Architecture
Safe City Programme in MALACCA, Malaysia:
Some Initiatives in Crime Prevention
Yong Chee Kong
Jasin Municipal Council , 77000 Jasin,
Malacca, Malaysia
Fabyong2003@yahoo.com
Abstract — Malaysia’s experience of rapid development over
the past two decades has shaped a complex society structure.
However, over- focus on physical development and economic
wealth creation, necessitated social need has unintentionally
caused the increase of incivility and criminal activities that is
now obviously threatening society’s harmony and peace. Aware
of the need to tackle the issue, the “Cabinet” on 28 January
2004 decided to implement the Safe City Concept which had
been introduced by the Crime Prevention Foundation of
Malaysia (CPFM) to strengthen law enforcement as in
controlling crime rates in Malaysia. Following the Cabinet’s
decision, all new developments especially new townships have to
adopt the Safe City Concept to create a safe and peaceful urban
living environment in order to ensure that cities remain safe and
vibrant places to live, work, visit and to do business.
Governments also take a serious view on the issues of
crime prevention and recently, Prime Minister of Malaysia
introduced six National Key Results Areas (NKRA), and crime
prevention be one of the NKRA, in order to reduce up to 20% of
street crimes by end 2010. This paper discusses some Malacca,
Malaysia initiatives in crime prevention action plan especially
steps that introduced by Federal Department of Town and
Country Planning.
I. BACKGROUND
Our Malaysian society is now more materialistic,
individualistic and impolite, as manifested in the burgeoning
crime rates. Tan Sri Dato’ Dr. Lee Lam Thye, the Vice
President of Crime Prevention Foundation of Malaysia
(CPFM) has mentioned that almost every day, at least one
crime, anti-social behaviour or personal safety issue takes
place in Malaysia.
Besides that, other root causes such as education,
economic and personal problems, as well as physical factors
also contributed towards crime cases. Undue consideration
on environmental designs, which includes lighting,
temperature, pressure, sound and so on, could also cause
crime to take place. This has been mentioned by Oscar
Newman (1972) in ‘Defensible Space’, that every single
element in environment will affect human activities
especially in housing areas.
II. S AFE CITY CONCEPT
Safe City is defined as ‘an urban centre which is free
from all physical, social, and mental threats’ (Lam, 2000).
The objective of Safe City concept is to work with police and other
city stakeholders to promote, develop and implement
initiatives designed to prevent crimes against the society and anti-
social behaviour, and also towards minimising the fear of crimes in
the city.
Safe City concept is in fact no longer a new idea in crime
prevention, as similar ideas such as neighbourhood concept,
territorial concept, urban fortress, urban village and gated
community have long been adopted in the western countries in
their plan making process. One of this concept’s objectives is to
create sense of belonging among the local community and to
prevent non-residents from entering the territory, in turn enhancing
safety and creating a peaceful housing environment.
The Safe City concept could be firmer if it is established
on the belief of ‘prevention is better than cure’, where planning
acts at the first stage to prevent criminal activities. Commitment
among government bodies - police and enforcement bodies,
privates and non-government organizations as well as the public to
cooperate together towards preventing criminal activities through
environmental design is essentially important. Crime prevention
through environmental design is another important input where
concepts like defensible space can be implemented to develop
resilient, peaceful and secure housing areas. In addition, local
community also has to play a more active role in coming out with
custom-designed solution. Neighbourhood programmes like
Neighbourhood Watch is important towards implementing crime
prevention, where the purpose of this programme is to develop and
maintain community prevention and intervention systems which
provide collaborative and multi-disciplinary strategies, education,
and planning in the areas of crime prevention.
III. CRIME PREVENTION APPROACH
Generally there are two approaches in crime prevention.
The first approach is by law and order, where its advocators believe
that lack of regulations will increase the criminal cases. This
approach emphasizes on written and non-written law, orders and
regulations, besides increasing the number of enforcement staff like
policemen and local authority enforcement members.
Unfortunately, experience has raised the question of effectiveness
of this approach. Even some countries statistics have proven that
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increasing the number of policemen had failed to reduce the
crime index (Lam, 2000).
On the other hand, the second approach focuses on
root causes, such as economic factor, discrimination, failure
of education system or other factors. This approach needs
commitment from all parties and huge financial support to
develop an integrated and long term master plan. This
approach may promise better improvement in the long term
though it may be difficult to get commitment from all parties
with different opinion in short term (G.R. Wekerle and
Whitzman, 1995). Most Malaysians agreed with this
approach and proposed more cooperation with the police as it
is the most important crime prevention body (Lam, 2000).
IV. MALAYSIA INITIATIVES
Prime Minister Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak
introduced six National Key Results Areas (KNRA), on 11
July 2009, during the “100 days of Najib with the People”
function in Kuala Lumpur. Among the six NKRA are, raising
the living standard of the low income people, upgrading
infrastructure in rural and interior regions, improving public
transportation, widening access to quality and affordable
education, fighting corruption and Crime Prevention.
In order to reduce up to 20% of street crimes by end
2010, main focus will be on three areas, namely;
Street crimes – this category accounts for 17% of
Malaysia’s overall crime rate in 2008 and include snatch
thefts, unarmed robbery that they cause trauma and
prolonged fear to family members and society.
Perception towards Public Safety – to improve
people’s perceptions, the government will leverage on the
assistance of available voluntary bodies to facilitate crime
reduction. These bodies include RELA who will be given
proper and adequate training so that they can work alongside
the PDRM in efforts to eradicate street crime. Relevant police
stations will also be upgraded and installed with the
necessary crime control and prevention equipment and tools,
e.g. more CCTVs.
Enforcement Agencies - The Ministry of Home
Affairs is to work with the Attorney-General’s Department
and the Prime Minister’s Department to research ways to
accelerate the legal process on delayed cases, e.g. creating a
tribunal pr special court for street crimes.
Besides that, Federal Department of Town and
Country Planning has introduced 23 steps as the guidelines or
solutions to enhance implementation of the Safe City concept
based on feedback from the non-government organizations,
criminologists, local authorities and officials from Housing
and Local Government Ministry. These guidelines which
have been presented on 10 August 2004, and been
categorized into three groups of strategies, namely: physical
planning and design, target hardening, and social activities and
public awareness.
a) Physical planning and design strategies include;
• Pedestrian / vehicle segregation
• Construction of bollards
• Walkways landscaping
• More research on crime prevention
• Sharing crime information through GIS-Based mapping
• Review on housing layout planning guidelines
b) Target hardening strategies include;
• More ‘pondok polis’
• More crime awareness signage
• Safety mirrors or reflectors
• Security systems (i.e. safety alarm)
• Cleanliness of public spaces / graffiti removal
• Sufficient motorcycle parking spaces which are lockable
• Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) and Audio Monitors
• Excellent lighting levels at commercial area especially the
corridor
• Avoidance of nooks, crannies and non-visibility spaces
• Prohibition of car and motorcycle parking at corridors or
pedestrian walkways
• Increase social activities especially at commercial areas
• Improve private security guard services
c) Social activities and public awareness strategies include;
• Education and awareness activities
• Increase crime awareness through brochures, booklets
• Caretaking patrols
As it is now, 3 Local Authority in Malaysia have been
implemented all 23 steps as showed, while 30 LA implemented 19-
22 steps, 5 LA implemented 14-18 steps, 1 LA implemented 12-13
steps.
As in Malacca state, all 3 LA has implemented Safe City
Concept with MBMB achieved 96%, MPAG 96 % and MPJ 70%.
This might one of the reasons that Malacca state achieves the
lowest crime rate among all states in Malaysia.
The crime prevention programme can also be integrated into
Local Agenda 21 to heighten awareness of local community
regarding the importance of local residents’ involvement. Very few
people are in a position to protect their property all the time. By
getting to know our neighbours, we can look out for each other's
interest and feel secure that someone may help to watch our home
whenever we are not around. The Neighbourhood Watch
programme with its objective to improve crime awareness level as
well as to encourage local community working in collaboration
with policemen, is indeed an effective strategy on crime prevention
(Lam, 2000).
To quote a local example, the Local Residents Society (PPBB)
has organised monthly meetings to discuss criminal issues, the
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solutions and the effectiveness of police and caretaking
patrols. Besides that, a lot of activities such as annual
dinners, sports day, and other social activities also been
carried out to enhance the sense of community among the
residents. At the same time, the Crime Prevention School
Club established under the Safe City programme also tried to
educate school children on becoming good citizens with
basic safety skills. The Club’s programmes include summer
camps, learning trips and briefing sessions (Lam, 2000).
V. O THER INITIATIVES
Clear space definition with symbolic gateway can
encourage and help local residents take further actions
whenever they suspect trespassing or incivility activities.
This has been mentioned under Section 27 of the Criminal
Procedure Code; Citizen Arrest, where citizens are given the
authority and rights to arrest any criminals for crimes which
happen in public without the presence of policemen.
Unfortunately the current housing developments create many
incidental spaces which become undefined public spaces.
These undefined spaces will finally become ‘urban deserts’
and potential crime spots. Planning concepts like cul-de-sac
or loop-street is a positive design concept for surveillance
(P.Stollard, 1991) and for preventing the undefined spaces to
be unintentionally turned into ‘urban desert’. Basically it
depends on how the network of public space divides the
environment into blocks. A place with small blocks gives
more choice of routes than one with large blocks. Therefore,
smaller blocks give more physical permeability and
encourage more potential crime spots.
In a town centre, a variety of activities is the key to
preventing commercial areas from becoming potential crime
spots. A mixture of primary and secondary activities will
draw people to this area and create exchange opportunities
like goods, knowledge, work culture, friendship and spiritual
support. The purpose of promoting variety and choice of
activities at varied times is to prevent the city centre from
falling into deterioration and becoming a potential crime
spot. Jane Jacobs (1961) found that a mixture of all land uses
with high population will increase the community spirit and
sense of belonging through increasing the street activities and
becoming natural surveillance. All access points to buildings
also need to be clearly defined.
VI. CONCLUDING REMARK
Most Malaysians depend on policemen and security
personnel as the most effective way to prevent crime. Other
means include Neighbourhood Watch programme and safe
environmental design (Lam, 2000). From the law enforcer’s
(policeman) perspective, however, Safe City actually should
be initiated by local residents; moreover related agencies
such as Crime Prevention Foundation of Malaysia (CPFM),
Education Department, National Unity Department, Youth and
Sports Departments and resident associations should also play an
important role in implementing and realizing the Safe City concept.
Whatever the strategies, continuous assessments should be
carried out to determine their effectiveness in terms of its impact on
the perceived safety and crime level of city. Such assessment may
also help answer these questions : can law enforcement alone have
positive impact on crime prevention? can it sucessfully and
consistently yield the required results? how can existing resources
be effectively combined to produce the greatest implementation
synergy?
All in all, local authorities and the related stakeholders
must be aware of the threats of crime on personal safety as well as
its disruptive impact on the daily life and future prosperity of the
city, and more importantly must take due action collectively to
ensure the safety and sustainability of the community in the long
run.
REFERENCES
[1] Berita Harian (19 Oktober 2004), Rencana: Ke Arah Bandar Bebas
Jenayah, Malaysia.
[2] City of Sydney Council (2001), Sydney; Safe City 1998 – 2001,
Sydney. http://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/
[3] Jabatan Perancangan Bandar dan Desa, Semenanjung Malaysia (2004),
Program Bandar Selamat; Ilustrasi 23 Langkah Pencegah Jenayah,
Kertas Mesyuarat Jawatankuasa Perunding Perbadanan Perbandaran-
Perbandaran Malaysia (JKPPP) Bil. 2/2004.
[4] Jabatan Perancangan Bandar dan Desa, Semenanjung Malaysia (2004),
Perancangan Bandar Selamat, Kertas Pembentangan Kursus Diploma
Pengurusan Awam (DPA) Sesi 2/2003, Kuala Lumpur.
[6] Jacobs, Jane (1961), The Death and Life of Great American Cities,
New York.
[7] Lam, Swee Chee (2000), Kajian Pelaksanaan Konsep Bandar
Selamat dalam Kawasan Perumahan di Malaysia. Kawasan Kajian:
Bandar Baru Bangsar, Rumah Awam Sri Johor 4C, Cheras, Kuala
Lumpur dan Taman Universiti, Skudai, Johor Bahru. Thesis Ijazah
Sarjana Muda Perancangan Bandar dan Wilayah, Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia, Skudai.
[8] Lee, Lam Thye (2004), Mewujudkan Bandar Selamat Menerusi Reka
Bentuk Persekitaran, Kertas Ucapan Khas Mesyuarat Pegawai Kanan
Perancang Bandar dan Desa Malaysia Ke-18 dan Pelancaran Sambutan
Hari Perancangan Bandar Sedunia 2004, Shah Alam.
[9] Lembaga Penyelidikan Undang-undang (2000), Panduan Undang-
Undang Jenayah, International Law Book Services, Kuala Lumpur.
[10] Newman, Oscar (1972), Defensible Space – Crime Prevention through
Urban Design, New York: The Macmillan Company.
[11] Safe Neighbourhoods Unit (SNU) (1993), Crime Prevention on
Council Estates, London: HMSO.
[12] Stollard, P (1991), Crime Prevention Through Housing Design, Great
Britain, T.J. Press (Padstow) Ltd.
[13] Vogel, Mary (1993), Design for Saint Paul Public Safety: A Guide for
Making a Safer Public Realm, City of Saint Paul Department of
Planning and Economic Development.
[14] Wekerle G.R. and Whitzman, C (1995), Safe City – Guidelines for
Planning, Design and Management, New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold.
[15] Whitzman, C (1994), In Toronto, Planning is the Best Defence,
Planning, Vol.60.
[16] Yayasan Pencegahan Jenayah Malaysia (1999), Buletin Yayasan
Pencegahan Jenayah Malaysia (CPFM) Kuala Lumpur.
[17] http://www.muni.org/healthssd/safe.cfm
[18] http://www.dailyexpress.com.my/news.cfm?NewsID=66618
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 Mechanisms to Promote Rental Housing as an
Affordable Option for the Low-income Groups in the
Bangkok Metropolitan Area
Ranjith Perera
Urban Environmental Management Program
School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology
Km 42, Paholyothin Road, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand
ranjithp@ait.ac.th
Abstract— Low-income groups often have an unstable economy,
mostly due to their informal nature of activities. Their place of
stay is usually transitional; it changes with the change in their
occupation. In such circumstances, they do not prefer to invest in
homeownership. The housing sector of Bangkok manifests this
situation for the low-income families wherein people are opting
for rental units. The increasing demand for rental housing in the
peripheral areas of Bangkok city has led to a market driven
supply of affordable rental units for the low-income groups. A
research was conducted to understand the dynamic factors
influencing the existing rental housing scenario in six sub-
districts of the Bangkok Metropolitan Area (BMA). Findings
from the research provided an insight towards the need for low-
income rental housing and means to encourage the supply of
rental units. Proximity to place of work is one of the main
criteria for the tenants to select their rental unit. The younger
population tends to rent more as their future occupation and
whereabouts are precarious. Some migrants avoid
homeownership in urban areas as they already own a property in
their hometown where they intend to return in future. Thus,
rental form of accommodation is one of the most convenient
forms of shelter for the temporary low-income tenants. This
paper gives an overview of the research findings and proposes
mechanisms that would help to promote rental housing as an
effective way to expand shelter for the low-income groups.
Keywords/Phrases— low-income groups, rental housing, housing
market, housing typology, proximity
I. INTRODUCTION
Low-income housing is just another symptom of
low-income people’s struggle for survival [2]. The low-
income families face a heavier burden in terms of their
struggle for economic and physical survival. Guerra and
Guerra [2] further mention that the labor and employment of
low-income group of people in both the formal and informal
sectors is undervalued due to which they cannot accumulate
savings. As a consequence their chances of investing in land
and housing become virtually impossible. Thus, renting a unit
is often a more feasible option than buying a house for the low
income families.
Renting often tends to be a feature of the early part of the life
cycle and particular types of families in most countries that
always tend to rent include recent migrants, young and mobile
populations, students, single professionals, and couples
without children [8]. For tenants with guaranteed tenure living
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near the centres of Cairo, Delhi or Mexico City, for example,
renting may offer just as much security as ownership [1]. This
phenomenon is apparently witnessed in the low-income
housing set-up of Bangkok.
II. RENTAL HOUSING DEMAND BY THE LOW-INCOME
IN BMA
In the last five decades, there has been a massive
migration from rural to urban areas in Thailand. Between
1951 and 2001, the proportion of gross domestic product
(GDP) generated by the agricultural sector declined from 38
percent to 9 percent, while that contributed by the
manufacturing sector increased from 14 percent to 34 percent.
Particularly Bangkok experienced the influx of this migration
as the manufacturing and service sector gradually
concentrated in the capital and its surrounding areas. With this
expansion has come the concomitant need to house the
growing number of factory workers, service people, foreign
managers, and migrant labour workers who have been
attracted to the city in pursuit of a decent livelihood [4].
Conversing about such development Simpson et al [7] state,
the impact of growth on the existing population depends
initially on the availability of local housing. In Thailand, the
Bangkok Metropolitan Area (BMA) was gripped by the
inevitable demand of housing for the low-income families
who sought after rental units.
The National Statistics Office [3] revealed that 44.4
percent of the residents in Bangkok Metropolitan Region are
tenants. A significant portion of these renters belong to the
low-income group. Yap and Wandeler [9] estimated 500,000
rental units for low-income groups in Bangkok during a study
undertaken in 1991. These units were inhabited by about 1.4
million of the total 6.0 million residents of Bangkok,
accounting for 8 percent of the total population. This
explicitly manifests that a huge population of Bangkok lives
in some form of rental housing. Unlike many other developing
countries relying on government-subsidized housing programs
to shelter the growing populations, the private sector in
Bangkok spearheaded the effort to meet housing demand [4].
Moreover, Sengupta [6] states that the private sector plays a
key role in the rental housing by dealing more professionally
in raising rents and managing the estates due to its marketing
and managerial skills and without having any political
entanglements.
 TABLE 1
TYPES OF LOW-INCOME HOUSING SUPPLY IN BANGKOK

Employer-provided Occupant-Initiated Government-initiated Developer-built Housing

Housing Housing Housing (public)
Factory site Single houses Rental Rental flats
Domestic workers’ Squatter/ Legal slum Housing for sale Single, duplex, town
houses
Institutional workers Mobile (boats) Condominiums
Construction workers’ Rural/suburban Shop houses
Source: Adapted from Guerra and Guerra [2]

Fig. 1: Geeographical Extent of the Bangkok Metropolitan Area

Various types of rental housing have been in supply in
Bangkok to meet the housing demand of the low-income
group as observed in Table 1. These diverse options not only
help in absorbing housing shortage, but also function as the
most vibrant areas that sustain the city activities [2]. There is
still an increasing demand of rental units amongst the low-
income group inspite of the rental accommodation presently
available.
III. OVERVIEW OF FACTORS AFFECTING THE LOW-
INCOME TENANTS
The rental housing scenario for the low-income
families in Bangkok is influenced by various factors related to
tenants and landlords. Some of these factors are financial
conditions of the low- income tenants, their attitude towards
renting and owning, type of tenancy, quality of rental units
and community surroundings. Research was undertaken to
study these affecting factors in six districts of Bangkok and its
surrounding provinces.
A reconnaissance survey was initially undertaken for
identifying the sub-districts having significant low-income
families with rental accommodation. Feedback from
community leaders and key informers was also helpful in
deriving an estimation of the low-income tenants in the areas.
The sub-districts of Bangkapi, Ladkrabang and Yannawa were
preferred from Bangkok, while the sub-districts of Klong
Luang, Phra Pra Daeng and Krathum Baen from Pathumthani,
Samut Prakan and Samut Sakhon provinces respectively were
selected.

114
 Thereafter, a reasonable sample size of 200 low- TABLE 2
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESENT RENTAL UNIT AND WORK
income families was taken from each sub-district; per capita
PLACE
income being the yardstick during selection of rental units for
interviewing the tenants. As such, families with the monthly Principle Tenants Predomina
income of 10,000 THB (300 USD) are classified as the low- criteria with nt Predominant
income category in Thailand. The research findings were for office transport time range to
analyzed based on the various factors having an impact on the Districts mode to reach work
moving to within
low-income rental housing, which has been discussed below. current 5 km work
Perception survey was used to assess the quality of rental unit location (%) mode % minutes %
and building facilities. Subsequently mechanisms were Work
Klong
proposed to promote the supply of rental housing in a more place 70 Walk 46 <15 66
Luang
effective manner. proximity
Work
Krathum
A. Background of the low-income tenants place 80 Walk 39 <15 82
Baen
proximity
Work
Tenants, from the low-income groups in particular, Phra Pra
place 80 Walk 36 <15 55
tend to have a smaller family size as compared to owners in Daeng
proximity
most cities of the world [8]. This phenomenon was reflected Work
in the low-income group of Bangkok as the average numbers Publi
Bangkapi place 35 32 15-30 50
c bus
of occupants in the rental units was 2.4, with many families proximity
having less than or equal to only 2 members. Most of the Work
tenants were factory workers, simple wageworkers, small Yannawa place 75 Walk 40 <15 46
business enterprisers, private workers and students. It was proximity
found that majority of these tenants were young and often Work
Lad Publi
single. place 46 36 <15 44
Krabang c bus
proximity
Source: Field Survey
Usually the age of the family head in the rental units
installments over a longer time frame due to their precarious
was less than 35 years. Most of the low-income families had
nature of work. On the other hand, low-income tenants above
the per capita income of Baht 5,899 THB (177 USD). Their
40 years of were either aspiring to buy or property or had
average monthly income was found to be 11,900 THB (357
already purchased a house by taking a loan for about 20 years.
USD) while the monthly income ranged from 7,500 to 10,000
Those interested in buying, preferred a semi-detached low-
THB (225 to 300 USD).
income unit due to which the present supply of one-room units
were not favoured. However, some respondents expressed that
Proximity to work place and availability of houses
they would not be able to afford buying a house though they
were the prime reasons for the tenants to rent the present unit.
wanted to own one.
A significant majority of 64 percent of the working tenants
informed about travelling less than 5 km to their work place.
There were no specific preferences for the type of
As seen in Table 2, the time and distance traveled by the
landlords in selection of the rental units since their foremost
tenants from their place of stay reflected their main
criteria were usually the rental amount, security and the
consideration of proximity to their place of work in selection
community environment. The low-income renters were ready
of the unit.
to pay a maximum monthly rent of 2000 THB (60 USD). This
rental amount was almost near to what they were presently
B. Tenants’ attitude towards renting and owning
paying or slightly higher. Infact, they did not mind paying
more rent if they got a unit of their choice of either having
The tenant-landlord relationship in most of the cases in
bigger sized room area or extra number of rooms. This
Bangkok was generally not conflictive. Majority of the tenants
preference for units differed amongst the low-income group
were found to have a verbal agreement with their landlord.
depending on their family size, occupation, income levels,
This situation was beneficial to both, the low-income tenants
proximity to work place and cost of living. However, it was
as well as the landlords. The tenants had the liberty to leave
observed that their choice of rental unit was different than
the place as per their wish in absence of a written agreement,
their current residence. Many low-income families informed
especially if they got a better opportunity. Meanwhile the
that they did not wish to continue living in their present rental
landlord could escape the tax interest required to be paid on
unit for a long period.
the rental income. The younger tenants were unable to
anticipate their future place of work and hence were not ready C. Character of the landlords
to buy a house in that very area. Some of them even intended
to return to their hometown in future. Moreover they were In Thailand, there is a huge supply of rental housing by
reluctant to enter a scheme which required the payment of the private sector, particularly the small investors. Increasing

115
numbers of landowners and developers are entering into this D. Rental housing quality and community
profession in some areas. Though the number of rental units
owned by landlords ranged from 1 to 100, most of the The minimum floor area of housing units in Thailand is
landlords operated on a small scale and owned about one 32sq.mts as per the standards of the National Housing
rental property in the study area. The proportion of large-scale Authority of Thailand; ranging from 8sq.mts 16sq.mts per
landlords that own more number of rental units was low. person. However, the floor area per person in the study area
differed by type of the rental unit. The unit area of several
TABLE 3: SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF LANDLORDS rental rooms and dormitories was only as much as 6sq.mts
that depicted a level of overcrowding. Some dormitories and
Average
rental
Renting
Main
apartments had the floor area ranging from 10sq.mts to
Predominant as main Predominant
Districts units
rental units business tenants
financial 13sq.mts per person.
owned sources
(%)
(numbers) The low-income families were fairly contented with the
Bank
Klong
28
Dormitories/
90
Simple wage
loan and
facilities in housing unit. In order to arrive at a composite
Luang Apartments workers measure, scoring of the qualitative data sets was undertaken
savings
Bank which showed that water and electricity received the highest
Krathum Row house / Simple wage
34.8 82 loan and
Baen dormitories workers
savings ranking with an average score of 64 amongst utilities. Services
Phra Pra Row house / Private
Bank like space for drying clothes and light and ventilation received
37 66 loan and
Daeng dormitories employees
savings
the lowest score of 52 and 54 respectively.
Bank
Bangkapi 81
Dormitories/
76
Private
loan and In contrast to the unit facilities, the perception on the
Apartments employees
savings quality of community surroundings was not satisfactory.
Bank Nearby shopping convenience and availability of transport
Dormitories/ Simple wage
Yannawa 33 80 loan and
Apartments workers facilities, with their highest scores of 60 and 54 respectively,
savings
Lad Dormitories/ Private
Bank were the main considerations in terms of appropriate
22 47 loan and
Krabang Apartments employees
savings community environment. Other services like recreational
Source: Field Survey facilities, drainage and flooding, security and fire hazard, did
not score well since they were of less importance to the
For most of the small-scale landlords, renting was the tenants.
main profession. Others considered renting of the one room IV. PROPOSED MECHANISMS
units as an asset for long term earnings. It was a security
against unstable employment, personal household Discussion on the above parameters steered towards
expenditures, capital investment and rotation in business, a the proposal of certain mechanisms that would aid the
form of pension after retirement, and as an investment for affordability of low-income groups in the rental housing
their kids. sector. Adequate mechanisms would be useful in catering the
Personal savings and bank loans were the main needs of the low-income families by encouraging the supply
source of income for the landlords during construction of the of better quality rental units.
rental units (refer Table 3). They did not face any financial
trouble during the construction given that bank loans were A. Unbiased owning and renting
easily available at a humble interest rate. Besides, as most of
the rental contracts with tenants were not written, it was easy Like many other cities of developing countries,
for the landlords to avoid tax payments on the rental income. housing research and policies in Bangkok have generally
overlooked the rental forms of tenure [8]. The socio-economic
Apart from the rental property, few landlords owned characteristics and housing aspirations of the tenants reveal
a non-rental property that was either an apartment or the house that promoting owner-occupation may not be a wise option.
and was most often their own dwelling. A large number of Many younger tenants opted for rental units due to their
landlords lived in the same building or in the same community precarious nature of job. Some families in the low-income
where they were renting their units. The landlords were group cannot afford to buy a house either due to high
usually found to be much older in age than their tenants and expenses of the property or due to their unstable earnings. In
other owners. addition, some families informed about owning property in
According to the landlords, there was a huge demand their hometown where they intend to return at some point of
for dormitories, apartments and row houses due to which time in future. Therefore, encouraging various forms of rental
majority of the landlords were renting apartments and row housing through a ‘tenure neutral policy’ may be more
houses. Apartments and dormitories were sought by younger feasible. This would offer a wide range of rental housing
wage-workers while row houses were preferred by relatively options for the low-income depending on their affordability of
larger families and age groups. The main low-income tenant either to buy a house or rent a unit.
population was that of simple wage workers or people
working in private companies in the study areas.

116
 TABLE 4: FACILITIES IN THE LOW-INCOME RENTAL UNITS

Characteristics Dormitories Apartments Rental rooms Row House Semi/detached house

Number of rooms 1 1 or more 1 2 or more 2 or more
Average area (sq.m.) 19.5 23.8 26.0 26.8 38.7

Storeys 2 to 5 2 and above 1 or 2 1 or 2 1 or 2

Occupants (user
Homogenous Mixed Mixed Mixed Homogenous/Mixed
groups)
Toilet Individual/Shared Individual Individual/Shared Individual Individual
Kitchen No Yes/No No No/Yes Yes
Both Both
Sex of tenants Either male/female Both male/female Both male/female
male/female male/female
Elevator No Yes/No No No No
Furnished Yes/No Yes/No No Yes/No Yes/No
Parking Yes/No Yes No No Yes
Access Direct/Passage Passage Direct/Passage Direct Direct
Recreation facilities No Yes/No No No Yes/No
Level of security Medium High Low Medium Medium
Source: Field Survey

B. Incentives on private sector involvement

The private sector has been actively supplying housing units
in Bangkok, many of which are being used for renting by the
house owners. The government can take advantage of the
already existing involvement of the private sector by
encouraging them further through tax deductions. Benefits on
taxes can be given to the large-scale housing investors that
provide housing units for rental purpose to the low-income
families. This would help in contributing rental units in the
areas having high demand for rental housing in particular.
In Thailand, the Government Housing Bank is already
offering loans on constructive grounds to promote investors in
the construction of rental housing. However, it is necessary to
identify the particular projects that are catering to house the
low-income. A relevant example of Mexico was mentioned in
the UN Habitat [8]; the government provided generous tax
incentives in the 1980s to companies building rental
accommodation inorder to meet the low-income housing
demand and permitted the sale of these rental units after a
period of five years.
C. Support to small scale & self-help landlords
need to promote the small scale and self-help landlords. These
landlords have a very moderate source of income; therefore
supporting them financially would be encouraging.
Offering tax relief is a good way to help them. But research
revealed that most of them currently did not declare about
renting their units to avoid paying taxes. It is essential for
them to declare that they are renting units so that they can reap
the tax benefits. Alternatively, possibility of rebates on
interest rates from banks can be explored for the small-scale
landlords who finance rental housing from bank loans and
their own resources.
D. Upgrade of rental housing quality
It is important that the low-income rental houses have a good
quality of neighbourhood environs and building facilities.
Upgrading the quality of ancillary services like parking,
security, recreational facilities, etc. can enhance the quality of
the locality. Additionally, management of construction and
maintenance in the vicinity needs to be devised by relevant
societies for continuous improvement of the housing quality.

Many petty landlords opted for rental housing as the main
profession. Some small-scale landlords even built houses for
renting. Though there is a market-driven supply of affordable
rental units based on increasing demand without government
intervention or subsidies to the landlord, there may still be a
E. Launch of desirable schemes
Some tenants expressed the desire to buy a housing unit in
future. The present supply of rental housing is accommodating
the transitory population of Bangkok. They are not being

117
preferred by low-income families who desire to buy a
property. In the same context, Ryzin and Kamber [5] call
attention to a comprehensive city-wide housing policy that
would make use of multiple approaches to meet the diverse
objectives such as enhancing affordability, revitalizing aged
stock, developing and improving neighborhoods, and
supporting the social infrastructure of urban communities.
A hybrid form of renting cum purchase option would be ideal
for such low-income families. Portion of the initial rental
payments by the tenant eventually contributes towards the
possession of the rental unit after a stipulated time. Even the
landlord, private or public, can benefit from such a hybrid
scheme by transferring the homeownership to the tenant as
was seen in the case of Kolkata. Sengupta [6] found that the
State government in Kolkata decided to sell the rental units to
its sitting tenants due to high maintenance costs and loopholes
in the rent setting and allocation processes. This gave an
advantage to the public owner as well as the low-income
tenants who desired to own a house.
The Government Housing Bank has introduced certain
schemes such as “hire purchase programme” for the assitance
of people who aspire to be home owners. Yet many are
unaware about such schemes that provide the benefit of rental
and ownership. There is a viable housing finance sector in
Thailand to sponsor such desirable schemes to the low-income
families. In spite of that, many low-income families are
unable to meet the expense of such programs.
V. CONCLUSION
The research clearly portrays that housing needs and
preferences for a low-income family changes at different
stages in their lifetime. Undoubtedly Rental housing is an
effectual way of increasing housing options for the low-
income families. The demand for rental units is more in
families with younger members due to various reasons such
as, their transitory working phase, precarious future, inability
to buy a house or intention of returning to their hometown.
Being a small or nuclear family with fewer members, they
usually prefer one room dormitory or apartment units. In
general, proximity to work place was the key factor in
selection of the rental unit. Community surroundings were of
secondary preference though services like shopping centers
and access to transport were considered important.
rental houses and their communities needs to be looked into
by proper management. Suitable schemes also need to be
introduced for those low-income families who aspire to be
homeowners in future.
Proposition of the mechanisms discussed above not only look
into the needs of renters and landlords but also provide
housing options for the low-income families. Thus, the
suggested mechanisms will aid in fostering the supply of
decent rental units alongwith a suitable community
environment.
REFERENCES
[1] Gilbert, A., Mabin, A., Mc Carthy, M. and Watson, V., “Low-income
rental housing: are South African cities different?”, Environment and
Urbanization, 9, 1, 1997, 133-148.
[2] Guerra, V. and Guerra, V., “Urban Development Issues in Thailand; An
Insight into Bangkok”, Master of Science Thesis No. 259, Royal
Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 2004.
[3] National Statistical Office, “Population and Housing Census”, National
Statistics Office, Thailand, 2000.
[4] Pornchokchai, S., Perera, R. and Weber, K.E., “Private Developers in
the 1997 Housing Market Crisis in Bangkok”, The Appraisal Journal,
LXXIV, 1, 2006, 77-85.
[5] Ryzin, G.G.V. and Kamber, T., “Sub-tenures and Housing Outcomes for
Low-income Renters in New York City”, Journal of Urban Affairs, 24, 2,
2002, 197–218.
[6] Sengupta, U., “Liberalization and the privatization of public rental
housing in Kolkata”, Cities, 23, 4, 2006, 269–278.
[7] Simpson, L., Gavalas, V. and Finney, N., “Population Dynamics in
Ethically Diverse Towns: The Long-term Implications of
Immigrations”, Urban Studies, 45, 1, 2008, 163-183.
[8] UN-Habitat, “Rental housing: an essential option for the urban poor in
developing countries”, United Nations Human Settlements Programme,
Nairobi, 2003.
[9] Yap, K. S. and Wandeler, K., “Low-income rental housing in Bangkok,
An important but neglected component of the housing market”,
unpublished Working Papers, Human Settlements Development
Programme, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand, 1993.

