include laminated siltstones and sandstones, and
pebble conglomerates containing well-rounded peb-
bles (up to 2 cm) dominated by ophiolitic material
(basalts, dolerites, gabbros and serpentinite) with
some chert and limestones. The silts and sands
contain abundant, highly oxidized, plant mate-
rial. The formation has a minimum thickness, as
observed in outcrop, of 15 m but neither the top
nor the base of the unit is seen.
Similar deposits, but coarser still in grain size,
were observed in roadside outcrops on the northern
coast of the East Arm of Sulawesi, west of the town
of Bunta (Rusmana et al. 1982, 1993; this study).
Here they comprise coarse, massive, sandstones
with pebble-rich horizons that include large clasts
(up to 3 cm) of red chert and cobbles (up to
15 cm) of basalts, dolerites, gabbros, metagabbros
and serpentinite with some limestones. Again, the
sequence dips north at moderate angles of c. 308.
We observed a minimum stratigraphic thickness of
around 20 m, although neither the top nor the base
of the unit was seen. Based on strong lithological
and compositional similarities between these rocks
and those within the Togian Islands, we follow
Rusmana et al. (1993) in assigning all of these
rocks to the Bongka Formation of the Celebes
Molasse. In northern Sulawesi palaeontological
dating of the Celebes Molasse suggests a Late
Early Pliocene to Mid Pleistocene age (Norvick &
Pile 1976; Ratman 1976; Hadiwijoyo et al. 1993;
Chamberlain & Seago 1995). Late Miocene
Pliocene ages have been reported for the East Arm
(Surono & Sukarna 1996).
The Celebes Molasse has been interpreted as
alluvial fan and coastal fan delta deposits that
reflect the deposition of locally sourced sediment
in alluvial plain environments with a marginal
marine influence (Calvert 2000). In contrast, the
ophiolitic material observed in the Togian Islands
has no local source, and such material can only
have been derived from the East Arm Ophiolite.
Based on the relative grain size and shared structural
characteristics (gentle north dip), we suggest that
outcrops of the Bongka Formation within the East
Arm and the Togian Islands represent proximal
(coarser) and distal (finer) alluvial fan deposits
respectively, both having been transported north
from the interior of the East Arm.
Lonsio formation
Volcaniclastic rocks are extensively exposed in
coastal outcrops on the northern peninsula of Tala
Teoh, the north coast of Togian and the west coast
of Walea Kodi. They are grain-supported rocks
Table 1. Biostratigraphical age, facies and palaeoenvironmental analyses of the Peladan formation

186
Sample ID Depositional Microfacies Components Age (PZ/LS)* (based
environment on first appearance)

RTG 18 A Shallow inner Micritic packstone of planktonic and Benthic foraminifera: Cycloclypeus indopacific, Katacycloclypeus Late N12/Late Tf2
platform/ benthic foraminifera. Micritic martini, Amphistegina spp., Cycloclypeus pillaris, Cycloclypeus
fore-reef patches reworked into the matrix. spp., Sphaerogypsina spp., Lepidocyclina spp., Lepidocyclina
shelf (Nephrolepidina) spp., L. (Nephrolepidina) angulosa Planktonic
foraminifera: Sphaeroidinellopsis spp., Globorotalia
praemenardii, Globigerinoides spp., Globorotalia peripheroacuta,
Globorotalia praefohsi, Globoquadrina altispira, Planorbulinella
solida Globoquadrina spp., Globoquadrina dehiscens, Echinoid
spp., fragments of rodophyte algae.
RTG 18 B Shallow inner Micritic packstone of larger benthic Benthic foraminifera: Cycloclypeus spp., Cycloclypeus pillaria, Late N12/Late Tf2
platform/ foraminifera Cycloclypeus carpenteri, Amphistegina spp., Discogypsina discus.
fore-reef Textularia spp., Carpenteria spp., Katacycloclypeus annulatus,
shelf Planorbulinella spp. Planktonic foraminifera: Dentoglobigerina

M. A. COTTAM ET AL.
altispira, Globigerinoides primordius, Globigerina spp.,
Globigerinoides quadrilobatus, Orbulina suturalis, Globorotalia
praemenardii, Echinoid spp., fragments of rodophyte algae and
corals, Gastropods, fragments of bryozoa.
RTG 18 C Shallow inner Micritic packstone of recrystallized Benthic foraminifera: Cycloclypeus spp., Amphistegina spp., N12 and younger/Tf2
platform/ algae and benthic foraminifera. Textularia spp., Miliolid spp., Sphaerogypsina spp. Planktonic and younger
fore-reef Micritic patches reworked into the foraminifera: Globigerinoides quadrilobatus, Orbulina spp.,
shelf matrix. Globigerinoides spp., Globorotalia menardii, fragments of
rodophyte algae, Lithophyllum spp., Lithothamnium spp.,
Gastropods, Echinoid spp., rare fragments of bryozoa.
RTG 18 D Shallow inner Micritic packstone of foraminifera Benthic foraminifera: Cycloclypeus pillaria, Planorbulinella solida, Late N12 Early
platform/ and algae. Gypsina spp., Sphaerogypsina spp., Elphidium spp., Nodosaria N17/Tf3 Early
fore-reef spp. Planktonic foraminifera: Globoquadrina spp., Tg
shelf Globigerinoides trilobus, Globigerinoides spp., Orbulina suturalis,
Globorotalia conoidea, Globorotalia menardii, Globorotalia
scitula, Gastropod spp., fragments of bryozoa, fragments of coral.
RTG 18E Relatively Micritic wackestone of foraminifera. Benthic Foraminifera: Lepidocyclina spp., Carpenteria spp., Late N12 Early
deeper inner Reworked patches of micrite are Cycloclypeus spp., Cycloclypeus pillaria, Operculina spp., N13/Late Tf2
platform also present. Heterostegina spp., Gypsina spp., Planorbulinella larvata, Lagena Early Tf3
spp., Textularia spp. Planktonic foraminifera: Globoquadrina
altispira, Globorotalia spp., Globorotalia scitula, Globoquadrina
dehiscens, Globorotalia menardii, Globoquadrina dehiscens,
Globorotalia fohsi, Ostracod spp., Gastropod spp.