Mechanisms that address the various factors related to all the

stakeholders in the rental housing market need to be enforced
to tackle the issue of low-income rental housing. It is essential
to change the outlook for housing the low-income that can be
approach through an unbiased attitude towards owning and
renting. The existing involvement of the private sector should
be given a boost so that more houses for the low-income
families are made available. This has to be motivated by
giving incentives to large scale investors and relevant support
to the small scale landlords. The improvement in quality of

118
 Effective Learning Environments for
Engineering First Year (EFY) Students by Using
Moodle on-line Education System
Zeya Oo
Department of Science and Mathematics
School of Engineering and Science
Curtin University of Technology, Sarawak Malaysia
CDT 250, 98009 Miri, Sarawak Malaysia
zeya.oo@curtin.edu.my

Abstract— Despite considerable evidence that traditional
approaches are ineffective in teaching Engineering Physics and
Engineering Materials concepts, most Engineering students in
the Curtin University of Technology, Sarawak campus continue
to be taught in lectures, often in large lectures with more than
100 students. Alternatively, curricula such as workshop for
Applied Physics which relates to the materials science that
eliminate formal lectures can be used successfully, but
substantial structural changes in introduce are required in large
classes to implement this program. In this paper, the new
teaching methodology for Engineering Materials 100 unit for
over 100 students is presented. The construction of Effective
Learning Environments for the Engineering First Year students
is very important because Engineering First Year students
should have basic common concepts for all Engineering
fundamentals.
I. INTRODUCTION
Minimum competencies tests are intended to return meaning
to the Engineering First Year by require that students meet
standards of basic competence. Grouping students in small
groups for learning is a common practice in the students
engineering life. This paper provides an overview of current
observation on within-class grouping for learning during the
Engineering First year for Engineering Materials 100 unit and
how it influences students learning in the lecture classrooms.
Engineering Materials 100 unit is basic materials science that
combines three difference components: physics
(crystallography), chemistry and mechanical properties of
materials. Due to the major core unit, every semester, over
hundreds of students are enrolled for that unit. For this reason,
grouping students allows lecturers to work with a smaller
number of students who are homogeneous with respect to
aptitude and their preparation for the academic material to be
taught.
Johnson (1981) presented the cooperative learning methods.
Dreeban (1984) reported that the number of within-classroom
groups can be predicted by: the size of class, available of
materials, preparation of lesson plans and the teacher’s
difficulty of simultaneously supervising many groups while
instructing only one. Some process-product researchers have
investigated the effects of difference learners’ styles. Some
research suggests that grade level effects group assignment
and possibly group effectiveness. The most common basis for
within-class grouping is student ability, and there is
substantial evidence to support the conclusion that the
teacher’s goal is to create and maintain instructional groups
that are homogeneous with respect to students’ ability
(Hallinan 1984). In this paper, effective learning environments
for Engineering First Year are based on cooperative learning
methods which can be categorized on the basis of the type of
motivation among the students. Environments are lecture
classes, tutorial case studies, Moodle education on-line
network system and laboratories. The aim of this work is to
study the cooperative learning method for effective learning
environments construction especially for the Engineering First
Year students.
II. OBSERVATION METHOD
Learning style observation is based on case study of the
Engineering First Year 2008, semester 2. Firstly, students are
allowed to use to get lecture notes, tutorials questions and
laboratory manual from the Moodle on-line network before
going to commence the lecture classes. Moodle on-line
network system is one of the education networks in the world,
such as WEBCT, and BLACKBOARD. The students can
download to get their lecture notes, information, exam results
and interaction between lecturer and students also available.
The sample of Moodle on-line education system is shown in
Fig. 1 (a) and (b).
Secondly, the students are advised to make small group to
learn specific material and to help each other until the entire
group has learned the lessons. Each group involves four or
five member, heterogeneous groups. In addition, the activities
of each group are learning together at the lecture room, group
discussion doing at the tutorial classes and working together at
the laboratory. For this reason, students work closely and
collectively to complete a single worksheet, assignment and
lessons.

119
 discussion. Fig. 2 shows EFY semester 1-2008 students’
discussion about microstructure of slow cooling samples from
Engineering Materials 100 unit.

(a)
Fig. 2 EFY students studying microstructure for the slow cooling sample at
the material structure laboratory.

Fig.3 EFY students are looking for the Hardness value of Quenching Jominy
Bar plain carbon steel by using Bricknell Hardness testing machine.

(b)
Fig. 1 (a) and (b). Moodle on-line education system network for engineering
students

Thirdly, students grouping have studied learning together

methods and also called cooperative methods in varieties of
classrooms situation, including those involving mixed ethnic
and mainstreamed groups. Then, each group also selected one
or two smart students in small study groups. The academics
material was broken down into small portions, and each group
member was assigned to study only one segment. “Expert
groups” consisting of students who had been assigned the
same segment but who were from different original groups, Fig. 4 Group discussion at the Tutorial class for Engineering Materials 100
study and discuss their material together. subject

Finally, each student taught and discussed his or her material Fig. 3 shows that EFY students are observing the relationship between
to the original group so that everyone learned the entire hardness and hardenability of the Quenching Jominy
segment. In addition, students may be tested individually on bar plain carbon steel 4340 by using Bricknell Hardness tester.
how well they had learned the material before and after group Group discussions at the Tutorial classes also get more

120
chances to talk about subject matter among of the students ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
(see Fig 4). All Engineering First Year students must have to
study mechanical properties of difference materials, including I am grateful to my colleagues, A/P Dr Eswaran P, Head of
metal, ceramics, advanced ceramics, glass polymers and Department of Science and Mathematics, for his valuable
cements. All laboratory works are based on the grouping encouraging. Dr Tan, for proof reading, Dr Djwantoro and Mr
reports. The facilities of Moodle on-line education system are Rajalimgan S, for their advice on paper production.
subjects outline, contents, lecture notes, connection between
lecturer and students, such as lecturer can know easily what REFERENCES
students have facing problems solving, full information about
laboratories work and tutorial problems. [1] D. Johnson, “Student-student interaction” (1981). The neglected
variable in education. Educational Researcher, 10, p 5-10
[2] R. Dreeban, First-grade reading groups: Their formation and change,
III. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION In P. Peterson, L. C. Wilkinson, & M. Hallinam (Eds), The social
context of instruction: Group organization and group
The benefits of this form of cooperative learning include high
achievement and positive interpersonal relationship and
interactive between students and lecturer. The main effective
of the Moodle on-line education system is the students &
lecturers can interact with each others, interchange
suggestions and ideas, and also getting learning materials
from lecturers.

TABLE 1. THE RESULTS OF THE ENG MATERIALS 100 UNITS BY USING

COOPERATIVE LEARNING METHOD FROM 2008 TO 2009 SEMESTER 1

Units campus Sem 1- Sem 2- Sem 1-

08 08 09

Eng Mate Miri 87% 90% 92%

100 Bentley 90% 90% 92%

Cooperative method is the best effective environment for the

Engineering First Year (EFY) students for their studies in
terms of scientifically and technically point of view from the
beginning of the students engineering life. The measurement
of students performance show at the Table 1 which clears the
pass rate of Engineering Materials 100 is increasing. The
outcomes from cooperative method are: the students receive
gaining attention for their lessons after the lecture, tutorial and
laboratory classes simultaneously, such as development new
concepts, explaining and illustrating, questioning, getting
participation and more confidence, expectation and self
esteem. Creation of building confidence and motivation of
students are very important for the effective learning.

121
 Architectural Design Guidelines for
High-Rise Buildings in Yangon
Aung Sea Sar #1, Swe Swe Aye *2
#
Department of Architecture, Yangon Technological University
*
Gyogone, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar
1
aungseasar80@gmail.com
2
cqhpssa@baganmail.net.mm
Abstract— As the functions of living become more complex and
technological change accelerates, improvement in space
requirements and building services becomes more and more
sophisticated.
In Yangon City area, building by-laws, rules and
regulations have been issued time to time by the Yangon City
Development Committee for effective control on the construction
of public buildings especially in high-rise buildings, which
involve functional matters, technical problems and social
requirements.
In this respect, functional obsolescence is the problem
to be considered in today’s Architectural planning, which
depends on many factors, such as: Changes in life styles of the
citizens, Changes in family size and structure, Technological
changes. In Yangon City area, constructions of high-rise building
projects have increased considerably during the past ten years.
The aim of this paper is to present prevailing by-laws,
rules and regulations with emphasis on guidelines for quality
control of high-rise building construction projects and to
improve the quality of building design for emergence of typical
high-rise buildings.
Moreover, this paper is intended to indicate the space
distribution and composition of the buildings, the provision of
the services of water supply, drainage, electrical supply, natural
lighting, ventilation, fire hazard and etc., from the aesthetical,
construction and public health point of view.
Keywords— Space requirements, high-rise buildings, rules and
regulations, building services
I. INTRODUCTION
In Myanmar, Mandalay, Pathein and other divisional
capitals were built a very few high-rise buildings except
Yangon. Many high-rise buildings can be seen in almost
anywhere in Yangon City.
According to renovation and reconstruction in every part of
Yangon City, became high standard since early 1990 because
due to the practice of Market-oriented Economic System, the
economical situations developed all round, and it was found
that the urban scene of Yangon, the City of Myanmar,
immediately developed.
Nowadays, the population of the world’s capitals is more
and more crowded days by days and prices of land are also
expensively valuable in these area. Therefore apartments and
flats have to be appearing in those areas.
122
Specially, commercial buildings, education buildings,
social buildings, residential buildings and health buildings,
which are for people, are being constructed everywhere in
Yangon, competitively.
As our Nation is striving for all-round development and
taking every effort in Nation –Building Endeavour, emergence
of High-Rise Buildings in an appropriate Locations of Yangon
City play a very important role and become the complex issue
of integrating architecture with structural design.
By living in it, residents can feel to get good lighting and
ventilation caused by high-rise, good view and scene, good
access, good relaxing, easy to shopping ,taking care of health
etc.
II. RESEARCH OUTLINE
In this research, firstly, the author presents the historical
background of High-Rise and its phenomenon. Secondly, the
author studies the existing High-Rise Building projects in
Yangon City.
Finally, the author presents existing local buildings by-laws,
rules and regulations by Yangon City Development
Committee (Y.C.D.C) and Department of Human Settlement
and Housing Development (D.H.S.H.D) and guidelines for
existing High-Rise Building projects issued by committee for
quality control of high-rise building construction projects
(CQHP), which was formed as one of the authorized body
responsible for effective control of the construction of high-
rise building projects in Yangon.
III. LITERATURE REVIEW
High-Rises are becoming increasingly important as urban
density increases and available space decreases. To maximize
land usage, many developers are constructing high-rises.
A. Historical Background of High-Rise Building
Unlike other major Asian cities, Yangon does not have any
skyscrapers. Apart from a few high-rise hotels and office
towers in downtown area, most high-rise buildings (usually 15
to 22 stories high) are "condos" scattered across prosperous
neighbourhoods north of downtown area. The tallest building
in Yangon, Pyay Gardens, is a 25-story condo in the city’s
north. In and around the sensitive areas, no residential
buildings shall be constructed more than six storey in height.
B. High- Rise Phenomenon IV. STUDY ON LOCAL EXISTING LAWS AND REGULATIONS

High- rise are different regulations in each country because FOR HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS IN YANGON
of different location and constructed time. Mostly it depends
A. Sensitive Areas in Yangon for High-Rise Buildings
on-
• Nos of storey Development involving high-rise buildings in any of these
• Height of the ground floor to roof top locations would not be acceptable.
• More distinct characteristics building than ordinary • Conservation Area
building • Listed and Historic Building Area
• It is constructed higher than ordinary building around • Security Area
the districts
Buildings between 75 feet and 491 feet high are, by B. Existing Building Rules and Regulations of Yangon City
some standards, considered high-rises. But really depends on Development Committee
the country.
1) Building Height: The height of residential buildings in
The present situation in Myanmar, six- storey and above are
Yangon City area may be constructed three times the width of
defined and accepted as High-Rise Buildings. If the height of
the street. e.g. In 25 feet street , no residential building shall
a building is 62 feet, a lift must be provided. (Note: Six
exceed 75 feet in height.
storeyed residential buildings are the most commonly built
structures in Yangon downtown area. The total height of these The height of the ground floor level shall be at least 10 feet
buildings is 62 feet) above the average level of the site. (Note: It can be exceeded
While a few ten-story buildings with no elevators test the according to design)
resolve of some citizens, walking up six floors does appear to The minimum height of the upper stories shall not be less
be the limit most citizens are willing to tolerate. than 8 feet 4 inches. But such low ceiling height should be
But nine storied and above are defined and accepted by provided with air conditioner or exhaust fan.
CQHP as High-Rise Buildings. If the height of upper stories is 9’4”, air conditioner may
not be needed.
C. Classification of High-Rise If the height of a building is 62 feet, a lift must be provided.
(Note: Six storeyed residential buildings are the most
In High-Rise building, it can be classified as: commonly built structures in Yangon downtown area. The
1. Un-habitat structure total height of these buildings is 62 feet) i.e.( Ground floor -12
2. Habitat structure feet with each upper floor -10 feet respectively)
1) Un-habitat Structure: Observation Tower, Monumental C. Room Height
Building, Religious Building, Spires, obelisks and Pylons.
The height of every room, ceiling and head room of every
2) Habitat Structure: Residential High-Rise Buildings,
such room, used or intended to be used in the type of building
Hotel High-Rise Building, Hospital High-Rise Building,
specified in the following table.
Office High-Rise Building, Commercial Residential High –
Rise Buildings and Industrial High-Rise Buildings TABLE I
STANDARD OF ROOM HEIGHT, CEILING HEIGHT AND HEAD ROOM FOR
D. High-Rise Building Type HIGH-RISE B UILDING
Height of Height of Head
• Condominium -Residential only/ Residential +
Type of Occupancy Room Ceiling Room
Commercial (mm) (mm) (mm)
• Apartment -Residential only /Residential + Residential Building 2600 2400 2000
Commercial
Office, Shop, Hotel 3000 2400 2100
• Tower -Office only/ Residential+ Office/ Hall, Hospital, School 3000 2400 2100
Residential+ Office + Commercial
Public Recreational Place 3600 3000 2100
• Centre -Residential+ Office + Commercial
Industry/Workshop 3000 2400 2100
• Plaza -Commercial only/ Office + Car Parking 2500 - 2000
Residential +Commercial
Based on
Bath Room, Toilet/W.C 2200 2000
• Hotel -Hotel only/ Hotel+ Office occupancy
Commercial Others 2600 2400 2100
• Hospital -Hospital only

123
D. Room Space
Every habitable room in any building shall be not less than
ten feet long by ten feet wide, including the space occupied by
the staircase. No internal corridor, or passage-way intended
for resident in such building shall be less than six feet in width.
In any building, no water closet, privy, urinal, latrine or
manhole shall be situated at a distance nearer than 7 feet from
any fire-place or cook area, such distance to be calculated
from the center of one to the center of other.
No water closet, privy, urinal, latrine or manhole shall in
any building be situated within a room used for human
habitation, or as a kitchen or cook room or shall open directly
into such room, but shall be entirely cut off from such room;
provided that water closets will be permitted in any bath-room
having a floor space of not less than 64 square feet.
E. Fenestration with Respect to Building Envelope
1) Doors and Windows
The external doors of high rise building is used for human utility networks and facilitating the process of the projects in
habitation shall open outwards. Every habitable room shall the planning stage.
have at least one window, iron barred door way or other
aperture opening directly into a space not less than one- eight
of the floor area of such room. No such room shall be built so
that any part of it is more than 25 feet from any such window,
door-way or aperture.
V. COMMITTEE FOR QUALITY CONTROL OF HIGH-R ISE
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS (CQHP)
Committee for quality control of high-rise building
construction projects (CQHP) was formed in August 2003,
with eleven members of engineers and architect, officially
assigned by State Peace and Development Council.
The responsibility of the Committee is to control the quality
and give necessary guidance and suggestions to developers
and designers for the construction of nine storey and above
high-rise building projects. CQHP has been issued guide lines
for effective control of the construction of high-rise building
projects. Prevailing guidelines concerned with architectural
aspects are presented in the following sections.
F. Existing Guidelines in CQHP ( Architectural Design)
1) Architectural Design Considerations
• The design should portray and express the
main purpose and character of the building.
• The building should be in harmony with its
surroundings and environments.
• The designer should pay attention to landuse
density ratios, urban open space and
circulation.
• Natural lighting, ventilation, visual aspects
and weather protection should be taken into
consideration.
124
• Adequate car parking space should be
provided.
•Construction methods, materials and other
technical involvements should be considered.
•Utility networks and M&E space should be
considered.
•The fact that regular and symmetrical
planning of the building can have significant
advantage in structural performances and
design calculations, economy of the project
and actual construction of the building
should be kept in mind in architectural
planning.
•Local building bye-laws shall be adhered to.
G. CQHP Collaboration and Integration in the Planning
Stage
It is very important that there must be good collaboration
and integration among Structural Engineers, ESM Engineers,
Architects, Clients and Fire Departments for ensuring efficient
1) Architectural Key Points
According to existing CQHP guideline, the Architect must
present and explain the following Architectural Key Points to
the CQHP.
• Conceptual planning and site layout
• Functional and spatial requirements
• Ventilation and Lighting considerations
• (Natural & Artificial Lighting, emergency lighting,
etc.)
• Building services for ESM networks, waste disposal
system, space allocation for treatment plant, water
supply & sanitation etc.
• Car parking space
• Fire detection & fire alarm systems, emergency
communication systems (eg: stairs, corridors,
emergency stairs etc.)
• Security systems (eg: security door lock system, etc.)
• Choice of building materials & fenestrations (eg:
curtain walls, windows, roofing, interiors, etc.)
• Choice of Structural System and form considering
earthquake effects.
VI. CONCLUSION
In Yangon City downtown area, land area becomes less
available to accommodate land area.Contemporary lifestyles
and the increasing combined pressures of urbanization and
population growth on our cities demand a redefining of our
conventional perceptions of working and living in high-rise
structures in the city.
Urban Communities are confronting new problems, due to
the development of over populated large cities. These
problems are basically the outcome of high-density and over-
populated areas.
Nowadays, high-rise buildings are inseparable components
of large cities and the major factor for the changes in the
profiles of cities. Although living in these buildings makes the
life easy for the inhabitants from some points of view,
however, these have also created some problems due to the
high density and various social classes that ought to live
together. As cities and their business and residential precincts
become considerably denser, it needs to approach high-rise
design.
For instance, it needs to design the high-rise’s external,
internal and transitional spaces and at the same time take into
studied consideration the needs of its current and future users.
Nevertheless a high standard of design will be required.
The design must be in harmony with the social, economic
and political aspects of the locality. High-rise will be designed
and planned in a three-dimensional matrix with diverse land
uses, public realms, places, parks and open spaces in its upper
parts. In Residential High-Rise Buildings, religious and social
spaces are needed for all religion. If possible, all residents
want to be held for social and other activities inside their
building.
Therefore, a space such as multi-functional hall should be
contained in Residential High-Rise Buildings. Moreover,
rooms (such as bed room, living, Dining, Kitchen, Bath &
W.C) in existing high-rise building are very small and not
spacious area that are not available for health and safety.
The proposition that high-rise design should be involved an
integration of socio-economic-political-environmental and
physical concerns with the architectural concerns of building
design. The multidisciplinary concerns include ecology,
sociology, environment, psychology, technology, urban
geography, cultural theory and real estate, all of which will be
seen to affect the design of the new high-rise.
High quality architectural design is most important for
high-rise building because architectural design gives the
building a unique identity. Therefore, the design is sensitive to
cultural context and technological innovation.
In conclusion, the absence of high- rise buildings in the city
gives one an impression of less development.
Thus, it is important to start the changing trend towards
high-rise building development in Yangon’s city area by
creating the diversity of architectural high-rise design in
growth centers.
125
Since, the architects are builders of magnificent urban
structures of high quality with the application of advanced
technology and which also plays a crucial role in emergence
of safe high-rise buildings of international standard, we need
to develop architectural guidelines supported by scientific
research studies in order to emerge safe high-rise buildings
which concerning with the following factors.
• Day-light factors and effects of reflective walls
adjacent to high-rise buildings.
• Ventilation and air flow phenomena in and
around high-rise buildings
• Provision of enough spaces and apertures for
stair halls which are in common use, especially
used by the inhabitants of upper floors.
• Choice of building materials and specifications
• Integration of building forms and structure in
high-rise buildings with regard to environment.
It is hoped that the discussion and deliberations of
this research on present day high-rise building projects in
Yangon city would enlighten in some aspects for
improvements in future developmental constructions in
Yangon as well as in other big towns in Myanmar.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author is deeply indebted to all teachers from
Department of Architecture for giving helpful guidance and
suggestions for this paper. The author also wishes to extend
special thanks to her supervisor Prof. Dr. Swe Swe Aye (Pro
Rector and Head of the Department of Architecture, YTU) for
her sincere encouragement, true-line guidance and supervision.
REFERENCES
[1] Swe Swe Aye. Dr, “A Study on Five or More Storeyed Residential
Buildings In Yangon City Area,” Research Project, Department of
Architecture,Y.T.U.1995
[2] Zin Zin Moe. Ma, “Analysis on Space Requirements in Residential
High-Rise Buildings In Yangon”, M.Arch. thesis, Department of
Architecture,Y.T.U.2006
[3] Hlaing Maw Oo,Aye Aye Myint,Tin Tin Kyi, Daw, “ Introducing
YCDC Building By-Laws and Introduction to Planning Regulations”,
at AMA Seminar in Traders’ Hotel, Yangon, 2006
[4] Swe Swe Aye. Dr, “Introducing CQHP Regulations For Architectural
Design Guidelines”, at AMA Seminar Traders’ Hotel, Yangon, 2006
 Monitoring Urban Identities in Mandalay City
San Aye Khaing #1, Swe Swe Aye *2
#
Department of Architecture, Mandalay Technological University, Mandalay
*
Yangon Technological University, Yangon,Myanmar
1
sanayekhing@gmail.com
Abstract— Built environment and natural environment are
important in this habitable world. Throughout a good living
environment, it can be seen in architecture of building design as
an image of that particular era and a good representative of the
cultural heritage of that country which can carry those value and
heritage into the future. Mandalay city, in Myanmar, as a city of
the second last king of Myanmar, it is the cultural heart-centre of
the country. It stands as a rich in historical memories, as the last
capital before the British annexed the whole country. And
Mandalay city is also a city rich in monuments relating to
Buddhism. It is situated on the eastern bank of Ayeyarwaddy
River. And then it is a centre of transport and communication
for all trades and commerce activities after the policy of market-
oriented economic system. The city’s rapidly increasing
development impacts on the quality of life and urban identities.
Some developments have required monitoring and respecting in
the built cultural heritage that has been representing the identity
of the city into the future. In this paper, the trends toward that
any sustainable approach to conservation for Mandalay city is
examined. From which, the knowledge of the historical context to
conservation in the city identities is needed to provide as one of
the sustainable cultural heritage cities in the world.
Keywords— Urban Identities, Living Environment, Cultural
Heart-center, Sustainable Cultural Heritage
I. INTRODUCTION
Mandalay city is the last historic core, and the last capital of
Kone Baung period, in Myanmar. Its past can be traced back
to as early as in AD 1857. In 1857 AD, King Min Don built
the palace. Measurement, drawing map and fixing boundary
mark started from the base of Mandalay hill, east-north of
present rampart. Being a capital, it is called ‘Mandalay’ from
that time forward. Mandalay as a near-perfect geometrical
pattern, the roads and streets are cutting at right angles-
physically.
The city was divided by the cardinal points-the east, the
west, the south, and the north. Subsequently, it developed very
quickly as a strategic and commercial centre and together with
that many changes and actions effecting in many sectors were
occurred. Nevertheless, according to different documents,
Mandalay city continued its importance as a commercial
centre, by that time, already a big city with most of the
inhabitants living throughout the city.
In recent years, Mandalay city has been confronting
tremendous pressure from infrastructure and commercial
development after the market-oriented system. Through
different development programmes, the traditionally built city
identities in Mandalay city is now being lost to it’s newer and
126
very different counterparts in today’s Mandalay city. Intrusion
of economic activities, such as markets and small industries,
linked to the local population, are also posing threats to this
historic area. Consequently, speculative demolition of
architecturally rich mixed-use buildings is used for purely
public buildings.
There is also a change in the demographic character of the
people living there. Mandalay city are now gradually being
replaced by the people related to these commercial activities.
There is also widespread residents moving out and the
social context of its rich cultural heritage is weakened.
Although the loss of Mandalay’s cultural heritage and mixed-
use has been discussed to be a sustainable cultural heritage
city.
Today, Mandalay City is transformed into a predominately
modernized city. Moreover, the boundary of Mandalay city
has formed with the passage of time as shown in Fig. 1. The
growth of city’s population coupled with social, economical
and environmental problems will gradually arise. Mandalay
City consists of five townships and can be classified into street
numbers:
(1) Aung Myay Thar Zan
(2) Chan Aye Thar Zan
(3) Mahar Aung Myay
(4) Chan Mya Thar Zi
(5) Pyi Gyi Tagun. (City Planning and Land
Administration Department, M.C.D.C, 2003)
II. METHODOLOGY
All paragraphs must be indented. More than 50% of the
world population lives in the cities. Urban areas assume a
strong important nowadays, when referring to development
and sustainable development. The study grounded
comparative analysis method. Data was collected through
interviews and observations on practical attitudes and other
documentary sources.
III. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The entire document should be in Times New Roman or
Times font. Type 3 fonts must not be used. The objectives of
the study are:
- to study existing condition between old and new
architecture,
- to merge the old and new architecture harmoniously
- to focus on public participation in urban heritage
conservation
 IV. SELECTION OF STUDY AREAS

The bases for selecting the case study areas were developed Vicinity of Thudhama Zayat
through a pilot study that included
-Ancient Royal Palace,
-Thudhama Zayat, Vicinity of
-Zegyo Clock Tower, Ancient
-Sedona Hotel (Mandalay). Royal Palace
-the Railway station (Mandalay). To obtain the most Vicinity of
representative information about Mandalay city, three specific Clock Tower
study areas were selected according to the criteria. Vicinity of
Sedona Hotel
V. THE CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF THE AREAS

It was the capital city built by the second last king of

Myanmar. So it is the cultural heart-centre of Myanmar and it
stands as a rich in historical memories. The following criteria Vicinity of Railway
were used for the selection of the areas Station (Mandalay)
- These study areas can be retaining to represent the
city’s identities and its historic character.
- The historic context can be easily identifiable on
heritage elements (Ali, Reza H. 1990).
- The heritage development of today will represent
sense of the cities identities
- Availability of sources (maps, studies, etc) provided
information to practical attributes (Erbaugh Mary S.
2002).

TABLE I
SELECTION OF THE PRESENCE OF THE STUDIES

Mandalay Sense of
A mix of
Sr city that Historical the Fig. 1 Location of the study areas
new and Source: Mandalay City Development Committee
No. meet one character city’s
old
criteria identity
VI. ANCIENT ROYAL PALACE
(MYA NAN SAN KYAW PALACE)
Ancient
1
old city
H H - The plan of Mandalay City was established by King
Mindon in 1221 (Myanmar Calendar). In that plan, the palace,
Mya Nan San Kyaw was chosen as a rectangular plan and the
Thudhama city was formed as a rectangle.
2 H H -
Zayat
It is situated on the eastern bank of Ayeyarwaddy River and
in the middle of Myanmar, and is a city with a large port.
Zegyo Clock In 1857 AD, King Mindon built the palace and
3 H H -
Tower
measurement, drawing map and fixing boundary mark started
from the base of Mandalay hill, east-north of present rampart.
The Railway Being a capital is called ‘Mandalay’ from that time forward.
4 station M M L The Royal Palace gates connected by a curtain wall are just
(Mandalay) like serves as the defense of the ancient Royal Palace and the
design emphasizes on historical heritage preservation in
architecture design as shown in Fig. 2.
Sedona Hotel It is also served as the landmark and tourists attraction for
5 M L L
(Mandalay)
visitors. The ancient Royal Palace was the original part with
large amounts of physical heritage ( Win Maung, U
H-High presence M-Moderate presence L-Low presence (Tanpawaddy), 1999). It is one of the most famous and
Source: Field Study represents the greatest historic identities in Myanmar.

127
According to the questionnaires, the presence of sense of the
city’s identities can be seen in table (1).
They were used for religious ceremonies. They were laid by
King Mindon and one of the structures of seven edifices for
preaching the Doctrine. They are situated near the ancient
Royal Palace, along the 12th street at the foot of the Mandalay
Hill (see Fig. 3& 4). They are ancient structures highlighting
historic value of the urban area. The above mentioned
buildings and structures are old ones which can represent and
deserve for heritage conservation.

VIII. ZEGYO CLOCK TOWER

Fig. 2 The curtain wall of the ancient Royal Palace, the valuable city’s
identity of the city
Source: Field Study

In the city, cultural mixtures resulting from historic

migrations have transformed and fitted the cultures to their
building contexts (i.e. commercial building, public building).
In the turn of the nineteenth century, the changing of the
technology and material of the construction has led to the
development of the ancient Royal Palace as an important Old
city’s symbol where the ancient Royal Palace and the
surrounding buildings as the Myanmar cultural heritages. Fig. 5 Zegyo Clock Tower

VII. THUDHAMA ZAYAT

Fig. 3 Areal view of Thudhama Zayat

Fig. 5 Zegyo Clock Tower At the corner of 26x84 street

Source: Field Study
At the corner of 84x26 street, Zegyo clock tower is situated
as the landmark of Zegyo and its environment (see Fig.5). It
is one of the most significant urban identity at the commercial
hub of Mandalay. It was built in 1903. It is a structure left
after the World War II and the last huge fire in 1992. It is
representing as the historic identity of Mandalay city (see
Fig. 4 Thudhama Zayat
Fig.6).
Source: Field Study

128
 IX. SEDONA HOTEL It was found that general level of development and
economic condition might have some influence on the link
between the old and new to monitor urban identity. The study
of the relationships would also be useful to identify the factors
that lead to provide to be sustainable cultural heritage city. So
the next study is the Railway station as shown in Fig. 9.

X.RAILWAY STATION
As a city, Mandalay city attracted people from many parts
of the world including Europeans, Chinese, Indians, Malays,
Thailand, etc. The different formed of their distinctive to the
city; it can be easily reached by air, by bus, by train, by board.
So everywhere of the city area overwhelm of valuable
identities for one more visit.

Fig. 7 Sedona Hotel at the corner of the 26th and 66th street (Cultural mixture
of one of the modern structure in Mandalay)
Source: Field Study

Problems of historic preservation in the urban that include

what should be preserved, why it should be preserved, and
how to balance the relationships between private ownership
and public building of historic preservation, and between
economic development and historic preservation need to be
studied for further improvement. Tourism is one of the major
attraction and income of the balance growth in the city; which The satellite map of Railway Station (Mandalay)
should also be taken into consideration. Source: Google Earth 2000
The study area exists around the ancient Royal Palace that
has easily identifiable heritage features as shown in Fig. 7.
However, the area, Sedona hotel that has less the link between
the old and new architecture (only the entrance which is
created by using Myanmar traditional element) as shown in
the Fig. 8.

Fig. 9 The Railway station (Mandalay)

Source: Field Study

The Railway station (Mandalay) became the dominant

public building in the city. In 1999, a mix of international and
modern architectural styles was introduced to the city and it
Fig. 8 The entrance of Sedona hotel became one of a mix modern architecture style in Mandalay
Source: Field Study city.
The study provided an insight to play an important role in But it has also found that little heritage or fewer links with
urban conservation in a historic urban centre in Myanmar as a the historical elements. It is also the condition under the less
developing country. However, further study is needed to find correlation between old and new architectural styles as shown
out how different factors affect the cultural heritage in the city. in Fig. 10.

129

Fig. 10. the entrance view to Railway station (Mandalay)
Source: Field Study
The architects of last two buildings try to reflect the
Myanmar Architectural Identity since they are situated in
Mandalay city. They try to integrate the modern and historic
characters for the emergence of Mandalay Identity.
XI. CONCLUSION
Urban heritage includes historic cities, the old quarters of
cities, and towns including traditional character. Urban
conservation includes the protection and management of the
physical structures and environmental relationships in urban
areas.
The main goal of sustainable cultural heritage is
-to understand the value of historical heritage
-to maintain the significant historic values
-to conserve and manage to retain the main goal
130
Most of the cities have an old core and new developed city.
For the quality of life and living environment of the city, it is
required for surviving historic urban area.
The rapid disappearance of urban heritage in developing
countries to accommodate development necessitates a holistic
approach to conservation. In Mandalay city, the trend towards
rethinking of physical development on monitoring urban
heritage of the city is required. Involving of public
participation in cultural heritage conservation is also important.
Linking of the old and new building design is an integral part
of urban process to monitor for sustainable cultural heritage in
the city.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to express her deep gratitude to
Dr. Mya Mya Oo,Rector, Mandalay Technological University,
for her permission to carry out this paper.
The author would like to convey heartfelt thanks to Dr. Swe
Swe Aye, Pro-Rector, Yangon Technological University, for
giving helpful guidance, motivation, understanding,
suggestions and constructive criticism.
Special acknowledgements are due to Dr. Su Su, Associate-
professor and Head, Department of Architecture, Mandalay
Technological University for her suggestions and help.
REFERENCES
[1] Arantes, A. A. 1999. Reconsidering the Social Aspects of
Sustainability: Integrated Conservation of the Urban
Environmental Heritage. In Conservation and Urban Sustainable
Development, ed. S. M. Zancheti:41-49. Recife, Brazil: Centro de
Conservacao Integrada Urbana e Territorial.
[2] Erbaugh Mary S. 2002 The Secret History of the Hakkas: the
Chinese Revolution as a Hakka Enterprise. In China off center:
mapping the margins of the middle kingdom, Susan Debra Blum
Ed. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.
[3] City Planning and Land Administration Department, 2003,
Mandalay City Development Council.
[4] Lee, Y.J, paper title, Proceeding of 12th Annual International
Sustainable Development Research Conference, Hong Kong 8-10
November, 2006.
[5] Mandalay City Development Council, Annual Magazine, 2003.
[6] Mederly, P.Novacek P, Topercer J, 2003. Sustainable
Development Assessment: Quality and Sustainability of life
Indicators at Global, National and Regional level.
[7] Swe Swe Aye, Ma. 1997. Growth Centers in Mandalay Region.
M.Arch thesis report. Yangon Technological University.
[8] Win Maung, U (Tanpawaddy), 1999. Mandalay
Yatanarpone Golden City Paper.
 Urban Heritage Management in South East Asia:
Towards an Alternative Theoretical Paradigm
Su Su
Department of Architecture
Mandalay Technological University, Myanmar
Susulay21@gmail.com
Abstarct- This paper highlight factors influencing the
management of urban heritage in historic centres of cities in
Europe and that of Asia, such as impacts of planning and
development ideologies and the regulative effects of planning
instruments and organizational structures. The theoretical
development of urban heritage management has been reviewed
from the international convention and charters. Current
initiatives for the conservation of urban heritage in historic
centres of Europe and South East Asia have been reviewed
through numerous documents, reports and interviews and the
problems in relation to conservation of urban heritage in historic
centres of cities are revealed. The author critically observes the
relationship between theory and practice of urban heritage
management. Considering the differences between cities on these
two continents, it is necessary to consider carefully for local
practitioners to understand, treasure and conserve our own
urban heritage in local context where the cultural and social
background of the South East Asia based on spiritual values and
beliefs. This paper reveals the need of an alternative theoretical
paradigm for urban heritage management in historic centres of
cities in South East Asia where historical, ethnic and cultural
diversity are prominent and tangible and intangible heritage of
host communities are embedded. Therefore, recognition of
multiplicity of heritage items should be encouraged. It is a very
interesting issue to look into how we can reflect and reinterpret
the diversified urban heritage to represent identity of each
community in South East Asian city centres and successfully
develop Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) concept for regional
and local context.
Keywords- Urban heritage management, Historic city centres,
South East Asia, Cultural diversity, Tangible and intangible
I. INTRODUCTION
It is very interesting to look at different historic
urban centres around the world. The ‘sense of place’ in
Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) tell the observers about the
long history of the country, the region and the world through
layers embedded in these historic urban areas. The author
believes the importance of cooperative work by all
professionals and experts constitute in architecture, urban
design and urban planning for successful development of
HUL concept in the region. The value of HUL is reflected not
only on physical elements such as topography, buildings,
details of construction and vegetation but also the traditional
way of life of local community.
It is important to note how International charters has
been defined HUL. UNESCO World Heritage Centre (2005b,
Article 7) has used the term “historic urban landscape”, and
defined historic urban centre as:
131
‘Ensembles of any group of buildings, structures and
open spaces, in their natural and ecological context, including
archaeological and palaeontological sites, constituting human
settlements in an urban environment over a relevant period of
time, the cohesion and value of which are recognized from the
archaeological, architectural, prehistoric, historic, scientific,
aesthetic, socio-cultural or ecological point of view. This
landscape has shaped modern society and has great value for
our understanding of how we live today’.
Historic Urban Landscape is a type of continuing
cultural landscape and it is a living museum of permanence.
Nicolson (2005, 4) has defined continuing cultural landscapes
as:
‘a continuing cultural landscape is one which retains
an active social role in contemporary society closely
associated with the traditional way of life, and in which the
evolutionary process is still in progress. At the same time it
exhibits significant material evidence of its evolution
overtime’.
Moreover, Historic Urban Landscape Conservation is
one of the most difficult areas of cultural heritage
conservation and awareness of all stakeholders and
community participation is so important. Concerning with
conservation of historic urban areas, Hoi An Protocol
(UNESCO Beijing 2003,35) addressed as:
‘Unlike discrete monuments or archaeological sites,
living urban assemblages often have no institutional
custodian. It is therefore important that an administrative and
decision-making body be formed which combines local
government, business and community representation with
professional conservation and planning expertise. The
function of this body is to plan long-term integrated
conservation and urban improvement’.
This paper highlights differences in heritage elements
in physical setting and the spiritual view in conservation of
historic centres from Asian countries from that of European
countries. However, both are in need of stringent control over
contemporary architecture in historic urban landscape. Thus it
is a great concern for the Architect and planners to consider
for the conservation solution in the context of South East
Asian countries in particular while maintaining the values of
historic urban centres and authentic role of continuing cultural
landscapes.
II. DIFFERENT HISTORIC CORES: HISTORIC CENTRES
FROM EUROPE AND THAT OF SOUTH EAST ASIA
Historic Centers from Europe – case studies of Vienna and
Budapest
The World Heritage area of Vienna Historic Centre
which was nominated in 2001 is just the First District within
and around Ringstrasse, plus a few areas besides (like the
Belvedere Palace area), but it really captures the essence of
the city. The area designated comprises around 3.7km2 core
zones and 4.6km2 buffer zone. It gives an overview of its
history, from the earliest beginnings as a Celtic and Roman
settlement and the greatest glory, the Baroque as the capital of
a huge empire, and the 19th century.
According to Rudolf Schicker, Executive City
Councillor for Urban Development, Traffic and Transport,
Vienna (Austria)
‘The city centre, the area around Schönbrunn Palace
and several other regions — around 10,000 buildings in total
or 9 % of the Viennese building stock — have been
designated protection zones as early as in 1972. Through the
Old Town Conservation Fund, renovation of 3,600 objects has
been subsidized since 1972. Traffic in the city centre was and
is reduced by continuously improving public transport, setting
up pedestrian zones and introducing parking space
management using short-term parking zones’ (City of Vienna
2005,56).
Incase of Budapest, in 1987, the UNESCO World
Heritage Committee recognized the fact that the banks on
either side of the Danube from Budapest is one of ‘the most
outstandingly beautiful urban ensembles in the world by
honoring it with the status of World Heritage’. According to
the booklet ‘World Heritage Hungary’, the some60-hectare
area registered on the World Heritage List in 1987 stretches
from the Margit Bridge to the Freedom Bridge (National
Office of Cultural Heritage Hungary 2002, 6) on both sides of
the Danube. ‘The World Heritage site was extended in 2002 to
include one of the major works of urban planning from more
recent times, Andrassy Avenue and its historic surroundings’
(National Office of Cultural Heritage Hungary 2002, 7).
Historic City Centers from South East Asia
Unlike historic city centers from the largest cities of
the European Countries, many of those from South East Asia
were established during the colonial times and those results in
urban form, road networks and layouts, and architecture.
There are ethnic groups in specific areas of the cities such as
China Towns with shop houses and places for Indian
communities like in Yangon, Singapore, etc and they
remained unchanged even after the countries’ Independence in
1940s. The economic interests of these areas are often highest
because of land values.
Once, Chinatown in Singapore was a centre of
Chinese traders and so crowded with hawkers. In 1990s Urban
Redevelopment Authority in Singapore changed the use of
these shop houses under the title adaptive reuse of historic
132
buildings. Handerson (2000 cited in Hsu 2009,2) pointed out
that ‘ the place is criticized for the lack of spontaneity and
authenticity in representing the former vibrancy of Chinatown
spirit due to the shopping and street activities’. As Hsu (2009,
2) stated, these urban areas in the cities are encountering
massive urban transformation when re-integrating into the
global economy, and striving for subjective construction.
For Intramuros and Binondo in contemporary
Manila, the Philippine government conserve Intramuros as a
historic area that can remind the Spanish city of the past but
according to Lim (2009,1) ‘Binondo is not much valued for its
equally rich history, its place identity as evident in both the
tangible and intangible continues to flourish in the district,
albeit adapting to changing times’. Lim gave a remark that
‘As in the case of Manila’s urban heritage, amid the
inauthenticity of Intramuros and Binondo, their heritage
values as historical objects and contemporary urban spaces are
realized and should be equally valued in the subjective
relevance they have in the Filipinos’ narrative of self today’.
(Lim 2009, 12)
Another case is, as Berliner called, “UNESCO-
ization” of Luang Prabang, a city of Central Laos which has
become a Listed World Heritage Site since 1995. The city is
famous for its ‘Buddhist monasteries’, ‘orange-robed monks’
and ‘colonial architecture’ (Berliner 2009,1 ). He pointed out
that ‘Everywhere, people, groups and institutions nostalgically
lament the disappearance of forms of life, customs, languages,
cultures, skills, natural sites and values from the past and cling
to nostalgia’ (Berliner 2009, 1) and he also highlighted that
‘UNESCO heritage-making canons do not correspond to the
way transmission, permanence, memory and loss are
perceived by most Luang Prabangese themselves’ (Berliner
2009,1) For preserving traditional Luang Prabang houses, he
mentioned that the process is ‘seen by many as a way to
conserve relics of the past for future generations, ‘to
remember how we lived in the past’ and ‘to show to our
children and grandchildren, but we don’t want to live in them
anymore’.
These examples show the cases with emphasis on
fabric conservation, and highlight that sometimes sense of
place and collective memory faded away because of this. The
pattern of heritage and social setting as well as the role
international bodies assisting in heritage conservation
management and process in such kind of cities still need to be
investigated thoroughly to understand and appreciate local
context, especially to be considered from HUL concept.
However, base on the UNESCO Asia-Pacific
Heritage Awards Programme (2000-present), Engelhardt
made a comment on conservation projects of modern urban
heritage in South East Asia as ‘by-and-large they are projects
which preserve and continue the original uses for which the
buildings were originally intended. 20 of the 26 Award-
winning projects from Southeast Asia are those involving the
conservation of buildings, which continue in their original use.
This highlights the importance of community-led conservation
projects to the continuity of local cultural identity and
diversity in Southeast Asia, even though the communities
have been subjected to intense pressure to conform over the
past two centuries, first from colonialism and since World
War II to the forces of economic and commercial
globalization’ (Engelhardt 2009,5).
III. UNIVERSAL NEEDS AND SIMILARITIES OF
HISTORIC CITY CENTRES
Every historic urban centres has close relationship
with our culture and identity, is a reflection of past, present
and future. According to UNESCO and ICOMOS documents,
all historic urban centres have the following qualities: historic
urban centres provide us the historic evidence of our cultural
wealth and diversity; provide us the consciousness of our
common history and common future; they are the most direct
visual link to our roots, which helps us establish our identity;
sources of knowledge about history and cultural and
technological excellence, and they manifest humankind’s
response to the physical and social environment; containers of
traditional socio-cultural practices that have passed the test of
time; (ICOMOS 1975, 1987, 2003; UNESCO World Heritage
Centre 1972, 2005a, 2005b cited in Imon 2006)
Whether it is the historic centre on the World
Heritage List or not, the similar need is to fulfill every
citizen’s need. The European Landscape Convention held in
Oxford in 2000, highlighted on the awareness of the
importance of cultural landscapes including historic urban
landscape. The Landscape convention championed the
principle that governments should recognize “every citizen’s
need to establish a tangible and feeling relationship with the
land , derive physical and spiritual benefit from this
relationship” ( Priore 2000, 31 cited in Nicolson 2005, 6).
This applies not only to the famous landscapes of the world,
such as those inscribed on the World Heritage List, but also to
the humble, everyday landscapes that surround us (Nicolson
2005, 6).
The historic centres are classified into four categories
in the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the
World Heritage Convention (UNESCO World Heritage
Centre 2005a), and here, the author would like to highlight on
third category ‘Historic centres enclosed within modern cities
that cover exactly the same area as ancient towns’. However,
globally, most historic urban centres are actually today
historic districts within larger modern cities (Serageldin 1996,
69 cited in Imon 2006, 25).
Significant similarity of the cities mentioned here is
that densities driven by market prices are highest in city
centres and much lower in the periphery as the centres of
gravities of cities coincide with the historic core areas. The
following statement from Alain Bertaud who is a World Bank
Consultant (France) highlighted the advantages and
disadvantages of this fact:
‘The spatial pattern of land prices generated by
markets is important for conservation. With few exceptions,
133
the location of historic centres coincides with the centre of
gravity of cities. Therefore, the pressure generated by land
markets to transform land use is highest precisely where
conservation is needed. At the same time, high land prices and
high rents may generate the tax revenues required to maintain
historic buildings’ (City of Vienna 2005, 24).
However, Vienna has established new economic hub
at the opposite side of Donau which is not so far from the city
centre and can reduce the development pressure on the
historic centres to some extent. Therefore, there must be local
development and good questions to answer are where and how
it should be. There by, giving the right role to public
participation and public administration becomes very
important. The following hypotheses of architect and urban
planner Silvio Mendes-Zancheti from University of Recife
(Brazil) clearly identified the relationships of development
and conservation:
‘Conservation integrates into local development only
if the set of values that regulates the urban management
process is able to incorporate heritage values into
development. This can only be achieved by widening the
institutional spaces for public participation and the existence
of a social process that guarantees the non-adherence of the
public administration to projects involving the most powerful
economic actors in the local development policy arena’(City
of Vienna 2005, 26).
Many international charters including the
Washington Charter referred to development over time. As
there is physical degration because of the impact of urban
development, the conservation of these areas includes their
‘development and harmonious adaption to contemporary life’
(UNESCO 1987).
IV. DIFFERENCE IN NATURE OF URBAN HERITAGE
AND CONSERVATION CONCEPTS IN EUROPE AND
THAT OF SOUTH EAST ASIA
According to Rowney (2004, 219), the UNESCO
Recommendation, with reference to the threat of producing a
uniform environment throughout the world, refers to the
preservation of historic areas as making ‘an outstanding
contribution to maintaining and developing the cultural and
social values of each nation. This can contribute to the
architectural enrichment of the cultural heritage of the world’
(UNESCO 1976). It is a strong point to accept that there will
be difference between nature of heritage and conservation
concepts in the countries’ context. While emphasizing towards
the material fabric, the intangible value of the traditional way
of life of local community may be faded away.
The following statement from the Lebanon architect
Jade Tabet articulates this approach of conservation with
cultural heritage enthusiasm:
‘A general enthusiasm for the cultural heritage often
results in old city centers becoming mere sites of recreation
and mass tourism, which in turn destroys traditional activities
and creates a kind of urban Disneyland’. (City of Vienna
2005, 22)
The elements in the urban area are streets, squares,
blocks and buildings and it is interesting to investigate how
they structure space and make it authentic. The structure of
space in an Asian urban setting is hierarchical: streets are
ritual paths, squares are sacred of cultural places (UNESCO
Beijing 2003, 35).
Taylor (2004) states that
‘it may be that tourism can be a powerful force in
maintaining traditional places in Asian cities and countryside
as ordinary places where lifestyle, traditions and fabric are
supported by tourist spending’. He again suggested Asian
people to think locally while as well as being aware of global
trends and practice.
For the case of South East Asian Cities, sometimes
the question comes as ‘Whose heritage are we conserving’?
However, these buildings, streets and squares can tell us very
well about the long history of the nation through the
successive layers of buildings and ensembles. There are
intangible values that embedded in them.
Taylor (2004) asked the same question: ‘So in
Cultural Heritage Management the key issue is whose culture
is we presenting and why? Also fundamental to the issue in
Asia, and with consequences on options for charters and
conventions, is the manner in which most Asian cultures have
a spiritual view of what is culturally valuable from the past:
the past lives on in memory of people, of events and of places
through time rather than concentrating on the material fabric
which can change or be’.
It is very interesting to consider how the social
pluralism of many ethnic groups of cities in South East Asia
can be reflected and equitably represented in the image of
urban landscapes. For that, it is definitely necessary to look
back how successfully do current heritage policies reflect the
cultural, ethnic and religious diversities of Asia as well as
whether UNESCO conventions on ‘intangible heritage’
promote pluralism.
It now becomes a good question whether heritage
frameworks conceived within the cultural traditions of
‘Western’ modernity remain valid for Asia today or not. In
Western architecture the perfection of form is achieved
through realistic expression or a visual form while in East
Asia the material form is a mean for transmitting the spirit
values’ (Kwanda 2009, 13).
Some of the Asian historic urban centres are densely
populated areas and it is important to be considered if the
areas are to be conserved authentically, what is interesting is
the rights of the communities living inside historic landscapes
have towards development and ‘modernization’.
Taylor (2004) highlighted the Asian approach of
conservation as:
134
‘Wei and Aass set out the Asian approach in a
provocative paper some years ago (1980) where time is
seamless and the cumulative spiritual and physical
contributions of various generations are valued. Accretions of
change and repair to fabric are accepted as the norm without
detracting from the spirit of the place. From this perspective
there are ramifications for the preparation of charters and
principles for cultural heritage conservation and management
relevant to Asian cultures’.
To put it in a nutshell, in South East Asian Countries,
ritual and religious systems shape the way people would like
to conserve the heritage and priority is given to the intangible
heritage. ‘This leads to several key differences in Asian
conservation as replacement or renewal of fabric, and
reconstruction are acceptable although has lost its material
authenticity, because of the perishable structure and the
significance of the place resides primarily in its continued
spiritual meaning and symbolic value rather than importance
of the fabric itself’ (Wei and Aass 1989 cited in Kwanda
2009, 14).
V. IMPACTS OF CURRENT LEGISLATION
FRAMEWORK, PLANNING INSTRUMENTS AND
ORGANIZATION STRUCTURES ON CONSERVATION
OF HISTORIC CENRES
Committee Austria had ratified the 1972 UNESCO
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural
and Natural Heritage in 1993 (Federal Gazette No.60/1993).
There is a need of additional legal power in the case of Austria
as well. Conservation of monuments is under the Federal
administration with Monument Protection Act enacted in 1923
(amended till 1999). Nature conservation for parks and
gardens, building regulations and development control is
under the Federal provinces. According to the Monument
Protection Act, protection of ensembles is concerned
overlapping with townscape care under the provincial
authority.
The fact is highlighted by the Neuwirth ( ca.2005,1):
‘World Heritage Sites may come under monument
protection both as individual objects and ensembles; under the
Austrian system of competences, the protection of open
spaces in historic city centres, of the surroundings of
monuments and even more , of the cultural landscape comes
under provincial legislation’. Neuwirth (ca.2005, 2)
again emphasized that
‘The legislative situation described above clearly
shows that the World Heritage Sites need to be protected by
an approach that integrates all planning instruments. But this
protection is lacking in as much as the various planning
instruments corresponding to the legal provisions have not yet
been coordinated in Management Plans for World Heritage
Site protection’.
Municipality of the City of Vienna carefully
records the architectural, archeological and historic heritage
with a computerized database. A scientific analysis for
defining and mapping the famous viewpoints such as that of monuments and the third, which is also very important that is
“Canaletto’ view of the inner city from the Belvedere, something similar as heritage lottery fund in UK. Something
panoramas and identification points has been done . The to create a kind of fund or foundation directly can be used for
construction of high-rise buildings can only be implemented these purposes and it is not yet developed but I think it is very
once they have been checked for compatibility with the important. He again summarized ‘shortage of financial
historic cityscape. resources, weakness in technical solutions, need to improve
infrastructure, ownership problems, shortage of good
However, in Vienna as in most other historic
mentality to keep in a good shape of building, understanding
cities, some of the new buildings and attic conversion are the
of heritage values’ as problems for conserving historic centre
subject of very controversial discussions. The following
of Budapest.
statement from Michael Turner from Bezalel Academy of Arts
and Design, Jerusalern (Israel) criticized insufficient Public Mezos (2009) pointed out the problem in hierarchy
Participation even in Vienna as: of planning management organization as ‘City of Budapest
has no right practically. We have to work together with the
‘A platform of Viennese residents’ committees also
municipality of the district. For the districts, there are many
criticized changes of the historic cityscape and insufficient
opinions and these are more important than ours. Yes, we
public participation in decision-making processes. There are
have no right to veto the application of the new development
different perspectives and interests of residents, tourists,
project in the World Heritage protected area but we can give
investors, etc., that have to be considered when dealing with
our opinion, which is too weak. Practically we have no legal
the issues of preservation and contemporary architecture’.
force to emphasize our opinion. The office gets the plan from
(City of Vienna 2005, 44)
the municipality and we can make (formulate) our opinion
Neuwirth (ca 2005) stated that typical phenomena concerning the plan but practically it is a written text and it
to be considered in the learning process for both UNESCO has no legal weight. That is the real problem’.
and Austria should include an immediate need that Historic
The main point of all the problems in handling urban
Centre of Vienna (emphasize mine) require to examine the
heritage is that it is essential to consider it in the broader
city centre management plan with a conservation policy or
social, economic and political complexities and as Winter
program which can coordinate all the planning instruments
(2009) stated ‘First, much greater attention needs to be given
after fine-tuning them and also the boundaries of core and
to developing heritage courses within the tradition of
buffer zones in accordance with the Operational Guidelines of
interpretative, critical theory. Programs that conceptualize
the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, to inform
heritage in cross disciplinary terms, and as a facet of
administrative and decision makers of importance of World
contemporary society, are required to complement existing
Heritage Sites, to develop suitable inventory of cultural
sector specific courses in archaeology, architecture, urban
landscape elements worthy of protection along with
planning, performance studies and so on. Second, the
assessment of changes introduced, and finally development
conceptual frameworks and paradigms acquired on such
and implementation of suitable master concepts and
courses need to feed into mainstream policy thinking (winter
safeguarding by Management Plan for the conservation and
18, 09)’.
sustainable development of Vienna Historic Centre(
Emphasize mine). VI. REVIEWING INTERNATIONAL CHARTERS,
STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES FROM ASIAN
In case of Budapest, Fejérdy (2008) stated that ‘if
CONTEXT
you are asking with historic views or townscape, I think it is
not really satisfactory but different levels of regulations are
Both the Venice Charter (1964) and the Burra
not really dealing with views, visional integrity, another
Charter (1999) being the most recognized conservation
aspect and it should be a bit more detail because we are
instruments, are pitched at maintaining the physical fabric
thinking about HUL, it is certain not only visual, has to be
though the Burra Charter highlights intangible qualities of
social components like citizen, infrastructure, natural
heritage as well. The Washington Charter (1987) for
elements, everything historic urban landscape is’.
conservation of historic towns and urban areas also not so
Concerning with compressive heritage management much addresses on cultural issues and more on material nature
law for the whole historic urban areas, he mentioned that and physical fabric.
‘more generally, we are now preparing a new world heritage
Rowney (2004,25) pointed out that the Resolutions
law. It is very important because World heritage Law at least
of Burges: Principles governing the Rehabilitation of Historic
has to give a very strong framework at least for two things.
Towns (1975) recognizes the social and cultural factors that
First of all, to give a very strong legal power to management
make up a town’s character, and calls for their safeguarding,
plan and management structure, and secondly, to give
not only for their cultural and aesthetic appeal but particularly
possibility for financial background, to create national level
for their social function, as the natural meeting place of the
incentive tax reduction possibility for any kind of taxes on the
urban community.
other hand which is also important to give direct grants or
financial support to the most important heritage areas and

135
 As there is a need for concluding discussion for
Asian culture, Hoi An Protocol fill in this gap. Hoi An
Protocol (UNESCO Beijing 2003, 33) classified those threats
to preservation of Historic Urban Areas of Asian cities are:
(1) In particular, they face the loss of historic
structures and replacement with new buildings as a result of
economic pressures to develop valuable property.
(2) Heritage resources in urban areas also face the
slow decay of structural fabric due to lack of maintenance; as
a result of shortages of funding, lack of interest and failure of
owner/occupiers to appreciate the value of what may be
humble components of a valuable urban assemblage.
(3)There is a steady onslaught of pollution including
chemical action on historical building materials, damage from
vibration and settlement, changes in water levels and moisture
etc. in the urban environment.
(4)Heavy, uncontrolled traffic and polluting vehicles
within and around historic urban areas pose a serious and
immediate threat to the integrity of heritage groups. Planning
to reroute traffic, designate pedestrian areas, impose clean air
policies and enforce a range of transport solutions should be a
conservation priority.
(5) The loss of traditional occupations and the
economic–residential mixes of the community, which gave
urban areas, their authentic flavour. This includes the loss of
artisan skills associated with traditional building construction
and repair.
A critical review of the 1976 Recommendation
Concerning the Safeguarding and Contemporary Role of
Historic Areas emphasized that a revised Recommendation
was needed to focus on the specific nature and needs of cities
as living heritage (UNESCO Executive Board 2008). The
main conclusions of the regional expert meetings emphasized
the importance of a number of aspects that have profoundly
changed the discipline and practice of urban heritage
conservation, such as:
1) the increasing importance attributed to the concept of
historic urban landscape, as a stratification of previous
and current urban dynamics, with an interplay between
the natural and built environment;
2) the greater role taken by contemporary architecture in
historic areas, and the issue of sensitivity of new
architecture to context;
3) the economics and changing role of cities, with an
emphasis on non-local processes such as tourism and
urban development, with outside actors of change;
4) the issues of “authenticity” and “integrity” in relation to
living historic cities;
5) the meaning and the use of “buffer zones” in relation to
historic urban landscapes;
6) the “intangible” values associated with urban historic
areas (UNESCO Executive Board 2008)
After the UNESCO had formulated the new
Recommendation, Asian countries may concentrate more
towards having their own documents to address regionally
meaningful management of Asian historic urban landscape as
the second third and fourth of the threats in urban areas in
136
Asia ‘slow decay of structural fabric’, ‘pollution problems’
and ‘traffic problems’ are different kinds of threats from that
of European countries.
VII. ALTERNATIVE THEORETICAL PARADIGM FOR
CONSERVATION OF SOUTH EAST ASIAN HISTORIC
CENTRES
Conservation theories based on Conservation
movement led by Western experts in the beginning is needless
to say that is “Euro-centric”. It is very important to do
comprehensive inventory and documentation, motivate
effective planning management system, which considers the
equal importance of urban heritage conservation to physical
development. Embracing the character of Asian streets and
urban areas by giving encouragement to continuing
development of ‘diversity’ is essential.
For better urban heritage management in South East
Asia, and in a wider sense to see historic hubs of South East
Asian Cities as Historic Urban Landscape (HUL), it is crucial
or all professionals, experts, decision making bodies related
the issues to work together with some strategic efforts towards
an alternative theoretical paradigm such as:
1) Systematic documentation to get a comprehensive data
base for architecture, urban design and planning and
critical assessment of heritage buildings, ensembles,
structures and open spaces;
2) Complete studies on movement patterns for improvement
of transportation system and development of pedestrian
zones in the major historic cores,
3) Land use and development control and systematic change
of use control to ease the development pressure and
ensure compatibility with surrounding historic urban
landscape;
4) Systematic control of the views, vistas and skyline and
strengthen sense of identity;
5) Proper development control through planning and
conservation legislation, guidelines and management by
systematic hierarchical institutional arrangements;
6) Promoting stakeholders and public awareness and their
involvement in decision making;
7) Ensuring managed tourism from conservation of urban
heritage aspects and everyday life style of local
communities giving opportunity for cultural diversity;
8) Finding out qualities which characterize South East Asian
countries’ urban tradition for authentic preservation by
discovering hierarchy of layers in the areas with the
passage of time; and
9) Undergoing Cultural Impact Assessment before any
major infrastructure or development project.
Hence, conservation theory contributing base on the
South East Asian tradition for future conservation practice in
the region should be strongly encouraged.
VII. CONCLUSION
This research reveals the better urban heritage
management through balancing and integrating the objectives
of fulfilling the needs of local community and planning Contemporary Role of Historic Areas. [Internet] Paris: UNESCO.
heritage buildings to play as catalysts for conservation of Available at : www.icomos.org/unesco/areas76.html [Accessed 7
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137
 A Comparative Analysis on Architecture of
Yoke-Sone Monastery, Sa-le
Nay Chi Aung Min#¹ ,Swe Swe Aye*²
#
Department of Architecture, Yangon Technological University, Yangon, Myanmar
*
Pro-rector, Yangon Technological University, Yangon, Myanmar.
1
naynay20@gmail.com
Abstract- In Myanmar, high-valued Myanmar architecture can
be found mostly in Pagodas, monasteries and palaces. To reveal
the Myanmar culture and ancient architecture, Yoke-Sone
Monastery, Sa-le was selected for this study. This research
presents the analysis on the architectural aspects of Yoke-Sone
Monastery, Sa-le comparing with wooden monasteries located in
central Myanmar. To support the study on the wooden
monastery of Yoke-Sone Monastery, Sa-le, the developments of
wooden monasteries are expressed firstly. Secondly, the wooden
monasteries which are constructed in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries located in central Myanmar has been chosen
and studied to trace the architectural composition. The
monasteries are analyzed according to the function, spatial
composition and roof form. After studying above monasteries,
Yoke-Sone Monastery, Sa-le is studied and compared with others
according to spatial composition and form of roof. Finally,
findings and conclusion of Yoke-Sone Monastery, Sa-le for this
research are expressed.
Keywords- Comparative Analysis, Spatial Composition,
monastery, Architecture of Yoke-Sone Monastery, Sa-le, Sa-le
Yoke-sone monastery
I. INTRODUCTION
The culture status of a country can be guessed by looking the
architecture handiworks of the building in this country.
Especially, the religious buildings of country were expressed
the splendor of the religion, the culture status by the
architecture handiworks of the religious buildings. It can be
studied for sample such as the countries were prominent the
Christian religious faith. They are expressed the Church by a
dominant form which means their religious is the splendor as
the sky. In Myanmar, there might have been many religious
buildings such as Pagodas, palaces and monasteries.
They were expressed the splendor Buddha faith by the
architectural features in the buildings. There are many
interesting architectural handiworks such as the planning
procedure and roof forms of the wooden monasteries. Yoke-
Sone Monastery is a wooden monastery constructed in
eighteen century and is studied the architectural handiworks of
this. After this, Yoke-Sone Monastery, Sa-le will be analyzed
in this research.
II. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The aims of this research are
- To let the world know the creativity of Myanmar and their
exquisite handiworks
138
- To trace the history of Myanmar Architecture
- To know the architecture of wooden monasteries built in
eighteen and nineteen century
III. SCOPE OF RESEARCH
In this research, only wooden monasteries in the
eighteen and nineteen century are studied and analyzed
because architectural handiworks in monasteries during this
period are famous. Most of the studies of wooden monasteries
are located in the central part of Myanmar. Selected
monasteries are Thin-ga-zar Kyaung, Shwe-in-bin Kyaung,
Bagayar Kyaung, Shwe-gyin kyaung, Pakhaon-gyi Kyaung,
Ba-maw Kyaung and Taik-taw Kyaung which are constructed
according to the Myanmar tradition. In particular, the
composition of space and the roof forms of Yoke-Sone
Monastery, Sa-le is analyzed comparatively with the above
monasteries.
IV. THE REVOLUTION OF WOODEN MONASTERIES IN
MYANMAR
Despite the seminal importance of masonry remains
of the Pyu and Pagan periods of history in documenting the
early presence of Buddhism and its monastic traditions in
Myanmar served as the primary prototypes for the
development of wooden monasteries called hpon-gyi kyaung,
large teak edifices crowned by tired roofing system and
constructed on wooden platforms, supported by piles, that
were prevalent throughout Myanmar during the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries.
Pictorial evidence for the presence of wooden
architecture during the Pagan period is a little more
illuminating. Representations of wooden dwellings and
pavilions appear on ceramic Jataka plaques, bas relief, and in
the wall paintings of Pagan. Archaeological evidence for the
widespread presence of wooden extensions to religious
architecture during the Pagan period may also be seen in the
form of depressions in brickwork which at one time supported
the roof beams of large, probably open-sided, preaching
reception halls of wood fixed to one of the outer walls
(usually the east) of extant masonry monasteries.
V. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS ON SPATIAL
COMPOSITION
The platforms (zingyans) were used widely in Bha-mo
Kyaung and Bagyar Kyaung. The platforms are surrounded all
rooms which are aligned in the east-west axis. Stairs were
used four stairs and more and built brick. It is developed from Every citizens and architects in a country are
the monasteries which has Hsaung-ma-gyi is hall type to the responsible to retain the architectural handiworks of the
monasteries which has Hsaung-ma-gyi is divided into two religious buildings such as stupas, temples, palaces and
parts by a wall. In the past, the functions such as residence, monasteries which show directly the culture status of this
preaching, teaching and store were used only in the Hsaung- country not to let Myanmar culture is lost in obscurity. In this
ma-gyi which is hall type. Later, Hsaung-ma-gyi was divided research, the author presented the measurement of Yoke-Sone
into two parts by a wall. The eastern part of the Hsaung-ma- Monastery, Sa-le and the spatial composition and roof form of
gyi is used for praying, preaching and reception and the the wooden monasteries which developed in eighteen and
western part is used for residence for monks. Storeroom is not nineteen century in Myanmar. The author is satisfied for this
found in Bha-mo Kyaung and Bagyar Kyaung. The rest research as the record and reference in the future.
monasteries include mainly four rooms and storeroom is
located in the westernmost part of the monastery and it is
separated with the residence room by the platform. Stairs were
used four stairs and built of brick.
All monasteries have same function and spatial
composition. It has four main rooms. From four to eight stairs
are found to be used. Platforms are surrounded all rooms and
accessed to enter the rooms. Storeroom is separated by the
passage way. The monasteries could be utilized basically as a
place for residence, teaching, praying and preaching.Sa-Le
Yokesone Monastery are which has four rooms aligned in the
main axis. Sa-Le Yokesone Monastery has additional two
rooms such as Hsaung-hla Hsaung and Kone Hsaung.