*We correlate the standard Planktonic Foraminiferal biozones (PZ) with the Letter Stages (LS) of the Far East (as defined by BouDagher-Fadel 2008), relative to the biostratigraphical timescale (as defined by
Gradstein et al. 2004)
 TOGIAN ISLANDS AND GORONTALO BAY
with a carbonate (dominantly sparry) matrix. Micro-
fossils and algal fragments are also embedded
within the matrix; their abundance varies between
units (Table 2).
The volcaniclastics are well-bedded, commonly
at the decimetre scale, with a maximum bed thick-
ness of around 3 m. Two main bed types alternate
at a range of scales. Individual beds appear laterally
persistent at the outcrop scale. Stratified beds are
typically around 10 to 30 cm in thickness and
show parallel lamination of fine to coarse sand.
They contain rare horizons of small (up to fine
pebbles) angular lithic fragments (Fig. 4c). In
places the beds show spectacular dewatering struc-
tures, and may be wholly or partly cross-bedded,
producing an irregular upper surface. The base of
the beds is almost universally planar. Stratified
units are overlain by fine-grained cream coloured
material, which show little variation in grain size
or internal structure (Fig. 4c). Beds range in thick-
ness from cm scale to a maximum of 3 m. Their
bases are commonly irregular, reflecting the topo-
graphy of the stratified layer below, and they
display an increase in joint density towards the
upper boundary, which is characteristically planar.
In places the finer beds may be very thin, or entirely
absent from the sequence. Overall, the sequence
dips gently in various directions. Locally, the
rocks dip steeply and show intense syn-sedimentary
folding and faulting (Fig. 4d), interpreted to
reflect soft sediment deformation. The sequence
has a minimum stratigraphic thickness of around
20 m, however, the top and base of the sequence
is not seen and the true thickness is probably
much more.
Comparable volcaniclastic rocks are observed on
Poh Head, where they include thick sequences of
coarse stratified units (this study). Rusmana et al.
(1982, 1993) described these rocks as tuffaceous
sediments and assigned them to the Lonsio For-
mation. Simandjuntak (1986) interpreted similar
volcanogenic sediments from the East Arm as
megacyclic turbidites, and assigned them to the
Lonsuit Turbidites of the Batui Group. We interpret
these rocks as tuffaceous sediments that reflect rapid
aqueous reworking of primary volcaniclastic mate-
rial during deposition in a shallow marine environ-
ment soon after eruption. Microfossil observations
suggest depths less than 200 m. Stratification
reflects crude sorting of coarse ash during settling
through the water column; cross-bedding may reflect
turbidity currents formed by ash initially held in
suspension. Finer-grained ash settled more slowly
through the water column, draping topography in
the underlying coarse units. Pumice is largely
absent and may have been floated off and not pre-
served (e.g. Freundt 2003). The repeated sequence
of coarse and fine tuff may reflect pulses within a
187
single eruption or input from several eruptions.
Dewatering structures within coarse units suggest
rapid loading by the subsequent fine units. Jointing
present near the upper boundary of the finer units
may be syn- or post-depositional.
Based on their striking similarity to tuffaceous
units observed on Poh Head (Simandjuntak 1986;
A. J. Barber, pers. comm. 2009) we assign these
rocks to the Lonsio Formation of Rusmana et al.
(1982, 1993). Micropalaeontological analyses of
larger foraminifera and planktonic foraminifera
were performed on five tuff samples from the
Lonsio Formation (Table 2). Nannofossil dating
was not attempted. Foraminiferal assemblages
range from N4 and younger (PZ) and Te and
younger (LS), and constrain a Late Miocene to
Early Pliocene age (PZ: N19; LS: Early Th).
Benteng Intrusives
Intrusive rocks of intermediate composition are
exposed in isolated outcrops, along the northern
and southern coasts of Togian Island. They occur
as small intrusions, often forming topographic
highs and small islands. We infer the presence of
additional intrusive bodies within the interior of
Togian Island based on the presence of isolated
steep-sided topographic highs visible from the
coast as shown on the map of Kundig (1956). The
rocks have a fine to medium grained light-grey
groundmass with phenocrysts of phlogopite mica
(up to 7 mm) + feldspar (67 mm) + hornblende
(1 3 mm) + mafic xenoliths (up to 2 cm). In places
feldspar phenocrysts are concentrated into trails
up to 20 cm long. Orthogonal sub-horizontal and
sub-vertical joints spaced at around 20 to 50 cm,
and resulting in a characteristic blocky appearance,
suggest intrusion at shallow depths. In places the
rocks are cut by east west trending brittle faults,
producing breccia zones around 1 m wide.
These rocks are classified (Fig. 5; Table 3) as
trachydacites and trachyandesites on the total
alkalis v. silica (TAS) diagram of Le Maitre (1989)
(they are syenites on TAS diagrams adapted for plu-
tonic rocks (e.g. Wilson 1989)) and belong to the
alkaline magma series (Kuno 1966; Irvine &
Baragar 1971). They have an extremely K-rich
chemistry and plot within the shoshonitic field of
Rickwood (1989) on a K2O v. SiO2 diagram. Intru-
sive intermediate rocks were first recognized on
Togian Island by Kundig (1956), who identified
rocks of andesitic composition. These were sub-
sequently misidentified as basaltic (Rusmana et al.
1982) or volcaniclastic (Rusmana et al. 1993) in
character. We assign these intrusive rocks to the
new Benteng Intrusives, named for the village of
the same name in south central Togian Island
(Fig. 3).
 188
Table 2. Biostratigraphical age, facies and palaeoenvironmental analyses of the Lonsio formation

Sample ID Depositional environment Microfacies Components Age (PZ/LS)* (based

on first appearance)

RTG 25 Inner neritic, planktonic & shelf
benthic foraminifera drifted/
reworked into volcanic deposits.
Sparitic packstone of volcanic
sediments rich in embedded
planktonic foraminifera and rare
larger benthic and algae
fragments
Globoquadrina altispira, Globoquadrina spp., N19/Early Th
Orbulina spp., Globorotalia margaritae,
Globorotalia scitula, Sphaeroidinellopsis
subdehiscens, Globigerinoides trilobus,
Globigerinoides quadrilobatus, Globorotalia
acostaensis, Fragments of rodophyte algae,
Elphidium spp.

M. A. COTTAM ET AL.
RTG 26 Inner neritic Sparitic packstone of volcanic Globigerinoides spp. N4 and younger/Upper
sediments with rare embedded Te and younger
planktonic foraminifera
RTG 27 Sparitic packstone of volcanic Globigerinoides spp. N4 and younger/Upper
sediments with rare embedded Te and younger
planktonic foraminifera
RTG 30 Inner neritic, planktonic & shelf Sparitic packstone of volcanic Catapsydrax spp., Orbulina universa, N19/Early Th
benthic foraminifera drifted/ sediments rich in embedded Globoquadrina dehiscens, Pulleniatina
reworked into volcanic deposits. planktonic foraminifera and rare primalis, Globoquadrina altispira,
larger benthic and algae Globorotalia globosa, Globorotalia
fragments humerosa, Globorotalia mayeri, Globorotalia
scitula, Globigerinoides sacculifer,
Globigerinoides quadrilobatus, Elphidium
spp., Amphistegina spp., Heterostegina spp.,
Asterigerina spp.
RTG 36 Inner neritic Sparitic packstone of volcanic Orbulina universa, Globigerinoides spp., N4-N19/Upper Te
sediments with rare embedded Globigerinoides quadrilobatus, Early Th
planktonic foraminifera Globoquadrina spp.

*We correlate the standard Planktonic Foraminiferal biozones (PZ) with the Letter Stages (LS) of the Far East (as defined by BouDagher-Fadel 2008), relative to the biostratigraphical timescale (as defined by
Gradstein et al. 2004)
 TOGIAN ISLANDS AND GORONTALO BAY 189

Five high-purity mica separates from four sam-

ples of the Benteng Intrusives were dated using
40
Ar/39Ar techniques. Samples were crushed,
graded using disposable nylon cloth sieves in a
brass collar and separated using conventional elec-
tromagnetic techniques. High-purity mineral separ-
ates were handpicked from the 63 250 mm fraction,
and for RTG-12 from the .250 mm fraction, thus
any contamination in the analyses is assumed to be
due to intra-grain alteration and/or contaminants.
All analyses were undertaken in the Argon Labora-
tory of the Research School of Earth Sciences, The
Australian National University, using the furnace
step-heating technique (Table 4). Samples were
irradiated at the McMaster Nuclear Reactor,
McMaster University, Canada using Sanidine 92
176 from Fish Canyon Tuff, Colorado (K/Ar refer-
ence age 28.10 + 0.04 Ma) as the Fluence Monitor
(Spell & McDougall 2003). Ages were calculated
using the 40K abundances and decay constants of
Steiger & Jager (1977). Uncertainties in isotopic
ratios and ages are quoted at the 1s level.
For all samples plots of 36Ar/40Ar v. 39Ar/40Ar
demonstrate the presence of one main gas popu-
lation, with varying amounts of contaminants (such
as excess argon), and a large atmospheric argon
component particularly in the coarser grained
samples (Fig. 6). The oldest ages are preserved
in the high-temperature heating steps of coarse-
grained (.250 mm) biotite from samples RTG12
Fig. 5. Major element classification diagrams for the (2.40 + 0.01 Ma; MSWD (mean square of weighted
volcanic rock samples analysed in this study. (a) Total deviation) 1.58) and RTG31 (2.02 + 0.01 Ma;
alkalis (K2O Na2O) v. silica (SiO2) diagram. Field MSWD 0.01) (Fig. 6). However, significant atmos-
boundaries are those of Le Maitre (1989): 1, andesite; 2, pheric argon contents, and evidence of argon loss
dacite; 3, trachyandesite; 4, trachydacite. Subdivision and possible younger events render the meaning
into alkaline and sub-alkaline series: dashed curved line
of these ages ambiguous. Analysis of fine-grained
Irvine & Baragar (1971); solid curved line Kuno
(1966). (b) K2O v. SiO2 diagram. Series boundaries and (250 63 mm) biotite from sample RTG12 contains
nomenclature: dashed lines and bold italics, Le Maitre significantly less atmospheric argon than the
(1989); solid lines and nomenclature in parentheses, after coarser-grained biotite and produced a reliable, con-
Rickwood (1989). sistently flat spectrum of 1.80 + 0.01 Ma (MSWD
3.95) (Fig. 6). This analysis provides the best age
for this sample and the most robust age for the
Table 3. Major element data (weight %) for samples Benteng Intrusives. Analyses of fine-grained mica
of the Benteng Intrusives analysed in this study from two other samples gave robust Pleistocene
ages. Despite disturbance during the initial heat-
Sample ID RTG08 RTG09 RTG12 RTG31 ing steps (linked to variation in Ca), over 50% of
the gas emitted from RTG08 produced a strong
SiO2 63.36 63.14 58.97 61.39 plateau with an age of 1.52 + 0.02 Ma (MSWD
Al2O3 15.52 15.43 15.85 14.54 0.3) (Fig. 6). Except for several contaminated inter-
Fe2O3 3.92 3.77 4.09 5.82 vening steps, analysis of fine-grained biotite from
MgO 2.25 2.37 2.97 2.24 RTG09 would have produced a similar plateau,
CaO 3.67 3.77 4.38 2.21
Na2O 4.41 4.62 3.88 3.44 giving an age of 1.68 + 0.09 Ma (MSWD 3.9)
K2O 5.40 5.34 6.51 6.46 with a younger age of 1.37 + 0.02 Ma evident
TiO2 0.34 0.33 0.76 0.69 (Fig. 6).
P2O5 0.42 0.41 0.45 0.43 Based on our new field observations and labora-
MnO 0.09 0.09 0.06 0.12 tory analyses we interpret these rocks as shallow
Total 99.38 99.26 97.92 97.34 level stocks and dykes of Late Pliocene to Early
Pleistocene age. The observed and inferred intrusive
 190
40
Table 4. Ar/39Ar step heating analyses

Temp Ar36 err Ar37 err Ar38 err Ar39 err Ar40 err Ar40* Ar40*/ Cumulative Calculated age Ca/K
(8C) (mol) (%) (mol) (%) (mol) (%) (mol) (%) (mol) (%) (%) Ar39(K) Ar39(%) Ma + 1s.d.

Sample RTG-08 (R1) Biotite

600 4.19E-16 0.87 2.04E-15 3.90 1.79E-16 3.38 6.52E-15 0.24 1.30E-13 0.25 4.60 0.92 0.71 2.87 + 0.78 0.59
650 1.47E-16 1.46 1.89E-15 6.16 1.40E-16 3.73 6.08E-15 0.56 4.77E-14 0.64 8.90 0.70 1.37 2.20 + 0.36 0.59
700 2.48E-16 0.73 1.96E-15 3.02 2.12E-16 1.75 1.28E-14 0.20 8.16E-14 0.21 10.00 0.64 2.76 2.00 + 0.14 0.29
750 4.99E-16 0.48 2.07E-15 8.62 3.92E-16 0.29 2.52E-14 0.11 1.57E-13 0.16 5.50 0.34 5.49 1.08 + 0.16 0.16
800 1.02E-15 0.24 2.88E-15 2.87 7.11E-16 1.25 4.07E-14 0.09 3.24E-13 0.11 6.60 0.53 9.92 1.66 + 0.09 0.14
840 1.28E-15 0.38 4.70E-15 3.48 8.54E-16 0.21 4.97E-14 0.09 4.00E-13 0.11 5.30 0.43 15.32 1.35 + 0.13 0.18
890 2.90E-15 0.26 7.08E-15 2.45 1.66E-15 0.91 9.11E-14 0.11 9.10E-13 0.13 5.80 0.58 25.22 1.83 + 0.12 0.15
930 2.91E-15 0.41 9.44E-15 3.38 2.09E-15 0.54 1.27E-13 0.11 9.24E-13 0.18 6.60 0.48 39.02 1.51 + 0.14 0.14