VI. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ROOF FORM

Shrine room, called Pyathat hsaung has seven-tiered
roof.Except Bagayar monastery, the others have Sanu-hsaung
which is roofed with Saun-yon-khaung roof. Therefore, Sanu-
hsaung is mostly used Yon-htat-khaung type of
roofing.Hsaung-ma-gyi is roofed with zei-ta-wun roof.
Therefore, Khaung-le-paw type of roofing is generally used
for Hsaung-ma-gyi.Single-tiered Hta-we-hsaung pon roof is
usually used for Bawag-hsaung but Yokesone monastery is
covered with zei-ta-wun roof. Therefore, Bawga-hsaung is
mostly roofed with Khaung-le-paw roof type. According to
the study on Shwe-in-bin monastery and measured of
Yokesone Monastery is Sa-Le, distinctive fact is that Gone- Fig. 1 Location of Kyaung-hsaungs in Yokesone, Sa-le monastery
hsaung is roofed with the small arch. There are not existence Source: Field Photos
Gone-hsaung is others wooden monasteries.
Yokesone monastery in Sa-Le was built in Colonial
period and it is architectural features of the late Kong-baung
period. It has five necessary Kyaung-hsaungs according to the
Myanmar traditional monasteries and also includes Gone-
hsaung. It can be seen that Pyatgat-hsaung is roofed with
seven-tiered pyathat roof, sanu-hsaung is roofed with sanu-
yon-khaung roof, hsaung-ma-gyi is roofed with two-tiered zei-
ta-wun roofed and Bawga-hsaung is covered with zei-ta-wun
roof.
VII. CONCLUSION
Being have the many religious buildings in
Myanmar, the wooden monasteries are popular and tourist
attraction places today. The wooden monasteries can express Fig. 2 The section of Sa-le Yokesone Monastery
the development of Myanmar architecture in the history. So,
the Myanmar architecture handiworks should be preserved. Source: Self Drawings of the author

139
 TABLE I REFERENCES
FUNCTIONAL USAGE OF EACH APARTMENT OF YOKE-SONE MONASTERY,SA-LE
[1] Aung Thaw, U.1968. “Report on the Excavations at Beikthano” ,
Ministry of Union Culture, Rangoon.
Name of the
apartments [2] Aung Thaw, U. 1972. “Historical Sites in Burma”, Ministry of Union
No Function Usage Culture, Government of the Union of Burma, Rangoon
(Kyaung
Hsaung) [3] Department of Architecture (Y.T.U). “The Architectural Drawings of
1. Pya-that Principal shrine - Placed Buddha image Thin-ga-zar Monastery”.
Hsaung room [4] Sylvia Fraser-Lu. 2001. “Splendor in wood: The Buddhist Monasteries
2. Sa-nu Hsaung Chief’s Monk’s - residing for abbot of Burma”Bangkok, Thailand, Orchid Press
Room (Hsaya- such as reading, [5] Han Hmat Win, Sao. 1986. “The Initiation of Novice hood and the
daw) sleeping. Ordination of Monkhood in the Burmese Buddhist Culture”, Department
of Religious Affairs, Rangoon, Myanmar
3. Hsaung-hla Shrine room - Parching
Hsaung - Praying
- Residence for monks
4. Hsaung-ma Main Hall - Residence
Hsaung - Reception for guest
- Preaching for
audience
- Praying
5. Kyat-tha-yae Storeroom - to store things
Khan
6. Baw-ga Storeroom - To store food, bowls
Hsaung and dishes.
7. Kone Hsaung Teaching Hall - Teaching at day.
- Dormitory at night

TABLE II
ROOF FORM C OMPOSITION OF YOKE-SONE
MONASTERY SALE

No Name of Function Location Roof form

Kyanung-
Hsaung
1. Pyathat- Shrine room At the eastern Seven-
hsaung end tiered roof
2. Saun- Open sided Between Yon-htat-
hsaung areas, pyathat- khaung
chief monk’s hsaung and roof
room, hsaung-ma-
to meet other gyi
monks.
3. Hsaung- Main hall, Almost at the Triple-
ma-gyi reception, center of the tiered
and teaching hall, monastery. Zei-ta-
Hsaung- Residence, wun roof
hla- serve as a
hsaung dormitory for
monks.
4. Baw-ga- Store room At the Triple-
hsaung westerm end tiered
Zei-ta-
wun roof
5. Gone- Used for At the north Small-
hsaung gathering of side and tiered arch
monks and may beside the roof.
also serve as a hsaung-ma-
place to stay gyi.
when dormitory
is full.

140
 Religious Monuments, Combined with Stupa and
Temple, in Myanmar
Khine Minn Mon#1, Sai Zaw Min Naung*2
#
Technological University (Mandalay)
*
Mandalay Technological University
1
khineminnmon@gmail.com

Abstract- In Myanmar, there are many religious monuments First, the religious monuments, combined with stupa
such as stupas, temples, monasteries etc. The stupas and and temple, were studied according to the exterior form and
temples are mostly found. The stupas and temples in Bagan interior space. And then, the evolution of their space, form and
and Mrauk-U are always monumental for Myanmar people. technology were analyzed.
The stupa is usually solid structure and the temple is usually
hollow structure. The external characters of stupas and
temples are very different. But there are many stupas similar II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
to temples in Myanmar. They are many religious monuments,
combined with stupa form and temple space. Although the In Myanmar, there are over 80 monuments, combined
exterior form is a stupa form, it has a hollow space to enter with stupa and temple from 11th century to the present. Among
for certain functions as a temple. They will be analyzed from them, 18 monuments (about 23%) are selected in this paper.
their origin. In Myanmar, it is assumed that the monuments, Distinct and unique stupas are selected and some of the similar
combined with stupa and temple, were first constructed in stupas according to their space or form are left in the sampling.
about 11th century (early Bagan period). Myanmar, there are The interviews, self observation and field measurements
over 80 monuments, combined with stupa and temple, from
in data collection were employed in this research. The historical
11th century to the present. However, the monuments,
combined with stupa and temple, with similar form and data from relevant archaeological records, books and articles was
spaces are not considered in this paper. In this paper, the also collected. Finally, findings and recommendation were
monuments, combined with stupa and temple, from the 11th revealed after being analyzed.
century to the present were analyzed with two parts – (i) from
the 11th century to the 19th century and (ii) the 20th century III. STUDY AND DISCUSSION
and the 21st century. The spatial composition, form
organization, the decorative elements and the technology of A. Religious Monuments, combined with Stupa and Temple in
the religious monuments, combined with stupa and temple, in Myanmar
Myanmar were analyzed.
TABLE 3.1, RELIGIOUS MONUMENTS, COMBINED WITH STUPA AND TEMPLE FROM
Keywords- Religious Monument, Stupa,Temple, Development 11TH TO 19 TH CENTURY
I. INTRODUCTION Sr. No. and Period Size No. of Plan Section Photo
In Myanmar, the stupas and temples are the No. Name porch

largest number of the religious monuments. Myanmar # 1653

Pepin
stupa is a typical example of the Myanmar version of an 1 Kyaung
11th
Small
1
Century (East)
India origin. The stupa in India and Ceylon (Sri-Lanka) (Bagan)

was essentially a reliquary build in the form of a

hemispherical dome, suggestive of a sacred burial mound.
Atwin 1
The stupas are massive buildings without interior space. 2 Hlaing
12th Small
(South)
Century
Their layout is generally circular, in exceptional cases, (Kyauke)

polygonal with curved profile: the general form is that of

an immense bell a combination of cylindrical and conical
volumes. Phayanat 12th 1
3 Small
The stupas and temples in Bagan and Mrauk-U are (Sagaing) Century (North)

always monumental for the Myanmar people. Generally,

stupa is a solid structure and temple is a hollow structure.
# 1790
But, there are many stupas similar to temples in Myanmar. Lay Myet 13th
4 Small 4
Hna Century
Although they have the interior space to enter for a certain (Bagan)
function, their exterior form is the stupa form. The
monuments, combined with stupa and temple, are found in # 1504 5
Nga Myet 13th Mediu (Based
Bagan mostly. Nowadays, the religious monuments, 5
Hna Century m on
combined with stupa and temple are built abundantly. (Bagan) north)

141
Sr. No. and
Period Size
No. of
Plan Section Photo
the north, east and south and the rectangular shrine on the square
No. Name porch
plinth. Moreover, it can be found a niche in the west. In #48-Pyi
# 21
Mya 14th 1
Lone Chan Thar, it is different from other plans. It includes four
6 Small
Thein Tan
Makhaya
Century (East) porches, four vestibules, internal passage and solid core in the
center. There is good ventilation and lighting because of four
Zina Man porches. In the late 19th century, it can be found that the space is
Aung 15th Mediu 1
7
(Mrauk- Century m (East) subtracted from the plain to create eight rectangular shrines and
U)
eight porches on the square plinth in # 1621 Shit Myat Hna. It
Shin Pin can be found the axial niches over the plinth.
Thone 16th 1
8 Small
Hsu Century (South) TABLE 3.2. RELIGIOUS MONUMENTS, COMBINED WITH STUPA AND TEMPLE FROM
(Salay)
20TH CENTURY TO THE PRESENT
Sr. No. and Period Size No. of Plan Section Photo
3 No. Name porch
th
#139 17 (North,
9 Small
(Pakhan) Century East and
# 68
South)
ShinPin 20th Mediu 1
1
Thatawya Century m (West)
(Palate)
# 48
Pyi Lone 18th Mediu 1
10 Bo Ta
Chan Tha Century m (West)
(Pakhan) Htaung 20th 1
2 Large
Century (East)
(Yangon)

# 1621 Maha
Shit Myet 19th 20th
11 Small 8 3 Wizaya Large 8
Hn Century Century
(Bagan) (Yangon)

In the early 11th century, #1653-Pepin-kyaung was Lawka

20th
Nanda Very
4 4
built as a first monument, combined with stupa and temple. (Sittway)
Century Large

It includes porch, vestibule and rectangular shrine. The

central shrine is only six feet span and 14 feet height. The Maha
21th
5 Shwesi Gyi Large 4
vestibule is five feet span and six feet height. It gets dim (Kanbalu)
Century

light only and it is suitable for meditation. Phayanat is the

square plans with three stairs respectively. It is composed Shwedago
n 21th Mediu
of only a porch and a small rectangular shrine. 6 4
(Pontawtu) Century m
Yangon
In the late 13th century, there are four porches,
four vestibules and inner corridor with solid core in #1790- Maha
Panthue 21th Very
Lay Myet Hna. Lighting and ventilation are middle 7
Theingi Century Large
8
(Pan San)
condition because of four porches. Then, it can be found
that the space is subtracted from the plain to create five
rectangular shrines and five porches in #1504 Nga Myat
Hna. Its plan is the pentagonal shape based on the north.
In #14-Mya Thein Tan, it composed of only a
porch and a rectangular shrine on the square plinth. In
Mrauk-U, Zina Man Aung, which includes five-Man Aung,
is composed of only porch and rectangular shrine on the
square plinth. In Shin Pin Thone Hsu, it consists of a porch
and a rectangular shrine on the square plinth. Moreover, it
includes two openings with two porches on the either side
of the shrine for the lighting and ventilation. Therefore, air
circulation is good condition in the shrine and it gets good
lighting.
In Pakhan, # 139 is composed of three porches in

142
 vestibule, inner passage and central shrine. It includes 16 After the hollow spaced stupas in Part I have been
openings for lighting and ventilation. studied, one terrace and three terraces can be found. But there is
It can be found that the space is subtracted from no terrace in Pepin (#1653). In 20% of the hollow spaced stupas
the plain to create four porches and central shrine on the
square plinth in Mahar Shwesi Gyi. The span of the square in Part I, it can be found that they include harmika (Portion C).
circular shrine is 44 feet. In Shwedagon Pontaw Tu, it There are between seven and twenty five conical spires,
includes four porches with octagonal central shrine on the especially fifteen. It can be found three terraces in the stupas
octagonal plinth. Maha Panthue Theingi includes four within 11th and 19th century respectively. The corner stupas can
porches, inner passage, niches and central shrine. be found in 80% of the hollow spaced stupas in part I. The corner
B. The Form Composition sphinxes in Zina Man Aung can be found.
The form composition will be studied with four
parts such as portion A, B, C and D. (See Table 3.3, Table
3.4 and Fig. 3.1) (B) Part II (from 20th century to the Present)
TABLE 3.4. FORM COMPOSITION OF PART II
(FROM 20TH CENTURY TO THE PRESENT)
D

C Portion

Corner
B A B C D

No. and Name of Stupas

No. of Conical Spire

A

Lotus petal & boss

Bell shaped dome
Polygonal terrace

Stupa / Urn (Pot)

Lion / Sphinxes
Decorative belt
No. of Terrace

Diamond bud
Fig. 3.1 Four portions of stupa

Banana bud
Umbrella
Harmika
Bell-rest
(A) Part I (11th – 19th Century) Plinth

Vane
No.

TABLE 3.3. FORM COMPOSITION OF PART I (11TH -19TH CENTURY)

# 68
1 ShinPin √ 3 - √ √ √ - 11 √ √ √ √ √ √ -
Portion
Thatawya
Corner

2 Botahtaun √ 3 - √ √ √ - 7 √ √ S -
√ √ √
A B C D g
3 Maha √ 3 √ √ √ √ - 9 √ √ √ √ √ S L
Wizaya
No. and Name of Stupas

Lawka
No. of Conical Spire

4 √ 3 - √ √ √ - 7 √ √ √ √ √ - -
Lotus petal &boss
Bell shaped dome
Polygonal terrace

Nanda
Stupa / Urn (Pot)

Lion / Sphinxes
Decorative belt
No. of Terrace

Diamond bud

5 Maha
Banana bud

Shwesi √ 3 - √ √ √ - 7 √ √ √ √ √ S -
Umbrella
Harmika
Bell-rest

Gyi
Plinth

Vane

6 Shwe
No.

Dagon √ 3 √ √ √ √ - 7 √ √ -
√ √ √ S
(Pontaw
1 #1653
√ - - - √ - √ 19 - - - - - - - Tu)
Pepin
7 Maha
2 Atwin Panthue √ 3 - √ √ √ - 7 √ √ √ √ √ S -
√ 3 - - √ √ - 9 √ √ √ √ √ √ L
Hlaing Theingi
3 Phayanat √ 3 - √ √ √ - 9 √ √ √ √ √ √ L (√)- Present (-)- Absent
4 # 1790
Lay Myet √ 3 - - √ - √ 9 √ √ √ √ √ U -
Hna
5 # 1504 After the hollow spaced stupas in Part II have been
√ 3 - - √ √ - 15 √ √ √ √ √ S -
Nga Myet
Hna
studied, it can be found three terraces in the stupas within 20th
6 # 21 and 21st century respectively. In 30% of the hollow spaced stupas
Mya √ 3 - √ √ √ - 17 √ √ √ √ √ √ L
Thein Tan in Part II, it can be found that they have no harmika (Portion C).
7 Zina Man √ 3 - √ √ √ - 7 √ √ √ √ √ S S The conical spires are between seven and eleven, especially
Aung
8 Shin Pin seven. The corner stupa can be found in 85% of the stupas in Part
Thone √ 3 - √ √ √ - 25 √ √ √ √ √ √ L
Hsu
II. The corner sphinxes were not found. And the corner lions and
9
# 139 √ 3 - √ √ √ - 15 √ √ √ √ √ √ L
the corner urns can be found in one of the stupas in Part II
receptively.
10 # 48
Pyi Lone √ 3 - - √ √ - 15 √ √ √ √ √ √ -
Chan Tha
11 # 1621
Shit Myet √ 3 - - √ √ - 15 √ √ √ √ √ S -
Hn
Present (-)- Absent

143
 IV. FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION
A. Evolution of Religious Monuments, combined with Stupa
12th Century 13th Late 13th
and Temple in Myanmar 11th
Century Century
Century

Between 11th and 14th century
Between 15th and 19th century
From 20th century to the present
Fig. 4.1 Development of Form Organization from 11th Century to the
Present Day
Late 16th Late 17th Late 18th Late 19th
Century Century Century Century
Fig. 4.2 Development of Religious Monuments, combined with Stupa and
Temple between 11th century and 19th century
After the religious monuments, combined with stupa
and temple between 11th century and 19th century have been
analyzed, it can be found that their space became developed. But
it can not be found the longer span and larger one than the
medium size. The maximum span is about 16 feet only and the
maximum space utilization ‘P’ (according to the plan or
horizontal section) is 40.39%.
Fig. 4.3 shows the development of spatial organization
(between 20th century and 21st century) according to the
combination of all plan types.

Fig. 4.1 shows the development of Form

organization (from 11th century to 19th century) according
to the organization of all types. The hollow space of the
stupas is developed from time to time because of the
development of construction materials and structural
system. Although the form organization of the monuments,
combined with stupa and temple, became developed in the
early period, there is no progress in that of the monuments
today. The common or general stupas form, which was
accepted by the most of people, was constructed again and
again. For example, most of people not only in Myanmar
but also from foreign Buddhist countries accept that Shwe
Dagon stupa in Yangon is very proportional and respectful.
Therefore, many stupas similar to Shwe Dagon are
constructed in not only many places of Myanmar but also
some foreign countries. Therefore, it can be presumed that
Shwe Dagon stupa form is mostly copied in the exterior
form of the monuments, combined with stupa and temple,
without being created the other new forms. However, it is
sure that Shwe Dagon stupa is very proportional and
elegance.
Fig. 4.2 shows the development of spatial
organization (from 11th century to 19th century) according
to the combination of all plan types.
20th Century 20th Century Late 20th 21st Century
Century and
Early 21st
Century
Fig. 4.3 Development of the Religious Monuments, combined with Stupa and
Temple between 20th century and 21st century
After the religious monuments, combined with stupa
and temple from 11th century to the Present day have been
analyzed, it can be found that the spatial organization was going
to develop gradually. The space utilization is also greater and
greater. It can be found not only very long span but also large
size and very large size.
B.Decorative Elements
In the early periods, there are many types of decoration
and they are very interesting. In the later periods, Bagan
architecture is emulated and it is created the decorative elements
like that of the Bagan period. In the monuments, combined with
stupa and temple, there is no decoration in the interior and it can
be found that the walls are whitewashed easily in the later period.
The architecture of the early periods, especially Began period, is
very interesting and wonderful.

144
C. Development of Technology

1) Construction Materials: Before 19th century, the main

construction material used was the brick. The bricks were
kiln fired, regularly shaped and thinner but much larger
than the standard western brick. The only mortar used was
clay, at times with a considerable admixture of sand. Fig. 4.7. Corbelled arch and Radiating arch
Although the brick was the main material that they It could not be found the using of the long span in the
normally used, sometimes they used natural stone for early period. After 19th century, brick masonry and reinforced
specific purpose or specialized usage. The corner stones concrete structure were used. Because of the high technology,
usually made up of natural stones to protect the corners and reinforcing concrete structure is mostly used. So, long span can
to tie both sides of bricks. There were stone gutters to drain be found and the maximum span is 40 ft. (eg. Fig. 4.8 Loka
out the terraces and some of the keystones at the top of Nanda,Sittway) Then, it can be found that the maximum space
arches were of stones. utilization (P) is 90.26% (eg. Fig. 4.9 Mahar Panthue Theingi,
After 19th century, brick masonry and reinforcing Pan San) and the maximum space utilization (V) is 90.82 %.
concrete were mostly used. On the walls and columns, it
became to be decorated by the mosaic. And parquet is used
in the flooring of the hollow space. And then, in the later,
glass, glaze, marble, steel, etc. are broadly used in the
monuments, combined with stupa and temple, in Myanmar.
2) Structural System: Before 19th century, cloister vaults,
barrel vaults, corbelled arch and radiating arch were used in
the monuments, combined with stupa and temple. The
cloister vaults (Fig. 4.4) were mostly used in central
shrine.

Fig. 4.8 Section of Loka Nanda, Sittwe

Fig. 4.4 Cloister vaults

The barrel vaults (Fig. 4.5) were mostly used in
porch, vestibule and inner passage and it sometimes used in
the shrine.
Fig. 4.9 Section of Maha Panthue Theingi, Pan San

Eventually, the space utilization of the monuments,

combined with stupa and temple, is developed due to the
technological improvement. In Conclusion, the strenuous effort
were made in this research which reveals the spatial development
Fig. 4.5 Barrel vaults
and form derivation in the realm of Stupa Architecture of
Myanmar.

REFERENCES
[1 ] Aung Kyaing, Minbu: Architecture of ancient Bagan monuments, Sarpay
Beikman, Yangon, 1997.
[2] Ngwe Soe, Mg, M.Arch. (Thesis), Study on religious Architecture in
Mrauk-U, Rakkhine, Department of Architecture, Yangon Technological
Fig. 4.6 Barrel vault hipped at outer end university, Yangon, December 1998.
[3] Pichard, Pierre, “Inventory of Monuments at Bagan” UNDP/UNESCO
Corbelled arch and radiating arch (Fig. 4.7) can
be found at the entrance porch.

145
 Cyclone Risk Mitigation and Implementation in
Myanmar
Theingi Shwe
Architects Group, B.Q Section, Ministry of Science and Technology
Naypyitaw, Myanmar
tgs.architect@gmail.com

Abstract— On the 2nd May of 2008, the delta region of Myanmar
suffered a major disaster, devastated by Cyclone Nargis, which
reportedly killed over at least 84,500 people with over 53,800
missing, and left about 2.4 million homeless. The impacts of
Nargis cyclone provided great experiences of natural disaster
especially of cyclone risk to prepare for future risk mitigation.
This paper looks at emergency management issues related to
increased development and the importance of protecting people
and assets. The paper identifies various types of structural
solutions against coastal hazards and examines positive and
negative aspects of each. Structural mitigation measures like
construction of cyclone shelters, sea wall, embankment,
shelterbelt plantation, establishment of missing road links and
bridges, improving housing conditions as well as non-structural
mitigation measures like preservation or regeneration of
mangrove forests, coastal forestation, public awareness,
community preparedness, training of engineers/ masons in
cyclone resistant construction, etc. have been investigated. The
paper finds that structural solutions are an integral part of risk
management for effected and prone areas, along with planning,
predicting and warning of events. The paper describes that
National Disaster Preparedness Central Committee (NDPCC)
has drawn up cyclone risk mitigation and recovery activities to
be implemented in recently cyclone affected areas. The paper
concludes by discussing the implementation of three major
phases for rescue, reconstruction development and long-term
risk mitigation measures of Myanmar.
Nargis in 2008[1]. The low-lying coastal areas are particularly
vulnerable, thus placing these population, infrastructure,
agriculture, livestock and economic development in a high-
risk situation. Therefore, cyclone risk mitigation is a major
concern in Myanmar and National Disaster Preparedness
Central Committee (NDPCC) [4] is formed in 2005. It has
been set up to facilitate a paradigm shift and integrated
approach of strengthening disaster preparedness, mitigation
and emergency. This paper mainly aims to describe the
cyclone risk reduction efforts and activities of NDPCC from
the structural mitigation aspect.
II. CYCLONE NARGIS IMPACT
Cyclone Nargis struck the low-lying and heavily populated
Myanmar coastline on 2nd and 3rd May, 2008. It is by far the
most devastating natural disaster in the country’s history, in
particular of the country’s coastal regions, to such low-
frequency but high-impact natural hazards. The elements of
this hazard are of significant as at its severe stage while
crossing the southern Ayeyarwady division and moving
straight eastwards along the coastline. Fig. 1 shows the Nargis
cyclone track and its affected region of Myanmar.

Keywords— Cyclone Risk Mitigation, Cyclone Nargis Impact,

Cyclone Shelter, Rehabilitation and Resettlement, Structural
Risk Mitigation

I. INTRODUCTION
Myanmar is endowed with a long coastline of 2400
kilometres with high population density along the coast
especially in deltaic region surrounded by Bay of Bengal, Gulf
of Mottama (Martaban) and Andaman Sea. A long coastline of
flat coastal terrain, geographical location and physiological
features of coastal area makes Myanmar extremely vulnerable
to cyclone and its associated hazards like storm tide, high
velocity wind and heavy rains. Myanmar is prone to frequent
destructive tropical cyclones associated with tidal surge,
particularly in pre-monsoon months of April to May and post- Fig. 1 Cyclone Nagis track and its affected areas [4]
monsoon months of September to October [1]. The country Deltaic area has a wide continental shelf of about 60 miles
has been subjected to frequent natural disasters in many forms, width and about 469 kilometres length of the coastline. [1] As
tropical storms, floods, earthquake, land slide, tsunami and a result of constant accretion into the sea, this alluvial plain is
particularly cyclonic storms. Recently, major disasters have advancing at a rate of about 165 feet per year. [1] A major
included the 2004 tsunami, the 2005 landslides in the portion of the area is covered with low lying lands just 3
mountainous region, cyclone Mala in 2006 and cyclone

146
meters above sea level. The region is Myanmar's largest rice of Nargis cyclone provided valuable experiences to prepare
producer and two thirds of the total arable land is under rice for future to minimize losses of life and property and restoring
cultivation. Therefore, cyclone Nargis struck the heart of normalcy at a faster pace. These have been identified and
Myanmar rice growing region, causing extensive damage to reflected upon for lessons to improve cyclone warning and
agricultural lands, infrastructure, livestock, and stored food mitigation in Myanmar and the region.
grains. There has been massive damage to life line systems as
well as private properties. Total loss has been estimated at III. LITERATURE REVIEW ON CYCLONE RISK MITIGATION
kyats 11.7 trillions [2] for all sectors and the details of cyclone The coastal countries have adopted in varying degrees
and damages are shown in Table 1. mitigation measures to reduce the risks of cyclone disasters.
TABLE I The first and probably the most complex task of cyclone
DETAILS OF CYCLONE NARGIS AND ITS DAMAGES mitigation is to map the hazard, risks and vulnerabilities of
cyclone at all levels, analyze and assess the levels of risks and
No. Appearance Remarks
monitor it continuously. It is only on the basis of such a
1 life span 26th April to 3rd May knowledge base that a proper and effective strategy for
2 landfall area Ayeyarwady Division,
cyclone risk mitigation and preparedness can be developed.
Yangon Division,
Bago Division,
Given the nature of the cyclonic hazards, it shall not be
Mon State and Kayin State possible to prevent the risks of cyclone. The impact of storm
3 storm radius 250 miles surges would be more severe and many sea wall or
4 maximum wind speed 130 miles per hour embankment modelling done in the past may undergo
5 maximum peak surge 22 feet revisions necessitating redefinition of the design parameters of
6 death toll 84,537 persons dead and such constructions.
53,836 persons missing
7 injured 19,359 persons CYCLONE RISK MITIGAION FRAMEWORK

8 damaged houses totally damaged 450,000

numbers and partially Cyclone Hazard, Risk and Vulnerability Mapping, Assessment, Analysis and

damaged 350,000 numbers Remote Sensing and Geo Risk Modeling

9 damaged schools Over 4,000 numbers Information
10 destroyed health sector 75% of the health facilities Total Risk = Mitigable Risk + Acceptable Risk
11 flooded agricultural land over 600,000 hectares
Source: Collected from [1], [2], [4] Risk Mitigation Preparedness

Causing the highest death toll in country historical record, Structural Non-Structural Contingency Plan at
the elements of vulnerability of the area are also high all levels and sectors
Sea Wall Awareness
according to the following factors. Community Based
• very low lying area Embankment Disaster

• most populous area of the country Bio-Shield Evacuation Plan

Early Warning
• many tributaries in deltaic areas Dissemination
• no storm shelters and high ground Cyclone Emergency Health
Development/ Management Plan
• no hazard maps and risk assessment Early Warning and enforcement of
communication Techno-legal
• loosing of mangrove trees along the coastline Regime
Training
• poor mobility, mostly waterways along small canals by Cyclone resistant
housing and Risk transfer/ Mock Drills
boats infrastructure risk financing

Fig. 3 Cyclone risk mitigation framework [5]

In the face of increasing menace of cyclonic hazards,

Fig. 2 Damages caused by cyclone Nagis
There was no past experience and extremely hard to
convince local people because risk knowledge on the disaster
especially on storm surge is very low. There is shown some
damages caused by cyclone Nargis in Fig. 2. The non-linear
interactions between wind induced waves and the topography
and high tides of the area is extremely high. The management
mitigation would remain the key and the most effective
strategy to reduce the risks of cyclone. Every country and
community has to decide its own mitigation strategy
according to its own risks, resources and capabilities. The
experiences include efficiency in tracking, forecasting and
issue of warnings, complexities of warning system,
understanding of warnings, inadequacy of shelters, non-
structural mitigation measure like plantation, public awareness
and community preparedness. Broadly such strategies would
be two fold: structural mitigation and non-structural
mitigation. Based on the lessons learnt from the cyclones
around the world, cyclone risk mitigation framework can be
presented in the shape of the diagram as shown in Fig. 3.