M. A. COTTAM ET AL.
970 2.49E-15 0.34 7.38E-15 0.88 2.93E-15 0.63 1.99E-13 0.12 8.37E-13 0.17 11.60 0.49 60.61 1.53 + 0.06 0.07
1020 1.94E-15 0.48 5.66E-15 3.74 2.42E-15 0.47 1.66E-13 0.09 6.55E-13 0.11 12.10 0.48 78.64 1.50 + 0.08 0.06
1070 8.81E-16 0.67 6.81E-15 1.57 1.67E-15 0.64 1.21E-13 0.13 3.11E-13 0.20 15.50 0.40 91.83 1.25 + 0.06 0.11
1140 2.98E-16 0.73 4.17E-14 0.64 9.95E-16 0.72 7.28E-14 0.08 1.19E-13 0.14 28.10 0.46 99.74 1.44 + 0.06 1.09
1200 5.94E-17 2.41 1.04E-13 1.06 4.91E-17 0.80 2.00E-15 0.50 1.25E-14 0.53 45.10 2.94 99.95 9.20 + 0.90 103.00
1350 4.00E-17 3.20 1.85E-14 5.07 1.27E-17 20.02 4.88E-16 0.61 1.04E-14 0.70 4.20 0.92 100.00 2.89 + 4.44 74.20
Total 1.51E-14 2.16E-13 1.43E-14 9.20E-13 4.92E-12 0.49 1.53 + 0.10
Lambda K40 5.5430E-10 J 1.7413E-3 +0.413
Sample RTG-09 (R2) Biotite
600 9.22E-16 0.55 2.25E-15 5.24 3.05E-16 0.99 7.96E-15 0.28 2.78E-13 0.31 2.10 0.72 0.32 2.26 + 0.94 0.54
650 5.83E-16 0.63 1.99E-15 2.74 2.54E-16 0.60 1.06E-14 0.21 1.78E-13 0.26 2.90 0.49 0.75 1.53 + 0.35 0.36
700 6.71E-16 0.45 3.90E-15 2.72 4.28E-16 0.66 2.20E-14 0.13 2.08E-13 0.16 4.30 0.41 1.65 1.27 + 0.15 0.34
750 1.09E-15 0.72 4.56E-15 2.40 7.13E-16 1.27 4.12E-14 0.38 3.45E-13 0.43 6.70 0.56 3.32 1.77 + 0.23 0.21
800 4.73E-15 0.36 1.40E-14 4.79 2.73E-15 0.69 1.52E-13 0.09 1.48E-12 0.11 5.40 0.52 9.50 1.64 + 0.13 0.17
840 4.03E-15 0.37 1.01E-14 1.43 2.31E-15 0.26 1.28E-13 0.12 1.26E-12 0.13 5.10 0.50 14.70 1.56 + 0.18 0.15
930 3.69E-15 0.56 1.43E-14 1.65 3.58E-15 0.59 2.38E-13 0.22 1.23E-12 0.34 11.10 0.58 24.37 1.80 + 0.11 0.11
970 1.92E-15 0.39 1.14E-14 2.18 4.60E-15 0.91 3.39E-13 0.10 7.54E-13 0.19 23.60 0.53 38.13 1.65 + 0.03 0.06
1020 1.40E-15 0.60 1.07E-14 2.75 4.10E-15 0.33 3.07E-13 0.11 5.74E-13 0.13 26.70 0.50 50.58 1.57 + 0.03 0.07
1070 2.84E-15 0.40 4.04E-14 1.27 9.22E-15 0.40 7.00E-13 0.06 1.16E-12 0.11 26.40 0.44 78.98 1.37 + 0.02 0.11
1140 2.07E-15 0.80 2.64E-13 0.22 5.79E-15 0.35 4.27E-13 0.09 8.00E-13 0.12 25.60 0.48 96.31 1.50 + 0.04 1.17
1200 7.59E-16 1.23 4.84E-13 0.36 9.02E-16 1.33 4.59E-14 0.21 2.19E-13 0.32 19.80 0.95 98.16 2.99 + 0.20 20.20
1350 4.57E-16 0.84 1.07E-13 0.60 6.62E-16 1.33 4.55E-14 0.09 1.53E-13 0.14 18.40 0.62 100.00 1.95 + 0.08 4.47
Total 2.52E-14 9.67E-13 3.56E-14 2.46E-12 8.64E-12 0.50 1.57 + 0.06
Lambda K40 5.5430E-10 J 1.7378E-3 +0.413
Sample RTG-12 (coarse-grained) (R3) Biotite
600 2.35E-15 0.47 4.36E-16 16.96 4.87E-16 1.48 2.39E-15 0.25 6.94E-13 0.26 -0.20 0.00 0.08 0.00 + 4.90 0.35
650 1.90E-15 0.63 4.40E-16 22.82 4.18E-16 0.35 4.43E-15 0.32 5.60E-13 0.33 -0.10 0.00 0.23 0.00 + 2.69 0.19
700 2.57E-15 0.45 2.14E-15 5.57 6.49E-16 0.88 1.20E-14 0.08 7.64E-13 0.10 0.60 0.40 0.65 1.27 + 1.05 0.34
750 4.70E-15 0.45 5.49E-15 1.01 1.24E-15 1.91 2.49E-14 0.30 1.41E-12 0.33 1.20 0.68 1.50 2.15 + 1.08 0.42
800 1.15E-14 0.28 6.25E-15 2.98 2.93E-15 0.83 5.73E-14 0.11 3.43E-12 0.12 1.20 0.70 3.46 2.20 + 0.58 0.21
840 8.35E-15 0.38 5.59E-15 5.75 2.80E-15 0.28 9.55E-14 0.17 2.50E-12 0.21 1.10 0.30 6.74 0.94 + 0.36 0.11
900 1.19E-14 0.50 2.25E-15 5.51 5.12E-15 0.45 2.24E-13 0.35 3.61E-12 0.45 2.10 0.34 14.40 1.08 + 0.38 0.02
980 1.51E-14 0.43 3.31E-15 10.36 9.69E-15 0.98 5.49E-13 0.17 4.79E-12 0.24 6.70 0.58 33.22 1.83 + 0.13 0.01
1020 6.52E-15 0.29 2.40E-15 11.44 6.72E-15 0.51 4.40E-13 0.08 2.22E-12 0.14 12.80 0.65 48.30 2.04 + 0.05 0.01
1060 3.49E-15 1.03 2.18E-15 11.95 5.04E-15 0.53 3.52E-13 0.19 1.28E-12 0.23 18.30 0.67 60.37 2.09 + 0.12 0.01
1100 2.81E-15 0.98 2.34E-15 4.76 5.28E-15 0.76 3.82E-13 0.08 1.14E-12 0.16 25.90 0.77 73.47 2.42 + 0.07 0.01
1200 2.76E-15 0.43 1.71E-14 0.79 9.57E-15 0.26 7.21E-13 0.06 1.38E-12 0.08 39.70 0.76 98.19 2.40 + 0.02 0.05

TOGIAN ISLANDS AND GORONTALO BAY

1350 1.94E-16 2.36 2.49E-15 5.92 6.83E-16 1.77 5.27E-14 0.53 9.48E-14 0.64 38.50 0.69 100.00 2.17 + 0.09 0.09
Total 7.41E-14 5.25E-14 5.06E-14 2.92E-12 2.39E-11 0.65 2.03 + 0.13
Lambda K40 5.5430E-10 J 1.7442E-3 +0.426
Sample RTG-12 (fine-grained) (R4) Biotite
600 3.70E-16 1.23 2.29E-15 12.90 1.88E-16 2.11 8.05E-15 0.25 1.18E-13 0.29 7.40 1.09 0.32 3.39 + 0.51 0.54
650 3.83E-16 0.85 4.55E-15 1.32 2.74E-16 2.01 1.62E-14 0.18 1.23E-13 0.22 7.90 0.60 0.97 1.87 + 0.19 0.53
700 3.24E-16 1.14 6.82E-15 3.16 4.00E-16 0.98 2.74E-14 0.20 1.14E-13 0.25 15.60 0.65 2.07 2.02 + 0.13 0.47
750 7.46E-16 1.34 2.17E-14 4.21 1.59E-15 2.31 1.15E-13 0.17 2.92E-13 0.19 24.20 0.62 6.65 1.92 + 0.10 0.36
800 2.83E-16 0.87 7.56E-15 1.05 9.40E-16 0.45 7.21E-14 0.39 1.26E-13 0.45 32.60 0.57 9.53 1.78 + 0.04 0.20
850 3.30E-16 1.68 7.82E-15 3.81 1.60E-15 0.54 1.21E-13 0.10 1.72E-13 0.14 41.70 0.59 14.37 1.85 + 0.04 0.12
890 3.08E-16 1.10 5.27E-15 4.20 2.46E-15 0.78 1.85E-13 0.16 2.03E-13 0.23 52.90 0.58 21.75 1.81 + 0.02 0.05
930 2.46E-16 0.90 3.26E-15 4.00 3.56E-15 0.29 2.72E-13 0.12 2.37E-13 0.17 66.30 0.58 32.62 1.80 + 0.01 0.02
970 3.62E-16 1.10 2.77E-15 13.41 4.57E-15 0.44 3.50E-13 0.34 3.17E-13 0.38 63.50 0.58 46.61 1.80 + 0.01 0.02
1020 5.43E-16 0.74 3.14E-15 0.94 4.57E-15 0.34 3.51E-13 0.08 3.71E-13 0.10 54.20 0.57 60.66 1.79 + 0.01 0.02
1070 5.92E-16 0.72 6.44E-15 2.47 4.14E-15 0.25 3.15E-13 0.07 3.58E-13 0.10 48.90 0.56 73.27 1.74 + 0.01 0.04
1140 9.20E-16 0.59 4.58E-14 0.58 6.96E-15 0.18 5.33E-13 0.13 5.91E-13 0.15 52.40 0.58 94.61 1.81 + 0.01 0.16
1200 2.96E-16 0.73 8.36E-14 0.72 1.71E-15 0.35 1.29E-13 0.09 1.61E-13 0.14 48.90 0.61 99.78 1.90 + 0.02 1.23
1350 5.45E-17 2.59 6.65E-15 1.25 8.01E-17 4.55 5.50E-15 0.41 1.88E-14 0.44 17.00 0.58 100.00 1.81 + 0.24 2.30
Total 5.76E-15 2.08E-13 3.30E-14 2.50E-12 3.20E-12 0.58 1.81 + 0.02
Lambda K40 5.5430E-10 J 1.7305E-3 +0.356
(Continued)

191
 192
Table 4. Continued

Temp Ar36 err Ar37 err Ar38 err Ar39 err Ar40 err Ar40* Ar40*/ Cumulative Calculated age Ca/K
(8C) (mol) (%) (mol) (%) (mol) (%) (mol) (%) (mol) (%) (%) Ar39(K) Ar39(%) Ma + 1s.d.

Sample RTG-31 (coarse-grained) (R6) Biotite

470 6.17E-17 4.37 1.04E-16 24.22 2.80E-17 4.16 1.17E-15 0.50 1.82E-14 0.51 -0.30 0.00 0.07 0.00 + 1.83 0.17
510 3.02E-16 1.19 3.13E-16 15.37 1.50E-16 4.28 7.16E-15 0.20 9.00E-14 0.24 0.70 0.08 0.49 0.26 + 0.50 0.08
550 7.04E-16 0.89 3.85E-16 2.84 3.39E-16 0.32 1.65E-14 0.21 2.08E-13 0.23 -0.40 0.00 1.45 0.00 + 0.36 0.04
600 1.68E-15 0.67 1.12E-15 3.27 9.63E-16 0.59 5.15E-14 0.18 5.10E-13 0.21 2.30 0.22 4.46 0.70 + 0.22 0.04