147
A. Structural Mitigation
Structural mitigation measures generally refer to capital
investment on physical constructions or other development
works, which include engineering measures and construction
of hazard resistant and protective structures and other
protective infrastructure.
1) Cyclone Shelter: Construction of cyclone shelters to
safeguard the lives of the communities living along the
disaster prone stretches of the coasts. Community cyclone
shelters constructed at appropriate places within the easy
access of the habitations of the vulnerable communities can
provide an immediate protection from deaths and injuries due
to the collapse of houses. Such shelters are usually built on
pillars above the danger level of storm surges/ inundation, are
specious enough to accommodate a few hundred people of the
neighbouring hamlets and provide provisions of drinking
water, sanitation, kitchen, etc. During the normal season such
shelters can be utilized as schools, dispensaries or other
community purposes.
2) Sea Wall and Embankment: Sea wall and embankment
are probably the most effective and capital intensive
investment to mitigate the risks of cyclone. A seawall is a
coastal defence constructed usually of reinforced concrete on
the inland part of a coast to prevent the ingress of storm surges
arising out of cyclones. Sometimes the sea wall is constructed
with a multiple purpose of reclaiming low lying land or
preventing coastal erosion. Embankments are recommended
to protect rural settlements and to prevent saline water ingress
into agricultural and horticultural land. Such embankments are
usually a ridge built with earth or rock to contain the storm
surges.
3) Bio-Shield: Bio shields usually consist of mangroves,
palms, bamboo and other tree species and halophytes and
other shrub species that inhabit lower tidal zones. These can
block or buffer wave action with their stems, which can
measure up to 30 meters high and several meters in
circumference. They trap sediment in their roots; thereby
maintain a shallow slope on the seabed that absorbs the energy
of tidal surges. They also break the high velocity of winds and
thus protect agricultural crops and shelters besides providing
shelter and grazing lands for the livestock and farms.
4) Cyclone Resistant Housing and Infrastructure: Super
cyclones have caused damages to even engineered structures
at many places around the world. This was largely due to the
absence of appropriate design criteria for construction of
buildings and infrastructure which can withstand the pressures
of such strong winds. The compliance standards of design
norms have not been very effective largely due to
inadequacies of properly trained engineers and masons who
can supervise and raise such constructions. In the developing
countries the focus is confined more to strengthening the
lifeline buildings which would play a critical role during
emergency operations such as hospitals, emergency operation
centres, police control rooms etc, leaving other unsafe
148
structures and habitations as acceptable risks, for which
adequate preparedness measures should be developed.
B. Non-structural Mitigation
Non-structural measures refer to awareness and education,
policies techno-legal systems and practices, training, capacity
development etc.
• prediction of coastal hazards in time and space using the
advances in enabling technologies and better scientific
understanding of the coastal processes
• micro-zonation and risk mapping to target all kinds of
technological, physical, financial and policy related
interventions
• regulatory measures to impose restrictions on land use
pattern as a part of coastal zone management can be
adopted
• community education programmes to serve as both
mitigation as well as preparedness
IV. THREE PHASES IMPLEMENTATION
The majority of human and direct economic losses from
natural hazard event occur as a direct result of damage to the
built environment. Myanmar has decided risk mitigation
strategy according to experiences and risks of cyclone Nargis
resources and capabilities. NDPCC sets strategies for recovery
and long-term risk mitigation. In order to reduce the risks of
the cyclone and recover the affected area to normal status,
there are implemented three major phases for rescue,
reconstruction development and long-term mitigation
measures.
A. PHASE (1): Emergency Relief Measures
Prime Minister [4] held Emergency meeting of the National
Disaster Preparedness Central Committee on 3rd May, 2008
and eight ministers have been assigned to take response action
in separate affected eight areas. The Ministers in charge of
respective areas were appointed and they supervised relief
tasks for storm-hit regions thoroughly. The efforts have been
directed towards immediate reconstruction, in which speed
and economy of construction have been the main
consideration.
Fig. 4 Supported emergency or temporary shelters
The emergency shelters for temporary settlement are
constructed for the recovery of the affected area and people as
a heightened activity. Moreover, to rescue people, support
clean water, take care for health, provide shelter and food for
nutrition, emergency relief camps were temporarily
constructed for affected people. There were constructed 2
central relief camps, 3 transaction camps, 6 transaction and
distribution relief camps and 12 front-line camps at disaster zinc sheets along with concrete post shoes are being
affected areas. [2] systematically constructed for resettlement of the cyclone
Nargis affected people.
B. PHASE (2): Rehabilitation, Resettlement and Development
Measures
Reconstruction and development measures such as
rebuilding of villages and their resettlement, improving
transport and communication infrastructure are implemented
and provision of livelihood opportunities are also promoted.
1) Rehabilitation of Livelihood: The main businesses in
Ayeyarwaddy Division are agriculture, fishery and salt
Fig. 6 Implementation of village housing
production. Therefore, there was supported to development of
economy in terms of micro-finance and micro-credit for small In education sector, totally 4,000 schools were destroyed by
business. cyclone Nargis. The committee has also planned to reconstruct
Agricultural works were destroyed due to loss of draught 1,250 schools and 921 schools are now constructed. [4]
cattle, damage to paddy strains, sea water intrusion to paddy
land and damage of farm equipments. As an emergency
rehabilitation activity, there was provided essential support
services for monsoon rice production (e.g. provision of seeds,
soil analysis for salinity, timely land preparation, assisting in
timely planting, provision of fertilizers, provision of post
harvest machinery and equipments).
In fishery sector, the fishing facilities such as engine, boat,
Fig. 7 Implementation of schools
ship for coastal fishing are supported. In salt production,
totally 23,458 acres of salt fields, 24,214 tons of crude salt and C. PHASE (3): Regional Development and Long-Term Risk
equipments for salt production were also destroyed. [4] Mitigation Measures
Therefore, there are supported finance, tractors, water pumps, The best solution to provide protection for large number of
tarpaulins, tents and fuel to salt makers and salt production people is to construct a new of separate building specially
modern technology to make salt industry in time. designed and constructed to serve as safe shelter. In the long
2) Resettlement and Development Measures: For effective run people would like to have comfort and security that will
resettlement, the constructions of village houses are firstly survive cyclone and flood and protect their lives and assets.
done for the affected people at the relocated sites and public
buildings such as schools, hospital are constructed for regional
development.
In health sector, totally 75% of health facilities were
destroyed by Cyclone Nargis and thus, as an immediate
activity, urgent renovation of hospitals and health centres
were firstly implemented. On the other hand, reorganization of
health infra-structure, up-grading of health facilities and new
health facilities are also implemented. Now, these have been
proposed for building 5 station hospitals, 23 rural health
centres and 151 sub-rural health centres. [4] Fig. 8 Overview of cyclone shelter for 500 persons served as school [6]

1) Construction of Cyclone Shelters: The State has selected

Fig. 5 Implementation of health facilities
As for village housing, the committee has planned to
construct 10,017 village houses and, up to now, 9037 houses
were constructed. [4] The wooden durable houses roofed with
17 coastal sites to construct 18 numbers of cyclone shelters. [2]
This cyclone shelter is safer place as well as multipurpose
centres (e.g. used as schools, hospitals at normal time). The
construction will help to save life and limits the amount of
injured people during a natural disaster. Moreover, people will
be in a better condition for restarting their livelihood after the
natural hazard. It is a tool for capacity building; even for local
masons hands-on during the construction process and these
trained masons go on to build safer houses. A safe shelter will
keep the people in the community and reduces the migration.

149

Fig. 9 Overview of cyclone shelter for 1000 persons served as hospital [6]
2) Construction of Cyclone Resistance Infrastructures: The
five main road projects in costal regions have been
implemented up to the status of earthen roads in the rainy
season. The road section close to villages will be built up to
the height from 25 to 30 feet and they will be used as a safer
place in the event of disasters. [4]
3) Construction of Cyclone Resistance Embankments: There
were reconstructed 41 damaged embankments with cyclone
resistance design as a safe shelter. The length is totally 1,079
kilometres and that will protect 460,686 acres from sea water
inundation. Additional temporary shelter incorporating water
ponds could be a water source for summer time of water
scarcity and also a source of water during emergency time.
Fig. 10 Overview of embankments and ponds [6]
4) Plantation of Mangrove Forests and Wind Barrier: As
green wall and wind break for cyclones and water flow
reduction in storm surges, the mangrove forests of 2 million [2]
acres are planted at coastal region. Near village housing,
massive buildings, bridges and road, shelterbelts and trees or
shrubs are also planted as a barrier to reduce wind velocities
and reduce transpiration and prevent wind erosion.
As a disaster preparedness phase, national disaster
management plan have been set up for effective risk
mitigation of natural disasters. [2] There was also declared
standing order for the prevention of natural disaster to prepare
programs in order to resolve and relief with effectively and
systematically. This order is organized into 4 sections for each
level as: duties to take in normal condition, duties to take at
the time of getting early warning information, duties to take at
the time of disaster and duties to make after disaster have been
guided.
Moreover, totally 45 numbers of International Non-
Governmental Organization (INGOs) are carrying out
rehabilitation and reconstruction programmes such as:
livelihood recovery, construction of shelter, schools and rural
health centres, protection of children and women and
150
psychosocial support, income generation, provision of
furniture and stationary for schools, training for public
awareness and disaster risk reduction programmes.
V. CONCLUSIONS
As a conclusion, climate change will exacerbate the effects
of storms on the coast, in terms of flooding, as storms are
likely to become more intense. At-risk areas, emergency
planning and structural protection will be needed to protect
people and assets in those areas. Structural methods can be
used to reduce or mitigate the damage, and also to make sure
that people get back to their property more quickly. Every
strategy should cater the main points of socio-economic and
cultural needs of the population. The observations made
points to considerable progress that has been made in cyclone
disaster mitigation in Myanmar as well as further efforts
required in reducing loss of life and properties through
cyclones and related storm surges. Further activities are
required for integration of disaster mitigation related activities
of different departments as well as strengthening of
institutional mechanisms. At different level, there is needed to
review and revise the National Disaster Management Plan.
Research and development activities centring on cyclone
mitigation including long-term measures should receive
priority attention of academic community. Disaster
management is also needed to include in the educational
curriculum and cyclone risk mitigation should be a part of
such curriculum which can be institutionalized within the
education system at various levels. Focused awareness
activities are required to increase public awareness of storm
surge, flooding and rainfall related to cyclone and the
integration of forest and tree behaviours in the life style of
people living in coastal zones. One of the best ways to shield
against fire, flood, and storm may as well be with earth, water,
air and fire because the equilibrium of the natural elements is
the natural balancing acts among these universal elements.
REFERENCES
[1] Department of Meteorology and Hydrology, Ministry of Transport,
“Cyclonic Storm Nargis and Storm Surge Predition,” Joint Working
Group Meeting on Capacity Building for the Meteorology and
Hydrology, the Centre of Early Warning System and Rehabilitation on
the Cyclone Affected Areas Tech. Rep. 09-01, 2009.
[2] National Disaster Preparedness Central Committee (NDPCC), “Relief,
Resettlement, Development and Long-term Natural Disaster Mitigation
on Cyclone Affected Areas, Myanmar” Tech. Rep. 08-12, 2008.
[3] Professor M Alimullah Miyan, “Cyclone Disaster Mitigation in
Bangladesh,” South Asian Disaster Management Center, International
Univ. of Business Agriculture and Technology Tech. Rep.
[4] Relief and Resettlement Department, Ministry of Social Welfare,
Relief and Resettlement, “Cyclone Nargis Response,” WMO Fact-
Finding Mission In Myanmar In Collaboration With ESCAP and
Panel On Tropical Cyclones (PTC) Tech. Rep. 09-02, 2009.
[5] Sarah Sinclair, Chris Carboon, and Sinclair Knight Merz., “Risk
Mitigation Methods- protecting community, protecting commerce. The
importance of structural risk mitigation measures for coastal cities,”
Victorian Coastal Council Tech. Rep.
[6] Theingi Shwe, Dr., Ministry of Science and Technology, “Construction
of the Cyclone Affected Areas,” WMO Fact-Finding Mission In
Myanmar In Collaboration With ESCAP and Panel On Tropical
Cyclones (PTC) Tech. Rep. 09-02, 2009.
 Development Patterns of Mandalay
Old City’s Blocks
Nang Ei Ei Khaing
Department of Architecture, Technological University (Magwe)
Technological University, Magwe, Myanmar
nangeieikhaing8@gmail.com

Abstract-Mandalay city had been founded in 1857 by King III. FORMER MANDALAY CITY
Mindon. As all secular and religious buildings of that time, A. Historical Background
including the royal palace, the moat, old city’s blocks and In 1852, King Mindon reign at Amarapura. King Mindon
monasteries were built in Mandalay. After the royal city was decided to move the capital to a new site from Amarapura in
built, until today, above mentioned old city’s blocks are 1856. The new city was built in 1857. His son, King Thibaw
developed and changed according to the time. So, the culture of lost Mandalay to the British in 1885-1886.
above mentioned old city’s blocks and structure of city are to be
taken into consideration for conservation with development
control. The main theme of this research has been studied the
B. Plan of the Former Mandalay City
background history of Mandalay and its old city’s blocks, about King Mindon planned to build a new capital at Mandalay.
the former Myanmar’s construction knowledge of capital and the The choice of place for new capital was pleasant surrounding
foresight and existing conditions of old city’s blocks. And then area with creeks and lakes since Mandalay city had not been
the author studies and analyses of the development patterns of established. He decided to choose this place for his new
Mandalay old city’s blocks according to the periods (1860-1885) capital because Mandalay hill is situated at the north-east
and at present. The culture and tradition of Myanmar are corner. Shwe Ta Chaung and Yadanar Nadi Canals are
preserved fairly in Mandalay City. Hence, the former conditions situated in that place. The orientation was extremely important
and existing development of environment in the old city’s blocks since the east was seen as the most honorable point of the
are studied and recorded in this research.
compass. The palace was placed exactly in the centre with its
outer walls facing the cardinal points of the campus. As shown
Keywords- Myanmar’s construction knowledge of capital, culture, in Fig. 1, most of the monasteries were placed along Yadanar
traditional, conservation, development pattern Nadi Canal in the east of city. This place was very pleasant
with canal, gardens and also the moat honorable point of the
I. INTRODUCTION campus. The rest of the other monasteries were placed nearly
Mandalay is the second largest city in Myanmar. King around the Mahar Myat Muni Pagoda in the southern part of
Mindon built a new city at the base of the hill in 1857 as the the city. The important and precious places of Mandalay are
new royal city. The city center was the Mandalay Fort, a situated nearly around Mandalay hill (the natural landmark of
walled city surrounded by blocks. The nobility, King’s Mandalay) in the north of city.
counselors, the prince, the princess and the rich people lived
in the blocks. Old city’s block means residences inside a block
called a Pya of Mandalay. When King Mindon passed away,
his son King Thibaw ascended the throne, and in 1886,
Myanmar fell under the British colony. During World War II,
the Japanese was bombed by the allies, and Mandalay was left
land razed. Mandalay was tired to develop by the urbane
person. At present, residences are not properly constructed
inside the blocks. These blocks should be considered about
disaster, social, economic conditions, living standard and
other facts for Mandalay citizens. In this research, studies the
background history of Mandalay and its old city’s blocks and
analyses of the development patterns of Mandalay old city’s
blocks according to the periods (1860-1885) and at present.

II. METHODOLOGY
First, this paper submits about the former Mandalay city.
Second, submits the development patterns of old city’s blocks. Fig. 1 Plan of the former Mandalay city

151
C. Plan of Outside the Former Royal City IV. PATTERNS OF OLD CITY’S BLOCKS
Handicraft such as the incredible process of making gold In these patterns, it can be divided into two parts. First part
leaves, wood and stone carving and bronze casting, etc. and is the former type of patterns during the reign of King Mindon.
trading has been developing since the reign of King Mindon. Second part is type of patterns at present.
As shown in Fig.2, the city could be mainly divided into three
parts. These parts are (1) royal lineage and king’s servants (2) A. Former Type of Patterns (1860-1885)
urbanites and their work places (3) rich and honorable people. The following table is expressed the former type of pattern
Some of royal lineage had dwelling not only inside but also during the reign of King Mindon.
outside in the south and west of the royal city. Most of people Table I
in the king’s servants lived in the south part and the little Former Type of Patterns (1860-1885)
people lived in the west of the city. Most of the rich and Type of Nos. of Sub
No. Remark
honorable people lived in the east and a little people lived in Pattern Blocks
the south of the city. Most of the urbanites, handcrafters and - assume that people who lived
1 - some king’s servants or royal
other traders were placed in the west and the little people were lineage
placed in the south of the city because that places were located
- pagoda compound
nearly Shwe Ta Chaung Canal and were situated nearly Maha 2 -
Myat Muni Pagoda for handcrafters in the former.
- people who lived some
3 -
handcrafters or workers

4 -
2

5 -
3

6 -
4
2
7 -

Fig. 2 Map of former land use
D. Ancient City Area and Its Blocks’ Numbers
Blocks in the east of the Shwe Ta Chaung Canal were
systematically built since the reign of King Mindon. West of
the Shwe Ta Chaung Canal’s blocks can be assumed that was
not systematically built. Now, self studying the systematical
blocks’ numbers by arranging number (As shown in Fig. 3). In
the eastern part, there are 60 blocks. In the southern, 192
blocks and 169 blocks are in the western part of the city. Total
numbers of blocks have 421 blocks.
8 -
3
Assume that the former type of patterns had eight types in
Yadanarbon Period. No. (1) pattern assume that people who
lived some king’s servants or royal lineage. They lived at the
centre of compound and their servants were lived nearly or
surrounding his house in that compound. No. (2) pattern was
pagoda compound. No. (3) pattern assumes that people who
lived some handcrafters or workers. Their houses were in the
round of that compound and their work space, open space or
religious building had in that centre. No. (4) pattern was half-
compound. Some owner lived in that center and servants lived
nearly that owner’s house.
B. Existing Type of Patterns
Table II
Existing Type of Patterns in Old City’s Blocks
Sub Blocks

Use of the

(or) Space
Entrance

Building
Type of

Nos. of

Nos. of

Nos. of
Pattern

Blocks
Most
No.

religious building, hotel,office,

pe police avenue, hospital,market,
ri playground, police station,
1 - 96
me university, college, , school,
ter residential with other buildings
(e.g. religious building,school)
religious building, office,
residential with other buildings
2 2 2 54
(e.g. religious building, school,
market)
Figure 3. Blocks’ numbers by self study

152
 residential with other buildings
3 4 4 7 23 3 3 residential with other buildings 3
(e.g. religious building)
residential with other buildings
residential with other buildings
4 3 3 (e.g. religious building, 20 24 6 4 1
(e.g. religious building)
school)
residential with other buildings residential with other buildings
5 4 4 (e.g. religious building, 3 25 4 3 (e.g. religious building, 7
school) school)
residential with other buildings
6 5 4 residential with other buildings 1 26 6 7 1
(e.g. religious building)

residential with other buildings

7 2 2 residential with other buildings 1 27 3 3 1
(e.g. religious building)
residential with other buildings
residential with other buildings
8 2 2 (e.g. religious building, 1 28 6 4 1
(e.g. religious building)
school)
residential with other buildings residential with other buildings
9 2 2 1 29 7 5 1
(e.g. religious building)
residential with other buildings
residential with other buildings
10 6 4 4 30 4 4 (e.g. religious building, 3
(e.g. religious building)
school)
residential with other buildings
11 3 2 residential with other buildings 1 31 5 5 (e.g. religious building, 6
school)
residential with other buildings
residential with other buildings
12 2 2 (e.g. religious building, 8 32 3 3 1
(e.g. religious building)
school)
residential with other buildings
residential with other buildings
13 5 5 (e.g. religious building, 1 33 5 5 1
(e.g. religious building)
school)

14 6 5 residential with other buildings 1 34 4 3 residential with other buildings 1

residential with other buildings residential with other buildings

15 5 4 1 35 6 4 1
(e.g. religious building) (e.g. religious building)
religious building, office,
16 7 13 residential with other buildings 1 school, residential with other
36 1 - 8
buildings (e.g. religious
building)
residential with other buildings residential with other buildings
17 5 9 1
(e.g. religious building) 37 2 2 (e.g. religious building, 7
residential with other buildings school)
18 4 3 (e.g. religious building, 34 residential with other buildings
school) 38 3 3 (e.g. religious building, 5
school)
residential with other buildings residential with other buildings
19 5 4 4
(e.g. religious building) 39 2 2 (e.g. religious building, 8
school)
residential with other buildings residential with other buildings
20 5 5 1
(e.g. market) 40 4 4 (e.g. religious building, 13
school)
residential with other buildings
21 6 6 5 residential with other buildings
(e.g. religious building) 41 2 4 1
(e.g. religious building)
residential with other buildings
22 8 9 3 residential with other buildings
(e.g. religious building) 42 2 2 1
(e.g. religious building)

153
 and fifth mostly pattern in old city’s blocks. And then, No. (36)
residential with other buildings
43 6 6 1 and (39) are found eight compounds, No. (37) is found seven
(e.g. religious building)
compounds and No. (38) is found five compounds. These
religious building (e.g. types of patterns are found school or religious buildings at the
44 4 - 1 centre and the residential buildings are found in the
pagoda)
surrounding area of this compound. This pattern can be found
residential with other buildings the south and west of the moat.
45 2 2 3
(e.g. religious building)

residential with other buildings VI. DEVELOPMENT PATTERNS OF OLD CITY’S BLOCKS
46 5 5 2
(e.g. religious building)
Patterns of old city’s blocks was changed from time to
residential with other buildings time, the following figures are generally shown the phase of
47 4 4 2 the pattern from the former to the present.
(e.g. religious building)

residential with other buildings A. The Phase of the Pattern Based on the Central Pole, Full-
48 3 3 1
(e.g. religious building) Compound and the Four Entrances, Three Sub Blocks, Full-
Compound
other
residential with other buildings
49 patte- 8
(e.g. religious building)
rns
railways compound, market,
the
college, army field, residential
reject
50 with other buildings (e.g. 84
patte-
religious building, school,
rns
market, factory)
Total 421
The above table is expressed about the existing type
of patterns in old city’s blocks and it can be seen 50 types of
patterns at present. The type of No. (49) (Table II) is put the
other patterns because its shape of pattern is very confused
and not definite pattern than the other patterns. The type of No.
(50) (Table II) is rejected patterns. It is not detailed study
because its pattern is irregular shape which is crossed by canal,
railways compounds and the army field.
Fig. 4 The phase of the pattern based on the central pole, full-compound and
the four entrances, three sub blocks, full-compound
V. FINDINGS THE EXISTING TYPE OF PATTERNS
Assume that aforesaid patterns are changed based on the
The following type of pattern is mostly patterns which can full-compound, half-compound, quarter compound and
be found in old city’s blocks. The type of No. (1) pattern combined with half and quarters compound in the origin. And
(Table II) can be found 96 compounds among 421 compounds then, another assumes that aforesaid patterns are changed
in Mandalay old city’s blocks. So, this type of pattern can be based on full-compound and the third quarter in the origin.
found mostly in much type of patterns. The type of No. (2)
pattern (Table II) can be found 54 compounds and second B. The Phase of the Pattern Based on the Religious Compound
mostly pattern in old city’s blocks. And then, the type of No. Assume that aforesaid patterns are changed based on
(18) pattern (Table II) can be found 34 compounds and third religious compound since the Yadanarbon period according to
mostly pattern in old city’s blocks. Now, this pattern can be the urban development and population density. Some
found mostly in residential zone. The residential zones in the religious compound has been situated before residential
east of the moat are situated as silent zone. Assume that the building constructing (e.g. pagoda, mosque, etc.). Some
residential zones in the south of the moat were the king’s religious compound has been constructed within their central
servant’s zone in the former and the western part were the open space or rest space in that compound after residential
king’s servant and the hero zone in the former. Now, is building constructing (e.g. Chinese communal temple,
assuming this type of pattern because King Mindon put that Damaha hall, etc.). According to the ideology of the religious,
people in row of quarter (e.g. Dawei ward). The type of No. Muslim who professes Islam said that they are not feeling the
(12) pattern (Table II) can be found eight compounds. This mosque within the compound and the other residential
type of pattern is found the south and west of the moat. The buildings’ influence on this mosque when they have been
type of No. (4) pattern (Table II) can be found 20 compounds reciting prayers in a group. But, according to the ideology of
and fourth mostly pattern in old city’s blocks. It is suitable for the Buddhist, Buddhism are placed their pagodas or temples
main road because it has few sub blocks and entrances. The on a noble places.
type of No. (40) pattern (Table II) can be found 14 compounds

154
C. The Phase of the Pattern Based on Full-compound and
Open Space within the Compound
Fig. 5 The phase of the pattern based on full-compound and open space
within the compound
Assume that aforesaid patterns are changed based on
full-compound in the origin. Full-compound was mostly
king’s servants’ compound. Assume that they lived in the
centre of that compound and their servants were lived in the
round area of that compound. Assume that aforesaid patterns
are changed based on full-compound in the origin. Full-
compound which was assumes mostly handcrafters and
workers’ compound. Assume that they lived assemble in the
round area of that compound and they used to the central open
space as communication space or working area.
VII. RECOMMENDATION ON THE EXISTING TYPE OF
PATTERNS IN OLD CITY’S BLOCKS
The following types of patterns can be mostly found in
Mandalay Ancient city area.
No. (1) No. (2) No. (18) No. (4)
Fig. 6 Type of no. (1,2,18,4) patterns (as shown in table ii)
No. (1) pattern, Full-compounds are found mostly the
east and south of the palace. In that places, assume that rich
and honorable people lived in full-compound during the reign
of King Mindon. Now, offices buildings and hotels are
situated as silent zone in that place. So, that place should be
preserve continuously as silent zone the present. The
advantages of No.(2) pattern have few sub blocks and
entrances that this type can be found mostly the office
buildings and religious buildings. So, this pattern should be
avoided from the building constructing in the future than the
present condition. Type of pattern No.(18) is suitable for
residential zone. But branch roads within compound enter to
the main road. And then this pattern has not open space for
people. So, it should be considered for open space. Pattern
No.(4) is suitable for main road because it has few sub blocks
and entrances. So, this type of pattern should be preserved
which are not confused from the building constructing and
branch roads than the present condition.
155
No. (36) No. (37) No. (38) No. (39) No. (40)
Fig. 7 Type of no. (36,37,38,39,40) patterns (as shown in table ii)
In these types of patterns, school or religious buildings are
found at the centre and the residential buildings are found in
the round area of this compound. The disadvantage of these
patterns that school which is generally suitable in the centre of
this compound. If school has had in the centre of the
residential compound, the wide of entrance should be enough
for emergency cases. But religious buildings are not suitable
in the centre of the residential buildings compound. So,
residential buildings should not construct in the round the
religious compound. If the building constructing will be
constructed in that compound, the high level of the building
should be limited from MCDC.
VIII. FINDINGS AND SUGGESTIONS OF THE RESEARCH
Types of patterns were changed according to the passage
of time. This research found the development of a city is
based on the important facts of the former city. In constructing
modern urban city, in accordance with socio-economic
development, it is very important to continue and maintain
cultural heritages and ancient handiwork. Every country or
nationality should respect and reveal their country’s traditional
architecture and cultural heritage.
IX. CONCLUSIONS
In 1860, King Mindon transferred his capital to Mandalay
from Amarapura with his servants, counselors and urbanites.
He planned his new city systemically for the people and
considered for getting water and built canals and gardens for
people. He also planned his city according to the orientation.
When Myanmar fell under the British colony, many people of
different nationality were arrived to Mandalay. Most of those
people worked in trading and commerce. Some of Myanmar
handicraft works disappeared and replaced their merchandises.
During World War II, Mandalay city was bombed and
Mandalay was left land razed. Most of land or compounds
were sold in plots. Nowadays, most of the former compound
types disappeared in Mandalay. Hence, Mandalay city is not
developing systematically. Therefore, people who lived in
Mandalay should preserved traditional old city’s compounds.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to express her sincere thanks to His
Excellency U Thaung, Minister, Ministry of Science and
Technology. And then, the author would like to honor the rest
persons for their enthusiastic help and guidance to come out
her research successfully.
REFERENCES
[1] Tun Shein, Nat Mauk: Kingdom was Built with Compounds, (2001).
[2] A Mar, Daw, The People: Yadarnarbon Mandalay, November 1993.
[3] Maung Maung Tin, U: History of Mandalay Quarter, Research Paper,
(1993).
 Development of Urban Open Spaces
in Mandalay City, Myanmar
Soe Min Htwe#1, Swe Swe Aye*2,
#
Department of Architecture, Mandalay Technological University
Mandalay, Myanmar
*
Department of Architecture, Yangon Technological University
Yangon, Myanmar
1
smhtwe.mdy@gmail.com
2
swesweaye@gmail.com

Abstract— Mandalay City is the historic old capital of last feel that there is no threat to the natural and cultural resources
Myanmar Kingdom, a city which abounds in historical sites, in their community. Others may feel that their community
cultural memorials and Buddhist edifices. King Mindon, the already has an abundance of open space. However, because
founder of Mandalay, built his royal city systematically with open space planning can improve a community’s recreational
enough open spaces. Mandalay Hill is the most important place
opportunities, aesthetic appeal and economic value.
in choosing the foundation of the city. Based on the location of
the Mandalay Hill, seven edifices of the city and their open In this study, I will explore what it means for an urban
spaces had been founded simultaneously. King Mindon managed space to embody the city and how a space can accomplish this
to get water by digging moat, ponds and canals. Plantation had by embracing the culture of the city, its people and its places
been located along the canals. The King’s Royal Gardens had include how spaces capture a sense of identity and how
also been founded within the moat. In building residential areas, providing for, and allowing diverse uses in, urban public
open space had been left in the center of block and they were spaces helps create a place that is vital and reflective for the
used as community spaces and working areas. Especially, in city.
building religious sites, enough open spaces were left. It can be
seen that Mandalay City had been founded with green corridors,
natural green spaces, amenity green spaces, private gardens and
other functional green spaces since the foundation of the city.
II.TYPE OF URBAN OPEN SPACES IN FORMER
After the Royal City was built, until today, above mentioned
urban open spaces are developed and changed according to the MANDALAY CITY
time. In this paper has been studied the type of urban open
space in former Mandalay City and development of urban open
spaces near seven edifices in Mandalay.

Keywords— green corridor, natural green space, amenity green

space, private garden, other functional green space,

I. INTRODUCTION
Open space are an important non-renewable component of
town planning. The shaping of cities, open space always play
significant roles as they provide a convenient setting for a
variety of leisure and recreational activities in addition to
enhancing the civic value of a community.
Some of Mandalay’s urban open spaces have important
historical and heritage value. Historic and archeological sites
are often associated with significant open spaces and are a part
of our common heritage.
In Mandalay, the conservation for open space in city
becomes more crucial with rapid urbanization and constant
increase in the urban population and built up area. The value
of land in Mandalay is steadily increased day by day. So
clients and developers want to construct their buildings
without open space.
Some developers want to convert open space which has
Fig. 1 Location of Open Spaces in Former Mandalay
important historical value into built up area. Some people may

156
 According to the study, open spaces of former Mandalay King Mindon laid the foundation of Mandalay in
can be noted as follow. In former Mandalay City have plenty 1859 A.D. The King simultaneously laid the foundations of
of open spaces, by digging ponds, lakes, canals and moat. seven edifices:
All of these are water open spaces and they have green (1) The Royal Palace with the battlemented walls
corridor. (2) The Moat
Open spaces near seven edifices are precious open space (3) The Maha Lawka Marazein Pagoda (Kuthodaw Pagoda)
because of the value of its surrounding buildings. On the other (4) The Higher Ordination Hall named the Pahtan-haw Shwe
hand they have own heritage value. Thein.
(5) The Atumashi ( the Incomparable ) Monastery
TABLE 1 TYPE OF URBAN OPEN SPACES IN FORMER M ANDALAY CITY (6) The Thudhama Zayats or Public houses for preaching the
Name Type of Open Space Doctrine
(7) The library for the Buddhist Scriptures
21 numbers of Garden Private Gardens
Shwe Ta Chaung Canal Water Open Space, IV. DEVELOPMENT OF URBAN OPEN SPACES NEAR
Nadi Canal Natural Green Space, SEVEN EDIFICES
Along the Moat Green Corridors The area of the city was founded near the foot of
7 numbers of Cemeteries Other Functional Open Mandalay Hill. The king wanted his palace to be surrounded
by edifices of good deeds and therefore a good orientation of
Space
the site had become an important issue.
Nandar Pond Natural Green Space, For these reasons pagodas, monasteries and other edifices
Aung Pin Lae Pond Water Open Space buildings were given the first priority to be constructed. This
is a typical Myanmar way of city construction
Thet Thein Lake
Near Seven Edifices
(1) Ahyon Khan Garden
(2) Worker’s Hospital Use for Worshipping
Area
(3) Myitta Lake Amenity Green Space
(4) Century Ground Amenity Green Space
(5) Open Space NO(5) Civic Space
Amenity Green Space Fig. 3 View of Mndalay Hill and its Environment

. Some of these structures that still remain have been

III. LIST OF SEVEN EDIFICES
marked as the gems of Mandalay city. These buildings are the
most ancient and are about a century and a half old. Many still
bear the marks of the Second World War.
With the clearing of the land, spaces for the
construction of the edifices were granted and each took a
space big enough to suit the structure to be built.
In the beginning there was ample free space but as time
went by and changes of rulers many of these open spaces
disappeared or were reduced to only a small free land,
insignificant sizes.
In actual fact, these open spaces should remain in
their original size or attended to remain in its original form.

A. Ahyon Khan Garden

Fig. 2 The Location of Seven Edifices [87Sco]
Adjacent to the south east fort of Mandalay Hill there
is a open space near the Kuthodaw Pagoda and the Sanda
Muni Pagoda.
This space was originally known as the Ahyon Khan
Garden or the garden for worshipping. This is the best place
from where the king could concentrate the edifices of
Mandalay Hill.

157
 This Myitta Kan (lake) depicts the true Myanmar
spirit when erecting a Pagoda or a Monastery. A small pond or
lake is always considered as part of the construction. Water
lilies of five kinds can be seen sprouting in these ponds as
homage to our Lord Buddha. Shady trees are also seen
surrounding the ponds.
During the Thadingyut Festival, light offered to the
Buddha can be seen floating rafts in the lake. These Myitta
Kan is a part and parcel of religious buildings.
It should be looked after to retain their original status
as open spaces. Myitta Lake area gives good vista views to
Kutho Taw Pagoda, Sandar Muni Pagoda, and Mandalay Hill

Fig. 4 Good Vista Views from Ahyon Khan Garden

It is about 12.8 acres wide. This place had remained

in its original form until recently. Ahyon Khan Garden area
gives good vista views to Kutho Taw Pagoda, Sandar Muni
Pagoda, Pahtan Haw Shwe Thein, Thudhama Zayat and
Mandalay Hill.

B. Worker’s Hospital Area

Near and around Kuthodaw Pagoda, Sanda Muni
Pagoda, the Atumashi Monastery, the Shwe Kyaung Daw and
the east side of the moat running north to south can be taken
as the best to view all these edifices. Fig. 6 Good Vista Views from Myitta Lake
.
D. Century Ground
On the southern and western side of the Mandalay
Hill there is also a significant piece of open space. Many
celebrations were held within this area where the citizens of
Mandalay can come and enjoy themselves.
The century celebration of Mandalay City, the
Independence Day Celebration, the Union Day Celebration
and many other were held in this open space. This open space
gives good vista views to Mandalay Hill, Royal City and the
Moat.
It name is famous in Century Field for Mandalay City. But in
1993 its function changed into a Yadanar Bon Zoological
Garden.

Fig. 5 Good Vista Views from Worker’s Hospital Area

Worker’s hospital area gives good vista view to

Kutho Taw Pagoda, Atumashi Monastery, the Royal Palace,
the Moat, Pahtan Haw Shwe Thein, Thudhama Zayat and
Thudhama Public Rest Houses.
A feeling of sentiment of the olden days can be felt.
The best visual axis can also be had from this point of view to
evaluate its significance of having an open space.