M. A. COTTAM ET AL.
650 2.96E-15 0.36 2.58E-15 0.45 1.99E-15 0.56 1.12E-13 0.11 8.98E-13 0.14 2.50 0.20 10.98 0.63 + 0.10 0.04
700 4.48E-15 0.35 4.28E-15 2.73 3.23E-15 0.47 1.91E-13 0.05 1.40E-12 0.10 5.30 0.39 22.14 1.20 + 0.09 0.04
750 5.25E-15 0.28 4.91E-15 5.91 3.87E-15 0.58 2.26E-13 0.07 1.66E-12 0.12 6.40 0.47 35.36 1.47 + 0.08 0.04
790 3.87E-15 0.81 3.03E-15 2.15 2.68E-15 0.79 1.60E-13 0.66 1.23E-12 0.79 6.90 0.53 44.72 1.65 + 0.28 0.04
840 4.88E-15 0.73 3.76E-15 5.11 3.48E-15 1.11 1.99E-13 0.15 1.56E-12 0.16 7.40 0.59 56.32 1.83 + 0.17 0.04
890 2.65E-15 0.91 2.99E-15 4.52 2.19E-15 0.73 1.35E-13 0.10 8.55E-13 0.16 8.10 0.52 64.20 1.61 + 0.17 0.04
950 3.94E-15 0.57 3.62E-15 7.25 3.00E-15 1.10 1.73E-13 0.26 1.28E-12 0.29 8.80 0.65 74.31 2.03 + 0.16 0.04
1000 3.55E-15 0.73 3.19E-15 3.05 2.32E-15 0.38 1.32E-13 0.17 1.14E-12 0.21 7.50 0.65 82.01 2.01 + 0.19 0.05
1050 5.05E-15 0.54 4.65E-15 5.84 3.17E-15 1.20 1.69E-13 0.21 1.59E-12 0.31 6.10 0.58 91.90 1.80 + 0.13 0.05
1100 2.52E-15 0.77 6.00E-15 2.63 1.74E-15 2.32 1.01E-13 0.14 8.18E-13 0.22 8.90 0.72 97.79 2.25 + 0.18 0.11
1200 5.26E-16 1.56 6.02E-14 0.42 6.73E-16 1.57 3.66E-14 0.15 1.79E-13 0.19 16.30 0.80 99.93 2.49 + 0.21 3.13
1350 4.62E-17 13.90 1.28E-15 8.90 4.96E-17 1.36 1.26E-15 1.19 1.75E-14 1.21 22.50 3.14 100.00 9.76 + 1.91 1.93
Total 4.25E-14 1.02E-13 2.99E-14 1.71E-12 1.35E-11 0.52 1.62 + 0.16
Lambda K40 5.5430E-10 J 1.7286E-3 +0.426
 TOGIAN ISLANDS AND GORONTALO BAY 193

5.0 5.0
RTG-08 RTG-09

4.0 4.0

3.0 3.0
(Ma)
Age

2.0 2.0

1.0 1.0

0.0 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Cumulative % 39Ar released Cumulative % 39Ar released

5.0 5.0 5.0

RTG-12 F RTG-12 C RTG-31

4.0 4.0 4.0

3.0 3.0 3.0

(Ma)
Age

2.0 2.0 2.0

1.0 1.0 1.0

0.0 0.0 0.0

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Cumulative % 39Ar released Cumulative % 39Ar released Cumulative % 39Ar released

Fig. 6. 40Ar/39Ar age spectra plots for biotite step-heating analyses performed on four samples from the Benteng
Intrusives. For sample RTG12 separate analyses were undertaken on coarse (.250 mm; RTG-12 C) and fine
(63250 mm; RTG-12 F) mica.

bodies follow a broadly northsouth trend through
the centre of Togian Island, supporting the spatial
observations of Kundig (1956), and indicating a
possible structural control on their intrusion.
Luwuk formation
Reefal limestones are found throughout the archipe-
lago, and dominate outcrop in the western islands
(e.g. Batu Daka). They occur as high cliffs and
raised terraces of poorly bedded, rubbly limestones
containing broken coral fragments. The limestones
have been uplifted to heights of around 200 m
within the archipelago and to more than 300 m on
the East Arm (Garrard et al. 1988). Following
Rusmana et al. (1982) we allocate these rocks a
Quaternary age and assign them to the Luwuk
Formation (Garrard et al. 1988).
Discussion
The Togian Islands offer a unique opportunity to
investigate Gorontalo Bay. Our new stratigraphy
offers insight into several aspects of the basin
including the nature of its basement rocks, its age
and its mode of formation.
Basement rocks beneath Gorontalo Bay
Based on geophysical evidence, Silver et al. (1983b)
suggested that much of Gorontalo Bay is underlain
194 M. A. COTTAM ET AL.

by basement rocks belonging to the East Sulawesi
Ophiolite (East Sulawesi Ophiolite). Beneath these
may be continental basement rocks belonging to
the leading edge of the Banggai-Sula microconti-
nental block (Silver et al. 1983a; Hall & Wilson
2000). Other hypotheses are that the bay is underlain
by oceanic crust of the Northern Sulawesi Province
(Monnier et al. 1995) or that the basement of Goron-
talo Bay comprises a complex amalgamation of at
least two tectonostratigraphic provinces. The posi-
tion of the Togian archipelago in the middle of
Gorontalo Bay provides an opportunity to test these
hypotheses.
Our new field observations suggest that the
central part of Gorontalo Bay, including the
Togian Islands, is underlain by oceanic and arc
basement of the Northern Sulawesi Province rather
than the continental basement of the Banggai-
Sula Block. The Walea Formation represents the
basement within the Togian Islands. Its age is not
known but it is inferred to be older than the
Middle Miocene limestones against which it is
faulted. The formation comprises an association of
volcanic rocks and subordinate volcanogenic sedi-
ments that we suggest represent the products of a
submerged volcanic arc rather than an ophiolite, as
previously interpreted (Kundig 1956). A similar
association of volcanic rocks and subordinate volca-
niclastics is reported within the Papayato Volcanic
rocks of the North Sulawesi Province (Elburg
et al. 2003; van Leeuwen et al. 2007), and is con-
sistent with the suggestion that the basement of
this province continues southwards beneath the
archipelago. Volcanic rocks (breccias, pillows and
lavas) similar to those of the lower parts of the
Walea Formation are also reported from the Cre-
taceous Balantak Ophiolite of East Sulawesi
(Simandjuntak 1986; A. J. Barber, pers. comm.
2009), but they do not show the same association
with contemporaneous volcaniclastic sediments.
Geochemical and/or geochronological analyses of
the Walea Formation, and comparison with the
(Middle Eocene to Early Miocene) Papayato Vol-
canic rocks (North Sulawesi Province of Elburg
et al. 2003) and the (Cretaceous) Balantak Ophiolite
(East Sulawesi Ophiolite) would help to resolve this
issue but the rocks are so deeply weathered that
obtaining suitable material has not so far been
possible.
Field investigations and geochemical analyses
suggest that the western end of the bay is underlain
by continental crust (Elburg et al. 2003; van
Leeuwen & Muhardjo 2005; van Leeuwen et al.
2007) as far east as 1218E (Fig. 1). This material
forms the eastern margin of Sundaland and is prob-
ably of Australian origin (van Leeuwen & Muhardjo
2005), but was accreted to Sundaland during the
mid-Cretaceous (Parkinson 1991; Parkinson et al.
1998; Hall 2009) and is not part of the Banggai-
Sulu block.
Continental crust probably continues north from
the Banggai-Sulu microcontinent beneath the
Molucca Sea (Silver et al. 1983b; Watkinson et al.
2010). Beneath Gorontalo Bay earthquake hypocen-
tres (Engdahl et al. 1998) define the southern edge
of the westward-subducting Molucca Sea plate. This
is a very sharp, almost WNW ESE, line (Fig. 7a)
that we interpret as the former continental
oceanic crust boundary between the Molucca Sea
and the Banggai-Sula block. The position of the
line implies that continental crust continues north
from the Banggai-Sula Islands to the centre of the
eastern part of Gorontalo Bay. How far west
beneath Gorontalo Bay the continental crust con-
tinues is uncertain; the oil that seeps through
the ophiolite north of the thrust complex in the
East Arm (Kundig 1956) suggests continental base-
ment may extend at least west to about 1228E
(Fig. 8).
Miocene carbonate platform
Miocene carbonate rocks are widespread in northern
Sulawesi. They include the Middle Miocene lime-
stones of the Peladan Formation reported here, car-
bonates of the Buol Beds in NW Sulawesi (Ratman
1976; van Leeuwen & Muhardjo 2005), the Salodik
Formation within the East Arm (Rusmana et al.
1982), and limestones observed around Palu and
the western Toli Toli region (Sukamto 1973;
Norvick & Pile 1976; van Leeuwen & Muhardjo
2005). Benthic and planktonic foraminifera indicate
deposition within inner platform/fore-reef shallow
marine environments during the late Early to
Middle Miocene (van Leeuwen & Muhardjo 2005;
this study). Jablonski et al. (2007) report submerged
carbonate reefs in Gorontalo Bay based on seismic
observations which they interpreted as Oligocene
to Middle Miocene in age. The distribution of
Miocene carbonate rocks suggests that Gorontalo
Bay was an area of extensive carbonate platform
deposition during the Miocene. It was probably

Fig. 7. Earthquake hypocentres in Eastern Indonesia based on the dataset of Engdahl et al. (1998). (a) Black crosses
denote all hypocentres, those assigned to the westward subducting Molucca Sea Plate are highlighted with blue dots,
those assigned to subduction at the North Sulawesi Trench are highlighted in green. Hypocentres associated with
volcanism at the Una-Una volcano are shown in purple. Red box denotes the line of section illustrated in (b).
(b) Northsouth cross section though Gorontalo Bay and the Una-Una volcano. Hypocentres associated with
volcanism at the Una-Una volcano (purple dots) are notably shallower than those related to the downgoing slab.
 TOGIAN ISLANDS AND GORONTALO BAY 195

Fig. 7 (Continued) (c) Earthquake hypocentres assigned to the Molucca Sea Plate coloured based on depth. To aid
clarity, hypocentres less than 75 km depth are not shown. Colouration shows that the slab dips gently to the NW but
is sharply terminated along its southern edge in a steep upturned lip. Black crosses denote hypocentres at depths greater
than 75 km elsewhere in the region. They are almost entirely absent in the Banggai-Sula plate.
196 M. A. COTTAM ET AL.

Fig. 8. Detailed bathymetry of Gorontalo Bay, modified from Jablonski et al. (2007). Topography based on SRTM
(Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission) data (courtesy of NASA, NGA & USGS).

characterized by contiguous shallow marine plat-
forms, but was certainly not a continuous deep
bathymetric feature at this time. In west Sulawesi
carbonate deposition terminated by the end of
the Middle Miocene (van Leeuwen & Muhardjo
2005).
Rapid Pliocene uplift
The clastic sediments of the Bongka Formation
record localized rapid uplift and erosion of the
East Arm in the latest Miocene to Pliocene
(Surono & Sukarna 1986; Hall & Wilson 2000),
instigating the development of the high (in places
.3 km) present-day topography. In some cases,
the sudden influx of clastic material may have
been directly responsible for the reduction of car-
bonate areas from large platforms to isolated pin-
nacle reefs (Jablonski et al. 2007).
Uplift has previously been attributed to collision
between the Banggai-Sula microcontinent and the
East Arm (e.g. Garrard et al. 1988; Davies 1990;
Hall 1996; Calvert 2000; Hall & Wilson 2000; van
Leeuwen & Muhardjo 2005). This interpretation
followed Hamiltons (1979) proposal of slivers of
continental crust moving west from the Birds
Head, with westward subduction implied in front
of them. However, it has also been suggested that
collision between microcontinental blocks and
the East Arm began earlier, between the latest
Oligocene and Late Miocene (e.g. Audley-Charles
1974; Sukamto & Simandjuntak 1983; Daly et al.
1991; Parkinson 1991; Smith & Silver 1991;
Bergman et al. 1996; Milsom 2000; Hall 2002;
van Leeuwen et al. 2007; Spakman & Hall 2010).
If so, collision significantly predated the rapid
uplift and erosion of the East Arm during the
latest Miocene to Pliocene, which must have a dif-
ferent cause.
Basin subsidence
Seismic surveys (Jablonski et al. 2007) and multi-
beam surveys of Gorontalo Bay show present-day
water depths up to 2000 m in the western part of
the basin and .2700 m in the eastern part (Fig. 8).
Sediment thicknesses within these areas may be as
great as 10 km (Jablonski et al. 2007). There is
a bathymetric high area that links the East Arm
and the Togian Archipelago, with water depths
of between 500 and 1200 m (Fig. 8), which may
continue across the entire bay to the North Arm.
 TOGIAN ISLANDS AND GORONTALO BAY 197

This feature appears to have a broadly NW
SE trend.
Seismic data have been used to suggest that the
basin formed in a predominantly extensional tec-
tonic environment dominated by east west trending
extensional faults (Jablonski et al. 2007). It was
interpreted to have formed in the Eocene as a
failed rift arm (Jablonski et al. 2007). We infer a
much younger, Pliocene age of formation of the
deep basin.
We interpret deposits of the Bongka Formation
(Celebes Molasse) observed in the Togian Islands
and the East Arm as distal and proximal equivalents
of a Pliocene alluvial fan building out from the East
Arm. Seismic data reveal thick (up to 2 seconds
TWT (two-way travel time)) northsouth trending
lobes of sediment that we infer to be submerged
parts of this fan (Fig. 9). Prograding fan delta
deposits of similar age are also interpreted from
elsewhere in the basin (Jablonski et al. 2007).
These observations imply that basin subsidence
(from close to sea level to present-day water
depths of 500 to 1500 m) occurred after deposition
of the fan. The age of the Celebes Molasse in the
East Arm therefore provides a maximum, latest
Miocene to Pliocene age (e.g. Surono & Sukarna
1996; Hall & Wilson 2000) for inception of
the basin.
Cause of subsidence and uplift
The broadly contemporaneous nature of basin subsi-
dence and uplift and erosion at the flanks suggests
that these two processes are inherently linked.
Together, the rapid latest Miocene to Pliocene
uplift (c. 3 km) and subsidence (.2 km) in and
around Gorontalo Bay has produced an exceptional
total elevation contrast of more than 5 km in less
than 6 Ma. The thickness of sediment in the
central part of the bay (up to 10 km) suggest much
greater differential movements.
The North Sulawesi subduction zone probably
developed in the last 5 Ma (Silver et al. 1983a;
Surmont et al. 1994). We suggest that palaeomag-
netic data (Surmont et al. 1994), seismic data
(Silver et al. 1983a; Jablonski et al. 2007) and
plate tectonic modelling (Silver et al. 1983b;
Hall 1996, 2002) indicate that the region has been
in extension since the Early Pliocene, with the
North Arm moving away from the East Arm.
We interpret Global Positioning System (GPS)
measurements of present-day motions (Walpersdorf