C. Myitta Lake
Another significant open space is the Myittar Kan
which is situated on the southern side of the Kuthodaw
Pagoda. Fig. 7 Good vista views from Century Ground

158
E. Open Space NO(5)
This area is situated between Kyauk Taw Gyi Pagoda
and Thudhama Public Rest Houses. It’s also buffer area for
edifices.
Open space NO(5) give good vista views to Kyauk
Taw Gyi Pagoda, Thudhama Zayat , Thudhama Public Rest
Houses and the Moat.
There are no landmarks on this space, but Natural Landmark
(Mandalay Hill) is visible from the site.
The site of the Ahyon Khan Garden will be the main
area where an open plaza would be constructed so that the
vista of Mandalay Hill will come into view.
Open Space NO(5) Mandalay Hill

Kyauk Taw Gyi Pagoda

Ahyon Khan Kutho Taw
Garden Pagoda

Sandar Muni Pagoda

Moat

Myitta Lake
Fig. 10 Three dimensional view of Selected Area (1) and (2)

The two Myitta Lakes also serve as a good site to be

Fig. 8 Good Vista Views from Open Space NO(5)
V. DESIGN CONCEPT FOR SELECTED AREA
Selected Area (1)
included in the plan for a good vista. Water fountains, viewing
decks can also be constructed for pleasure and recreation for
the citizens.
There is an old structure of a rest house built in the
lake which can be renovated to give the citizens a reminder of
the days gone by.
The Space in the northern side of Kutho Taw Pagoda
can be constructed as buffer area use for promenade.
The total area will be made into a traffic free zone.
All motor roads across the site will be converted into
pedestrian’s ways for the convenience of the people safety and
free.
Some of the large trees will be trimmed to make
good vista and more visible.

Selected Area (2)

Promenade Area
Mandalay Hill

Good Vista View

Kutho Taw Pagoda

Fig. 9 Location of Selected Area (1) and (2) Open Plaza

The Ahyon Khan Garden, the two Myitta Lakes, the

Sandar Muni Pagoda and the Kutho Taw Pagoda, all four sites Sandar Muni
Pagoda
will be considered as one area for conceptual planning for
selected site (1).
The two pagodas and the two lakes will be the main
structures that will be considered in the proposed design. The Traffic Free Zone Water Open Space
open space in the northern side of the Kutho Taw Pagoda will For Recreation
also be taken into account.
Ahyon Khan Garden and its surroundings give on Fig. 11 Site Plan for Selected Area (1)
good vista and could concentrate heritage religious buildings.

159

Mandalay Hill
Promenade Area
Kyauk Taw Gyi Pagoda
Thudama Rest Houses
Moat
Fig. 12 Site Plan for Selected Area (2)
Another selected site (2) a site that brings into view
of an overall picture of the fort, moat and Kyauk Taw Gyi
Pagoda.
This open space is next to the Thudama Rest Houses,
which gives the people who come for devotion and rest to see
and feel in person the actual edifice that was constructed of
teak wood one hundred and fifty years ago.
This open space will be especially designed and plan
for the purpose of rest and recreation for the people.
By developing this open space it will be of dual
purpose that is the preservation of the old structures of
Mandalay as well as to instill the knowledge to make the
citizens know release the value of ancient monuments.
Therefore the conceptual plan laid out includes the
most important places where the seven edifices were being
constructed which are almost around Mandalay Hill.
VI. DISCUSSION
Wishing in these discussions to:
1. Define open space, assert its values, and identify the threats
to it arising particularly from unresolved conflict of use.
2. Indicate strategies for the provision, development and
maintenance of open space.
3. Underline the importance of co-operation, particularly at
the local level in this respect.
For the sake of new generation, let us gazette our open space.
For the memory of our forefathers, not convert our open
spaces for other uses.
For our own sake, draw up open spaces legislation. For our
community, make the conservation of open spaces our
responsibility.
• The citizens of Mandalay should be made to be
aware of the importance of urban open spaces.
• The public and the administration should get together
and work together to salvage the urban open spaces
and save it properties.
160
• Seminars and workshops about urban open spaces
should help to build up the awareness of urban open
spaces.
• Safe guard the heritage buildings and its surrounding
open space.
• Make the area of seven edifices as a sanctuary of
urban open space.
• The change of functions of the open space should be
respected and harmony with its surrounding
buildings.
• Religious building or compound should be separated
from residential area with suitable buffer area.
• Preserve and / or conserve open space corridors
along creeks, canals, urban drainage ways, ponds and
lake.
VII. CONCLUSION
Day in and day out, the world is progressing in a very
fast manner. The most beautiful scenery and open spaces are
changing into an ugly concrete jungle which we would not
like to happen. The urban open spaces were created not for
anything but for the welfare of its people who live in it. The
social works, the commerce, the health, rest and recreation etc
are all part and parcel of the founding of a new city. King
Mindon when founding his city never left out the social and
religious matters which were to be taken into account.
The urban open spaces of Mandalay were changed in
many places. During the Second World War, many historical
buildings are disappeared. Between post independent period
and at present (2009 A.D.) Mandalay is rapidly developed.
Some of the open spaces were changed into other uses. So
these open spaces must be preserved. For these very reasons,
the creation of open spaces should be taken as a patriotic task.
These original values of urban open spaces are
precious of Mandalay City. These open spaces if well kept and
well defined could also strengthen our feeling of Nationalism.
REFERENCES
[1] Anonymous: A Study on Urban Structure of Mandalay City, Research
Paper, (2004).
[2] Anonymous: Planning and open space, (2003)
[3] Anonymous: Recommendation on Urban Open Space, (1998).
[4] Dana Lyn Doughetry, Embodying the City Identity and Use in Urban
Public Space, (2006)
[5] Federal Department of Town and Country Planning Open Spaces in
Urban Malaysia, (2005).
[6] Maung Maung Tin, U: History of Mandalay Quarter, Research Paper,
(1993).
[7] Nat Shin, Dagon: The Introduction of Yadanarbon, (1976).
[8] Paul A.Anto The Economic Value of Open Space, (2005)
[9] Paul D. Dpreiregen, AIA, Urban Design: The Architecture of Towns
and Cities, Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, Inc, (1981).
[10] Rob Krier: Urban Space, Rizzoli International Publications, Inc,
(1979).
[11] Scott O’Connor, V.C.: Mandalay and Other Cities of the Past in
Burma, (1987).
[12] Tun Shein, Nat Mauk: Kingdom was Built with Compounds, (2001)
 Case Study on Analysis of Space Requirements
for Meditation Centers in Lower Myanmar
Hnin Wint Yi
Department of Architecture, Technological University (Thanlyin), Myanmar
hninwintye@gmail.com
Abstract—People search for many ways to control their minds.
inally they found the meditation method. They believed that
meditation method is very suitable for them. For yogis, the
quiet, functional and suitable spaces are required indeed to
meditate comfortably
The aims of this research work are to release human's
stresses and meditate comfortably, to be more prominent than
the usual Vipassana practice, to know the required facts of
meditation center and to be an assistance for future meditation
centers. Lower Myanmar has been chosen for this research as
the weather condition of Myanmar is different from one place
to another.
To build a meditation center, many necessary facts such as
suitable environmental conditions, systematic existence of
zoning of buildings, functional convenience for human who
looks for the quietness, good circulation space, convenient
techniques, suitable and convenient construction techniques
have been studied. There are many meditation centers which
are studied and analyzed in Lwer Myanmar. But only the two
meditation centers in Lower Myanmar are mentioned in this
research.
The space differences between the two ways of meditation
centers are compared in a tabular form according to each zone.
By comparing the spaces of the requirements of meditation
centers in Lower Myanmar, the local average values are
denoted. And, the local average values, the average values of
foreign case study, the standard values, and the requirements
of questionnaires survey are compared. Then, the acceptable
range for the spaces is produced as the recommendation. The
walk-way for meditation, the suitable landscaping,.
Keywords — Space, Requirement, Meditation Center
I. INTRODUCTION
All over the world, people are trying hard to become the
developed countries at present time. Although physicality is
increasing, mentality is decreasing. Not only outer
communication but also inner communication is not
peaceful. It is fulfill with anxiety. To remove such anxiety,
the best way is Buddha’s Vipassana Practice.
Vipassana means “insight" in the ancient pali language of
Indian. It is the essence of the teaching of the Buddha, the
actual experience of the truths of which he spoke. The
Buddha himself attained that experience by the practice of
meditation, and therefore meditation is what he primarily
taught. His words are the records of his experiences in
meditation, as well as detailed instructions on how to
practice in order to reach the goal he had attained, the
experience of the Truth [1].
Whether the connotation is negative or positive, the
common impression of meditation is that it is a withdrawal
161
from the world. Of course there are techniques that function
in this way. But medication need not be on escape. It can
also be a means to encounter the world in order to
understand it and ourselves[1].
Every human being is conditioned to assume that the real
world is outside, that the way to live life is by contact with
an external reality, by seeking input, physical and mental.
Most of the people have never considered severing outward
contacts in order to see what happens inside. The idea of
doing so probably sounds like choosing to spend hours
staring at the test pattern on a television screen [2].
But in fact the universe exists for each of them only when
people experience it with body and mind. It is never
elsewhere. It is always here and now. By exploring the here
and now of people can explore the world .Unless people
investigate the world within they can never know
reality they will only know the beliefs about it, or their
intellectual conceptions of it. By observing themselves,
however, they can come to know reality directly and can
learn to deal with it in a positive, creative way [2].
Meditation is a serious matter, especially the Vipassana
techniques which deals with the depths of the mind. It
should never be approached lightly or casually.
In Myanmar, Buddhism is prominent so there are many
monasteries and meditation centers to effort the Vipassana
practice according to the written homily of Buddha. But
most of the meditation centers are not constructed with pre-
designing. Moreover, there is no suitable and required space
for each Yogi to meditate and it is not convenient to train the
practice of Buddha. Therefore, in order to meditate
comfortably for Yogis, the required spaces are analyzed in
this research.
II. METHOD OF MEDITATION
There are 1. Sitting Meditation
2. Walking Meditation and
3. General (Detailed) Noting.
A. Sitting Meditation
The yogi approaches a quiet place; sits comfortably,
keeping his body straight and his head erect; closes his eyes
and starts to meditate. If the yogi chooses Anapana
Satipattha na the touch of air on one point of his nostril will
be noted. Incoming breath will cause a sensation of touch on
that point of the nostril; so also the outgoing breath, which
will cause a sensation of touch on that same point of the
nostril. The yogi just focuses his mind on that sense of touch
[3].
 If the yogi is following the instructions of the late Fig. 3. Now-a -days, there are about 1200 meditation centers
Venerable Mahasi Sayadaw, the rise of his abdomen caused in Myanmar according to the list of Ministry of Religious
by incoming breath will be noted. Also the fall of his Affairs, 2005.
abdomen caused by the outdoing breath will be noted. The Meditation
mind of the yogi, while trying to concentrate on the rise and Center
fall of the abdomen at all times, will wander outside his body
a lot, too [3]. Meditation Center Meditation Center
For Monks Sponsor For Non-MonksSponsor

Moe-Goke
Mahasi
Soon-Loon
Min-Gun Dhamma Joti,
Tay-Za-Sak-Ki etc.
The-Inn-Gu
Kathic-Waing
Laedi
Other
Fig. 1 Sitting Meditation
Source:Vipassana Research Institute. Fig. 3 Meditation Center
“The Wheel of Dhamma Rotates Around the World.” Source: Field Survey (2005)
S "Sitting" refers to general feeling of firmness of overall
There are about 500 meditation centers in lower Myanmar.
posture
There are two ways of meditation centers according to
T "Touching" e.g. of the base contact with cushion / floor
architectural influences. They are
R "Rising" movement of abdomen
-Meditation center for monks sponsor and
F "Falling" movement of abdomen
-Meditation center for non-monks sponsor
There are many ways of watching "Sitting" (S) / Moe-Goke

"touching" (T).For a start, we may just watch generally S, T, Mahasi

Meditation Center for Monks
Soon-Loon
S, T, etc as shown in Fig. 1 [3]. 2%
4%
2% 9%
Han-Tha-Wadi
Sponsor
3% 37%
2%
3%
Theinn-Gu

Laedi

B. Walking Meditation 38% Min-Gun

Kathic-Waing Meditation Center

For the yogi who aims to reach the path and Fruition, it is Other
For Non-Monks
very important to practice walking meditation, and as much Sponsor
to his general noting as shown in Fig. 2 [4]. Fig. 4 Zoning Diagram of Meditation
Centers in Myanmar
1 Phase Source: Field Survey (2005)
2 Phases There are nine groups in meditation center for
Monks Sponsors. They are- (1). Moe-Goke, (2) Mahasi,
3 Phases (3) Min-Gun, (4) Son-Loon, (5) Laedi, (6) Han-Tha-Wadi,
(7) Theinn-Gu, (8) Kathic-Waing, (9) Other.
4 Phases
In which, meditation methods are different but the space
requirements are the same. In the meditation center for Non-
5 Phases
Monks Sponsors, there are two groups of meditation centers
6 Phases which are leaded and meditated by people. They are
- Dhamma Joti,
Fig. 2. Phase of Walking Meditation
Source: Willion Heart, - International Meditation Center,etc.
"The Art of Living ( Vipassana Meditation )." 1997. Study on Meditation Center for Monks Sponsors

III. WAYS OF MEDITATION

After nineteenth century, Vipassana practice is re-evident
form the beginning of Laedi Sayadaw (Mongwya).Then,
Vipassana practice is more popular, because of the
explaining and teaching of Vipassana encouragers such as
Moe-Goke Sayadow, Mahasi Sayadow, Wai-Bu Sayadaw,
Ka-Thic-Waing Sayadaw, Anagum U Thetgyi (Laedi Meditation in the Hall Single Meditation
Sayadaw’s pupil).In this way, meditation centers are
appeared by the methods of Laedi, Moe-Gok , Pa-auk, Wai- Fig. 5 Effort for Monks Sponsors
Bu ,etc, depending upon the teaching person as shown in Source: Field Survey (2005)

162
Effort - Inhaling & Exhaling (e.g.; Moe-Goke, Soon-Loon, Panditarama Tawya Meditation Center
Han-Tha-Wadi)
- Four Great Elements - Earth, Water, Fire, Wind Location - Sae-Mai-Gone,
Elements (eg; Theinn-Gu) Bago
- Rising & Falling of the abdomen (e.g.; Mahasi) Site - 80 acres
- Four Great Elements - Going, Sitting, Stopping, Capacity - 300-450
Sleeping Elements
(Laedi, Min-Gun, etc)

Study on Meditation Center for Non-Monks Sponsors

Fig. 7 Site Plan of Panditarama Tawya Meditation Center

Source: Field Survey (2005)

TABLE 1
SPACE UTILIZATION OF PANDITARAMA TAWYA
Single Meditation MEDITATION CENTER
Meditation in the Hall
Fig.6 Effort for Non-Monks Sponsors No. Building Type Number Area Percent
Source: Field Survey (2005)
1. Sayadaw's San- Kyaung 1 1800 0.04
Effort - Meditate the Inhaling & Exhaling
(e.g, International Meditation Center, Dhamma Joti, 2. Office 1 5400 0.12
etc,) 3. Dhamma Hall 1 10000 0.23

IV. ANALYSIS OF MEDITATION CENTERS 4. Dining + Kitchen 1 14000 0.32

5. Thein 1 729 0.02

In the year 2005, there are about 1200 meditation centers
in Myanmar. In Lower Myanmar, there are 500 meditation 6. Checking Hostel 1 1600 0.04
centers .Among them, some meditation centers are very
famous for their facility, accessibility, location, etc. The 7. Library 1 729 0.02
capacity of meditation centers is different. Some meditation 8. Yogi's Hostel 65 24896 0.56
centers are large and some are small. The capacity of
427457
mediation centers is in the range of 100-200, 200-400, 400- 9. Circulation Area -
0
98.13
600, 600-800 and 800-1000. Among them, the two
meditation centers are chosen to study in this research. The Source: Field Survey (2005)
two types of meditation centers are studied according to the
different criteria, such as facility, quietness, noise pollution,
capacity, accessibility, etc. Reside Servic Medit
The meditation centers have been studied into two types. nce ation
e 1%
They are –
1% 1%
(1) Meditation center for monks sponsors and Green
(2) Meditation center for non-monks sponsors. area
The twomeditation centers have been studied in this
97%
research. They are -
(1) Panditarama Forest Meditation Center, Fig. 8 Zoning Diagram of Panditarama Tawya Meditation Center
Saemaigone, Bago,and Source: Field Survey (2005)
(2) Pa-auk Forest Buddha Sasana Center, Pa-auk
Village, Mawlamyine.
B. Building layout and relationship of the Panditarama
Tawya Meditation Center
A. Space Utilization, Building Layout and Functional
There are approximately 80 acres in Panditarama Tawya
Relationship
Meditation Center. It seems that, the whole area is more than
In this section, the numbers of two meditation
enough to construct a meditation center. The buildings are
centers have been studied according to space utilization and
spread around the site. Dhamma halls are divided for male
functional relationship.
and female yogis. But there is only one dining hall. It is

163
located in the one end of the site. Therefore, yogis from area is too enough, residences are spread in the whole site.
another end of the site are too far away from their residences Therefore, building layout and relationship is not properly
to go to the dining hall. Moreover, zonings are confused with designed for every yogi.
each other.
Therefore, building layout and relationship is not proper for
yogis although the site is quiet.

Yogi’s Residence
Residence

Residence Dhamma Hall

Dhamma Hall Alms Giving Hall

Office Reside
nce

Fig. 12 Layout Plan of Pa-auk Tawya Buddha Sasana Center

Source: Field Survey (2005)
Dining Hall Library

Fig. 9 Layout Plan of Panditarama Tawya Meditation Center

Source: Field Survey (2005)
V. RECOMMENDATION
In this section, space requirements for meditation zone,
Pa-auk Tawya Buddha Sasana Center residence zone, service zone for monk sponsors and non-
Location - Pa-auk Village, Mawlamyin monk sponsors, and acceptable range for walking area were
Site - 560 acres N recommended in a tabular form.
Capacity - 600-100
TABLE 2
SPACE REQUIREMENTS OF MEDITATION ZONE
(FOR MONKS SPONSORS)

Recom
Lower Monastery Local
Foreign
Stan
Questio mended
Middle Monastery No.
Building
Average
Case
dard
nnaire Accept
Upper Monastery Type Study Survey able
Range

Fig. 10 Site Plan of Pa-auk Tawya Buddha Sasana Center Meditatio

Source: Field Survey (2005)Reside n Hall
85%
Service nce 1% Meditati 1
( sq-ft /
20 - 28 16 - 20 18 Accept 20 - 28
on 1% able
1% person )
Green
area Meditatio
80%
97% 2
n Cell
30 - 40 - - Accept 35 - 45
( sq-ft /
able
person )
Fig. 11 Zoning Diagram of Pa-auk Tawya Buddha Sasana Center
Source: Field Survey (2005)
Checking
85%
Hostel
C. Building layout and relationship of the International Pa- 3
( sq-ft /
40 - 60 - - Accept 40 - 60
auk Tawya Buddha Sasana Center able
person )
In Pa-auk Tawya Buddha Sasana center, the area of the
plot is about 560 acres. It seems that the whole area is more Sima 80%
than enough to construct a meditation center for yogis. Male 4 ( sq-ft / 30 - 40 - - Accept 30 - 40
person ) able
and female zones are separately divided. As the compound

164
 TABLE 3 TABLE 5
SPACE REQUIREMENTS OF MEDITATION ZONE SPACE REQUIREMENTS OF RESIDENCE ZONE
(FOR NON-MONKS SPONSORS) (FOR NON- MONKSSPONSORS)
Fore
ign Recomme
Local Questio
Building Case Stan nded
Foreign Recomme No. Average nnaire
Local Questio Type Stud dard Acceptabl
Building Case Stan nded Survey
No Average nnaire y e Range
Type Study dard Acceptabl
Survey One- Unit
e Range 140 85%
Residence
1 - - 200 Accept 200 - 220
( sq-ft /
Meditati 150 able
85% person )
on Hall 16 - Two- Unit
1 9 - 12 18 Accep 20 - 28 75%
( sq-ft / 20 Residence
table 2 - - 180 Accept 180 - 200
person ) ( sq-ft /
able
person )
Hall
65%
Foreign Recomme Residence
Local Questio 3 80 - 120 120 120 Accept 100 - 120
Building Case Stan nded ( sq-ft /
No Average nnaire able
Type Study dard Acceptabl person )
Survey
e Range
TABLE 6
Meditati SPACE REQUIREMENTS OF SERVICE ZONE
80% (FOR MONKS SPONSORS)
on Cell
2 34 - 40 - - Accep 35 - 40 Recom
( sq-ft /
table Foreign Questio
mende
person ) Local Stan d
Building Case nnaire
No. Average dard Accept
Type Study Survey
Checkin able
g 85% Range
3 Hostel - - - Requir 40 - 60 Dining
85%
( sq-ft / ed Hall 17 -
1 20 - 28 18 - 20 Accept 20 - 28
person ) ( sq-ft / 28
able
person )
Office 75%
86 - 120 -
2 ( sq-ft / 150 - 200 - Accept
161 160
TABLE 4 person ) able
SPACE REQUIREMENTS OF RESIDENCE ZONE
(FOR MONKS SPONSORS) TABLE 7
Recom SPACE REQUIREMENTS OF SERVICE ZONE
mende (FOR NON-MONKS SPONSORS)
Foreign Questio Recom
Local Stan d
Building Case nnaire mende
No. Average dard Accept Foreign Questio
Type Study Survey Local Stan d
able Building Case nnaire
Range No. Average dard Accept
Type Study Survey
able
Range
One- Dining
Unit 85%
85% Hall 17 -
1 8-12 18 - 20 Accept 20 - 28
Residenc 280 - 140 - 240 - ( sq-ft / 28
1 240 Accep able
e 460 150 280 person )
table Office 75%
( sq-ft / 86 - 120 -
person ) 2 ( sq-ft / 150 - 180 - Accept
161 160
person ) able
Two-
TABLE 8
Unit
75% .ACCEPTABLE RANGE FOR CORRIDOR / WALK-WAY
Residenc 260 - 200 - Recom
2 - 200 Accep
e 320 240 mende
table Foreign Questio
( sq-ft / Local Stan d
Building Case nnaire
person ) No. Average dard Accept
Type Study Survey
able
Hall Range
Residenc 65% Corridor / ( 8 – 10
120 - Walk- ) ft
3 e 80 - 160 120 120 Accep 1 way
( 6 – 10 )
- - 80%
(8–
160 ft 10 ) ft
( sq-ft / table Width Accept
person ) (ft) able

165
 VI. CONCLUSION REFERENCES
For people around the world, physicality is increasing
out, mentality is decreasing. Therefore, people look for [1] Mehm Tin Mon, Dr. "The Essence of Buddha Abhidhamma."
[2] Pa-Auk Tawya Sayadaw. "Knowing and Seeing." Revised Edition.
many ways to control their minds. Finally they found the [3] Vipassana Research Institute. “The Wheel of Dhamma Rotates
meditation method. They supposed that meditation method is Around the World. "
very suitable for them. Therefore, to meditate comfortably, [4] Willion Heart, "The Art of Living ( Vipassana Meditation )." 1997.
the quiet, functional and suitable meditation centers are
required for yogis in Myanmar.
The two meditation centers in Lower Myanmar have been
studied and analyzed as the case studies. In this research,
space utilization and functional relationship, zoning
requirements, building layout in site planning and
relationship are analyzed. Then, space utilization for each
person in each zone are recommended by dividing into two
parts of meditation centers for monks and non-monks
sponsors in order to get the aids for future meditation center
in Lower Myanmar.
In this analysis, it should be noted that Tawya
meditation center such as Pa-auk Tawya Buddha Sasana
Center and Panditarama Twaya Meditation Center are in the
quiet zone. Therefore, the Tawya meditation center is the
most suitable for yogis. It is hoped that, this research work
would contribute to the design of the future meditation
centers in Lower Myanmar.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First and foremost, the author wishes to express her
gratitude to U Thaung, Minister, Ministry of Science and
Technology for his kind of permission. The author would
like to express her gratitude and thanks to her parents. The
author's heart felt gratitude and thanks especially to Pro-
rector, Dr, Swe Swe Aye, Head of the Department of
Architecture for her guidance and supervision during the
research study.
The author is greatly indebted to the members of board of
examiners, Dr Kyaw Latt , Dr.Maung Hlaing, U Than Tin
Aung, U Sun Oo , U Thaw, U Soe Naing Aung, and Daw
Sein Sein Lei those who carefully and patiently advised her
for the thesis.
In addition to these persons, the author wishes to thank
the Sayadaws and members of Meditation centers. And the
author gratefully acknowledges all other trusting members
for their help and advices.
Last, but not least, her colleagues, staff members of the
Department of Architecture, her friends, her elder sisters and
her relatives are also very much thankful for their help and
supports.

166
 Architecture of Superb Stone Religious Monuments
in Mrauk-U, Myanmar
Yu Mon Myint#1, Swe Swe Aye*2, Maung Hlaing#3
#
Department of Architecture, West Yangon Technological University
*
Yangon Technological University
#
Department of Architecture,Yangon Technological University
Myanmar
1
yumonmyint@gmail.com

Abstract— This research collects data from existing stone
monuments in Mrauk-U historical site. Its architecture had
influenced by Indian and Sri Lanka architecture style but
different from its roots. Among the numerous ruins in the
historical site of Mrauk-U, the massive structures, elaborately
carved structures, decorative items and others have been seen in
Superb stone work. The builders of Mrauk-U used stone as the
main material in sacred buildings. Arch and vaults were widely
used in the monuments of Mrauk-U. Studying the stone carvings
of the Mrauk-U’s monuments can identify the well-developed
tradition of carving in stone sculpture which reached at peak in
fine art. The architecture of Mrauk-U is different from those of
contemporary cities. This paper highlights the architectural
concepts and interpretation of religious stone structures in
Mrauk-U. In this research, stone monuments such as stupas,
temples are studied and analyzed from the architectural aspects;
space utility and form composition and classified according to the
type of structure, development trend, environmental aspects and
deco architecture.
Keywords— Architecture, Superb Stone Monuments, Mrauk-U
ancient city, Stupa, Temples
different form its root. The builders of Mrauk-U used stone as
the main material in sacred buildings such as temples, stupas
and other miscellaneous structures; palace site, pitakataik or
library, Moat, city walls and city gates, lakes and fortresses.
Religious structures which were constructed with stone were
studied in this paper by analysing the architectural form and
space utility, deco and environmental aspects.
II. STUDY ON THE STONE STUPAS
The supreme sacred monument of Buddhism is the stupa.
The term stupa called in Myanmar as Zedi. Originally the
stupas were constructed for the relics of Buddha and holy
monks. Generally the stupa is the solid structure that enshrines
the relics. Extending to the architectural experiences, social
function and development of construction technique, the stupa
has inner space usually using as the shrine with Buddha
Images. As the stupas have internal space, there are also
constructed with the entrance porches and passageways. Some
stupas which were constructed with stones can be study in
Table I.

I. INTRODUCTION
Among the races in Myamar, ancient Rakhine (European
called Arakan) were able to uphold their own culture and
tradition. Mrauk-U was the last royal capital of Rakhine Kings.
It flourished for nearly 355 years, form AD 1430 up to 1785
through out the Dhannyawaddy Era, Waithali Era, Laymyo
Era. Rakhine state is located in the western most part of
Myanmar and it is bounded on the east by Rakhine Roma
ranges and on the west by Bay of Bengal. The republic of
Bangladesh also borders it by the Naff river. The city Mrauk-
U is located on Latitude 20˚ 25´ N and Longitude 93˚ 11´E
and it is situated in the Northern part of Rakhine state and 45
miles far from the sea coast and on the eastern side of the
Kaladan River. Buddhism is the main religious faiths of
Rakhine people. Buddhism was not different from the ancient
Eras to this present time which is evidenced by the numerous
remaining religious structures. Buddhism was attained from
South India and Sri Lanka. By the stone inscriptions there was
an interrelationship between the Mrauk-U and Sri Lanka
according to the Buddhism. Hence, architecture of religious
buildings had influenced by those of Indian and Sri Lanka but
A. Architectural Typology of Stupa Based on Space
Stupas in Mrauk-U varied the exterior forms and
interior space. The varied space can generally be classified as
follow;
1) Solid Type Stupas: These types of Stupas were built as a
solid sacred structure from base to top. There are no entry and
space in the structure. The Stupas as a representation of
Buddha, in which Buddha’s relic and the treasures of donation
from builders and other Buddhists were buried. People can
pray and behold the Stupa from the platform and vestibule in
the Stupa’s compound.
2) Hollow Spaced Stupa: Many hollow spaced stupas can be
found throughout the Mrauk-U Era. Ancient Mrauk-U people
built the stupas not only in the solid structure but also addition
with the central shrine. Most of hollow spaced stupas compose
of central shrine with a Buddha statue sitting on a stone altar,
vaulted porch entrance and passage leading to the central
shrine.

167
 TABLE I In this type of stupa, there are generally be classified as the
ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSTION OF STONE STUPA colours used in each figure contrast well,
No. Name and Space Utility Form • Square plan with central shrine and one entrance, e.g.
Construction Composition Lawka Manaung,
Date(AD) • Octagonal plan with central shrine and one entrance, e.g.
1. Koenawin Bodishwegu, Zinamanaung.
818 AD In hollow spaced stupas, almost vaulted porches are
leading to the eastern point therefore the Buddha Statue in the
shrine face to the east. In Mrauk-U Era at the top edges of the
2. Mingalardat entrance porch, there was stone elements resemble the chest of
Shwegu peacock or the trunk of elephant. Ancient Rakhine people
818 AD believed according to this element, there was safe inside the
shrine. The shrine and passage spaces in almost hollow stupa
3. Bodhi are narrow. It has enough space to enter and meditate for only
Shwegu one person. The shrine rooms are varied on circular, square
1470 AD and octagonal but there is not different inside the shrine.
Almost the Buddha statue and altar were placed two third or
4. Tayzarama half of the shrine. Lighting and ventilation system were not
1501 AD well-designed. Some of the shrines inside the stupas are
absent the openings expect the entrances. Almost inside the
stupas the walls are narrow but there is no echo.
5. Laungpan
Prauk
1525 AD B. Architectural Typology of Stupa Based on Form
The varied form can generally be classified as follow;
6. Yadanabon 1) Conical Shaped Stupa: This type of Stupa form can be
1612 AD seen in the Main land of Myanmar. This type of stupas
generally consists of plinth, terraces, corner stupas, kyiwun,
bell rest, bell-shaped dome, ornamental band, ornamental
friezes, ringed conical spires, lotus petals and bosses, banana
bulb, umbrella, vane and diamond bulb. Some stupas have
7. Thatkya
Mangaung
niches, small corner stupas and corner lions, manotethiha and
1629 AD guinea pigs. Some stupas do not plinth and directly raised with
terrace from the ground. Usually the stupas are square in plan
8. Minkhaung with central shrine and constructed of brick masonry. Pointed
Shwetu arch and corbelled arch were used in this type of stupas.
1629 AD
2) Stupa with Eliminating the Hamika: Rakhine people
invented the new form of the stupa by eliminating the hamika
9. Zina and umbrella crowned directly on the spires. This type of
Manaung stupa resembles the miniature stupas from Waithali period.
AD 1652 The Stupa form is the same to the stupa with hamika but the
hamika is absent. eg. Maha Bodhi Shwegu. There are conical
spire and short finial surmounted on the hemispheric dome.
10. Yadana
Manaung
This type of stupa can be found in Laymyo Era, eg.
1652 AD Mingalardat Shwegu. The builders might tend to lose the
hamika in this type of structure.