Fig. 9. Thickness of the sedimentary fill in Gorontalo Bay, modified from Jablonski et al. (2007). Thickness is based on
two-way travel-time in seconds (TWT s) between water bottom and basement isochron (Jablonski et al. 2007).
Topography based on SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission) data (courtesy of NASA, NGA & USGS).
198 M. A. COTTAM ET AL.
et al. 1998; Vigny et al. 2002; Socquet et al. 2006) to
indicate that this extension continues today. There-
fore one possible cause of subsidence is extension
of the upper plate that was driven by rollback of
the subduction hinge at the North Sulawesi
Trench. However, the extremely rapid rates and
large amounts of uplift and subsidence in the
region suggest that significant flow of lower crust,
from beneath the basin towards topographically
elevated areas, may also have contributed (Hall
2010).
Young volcanism
The rocks of the Lonsio Formation and Benteng
Intrusives record young volcanism in Gorontalo
Bay during the late Neogene. Although the Togian
Islands are in the right position for a subduction-
related volcanic arc ahead of a westward-moving
Banggai-Sula microcontinent, volcanism does not
appear to be subduction related. Such volcanic
activity should have preceded the East Sulawesi
Banggai-Sula microcontinent collision. The
youngest age suggested for this is end Miocene
(c. 5 Ma) but the dates we have for the Togian
Islands and Poh Head volcanic activity are Pliocene
or younger. The composition of the volcanic rocks is
not typical of most subduction-related volcanism.
The Benteng Intrusives are extremely rich in potass-
ium (Fig. 5; Table 3), they are shoshonites using the
scheme of Rickwood (1989). Earthquake hypocen-
tres beneath Una-Una volcano (Fig. 7b) show that
volcanism is unrelated to subduction beneath the
North Arm, being much further west and much
shallower than hypocentres related to the down-
going slab.
High-K compositions are characteristic of small
degrees of partial melting of anomalous (metasoma-
tized or enriched) material in the upper mantle (e.g.
Wilson 1989). We infer a similar origin for the
Benteng Intrusives and suggest that rapid exten-
sional thinning of the crust beneath Gorontalo Bay
caused the upper mantle to rise, decompress and
melt. The resulting K-rich melts were intruded
into the crust as a series of shallow level stocks
and dykes. Present-day high-K volcanism at Una-
Una suggests that volcanism has evolved to a rela-
tively less K-rich chemistry, possibly reflecting
increased amounts of partial melting, and has
moved WNW over time.
The tuffaceous rocks of the Lonsio Formation
represent the products of extrusive volcanism,
reworked during deposition in a shallow marine
environment during the latest Miocene and Early
Pliocene (N19). They are significantly older (as
much as 3 million years) than the Benteng Intru-
sives, and appear to be derived from a different
or unknown volcanic centre.
Post-Pliocene tectonics
Tuffaceous rocks of the Lonsio Formation are also
known from the East Arm (Rusmana et al. 1982,
1993; this study), around 150 km SE of the Togian
Islands. Following Simandjuntak (1986), we
suggest that Poh Head has been offset to the SE
along the Balantak Fault. Based on satellite
images, field observations and seismic data, we
interpret this structure as a steeply dipping, right-
lateral, strike-slip fault that can be traced offshore
to the east, where it terminates in a zone of dextral
transpression (Watkinson et al. 2011). To the west
of Poh Head the position of the fault is not known,
but it may bend to the north, possibly linking to
the fault that we infer between the islands of
Walea Kodi and Walea Bahi. The distribution and
ages of the volcanic rocks in the Togian Islands
and Poh Head could therefore be explained by post-
depositional dextral faulting, or by westward
migration of the volcanic centre with time.
Conclusions
We interpret Gorontalo Bay to be underlain by a
composite basement comprising several different
tectonostratigraphic provinces. The western end of
Gorontalo Bay is underlain by continental crust
added to the eastern margin of Sundaland in the
mid Cretaceous. The central part of the bay, includ-
ing the Togian Islands, is underlain by oceanic base-
ment of the Northern Sulawesi Province. It is
possible that the area south of the Togian Islands
has continental crust at depth, with a thrust contact
beneath the Northern Sulawesi volcanic basement
and East Arm ophiolite, as suggested by oil seeps
through the ophiolite on land.
In the Miocene, Gorontalo Bay was an area of
extensive carbonate deposition, characterized by
contiguous shallow marine carbonate platforms. It
was not a significant, continuous, deep bathymetric
feature in the Miocene. Instead, broadly contem-
poraneous flank uplift and basin subsidence give a
maximum latest Miocene to Pliocene age for the
inception of the deep basin.
Volcanism in the Togian Islands is unrelated
to subduction that preceded collision of the
Banggai-Sula microcontinent. Instead, it records
rapid extension of the crust in the Pliocene and
Plio-Pleistocene, causing the underlying mantle to
rise, decompress and melt. We interpret GPS obser-
vations (Socquet et al. 2006) to indicate extension is
continuing today and is probably the cause of vol-
canism at Una-Una. Volcanic activity has migrated
west towards Una-Una during the Pleistocene and
deposits of the Pliocene volcanic episode may
have been offset by dextral strike-slip displacement
along the Balantak Fault.
 TOGIAN ISLANDS AND GORONTALO BAY
Rapid subsidence associated with crustal thin-
ning was driven by rollback of the subduction
hinge at the North Sulawesi Trench. The unusual
character of volcanism in the Togian Islands is not
due to subduction but reflects crustal thinning and
extension. The extreme rates of uplift and sub-
sidence observed in and around Gorontalo Bay
(producing an elevation contrast of .5 km) suggest
flow of lower crust may also have contributed.
The industrial member companies of the SE Asia Research
Group Consortium provided financial support for our work.
The authors thank Benjamin Sapiie and Alfend Rudyawan
(Institute Teknologi Bandung) for facilitating our work in
Indonesia. M.A. Forster acknowledges the support of an
Australian Research Fellowship provided by the Austra-
lian Research Council (ARC) associated with the Discov-
ery grants DP0877274, and additional support from the
Research School of Earth Sciences at The Australian
National University. eArgon software written by Gordon
Lister. We thank Theo van Leeuwen and Moyra Wilson
for their reviews of the manuscript.
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