11. Lawka
Manaung III. STUDY ON THE STONE TEMPLES
1652 AD
Laymyatna temple (see fig.1) is square in plan with
12. Mingalar four entrances. The proceeding porches are facing to four
Manaung cardinal points and four passage ways are leading to the inner
1685 AD chamber. It is composed with octagonal solid core and
octagonal corridor. There are Buddha images in sitting posture
at each side of the central solid core. There are 20 niches

168
along the corridor and 5 niches with Buddha images between
two entrances. Main body or shrine is square cubic base and
four porches are proceeding at each cardinal point. The four
circular corner stupas surround the main structure surmounted
on the main body. The corner stupas are on each corner of
main body between the two porches. The central stupa and
corner stupas are the same in form which compose of three
circular terraces and cylindrical hemispheric dome. The upper
part was ruined and now it is renovated in recent year. The
temple was constructed with entire sand stone. Barrel vault
was used on the passage way and inner corridor. The vaulted
corridor is 14 feet high. Horizontal and vertical proportion is
nearly 1:1. The temple is massive and stable structure. The
central pillar supports the superstructure above it. A small
element called duyin in the form of trunk of elephant crowns
the apex of each porch.
Fig.1 Laymyatna Temple
The Shitthaung temple(see fig.2) is the most spectacular
Architecture of Mrauk-U Era. This temple was built in 1536
AD. The precincts are in West, North and South and the East
façade is close with hill side. The first platform is wide and 40
feet high, its walls are built with stone blocks. The temple plan
is based on square form with central shrine and four corridors.
The main image sanctum is at the centre of the shrine,
accessible through the vaulted passage from the east. The
spirals like inner two corridors have one entrance at the south-
east corner and there is no way out except that entrance. In the
outer corridor, there are series of Buddha images in sitting
posture on both sides of the wall. There is a wide shrine room
as transitional space of the two corridors. The innermost
corridor has niches with Buddha images in sitting posture on
both sides of the wall. The passage is narrow resemble a
vaulted tunnel. But it cannot get echo. Sounds are absorbed
by the niches. At the end of the innermost corridor, there is
also a shrine with Buddha images. The third corridor has two
entrances on south-east and north-east corners. Along the
corridor, there are extremely caved with many huge blocks of
stone on six tiers, many small bowl-shaped indentations once
used as oil-lamps and many niches with Buddha statue in
sitting posture. The temple resembles the museum of arts and
motifs Mrauk-U Era. The outer most corridors are on south
and west, it has niches with Buddha images on the inner wall.
There are two Buddha images facing to the respective
corridors. It can be reached directly from the platform form
south and north. There is a square ordination hall or king’s
Sabbath hall and the place for coronation hall at the western
most part of the temple. The coronation hall has three large
arches and the place resemble as a viewing tower to the
pagodas on the west. The outer walls of platforms, main body
and roof are slightly slope to adapt the heavy rain of costal
169
region. To compare solid volume with open space volume at
Shitthaung Temple, solid volume is the two-third of it, the
volume with opens space is less in interior but it is much when
it is closed to external wall. The arches and vaults are very
strong as it is built by keystone. The wall was built in
thickness to stand the stupas’ own weight. The construction of
roof of the temples was less in flat by building the small
stupas due to the better drainage. The stone drains were made
above the wall of the first inner corridor in order not to flow
down. It is thought that it is meant to long-term existence
though there is no leakage through the roof during period of
much rain. The real purpose of the pagoda was for prayer,
some rituals of initiation, and some of the King's ceremonies,
which were usually held secretly. It was constructed six feet
thick of solid sandstone and like "rock cave tunnel". No
mortar was used in the construction and stones were
connected with stone brackets. It is believed that 84,000 of the
Buddha's relics with the same number of the Lord's images are
enshrined in it. People who entered the tunnels of the temple
felt that they were actually inside an endless tunnel.
Fig. 2 Shitthaung Temple
The Koethaung temple(see fig.3) was built in 1553 AD. The
temple is the biggest in size among the pagodas in Mrauk-U.
It measures 230 feet from east to west and 250 feet form north
to south. The temple has two platforms about 30 feet high.
There are small stone stupas which stand in series on five tiers
of terraces at east and south facades. There is a stair way at the
east and entrance to reach the first platform. It can be
suddenly reached to the wide vestibule or square, it is said that
ordination hall was built in this place. There are two entrances
to go inside the corridor of lower platform. The entrance
arches were built with semicircular arch. Two Buddha images
are in sitting posture on the altars at each outside of the
entrances facing to the east. The long vaulted corridor
resembles the stone cave tunnel with high walling which are
full with stone carving of Buddha images. The long corridor
was divided by arch ways to chambers with Buddha images
that are sitting in posture. There are four passage ways with
staircases to reach the upper platform. On both sides of the
entrances of west, south and north are large stone carving of
guardians on both sides. The main stupa surmounted the
center of upper platform can be seen from the entrances of the
lower platform and the Buddha images in sitting posture on
the altar can be seen form the upper platform. There is the
upper corridor with four passage ways on the upper platform.
There are three tires with series of Buddha images on both
sides of the walls of the corridor. The temple was constructed
of massive stone walls and terraces. The small one hundred
and eight small stupas on the terraces of the outer walls are all
made of sandstone. The construction of the Koethaung
resembles a rock cave temple
Fig. 3 Koethaung Temple
Htukkant Thein temple(see fig.4) is situated on the west of the
Shitthaung temple. The donor-builder is King Min Phaloung,
who erected it in 1571. The temple has a raised flat platform
with the height of 20 feet. One has to go up along eighteen
steps of stone stairs at east and south. Then the levelled hill is
204 feet north to south and 260 feet east to west. The plan
shape of the temple is the combination of square and semi-
circle connect to the rectangular ordination hall extends from
the curve on the south-west corner. There has only one
entrance at the east close to the south-east corner. The
entrance doorway has two beams with large stone slabs. The
temple has two spirals like corridors continue to reach the
central shrine. Along the corridor, there are 164 niches with
Buddha image in sitting posture. In each niche on the inner
wall of the outer corridor, it has two Buddha images in back to
back position facing to the corridors respectively. This
function can be obtained the lighting and ventilation to the
inner corridor. The temple is well-known for the stone
sculpture in the vaulted passages, especially the figures of
seated ladies, with different styles of coiffure, in the manner
of offering lotus buds to the Buddha. Traditionally, it is said
that there are sixty-four kind of hair-style and all the figures
are of the wives of noblemen. Besides, on both sides of the
entire passage, niches of 1 foot and 6 inches broad, 1 foot
deep, and 2 feet high are dug at regular intervals of 20 feet in
the wall. By studying the costumes and ornaments such as the
crown, the headdress, coiffure, necklace, ear-ring, hairpin, pin,
upper garment, baldric waistband, etc. one can know the status
of the persons concerned during the middle period of Mrauk-
U dynasty. In fact, Htukkant Thein temple is a museum of
traditional costumes of Mrauk-U period. The figures in the
temple epitomise the various Mrauk-U period costumes and
ornaments. There is stone carving of guardian man at the
entrance of the inner corridor. The outer corridor is 6 feet
wide and 9 feet high while the inner corridor is 14 feet high
and 11 feet wide. The central shrine is 15 feet raised form the
inner corridor which composed of vestibule and the shrine
room is 9 feet and 2 inches raised form the vestibule which is
said to be the place where the Chief and senior Buddhist
monks of the kingdom met to discuss the religious affairs.The
170
platform, outer wall and roof are slightly slope to adapt the
heavy rain. The main central stupa and four corner stupa
surmounted on the roof are in the same form with circular
terraces, hemispheric dome, hamika or crowning block of relic
chamber, circular umbrella base and bow shaped umbrella.
The barrel vault is surmounted on the corridor and copula on
the shrine. There is a rectangular dome at the east of the
central stupa which provides lighting and ventilation to the
central shrine and vestibule. The facade of the dome has stone
carving. The lighting and ventilation can be provided to reach
the whole temple form the openings of the walls. Lighting is
also provided in the ordination hall. There is no echo
anywhere inside the temple. To compare solid volume with
open space volume at Htukkant Thein temple, the solid
volume is two-third of open space volume. The temple is
floored, roofed and vaulted and has arches with smooth
cemented stone blocks. Owing to its construction with stone
blocks and its massive size, some researches guess that it was
built to be used both as an ordination hall and a fortress and
that it was intended to be used as a refuge for Buddhist monks
in case of war. During the whole period of Mrauk-U dynasty,
it was used monolithic structure which is the feat of Rakhine
architects of those days. The donor King Min Phaloung
expressed his confidence in the Htukkant Thein temple by the
knowledge of architecture. The temple indicates the amazing
thoughts of architecture in Mrauk-U. The temple shows the
high technology of construction system in Mrauk-U era by
using sand stone.
Fig. 4 Htukkant Thein Temple
The Andaw Thein temple(see fig.5) was built on the
flattened hillock. The main temple is surrounded by sixteen
small stupas with central shrine. The stupas were built of brick
and stand on the platform of south, west and north of the
temple. On the east, there is a prayer hall which has an
entrance each on the east, north and south facades. A stone
wall divides the temple and the prayer hall. The east facade of
the shrine measures 31 feet from north to south and is only 14
feet high from the ground to the roof. On each side of the
entrance are three niches which get into the wall, 6 feet high, 1
feet and 2 inches deep, and 2 feet wide, and these contain
stone image of Buddha. The temple is octagonal in plan
with one entrance at the East connected to the prayer hall. The
temple has octagonal central pillar on each face of which is a
niche on each side and a Buddha image seated posture inside
it. The facades on eight faces of the central pillar are not
similar to one another in detail. Generally, on sides of the
eastern facade, each dancing byala is carved out. According to
Rakhine tradition, byala is a creature of peace always wearing
a smiling face. All other facades have byalas too. The topmost
part varies from one design to another. At each corner of the
base of niche are stone carvings of deities. Examining these
artistic stone carvings, one can learn much about the royal
thrones of the ancient Rakhine. The temple was composed of
two octagonal corridors with niches hold stone image of
Buddha on both sides of the wall and four vaulted passage
ways at each cardinal point. The arch ways at four cardinal
points on the wall of inner corridor are decorated with stone
carving in floral design. The temple is octagonal form from
base to top. The central stupa and eight small stupas on each
side are surmounted on the octagonal main body of shrine.
The forms of the stupas are the same with four octagonal
terraces, octagonal hemispheric dome, octagonal base of
umbrella and stone umbrella. The whole temple is 42 feet high
from ground to top. The whole temple was constructed
entirely by block of pure sand stones. The barrel vault is used
on the corridors and passage ways of the temple. The central
pillar supports the central stupa above it. The temple has small
opening on each side but they cannot produce sufficient
lighting and ventilation to reach inside the temple. The
corridor and inner wall are narrow but there is no echo.
Although the temple was built of stone, it is harmony to the
plan and form, massive and stable, symmetric in form and
plan.
Fig. 5 Andaw Thein Temple
Thattawya temple(see fig.6) was constructed in 1525 AD. The
temple is square in plan with cental shrine in which one seated
Buddha image faces to the east. There are extremely craved
with floral design on the external wall of the temple The altar
of the Buddha image in the shrine is also carved with floral
design and painted with multi colours. The whole temple was
constructed stone ,and cloister vault and barrel vault used
inside the temple.
171
Fig.6 Thattawya Temple
Shwegugyi Temple(see fig.7) was constructed in 1531. It is
also square in plan and square shrine in which one seated
Buddha image facing to the east. The Buddha image was
constructed of Stone and it is 10 feet high. The altar was
carved with stone. There are 2 feet and 4 inches high deities
with four hands on both sides the facade of entrance porch.
Two smaller figures of votaries flank the deities.
Fig.7 Shwegugyi Temple
A. Architectural Typology of Temple Based on Space and Plan
Temples in Mrauk-U varied the exterior forms and interior
space. The varied space can generally be classified as follow;
• Temples with solid core and corridor
• Temples with central shrine
• Temples with central shrine and corridors.
B. Classification of Temples Based on Forms
The forms of the temples are very simple with the main
body and Stupa with Eliminating of Hamika type surmounted
on the centre of the roof.
The temple has two axes, the major axis XX and the minor
axis YY, which are on the horizontal plane and vertical axis
ZZ is in the third direction. In the great temples in Mrauk-U,
the space developed along both directions XX and YY while
the space mainly develops along major axis XX. The main
axis of the temple aligned to east-west direction
perpendiculars to the common walls between the shrine and
inner corridor. The Buddha image in the central shrine is kept
facing to the east. The plan is symmetric along the main axis
in east-west direction. In temple in Mrauk-U, there is no
storey or multiple floors developed on to each other along the
vertical axis ZZ from the ground. The space is developed
along the horizontal axis rather than vertical axis.
In early and later period, the temples rarely can be found. In
the Middle Mrauk-U period (16th century AD), the great
development of economy, political and culture were found
Shitthaung, Koethuang, Htukkant Thein and Andaw Thein
temples which are the great temples with the accessible arch,
the inner corridors and central shine. The inner corridors of
the temples were built by maze like position. The corridors are
leading to the central sacred place. The ceremony of
consecration for the Kings and the religious festivals were
celebrated at the Shitthaung Temple and Htukkant Thein
Temple. The two temples have wide space platforms to
assemble the people. The proportion of horizontal and vertical
is approximately 1:1. The four great temples stood for the high
standard of the architecture study of Mrauk-U. These temples
indicate the amazing thoughts of architecture in Mrauk-U Era.
IV CONCLUSION
Stupa is the most founded type in Mrauk-U. Hollow
spaced stupas can be found throughout the Mrauk-U era. The
spatial composition of hollow spaced stupas; one entrance and
narrow passage way which is directly leading to the central
shrine, did not change from the early Mrauk-U period to the
later Maruk-U period. The portions of the stupas in Mrauk-U
are simple and well proportion. Indian style stupa with hamika
can be found in early and middle period of Mrauk-U era.
Rakhine people invented the new form of the stupa by
eliminating the hamika and umbrella crowned directly on the
spires. The proportion of vertical and horizontal is nearly 1:1
in this type of stupa. The vertical effect can be found in
conical shaped stupa. The great temples are the splendid
architecture of Mrauk-U era built in sixteenth century AD.
The horizontal effect is given due to the wide area of the
temples to be less in vertical effect. The temples were built
with maze like spatial composition and space developed on
horizontal plain rather than vertical. The proportion of
horizontal and vertical is approximately 1: 1. At the Shittaung
and Htukkant Thein temples, there are wide platforms where
the people can assemble on the ceremony of coronation for the
kings and religious festivals. The great temples indicate the
amazing thoughts of architecture in Mrauk-U. Arch and vault
were widely used in Mrauk-U era. Pointed arch, semicircular
arch, flat arch and vault, corbel vault and barrel vaults were
used in passageways and corridors. Cloister vault and copula
were used in central shrine. Conclusion can be made that the
basis of the architectural planning and the features of stupas
are especially organized to achieve the main orientation of the
axis towards east. The space developed along the horizontal
axis rather than vertical axis. The axis on the east-west
172
direction is the main axis and the plan is symmetric along the
main axis. Almost all Buddha Images inside the central shrine
of the stupas and temples are facing to the east. The stone
sculptures in Rakhine were so skilfully conceived and finished;
it is assumed that there must have been an earlier well-
developed tradition of carving in stone sculpture which
reached at peak in fine arts in Mrauk-U era. In Summing up,
the spirit of Rakhine people concerning with the upholding of
race and religion are worthy to admire. The construction
technology of the ancient Rakhine people is also worthy to
praise. Mrauk-U needs to be revealed and conserved as an
important historic site in South-East Asia. It is attempted to
reveal inventory work, typology of architectural space and
form, development trend, physical aspects and deco
architecture of religious structure in Mrauk-U which can be
contributed towards the heritage conservation of Myanmar.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to express her deep
appreciation to His Excellency Minister U Thaung, Ministry
of Science and Technology, for his invaluable permission of a
special research program to submit international conferences.
The author would like to convey heartfelt thanks to Dr. Swe
Swe Aye, Pro-rector, Yangon Technological University, for
giving helpful guidance, motivation, understanding,
suggestions and constructive comments and criticism. The
author wishes to express special thanks to Mg Hlaing, Deputy
Professor and Deputy Head, Department of Architecture,
Yangon Technological University, for his support, guidance
and generous help. The author would like to offer her
gratitude to persons for their kind help and support during the
field study at Mrauk-U and supporting data for this research.
REFERENCES
[1] Ngwe Soe, Mg: Study on Religious Architecture in Mrauk-U, Rakhine.
Thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Architecture in Yangon
Technological University, Myanmar, December, 1998.
[2] Shwe Zan,U: The Golden Mrauk-U, An Ancient Capital of Rakhine,
second edition. Published by U Shwe Zan. Yangon, Myanmar, 1997.
[3] Tun Shwe Khine (M.A): A Guide to Mrauk-U, An Ancient City of
Rakhine, Myanmar, Published by U Tun Shwe, register (1), Sittway
Degree College, Sittway, Myanmar, January, 2004.
 Essence of Temples in Bagan, Myanmar
Mya Mya Hnist
Department of Architecture
Technological University (Magway)
Ministry of Science and Technology, Myanmar
mmhnist@gmail.com

Abstract- In Myanmar history, Bagan was the highest Spatial organization and form composition of Bagan
civilization which reached a peak of achievement between 11th temples are derived from that of Pyu temples such as Be-Be
and 13th centuries A.D. Nowadays, Bagan is the most wonderful temple, East Zegu temple, Ya-Han-Da temple, Lay-Myat-Hna
site for architects, archaeologists, historians, researchers and temple, Phaya-Htaung temple. All of Bagan temples are load-
visitors. Bagan art and architecture can be found at Buddhist bearing brick buildings raised from one to four stories by
religious structures such as stupas, temples, monasteries. Among improving arch and vault construction techniques.
them, the most dominant type is the temple. In Bagan temples,
spatial organization, form composition and ornamental
decoration had achieved of success in Myanmar architecture.
The systematic arrangement of spaces organized in temples can
enhance the glory of the Buddha in shrine. By the development of
arch and vault construction techniques, load-bearing brick
temples had improved from one to four storied structures.
Finally, art and architecture of Bagan temples stand now as the
historic architectural essence of Myanmar.

Keywords- Bagan, Temple, Spatial Organization,

Form Composition, Ornamental Decoration.

I. INTRODUCTION
The standard of civilization of a nation depends mainly
on historical and cultural heritages. In Myanmar, our ancestors
established own kingdoms, culture, literature, art and
architecture. Ancient cities in Myanmar such as Beikthano
(AdóEdk;), Hanlin ([efvif;), Srikshetra (oa&acwå&m), Thaton (oxHk),
Bagan (yk*H), Pegu (yJcl;), Dagon ('*Hk), Mrauk-U (aNrmufOD;),
Tagaung (waumif;), Ava (tif;0), Sagaing (ppfudkif;), Mingun
(rif;uGef;), Amarapura (tr&yl&), Madalay (rEÅav;) stood
respectively as the landmarks of each civilization.
Among these cities, Bagan was the highest one in which
art and architecture reached a peak of achievement from 11th
to 13th Century A.D. Bagan is located on the east bank of Fig. 1 Location map of ancient cities in Myanmar
Ayeyarwaddy River, in central Myanmar. Bagan region
possesses tropical climate, classified as hot and dry. Bagan art
and architecture can be studied in Buddhist religious
structures such as stupas (Zedi), temples (Gu or Pahto),
monasteries (Kyaung), Libraries (Pi-ta-kat-taik) and cave (Gu).
According to architectural researches, Bagan architecture
was based on Pyu architecture. Most of Pyu structures were
found in Srikshetra old city in central Myanmar. At Srikshetra,
most of structures are stupas, temples, and other remains. In
Pyu periods, the structures, especially temples are small-sized
load-bearing brick buildings.
Religious structures, especially temples are mainly
intended for worship and meditation. Fig. 2 Map of old Bagan city

173
 II. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The interior walls beside the corridor are decorated with
terracotta plaques, mural paintings and stone sculptures. The
narrow corridor space can get dim light from the openings.
LITERATURE REVIEW

OPENINGS
FIELD STUDY

Fig. 7 Spatial organization of Nat-Hlaung-Kyaung

In some temples with symmetric plan, the Buddha’s
ANALYSIS
images are enshrined at the four cardinal points around the
central core. The sequences of porch, main vestibule, entrance
hall, side vestibule, passages and corridor spaces leading to
CONCLUSION
shrine at the central core can enhance the glory and greatness
of the Buddha. The openings can give the amount of essential
light to the interior spaces.
Fig. 3 Diagram of research methodology

III. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF

VESTIBULE
BAGAN TEMPLES OPENINGS

A. Spatial Organization PASSAGE

From the aspect of spatial organization, Bagan temples CENTRAL PILLAR

can be classified mainly into two groups:

THE BUDDHA IMAGE
 Central core type
INNER CORRIDOR

OUTER CORRIDOR
CORE

ENTRANCE HALL

Fig. 4 Example of temple’s plan with central core MAIN PORCH

 Central space type
Fig. 8 Spatial organization of Ananda temple

SPACE

Fig. 5 Example of temple’s plan with central space

1)Central core type temple: Most of temples found in

Bagan are central core type organizing the spaces with simple GROUND FLOOR PLAN

rectangle shapes. The corridor spaces are created because of

the central core. In pre-Bagan period, the core is very
massive to resist the whole of the structure’s weight. That can
be seen in East Hpet-Leik and West Hpet-Leik temples in
Thripyitsaya village. The massive core or pillar at the centre
creates the narrow corridor space and the Buddha’s image is
enshrined at the main facade of the core. 1ST FLOOR PLAN

MASSIVE CORE

CORRIDOR

2ND FLOOR PLAN

MAIN ENTRANCE

Fig. 6 Spatial organization of East Phet-Leik temple

Fig. 9 Spatial organization of Kya-Sin Gu (Three storied temple)

174
 From early Bagan temples to the middle and later temples,
the central core type temples can be organized wonderfully
with the improvement of arch and vault construction
technology. Lighting system is more improved in later
temples.
The central core type temples are obvious in Bagan area
and the most outstanding one-storied temples are Alo-Taw-
Pyi temple, Ananda temple, Dhamma-Yan-Gyi temple, Sein-
Nyet- Ama temple, Nan Pha-yar and so on.
In some temples more than one storey, the ground floor
plans are composed with central core and the first or second
are central space type. The wonderful spatial organization can
be seen at That-Bin-Nyu temple, Kan-Taw-Pa-Lin temple,
Hti-Lo-Min-Lo temple, Su-La-Mani temple, Kya-Sin Temple.
2)Central space type temple: Another type of Bagan temple
is central space type compared less than central core type.
Most of central space temples can be studied as one storey.
Examples are Law-ka-Htaik-Pan temple, Pi-Ta-Kat-Taik, Pa-
Hto-Tha-Mya temple, Ma-Nu-Ha temple, Gu-Byauk-Kyi
Temple (Myinkaba), APayadana temple, Ngayone temple.
SHRINE SPACE
Fig. 10 Spatial organization of Gu-Byauk- Gyi temple (Myin-Ka-Ba village)
B. Form Composition
Bagan Temples are composed with Kalar-Kyaung with
receding terraces, openings with pediments, corner stupas,
stairways, square tower and sacred crown. All elements are
harmonious with each others and so the whole forms are unity
and dominance. Fenestration of openings can enhance the
definition of form.
Arch construction can be found at porches, openings,
passage and vault construction can also be seen at entrance
hall, vestibules, corridor space and shrine.
The heights of temples are raised from one to four stories
because of the advanced technology “arch and vault
construction methods.

SACRED CROWN

SQUARE TOWER

TERRACES WITH PROJECTION

STAIRWAY

OPENING AT FOURTH LEVEL

OPENING WITH PEDIMENTS

CORNER STUPA

TERRACES

OPENING AT SECOND LEVEL

VESTIBULE

Fig. 11 Form composition of That-Bin-Nyu temple

SHRINE SPACE IN INTERIOR VIEW TO

ENTRANCE PORCH IN ANANDA TEMPLE OPENING IN
PYAT-THAT-GYI TEMPLE ANANDA TEMPLE

CORRIDOR SPACE IN ANANDA

PASSAGE WAY VAULT OF CORRIDOR SPACE IN
TEMPLE CORRIDOR SPACE IN IN SU-LA-MANI TEMPLE ANANDA TEMPLE
SU-LA-MANI TEMPLE

Fig. 12 Arch and vault construction techniques in Bagan temples

175
 PA-HTO-THA- SU-LA-MANI KYA-SIN-GU THAT-BIN-NYU TERRACOTTA PLAQUES ON
MYA (TWO STORIES) (THREE (FOUR STORIES) EXTERIOR WALLOF ANANDA TEMPLE
(ONE STOREY) STORIES)

Fig. 13 Form composition of Bagan temples (One to four stories)

PEDIMENT OF VESTIBULE OF
ANANDA TEMPLE
C. Ornamental Decoration
Most of temples are decorated with ornaments such as
FRIEZE OF GU-BYUAK-GYI TEMPLE
stone carvings, mural paintings, wood carvings, glazed
terracotta plaques and plaster mouldings. In Nan- Phaya, sand
stones were used not only structural materials but also
decorative elements. Stone ornaments can be founded at
entrance porch, pillar and openings’ pediments.
TERRACE WALL OF
PA-HTO-THA-MYA TEMPLE

MAIN ENTRANCE PORCH

OF SU-LA-MANI TEMPLE

CAPITAL OF PILLAR

CENTRAL PILLAR ENTRANCE

Fig. 14 Stone carvings of Nan-Phaya

Mural Paintings are decorated on interior surfaces of wall, OPENING OF NAN-PHAYA
arch and vault. CUPOLA OF PA-HTO-THA-MYA TEMPLE

INNER VAULT OF
INTERIOR WALL
SU-LA-MANI TEMPLE NICHES IN
OF PA-HTO-THA-MYA
INTERIOR WALL
TEMPLE
OF ANANDA TEMPLE

INTERIOR WALL AND VAULT

OF A-LO-TAW-PYI TEMPLE
Fig. 15 Mural paintings of Bagan temples CORNER PILASTER OFGU-BYUAK-GYI TEMPLE
Entrance doors at four facades of Ananda temples are
designed carved with wood. Fig 17 Plaster mouldings of Bagan temples

MAIN DOOR OF IV. ANALYSIS OF SPATIAL CONCEPT OF BAGAN

SHWE-GU-GYI TEMPLE TEMPLE (ANANDA TEMPLE)
The best examples of spatial organization, form
composition, ornamental decoration can be studied at Ananda
Temple. Most of temples are symmetric in plan with one axis.
But, at Ananda Temple, the plan is organized symmetrically
with north-south and east-west axes. The sequences of
MAIN DOOR OF
ANANDA TEMPLE
transitional spaces such as porch, passage, entrance hall,
passage, outer corridor, passage, inner corridor at four cardinal
Fig. 16 Wood carvings of Bagan temples
points are lead to the Buddha in shrine space at the central
Plaster mouldings are decorated on entrance porches, core.
vestibules, pediments of openings and niches interior and When the person stands on the threshold of the porch of
exterior walls, pilaster, frieze, terraces, stairways, corner the temple, he can’t see the whole statue of standing Buddha
stupas, etc. at once.

176

Fig. 18 Spatial concept of Ananda temple (from entrance porch)
While he slowly passes through the transitional spaces to
the inner doorway, he can see the vista of the Buddha image
gradually. Adjustment of lighting system can define the
essence of transitional spaces. Besides he can also feel the
changes of environment from heat to cool, from light to dark
and the intimacy of decorative elements.
Fig. 19 Spatial concept of Ananda temple (from entrance hall)
When he reaches at the inner corridor, he can see a
full view of the Buddha image with the exalted face lightened
up with the light coming through aperture. At that time, he is
captivated by a feeling of respect which soon quickens into
piety.
Fig. 20 Spatial concept of Ananda temple (from inner corridor)
The result of articulation of spaces is an attempt to
enhance the glory of the Buddha. The achievement of spatial
concept is the essence of Bagan temple.
177
V. CONCLUSION
Most of Bagan temples are organized with symmetric
rectangular plans. Sequences of transitional spaces leading to
the Shrine can enhance the glory of the Buddha. Each space
can give the individual spatial concept to the person. Although
Bagan area is in hot region, the interior spaces of temples can
be peaceful and devoutly religious because of load-bearing
thick massive buildings.
Temple forms are harmoniously composed with
architectural elements such as, terraces, openings, pediments,
corner stupas, corner urns, stairways, square tower and sacred
crown. All elements can give the definition of unity and
dominance of forms. Because of the improved arch and vault
technology, load-bearing massive buildings are raised from
one to four stories (about 200 ft in height).
Ornamental elements decorated all over the temples can
give the aesthetical achievements of Myanmar art (Pan).
Nowadays, Bagan temple architecture about 11th Century
A.D can stand as masterpieces of Myanmar. Besides, Bagan is
now an ideal old city or can also be called as “art and
architecture museum”.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, the author would like to pay her most
grateful thanks due to her parents for their supports and
encouragements.
She also would like to express her gratitude to U Thaung,
Minister, Ministry of Science and Technology.
Her heartfelt thanks are expressed to Professor Dr. Swe
Swe Aye, Head of Department of Architecture (Yangon
Technological University) and Dr. Maung Hlaing, Deputy
Head of Department of Architecture (Yangon Technological
University) for their supervision and guidance in preparing
this paper. The author would like to express her grateful
gratitude and thanks especially to Dr.Lwin Aung, Dr. San
Htun Aung, Dr. Kyaw Latt, U Than Tin Aung, U Thaw, U
Sun Oo, U Soe Naing Aung, for their valuable advices,
guidance, suggestions which is necessary for paper.
Finally, she would like to express her sincere thanks to
colleagues and friends for providing and helping with all
necessaries to accomplish successfully research paper.
REFERENCES
[1] Aung Thaw, U, Historical Sites in Burma, Sarpay Beikman Press, the
Ministry of Union Culture, Government of the Union of Burma: Sarpay
Beikman, 1972.
[2] Min Thet Mon, Ma, "Appreciation on the Reflections of Buddhism in
Early Bagan Architecture (11th to 12th century)", M. Arch. thesis
Department of Architecture, Yangon Technological University, Dec.
1998.
[3] Mya Mya Hnist, & Khin Lin Nwe, Ma, "Comparative Study on Pyu
Bagan Architecture before 11th Century A.D.", M. Arch. thesis
Department of Architecture, Yangon Technological University, Feb.
2004.
[4] Pichard, Pierre, Inventory of Monuments at Pagan, volume one to eight,
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization:
Pichard , 1993.
[5] Strachan, Paul, Pagan: Art and Architecture of Old Burma, Kyodo
Shing Loong, Singapore: strachan , 1989.
[6] Than Tun, Dr, Buddhist Art and Architecture, Monywe books: Than
Tun , 2002.
 Study on Quality Housing Estate Planning in
Yangon, Myanmar
Zar Zar Wann Maung
Department of Architecture
Technological University (Hmawbi),Yangon,Myanmar
zzwm.maung@gmail.com

Abstract— Improvement in space requirements and II. HOUSING ESTATES IN YANGON

building services become more and more sophisticated
because of the technological changes and changes of living
style. Moreover, changes in life style of the citizens, family
size and structure mainly affect the consideration of
today’s Architectural Planning. Housing estate
development is therefore more essential and reasonable to
create quality living standard and pleasant environment.
Housing estates have been remarkably redeveloped in
Yangon City after 1993 and it has been improving in the
architectural design of the estates and amenities of the
community. The main focus of this paper has been to
study the existing housing estates condition in Yangon and
the findings from this paper can be taken as a general
reference of how to plan a quality housing estate and
liveable environment.
Keywords— quality housing estate, pleasant living
environment, physical planning, communities’ facilities
I. INTRODUCTION
With the changes of Time, Space, and Technology, the
living standard of the people is also changing. Nowadays,
people want to live in pleasant environment and security
spaces for their life. Many countries tried to fill the needs of
their citizen by doing many research upon housing and their
environment. The modern concept in housing takes into
account the importance of environment as well. Not only must
the dwelling be structurally sound and livable inside, the
environment must also be pleasant and serve as a physical
setting for community development.
A. Development of Housing Estates in Yangon
Housing estates with amenities have been provided since
1952. Residential housing estates are being constructed
everywhere in Yangon 3. There are several types of Housing
Estates which can be classified into the following five groups:
High-rise Housing Estates, Condominium Housing Estates,
Aerial Development Housing Estates, Single Family Housing
Estates and Garden City Housing Estates.
B. Selection of Study Area
Preliminary survey had already done all around the city to
understand the general condition of housing estates planning
and facilities provided in Yangon. And then three study areas
which are middle class housing estates have been selected to
study the FMI, Nawaday and Mingalardon garden city. All of
these estates are garden city housing estates with different site
areas and located suburb area as shown in Fig 2.
III. STUDY ON SELECTED HOUSING ESTATES
FMI and Nawaday Garden City are located in
HlaingTharYar Township at the north west of Yangon city
and have been developed since 1994.The site area of FMI is
about 500 acres and Nawaday is about 214 acres. Mingalardon
garden city is located in Mingalardon Township at the north of
Yangon city. It has developed since 1996. The site area is
about 3000acres (including industrial park about 1000acres).
At these estates, variety of house type and different plot size
are provided for different income groups.
14
12
Nu mb er o f Ho usin g Estates

Nowadays, Yangon city with a population nearly 6 million, 10

and the city is being transformed into modernized city by 8

providing many types of housing and others requirements of 6

the city. The city has grown rapidly in recent years and 4

2
increasing demographic rate of Yangon city is averagely about
0
4.65% a year within the last decade. So, new suburban
Min g alataun g n y un t

Kamayu t
Ky au k tada

Latha

Ah lo ne

Ky eemy in d ine

Tamwe

No rth Ok k alapa
So u th Ok k alapa
Th ak eta

May an g o ne
Min galard o ne

Dala
Hlain g Th aryar

Sh wePy i Thar
Lan mad aw

Pab ed an
Seik k an

Bah an
Dag on
Dawb on

Pazu n d au ng
San ch au ng

Hlaing

Th ing an g y un
Yan kin

Th an lyin
Dag o n Seik k an

No rth Dag on

So uth Dag on
In sein

Seik g y ik han au n gto

satellite townships have been developed by the government to

accommodate the increasing population and many more
housing estates are likely to come up.
Fig. 1. Number of Housing Estates in Each Township

178
 City Center

Nawaday (11 miles

distance from city
center)
FMI (9 miles distance
from city center)
Mingaladon (17 miles
distance from city Fig. 5. Site Plan of Nawaday Garden City
center)
A. Density
In FMI garden city, the maximum FAR is 0.84 in
condominium and its population density is 83 per acre and
Fig. 2. Location of Selected Housing Estates
unit density is 26 plots per acre. Average plot per acre of all
plots groups is 12 plots per acre. In this estate, total plots area
is 55 %, total road area is 36 %, total green area is 5 % and
total public area is 4 %. In Nawaday garden city, the
maximum FAR is 0.8 in shop houses and its unit density is 18
plots per acre. Average plot per acre of all plots groups is 12
plots per acre.
In Mingalardon garden city, maximum FAR is 0.527 in
Kayay Yeiktar and its unit density is 2 plots per acre. Average
dwelling density of all groups is 1.88 plots per acre. In this
estate, some plots cannot get their floor area because they are
now conceptual design stage.

Fig. 3. Site Plan of Mingalardon Garden City
Fig. 4. Site Plan of FMI Garden City
B. Layout Plan
The shape of the site of FMI garden city is rectangular
shape as shown in Fig 4. Type of the houses are single storey
detached houses, two storey detached houses and
condominium. Most of the plots except from 80′x 80′ plots are
located within ½ mile radius far from recreation centre. Shops,
bank and market are also located within ½ mile radius .In this
estate, there was used curve street pattern and loop street
pattern, and long blocks and sharp angle lots can be found in
this estate as shown in Fig 6. Green spaces are provided and
bounded by lots. Lots are facing to green spaces but some
given open spaces are unusable because of non facing lots and
lacking maintenance.
The junctions between major street and minor streets around
recreation centre are not desirable as a pedestrian and
motorize traffic can conflict as shown in Fig 6. The blocks
along the major road, in which use of buffer strip when
backing lots on a major street is desirable. When considering
the corner lots arrangement, there are undesirable sharp angle
lots as well as desirable corner lots arrangement are found.
Lots that have sharp-pointed corners are wasteful of land
because the resulting wedge-shaped areas have little or no
utility. Such lots also constitute poor building sites as shown
in Fig 8.

179
 environment within the blocks in all these estates. There is no
buffer zone between industrial park and the residential area
Access way to RC
and not safely traffic because of mix use of truck from
Sharp angle lot is
Short blocks are not
Plots face to park is Motor way from industrial park. Commercial area and religious facilities are
economical main gate
undesirable desirable
also located near the main gate. So, residents can easily access
to commercial area, pagoda and damma hall. But there is no
special recreation area given for residents. Golf course is quiet
far from most of the residential area.
Desirable corner lot
Major Road arrangement

Minor street should

enter major street at
Use of a buffer strip when backing lots right angle
on a major street is desirable
Use of a buffer strip
when backing lots on a
Fig. 6. Analysis on Streets and Lots Layout Plan of FMI Ciry
major street is
desirable
Nawaday garden city’s site plan is square shape plan as
shown in Fig 5. This shape can create well layout plan. All of
the street patterns are grid street pattern. All of the houses are
located within 1/4 mile radius far from recreation centre. So, Sharp angle lots
are undesirable
residents can easily access to community facilities. There was
used rectangular or grid street pattern so most of the plots are Pagoda &
rectangular shape as shown in Fig 7. The blocks lengths are Damah Hall
mostly too short less than 750 ft. give good
There was used rectangular or grid street pattern and some
blocks are too short less than 750 ft. The initial construction
cost can be increased because of the large number of cross Fig. 8. Analysis on Layout Plan of Mingalardon Garden City
streets, and also increase traffic hazards and travel time
through such districts as shown in Fig 7. The planning of Such pedestrian ways near the middle of all blocks
suburban residential blocks 750 to 1300 ft in length by two exceeding 1000 ft in length are recommended. When a nearby
lot-depths wide, bounded by streets that are adjusted to shopping centre, school, or park is so located that a large
topographic and traffic requirements, are recommended as number of residents of a neighbourhood are forced into
being most economical. circuitous routes in order that they may reach their destination,
it is often desirable to provide crosswalks in shorter blocks-
those over 750 ft in length. This often brings the playgrounds
or grocery store as much as a 1/4 mile nearer in walking
distance to the doorsteps of many homes6.
C. Community Facilities

FMI city had been provided the community facilities to

create pleasant environment: shops, market and supermarket,
bank, recreation centre, clinic, school bus and ferry. All of the
community facilities are located within 1/4 mile far from
recreation centre7. Shops, supermarket and bank are located in
one building and it is located near main entrance. The design
of this building can enhance the quality of its environment.
Market is located near condominium and it can be easily
access from most of the residential area. Clinic is also located
within recreation centre. It can clearly see through the main
entrance.
Fig. 7. Analysis on Layout Plan of Nawaday Garden City TABLE 1. AREA RATIO OF E ACH C OMMUNITY FACILITIES (FMI GARDEN CITY)
The shape of this site of Mingalardon garden city is Area
irregular shape as shown in Fig 3. This shape can create Type of Floor Land Land Per
attractive layout plan. All of the street patterns are grid street Community Area Area (sq- Area(acre) Person
pattern as shown in Fig 8. There are seven types of plots Facilities (sq-ft) ft) (sq-ft)
groups by name.
Office Area 17,321.5 63,144 1.45 1.4
Most of the residential areas are so far from public transit
Recreation Area 10,176 97,200 2.2 2.12
and there is no internal public transit and pedestrian friendly

180
 Area
Type of Floor Land Land Per
Community Area Area (sq- Area(acre) Person
Facilities (sq-ft) ft) (sq-ft)
Shopping 18,000 32,105 0.74 0.7
Center & Bank
Area
Market Area 16,000 65,731 1.51 1.4
Green Area & - 1,067,716 24.5 23.6
Others

Fig. 10. Analysis on Location of Community Facilities and

Residential Area (Nawaday)
Access way to RC
Minor Road
Junctions are not desirable Motor way from main Mingalardon Garden City is quiet different with as it has
for children and older gate
persons to access RC industrial estate with golf course. But it is no special
recreation area given for residents. There had been provided
the following community facilities: commercial area, hospital,
Recreation golf course, pagoda and damma hall, school. Total land area
of commercial area 20.349 acres for 12900 populations
Plots around
green space (approximate population). Local shopping centre should be
located within convenient and safe walking distance for the
Playground residents and designed to afford adequate off-street delivery
and parking facilities9. Golf course area is located in the
middle of the site and it can easily access from all of
RC bounded residential area. Moreover, it serves as buffer strip between
by major
road residential and industrial zone. School and Damma hall are
Fig 9. Analysis on Access Way to Community Facilities (FMI) also located adjacent to main entrance. Table 3 shows detail
Nawaday garden city had been provided the following analysis of area ratio of each type of communities.
community facilities: shop and supermarket, recreation centre, TABLE 3. AREA RATIO OF E ACH C OMMUNITY) FACILITIES
restaurant, damma hall, school. All of the community facilities (MINGALARDON GARDEN CITY)
are located within 1/4 mile far from recreation centre8. Total Area
land area of shops area is 1.02 acre for 800 populations. Local Type of Floor Area Land Area Land Per
shopping centre should be located within convenient and safe Community (sq-ft) (sq-ft) Area(acre) Person
walking distance for the residents and designed to afford Facilities (sq-ft)
adequate off-street delivery and parking facilities. Recreation Golf Course - 7,927,929 182.0 615.0
centre is located in the middle of the site and it can easily Commercial Area - 886,402 20.349 68.7
access from all of residential area. School and Damma hall are Hospital Area - 1,328,580 30.505 103.0
School Area - 2,178,000 50.0 168.8
also located within recreation area. Total land area of
Religious Area - 348,480 8.0 27.0
recreation centre is 8.24 acre and recreation area per person is
30 sqft. Table 2 shows detail analysis of area ratio of each Hospital Area

type of communities.
TABLE 2. AREA RATIO OF E ACH C OMMUNITY FACILITIES
(NAWADAY GARDEN CITY) Single Family Detched
Area Houses
Type of Floor Land Land Per Golf Course
Community Area (sq- Area (sq- Area(acre) Person
Commercial Area
Facilities ft) ft) (sq-ft)
Office - 10,000 0.23 0.42 School Area
Recreation Area 11,986 358,778 8.24 15.23
Green Area - 707,590 16.24 30.0
Pagoda & Damah Hall
School - 93,922 2.16 4.0
Religious 1,855 27,300 0.63 1.16
Restaurant - 40,254 0.92 1.7
Shopping - 44,584 1.02 1.9
Center
Fig. 11. Access Way to Community Facilities (Mingalardon)

181
IV. FINDINGS OF THE SELECTED HOUSING ESTATES
The master plan of Nawaday garden city is quiet relevant to
standard because of the provision of community facilities
within the maximum walking distance (1/2 mile) from all of
the residential area. The following Table 4 is the comparison
of these estates. The layout plan of Nawaday garden city is not
an attractive plan. Because it used just only one type of street
pattern and not provided variety of lot size, for these two
aspects, it does not enhance the visual character and
residential amenity of the site. The layout plan of FMI city is
an attractive plan because it provided variety of street pattern
and lot size that makes variety of dwelling design. It can,
therefore, enhance the visual character and residential amenity
of the site and the residents will consider this estate is an
attractive place with pleasant environment, so it will enhance
their living standard.
In summary, the layout plan of FMI city is the best among
these estates because of the provision of the variety of the size
of the lot and the type of street pattern. Most of the
community facilities of Nawaday garden city can serve all of
the residential area of this estate because the shape of the site
of this estate is square shape. So, the square shape site is more
effective than the rectangular shape site or irregular shape in
the provision of community facilities.
V. CONCLUSION
In this study concluded that the housing estate in which
simple house types are grouped together, the hierarchy of
vehicular and pedestrian access, the extent of landscaping,
play provision, and many other considerations in the detail
design of the layout are just as important to the final quality of
a residential environment as the design of the house
themselves. For further study, questionnaires survey need to
conduct to find out the residents requirements for the quality
housing estate. This study intended to find out the quality of
the places where people will live.
REFERENCES
[1] Tutt, P., and Adler, D. 1995, New Metric Handbook, Planni
Design Data, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Linacre House, Jordan Hill,
Oxford
[2] Swe Swe Aye, Daw. (December 2000). Formulation of Guidelines for
Urban Design in Yangon City Residential Areas. Ph.D. Thesis, Yangon
Technological University.
[3] Joseph De Chiara, Julius Panero, Martin Zelnik. (1995). Time-Saver
Standards for Housing and Residential Development. 2nd ed.
[4] Htay Htay Myint,Ma. (September 2002). Analysis on Recently Built
Housing Estates in Yangon. M.Arch Thesis, Yangon Technological
University.
[5] Department of Human Settlements and Housing Development. (1988-
1994). A Report on Construction Activities.
[6] Yangon City Development Committee 2003, Township Map and Data of
Yangon City, Yangon; Design Printing Services Co.Ltd.

TABLE 4. COMPARISONS OF SELECTED HOUSING ESTATE

Nawaday Garden City FMI Garden City Mingalardon Garden City

214 acres 500 acres 3000 acres

Street and Lots layout

Rectangular or grid street pattern
Rectangular or grid street pattern
Rectangular or grid street pattern

T-junction
Curve Street
Curve Street

Cul-de-sac Street
A group around a green
Observation

Pedestrian friendly environment
Need to provide more community
Given community facilities should
together with green open spaces facilities especially educational be within minimum walking
should be given facilities, health care facilities and distance of all types of housing

Shop houses do not have security religious facilities such as damah hall. groups

Given community facilities should be
Pedestrian friendly environment
within minimum walking distance of together with green open spaces
all types of housing groups and should be given
pedestrian friendly environment
Buffer zone should be given
should be created. between residential zone and
industrial zone

182
 Modern Trend in Traditional Houses within the
Myanmar Context in Central Myanmar
Than Htay Oo#1, Swe Swe Aye*2
#
Department of Architecture, Mandalay Technological University, Mandalay, Myanmar
*
Pro-rector, Yangon Technological University, Yangon, Myanmar
1
orchid2580@gmail.com
3
cqhpssa@baganmail.net.mm
Abstract— The main purpose of this research is to search for
cultural concepts and spatial composition of dwellings from
traditional to modern ones in central Myanmar. At the present
time, traditional houses are readily changed according to human
needs as well as life style, introduction of new facilities, changes
of spaces according to climatic condition. It is important to
analyze that what spatial composition features are reserved and
what features are transformed in the spatial structure of both
traditional to modern dwellings. By adding and dividing spaces
for advanced facilities and the use of space in traditional houses
are really transformed. Main contribution of this research can be
recognized by the following issues: How an individual house is
seated within a compound and which direction is going to face
are also considered carefully. How spaces are differentiated
within the traditional houses and what factors come into play.
How spaces are separated, linked and determined by social and
cultural issues. How to modernize the traditional family houses
without loosing traditional habitation concepts. This research
hopes to find the external and internal architectural composition
and socio-spatial functions of traditional to modern dwellings.
And then, this research focuses on evaluation of improved family
houses design related to modern needs and traditional characters.
Finally, it discusses to evaluate the upgrading design would be
correlated between house style and culture, functional
arrangement and inhabitants.
Keywords— traditional habitation concepts, traditional
houses, cultural values, living style
I. INTRODUCTION
Since pre-historic times human beings have made a greater
amount of effort to fulfil their needs in food and shelters
according to local conditions, which they live. All forms of
traditional houses built to meet specific needs accommodation
the values, economic and ways of life of cultures that produce
them. With passage of time, like all other needs, means of
achieving shelter developed and moved away from their
traditional roots.
Today human’s culture is getting developed. So
much as the culture develops, with the improvement of
science, the culture of building goes far so much. Due to the
improvement of architecture, humans are not satisfied to have
houses which are in conformity with climatic conditions.
The houses must be strong, safe beautiful, modern and
183
sophisticated materials, as human’s needs are much more than
before, houses which have more facilities than ancient one are
being built, Myanmar ancient traditional houses, however,
were built with many facilities, which were splendid, such as
U Kaung;s house, the minister of Ah Lone, U Kyin U’s, U
Htun Aung’s and the ones with only one post in Mawlamyine
Ga Doe. In studying Myanmar traditional houses, the factors
such as Myanmar culture and traditions, way of life style,
climate, their accommodations, building material and
construction system are manifested to be of architectural
interests.
II. HISTORY AND GENERAL CHARASTERISTIC OF
TRADITIONAL HOUSES
The houses of pre-historic humans were not like the ones
which are systematically built in present times. All of pre-
historic houses were natural building such as caves, tree and
etc. Then, as human’s culture improved, the houses would be
built to be suitable and safe from natural disasters, climatic
conditions and wild animals. The houses of pre-historic
humans were, therefore, the beginning of today houses. Thus,
it can be said that houses of Myanmar people have began
since ancient Myanmar started to live.
Myanmar houses are usually one-storey buildings. The size
of a house depends on the numbers of members in the family.
King’s counselors and rich persons built their houses with teak.
Rooms are partitioned in the internal part. Square brick tiles
were used for roof. According to the rank of the host, the
design of roof is different from one another. King’s
companion’s houses are different from local laymen’s.
Myanmar traditional houses are very lovely whether it is build
with wood or bamboo.
The way to build a local house was not complicated. A
main parlor, a bed room, a separated kitchen and a verandah
are the main function of Myanmar traditional houses. If it was
bigger, there would be a We` Linn room where women
spinned, If it was larger than that, there would be a room
where women gave birth. There was no separate living room
in Myanmar traditional houses. The main parlor could be used
as a sitting room. It was the place where the guests were in
daytime and the family slept at night.
 III. INFLUENCING FACTOR ON TRADITIONAL
HOUSES
The traditional houses are influenced by the following factors.
- Dwelling organization and traditional belief
- Society, culture and house
- Climatic effect on house
- Building material and construction material
A. Dwelling Organization and Traditional Belief
It is very important to inhabitants according to Myanmar
traditional belief. “How an individual dwelling is seated
within a compound and which direction it is going to face” are
also considered carefully. These factors are determined in
relationship not only with the surrounding environment but
also with the characteristics of neighboring houses. Myanmar
people believe that if a house is seated so that it leans into the
earth and around a front yard called bare plane, this will give
the occupants a comfortable feeling. Rural dwellings
traditionally faced North and East, which generated feeling
according to Myanmar traditional concepts. After deciding the
proper sitting and directional orientation of the dwelling, the
house size and building layout would be determined next.
B. Society, Culture and Houses
In the traditional societies, the relation between culture and
dwelling is direct and the architecture of the built form
encodes cultural and social rules and conventions.
In this part, “How space is differentiated within the
traditional dwelling and what factors come into play”. The
Myanmar people believe that the religious, traditions, and
living style make influencing on houses.
Since most of Myanmar people are Buddhist, donation
ceremonary community participation in all aspect of life are
always hold. It is therefore, a wide space is needed in front of
statue of Buddha and the statue of Buddha is located in higher
place of a particular room. In the layout plan of the house,
shine room is dominant in interior and the floor of the house is
not continuous by dividing floor level or separating flooring
between the shrine areas is higher than that of living or bed
area.
This shine area is used for praying and social activities
such as ceremonial occasion. It is also used for men bed or
guests. The roof of shrine room is high as a separated roof. It
can be seen in Fig. 3 and it is planned front part of the house
and is usually placed at east or south façade of the house. The
roof of a shrine at east or south façade becomes the symbol of
a Buddhist’s house.
In the traditional compound houses, “How spaces are
separated, linked and determined by social and cultural issues.
184
This open space which is associated with their dwelling is
used for serving as a threshing ground during harvest season,
venue for ceremonial occasions, and outdoor resting place
during leisure, and playground for children. After harvesting
seasons, this open space is usually used to dry produce and
collect grains as well as to be a ceremonial ground. It is a
simply earth ground surrounded with groups of houses and
edged by fences.
The group of houses has three kinds of living spaces:
indoor, outdoor, and indoor-outdoor combination consisting of
a veranda or bamboo deck. The main living room is in the
main house and other open livings are in a compound.
C. Effect of Climate on House
Most of traditional houses are more often set upon raised
floor from the ground and some are set directly on the ground
which has no exterior walls on side and sometimes on both
sides to get good cross ventilation in hot climatic region.
Inside the house, no interior wall except from women bed
room or space and large high spaces are regarded as
climatically responsive. One of the main characteristics of
traditional houses in central Myanmar is that the houses are
designed with a deep understanding and respect for nature.
There are numerous features in the traditional house that are
geared towards providing effective ventilation. The house is
raised on stilts to catch winds of a higher velocity. The
structure of the traditional house in central Myanmar with
minimal partitions in the interior, allows easy passage of air
and cross-ventilation.
D. Buliding Material Anconstruction Technology
Traditional houses are built from available material such as
timber, bamboo, thatch. A wooden house, often with a
corrugated iron roof, is for the more affluent. Teak and
another timber were used in framings, walling, floorings,
doors and windows, and etc. All traditional houses were built
with local material, but at present time, most of traditional
houses are used new material such as brick, concrete, steel,
glass, etc. In studying traditional houses, the houses always
use the framing system as simple post and beam framing
system.
IV. COMPOSITION AND TYPE OF TRADITIONAL
HOUSE
In this house type, all of traditional houses are composed
with separated building in different way. In a compound, there
are many type of dwelling according to their type of jobs.
Some of house is raised floor above the ground and some are
direct set on the ground.
 TABLE 1. SINGLE STOREY COMPOUND HOUSE TABLE 2. DOUBLE STOREY COMPOUND HOUSE

Location Layout Plan Building Composition

Location Layout Plan Building Composition
N
Natiogyi
Natiogyi N

Myingyan Myingyan
N
N

Taungtha
N
Taungtha N

N
Nyaungoo
Nyaungoo
N

Main building Main building

Kitchen Kitchen

Living Living
space space
Semi-Open Space Semi-Open Space

Store Store

185
 V. SPATIAL ORGANIZATION OF HOUSE COMPOUND VI. CHANGES OF SPACE IN HOUSE DUE TO LIFE
According to spatial order, traditional house can also be PATTERN AND FACILITIES
categorically differentiated as a single unit types with Transformation by addition and division are commonly
separated kitchen and an extended unit type. These both of used in the traditional houses. This enables to increase the
unit types are situated in a compound with many auxiliary number of the rooms in the houses to satisfy the needs of the
buildings. These are arranged according to owner’s inhabitants. Moreover, most additional houses are done to
requirement. provide the jobs that are compatible with the modern life style.
Division also encouraged for the protection of the maximum
TABLE 3. ARCHITECTURAL SPACE AND FUNCTION privacy while the space is shared by more than one family.
This additional spaces and divisional spaces are functional for
Type of Space Space activities the needs of the inhabitants. However, the spatial arrangement
space of houses is not orderly, especially in their interior from
Private Bed room - Sleeping ( rarely) architectural point of view.
Space - Resting (sometime)
- Storing TABLE 4. CHANGES OF SPACE IN HOUSE DUE TO LIFE PATTERN AND NEW
FACILITIES
Semi-private Living room, - gathering
space Multi- - conversation
Living Changes in space Changes in
function hall - entertaining
activities method of use
- housework
- Venue for ceremonial Previous Present
occasion,etc.
Public space Front yard, - Venue for ceremonial Sleeping Multi- Bed room Changes from
Outdoor occasions functional floor sleeping to
living, bare - A playground for children hall bed
ground - Family gathering at night Cooking Separated Separated Flooring
- Produce and collect for farm Kitchen kitchen and cooking to stand
product sometime stove
Semi-public Verandah, - Entertaining for guests attached main
space Semi open - Reception building
space, - Chatting Eating Kitchen, Dining room Changes from
- Relaxing semi-open floor sitting to
- Dining space dining table
- Working Family Outdoor, Living room A mixture of
- Family meeting gathering Semi-open floor and chair
- Meeting with outside and space sitting
- Men sleeping at night chatting,
living
Preparing Kitchen, Kitchen, Space reserve
for cooking dining and outdoor for outdoor
A. Outdoor Living Space for Traditional House Compound
outdoor living
Ceremonary Multi- Multi- Space reserve
They made outdoor living spaces under raised floor of and venue functional functional hall for ceremonary
main building or other separated building, which has just roof hall and venue
and post. Some part of these outdoor areas are bare ground Guest Living Living room Use of
other parts are raised as bamboo deck. Living space under reception functionalize
main raised floor has no wall but has roof. In summer these furniture: Chair
spaces become as a place of shady sand windy. Daily sitting
activities take place on the open spaces, part of which is under Laundry Bath space Bath space
raised floor. These open spaces are used for eating, resting and
sometime entertaining guests while the remaining open space Bathing Outdoor Bath room Water tank
is used for drying grain and food. bathing
Outdoor living area, raised bamboo deck at bare ground
VII. CONCLUSION
and timber or bamboo trellised shading area are used for
chatting, eating, and discussing about their daily life. The Nowadays, it is found that the use of spaces in houses is
public space, outdoor living area is important because the changed a lot because the advanced technology manifested
inhabitants meet there. The indoor living area, under raised changes in the traditional work tools. By adding and dividing
floor of the main building or auxiliary building are also used spaces for advanced facilities such as living facilities, bed
for chatting, informal working, living at day and night. room facilities, dining facilities and the use modern materials

186
such as glass window, brick tile, brick wall, and the use of
space in traditional houses are really transformed. Moreover,
they have come to use the tractor instead of the rake,
electricity for lighting instead of candle or lamp. The change
of such things influences on houses. We should be aware of
those changes as improvements in standard of living without
loosing any traditional characters.
According to field survey and data analysis, the multi-
functional hall is the essential space for inhabitants in
traditional compound houses. This space is used for more and
more activities. It is clear that, the front yard, semi-outdoor
area, the kitchen-dining rooms that are highly traveled by both
male and female master in most type of traditional dwellings.
At the same time, these areas usually have high integration
values. Therefore these spaces can be considered as major
space within the traditional architecture of the traditional
compound house and these relationship help to determine
encounter patterns between inhabitants.
A final conclusion is that the traditional compound houses
become through the addition and division space for new
function and changes of life pattern. Especially, more bed
room spaces are needed as personal space. Also the rapid
changes of society provides various characteristics and living
room or family room and functional space are needed in most
types of traditional compound houses.
187
REFERENCES
[1] Saw Myat Yin, Mg. (1994). Cultural Shock! Burma: A Guide to
Customs and Etquette.
[2] Khing Win Latt, Mg. (2002). “ A Study on Vernacular Houses in
Central Myanmar.” M.Arch Thesis, Department of Architecture.
Yangon Technological University, Myanmar.
[3] Sein Sein Lei, Ma. (2002). “ Typical House Design with Respect to
Hot Climate in Central Myanmar.” M.Arch Thesis, Department of
Architecture. Yangon Technological University, Myanmar.
[4] Yin Min Peik, Mg. (2006). “Study on Mon Traditional Houses.”
M.Arch Theis, Department of Architecture. Yangon Technological
University, Myanmar.
[5] Yin Hlaine, Mg. (2000).Myanmar Traditional Houses, Pyin Ma
Myaing,
[6] Saw Phyu Thein, Mg. (2004). “Study on Kachin Vernacular Houses.”
M.Arch Thesis, Department of Architecture of Architecture. Ynagon
Technological University, Myanmar.
[7] San Nan Shwe, Ma. (2003). “Study on Myanmar Traditional House”s,
Term Paper, Department of Architecture. Yangon Technological
University, Myanmar.
[8] Myo Myint Sein,U. (1970). “Myanmar Traditional Houses: University Pinya
Padathar Sarsaung, Department of Architecture. Yangon Technological
University, Myanmar.
 Architectural Aspects Of Temples During The
Reign Of King Narapatisithu, Bagan
San Nan Shwe
Department of Architecture, Technological University, Kyaukse, Myanmar
sannanshwe@gmail.com
Abstract— The contribution of this research is to express the
architectural and technological achievements of Myanmar
Religious Architecture that reached its peak during the reign of
King Narapatisithu (1174-1211 AD). Among the religious
monuments in Bagan, the Pagoda consists of mainly two types,
Stupa and Temple. The second type is a hollow vaulted temple
mainly for enshrining the Buddha image. Sometimes, it is a
rectangular on plan with projecting porches or vestibule.
Architectural aspects of temples during the reign of king
Narapatisithu would be contributed depending on the four
factors such as reflection in the form, spatial composition,
decorative aspects and structural aspects. In Bagan periods, King
Narapatisithu who had created architectural edifices of temples
conserved with early and middle period temples. Among them,
Sulamani temple was the most outstanding and famous levels in
development of architectural edifices. Therefore, it reached at a
peak point in development of architectural edifices. This research
was studied that the architectural typology of temples in Bagan
adopted to conform Myanmar style.
Keywords— Architectural Aspects, Myanmar Religious
Architecture, Temples
I. INTRODUCTION
Tradition states that Bagan was founded by King
Thamudarit in the early 2nd Century AD. According to
epigraphically evidences, the authentic history of Bagan
dynasty begins by the reign of King Anawrahta (1044 -1077
AD). The two and half centuries from King Anawrahta (1044-
1077 AD) to King Narathihapati (1256-1287 AD) were the
years of Bagan's greatness.
During his reign, King Anawrahta who had provided a
land mark in the development of Buddhism in Bagan. After
conquering the Mon Kingdom of Thaton, he got the Pali
scriptures of Theravada Buddhism from King Manuha.
Therefore, the land of Bagan was extensively covered with
religious buildings. Now, the total numbers of Bagan
monuments are 3312 listed by Department of Archaeology.
Among the religious monuments in Bagan, the Pagoda
consists mainly of two types. The first type is the bell-shaped
Stupa of solid brick work raised on a series of receding
terraces and crowned by a finial. They were built either to
enshrine some relics of the Buddha or of Arahats. The second
type is a hollow vaulted Temple mainly for enshrining the
Buddha image. Sometimes, it is a rectangular on plan with
projecting porches or vestibule.
During the reign of King Narapatisithu, the architectural
aspects of temples and stupas were changed and developed.
188
The stupas were built not only circular plan-shaped but also
pentagonal plan-shaped. The temples were also built not only
one storey but also two storey and three storey. This in-depth
research work is therefore intended to show the architectural
and technological achievements of temples and stupas that
reached its peak during the reign of King Narapatisithu in
Bagan.
II. METHODOLOGY
The following methods are attempted to analyze
architectural aspects of temples and stupas during the reign of
King Narapatisithu in Bagan. Firstly, literature review of
physical conditions and historical perspectives of Bagan had
been done.
Secondly, study on architectural aspects of temples and
stupas during the reign of King Narapatisithu in Bagan had
been done.
(i) Reflection in the Form
(ii) Spatial Organization
(iii) Structural Aspects
(iv) Decorative Aspects
Developments and changes in architectural aspects of
temples and stupas along the Bagan periods (Between the
reigns of King Anawrahta and Narathi-hapati) would be
analyzed according to the developments of spaces and forms
of temples.
Finally, the temples and stupas during the reign of King
Narapatisithu that were the most outstanding and famous
levels compared with other temples and stupas along Bagan
periods would be analyzed. And then, the architectural and
technological achievements of Myanmar Religious
Architecture that reached its peak during the reign of King
Narapatisithu would be contributed.
III. ARCHITECTURAL TYPOLOGY OF TEMPLES
The Bagan temples varied considerably in the formation of
both the interior spaces and the exterior forms. The varied
spaces can be seen as follows:
(i) Temples with a solid core
(ii) Temples with a central shrine
(iii) Temples with central shrine and corridor
The varied forms can be classified as follows:
(iv) Temples with stupa type
(v) Temples with square tower type
(vi) Temples with Sinhalese type
(vii) Temples with Mahabodhi type
 IV. DEVELOPMENTS OF SPACES AND FORMS OF TEMPLES
In Bagan, forms and spaces of temples are varied in
types and sizes although there are many temples. The
develop-ments of architectural edifices of temples in Bagan
were as follow.
During the reigns of King Anawrahta and King Sawlu,
porch, entrance hall and central shrine are isolated in spatial
organization. In Gubizange temple, Buddha image with
pedestal was placed at the back wall of central shrine. It was a
simple rectangle plan-shaped and spaces of entrance hall and
central shrine are almost equal size as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig 1. Plan-shape of Gubizange temple
Apart from that, in Pahtothamya temple, Buddha image is
not placed at the back wall of central shrine that solid core is
created in the middle of central shrine. Buddha images with
pedestals are placed at one side or four sides of solid core.
Therefore, creation of solid core is intended to worship and
respect to Buddha image within the central shrine. After that,
corridor involved in temples and it becomes creation of
architectural space.
Fig 2. Form composition
Reign of King Sawlu, Myinpyagu temple is a distinct form
and seem as a stupa. The plan-shaped of this temple is nearly
square as shown in Fig. 3. Buddha image was placed within
each side of solid core. Long corridor ran around solid core.
And, small forepart was composed in the middle of south,
north and east walls. It is assumed to meditate within these
spaces.
Fig 3. Plan-shape of Myinpyagu temple
189
Fig 4.Form composition
During the reign of King Kyanzittha, space of central shrine
was created to separate within solid core. By creating like this,
space of corridor is more obvious than early temples. And, the
size of this temple is bigger than that of early temples.
During this period, Ananda temple was created with
symmetrical plan-shaped and had porches at four sides.
Spatial organization and form composition of this temple have
distinct characters of early temples. In addition, central shrine
was surrounded by two layer corridors. This temple was
created to seem like two storey temple although it is a single
storey temple. Windows are arranged with two steps and are
opened as a row in corridor walling. Buddha image can get a
little light only. Architectural characters of this temple were
based on ideas of early temples although its form was changed.
By analyzing the first portion of early period, temples are
only single storey. Form composition of these temples was
created with low terraces. In addition, vertical height of
temples is not proportioned compared with horizontal length
of one. And, exterior decorations such as pediments and dados
were not grand and high forms. It can be seen that there is no
light and high forms as a whole building. And, temples are
mostly used perforated windows to get dim lighting into the
interior spaces. The temple can get dim light into corridor
space and dark light within central shrine space. Central shrine
can be entered from entrance hall and porch because it has a
porch only.
By analyzing the late portion of early period, Ananda
temple was a sample temple for creation of architectural
edifices of middle period temples. In Ananda temple,
developments of architectural edifices of early temples can be
seen. The horizontal and vertical heights of this temple were
proportioned compared with that of early temples. And,
spatial organiza-tion and form composition of this temple
were created to get symmetrical balance from four sides.
In middle period, during the reign of King Alungsithu,
porches, entrance hall and central shrine are combined in
temple plan-shape. The main temple became as central shrine
space because walling between central shrine and corridor was
removed. Therefore, central shrine space can get lighting and
ventilation well. Although perforated windows were used in
some temples, the interior space was created to get better
lighting and ventilation. In Lawkahteikpan temple, the
worshipper can enter from entrance hall and porch towards
central shrine like early temples as shown in Fig. 5.
Fig 5. Plan-shape of Lawkahteikpan temple
Fig 6. Form composition
In this period, temples are built on high platform and are
created to get high and grand forms for example Shwegugyi
temple as shown in Fig. 7. Temples have a wide space in
vestibule and get enough lighting and ventilation not like early
period temples. Porches and windows are used on south,
north and west walls of central shrine. And, stair was
introduced to climb up upper flat terraces.
Fig 7. Plan-shape of Shwegugyi temple
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Fig 8. Form composition
In addition, Thatbyinnyu Temple built by King Alungsithu
was not only grand form but also high form. It was four
storey temple and the first temple among high structures.
Main porches were placed at four sides, but east forepart is
larger than other foreparts as shown in Fig. 9. In this temple,
solid core is used to get high structure and it is a massive form.
Porches, lateral porches and secondary porches are used to get
lighting and ventilation into interior space of this temple. In
addition, flat terraces are used in this temple.
Fig 9. Plan-shape of Thatbyinnyu temple
Fig 10. Form composition
In middle period, reign of King Narathu, son of King
Alungsithu, built Dhammayangyi temple. First priority of the
temple is to get grand form. Spatial composition of this temple
was created to get equal size that of Ananda temple as shown
in Fig. 11. It is however larger than Ananda temple visually.
Although the early period temples can be respected and
worshipped in lower part of Buddha image from entrance hall,
the temple of this period can be obviously worshipped to the
whole Buddha image from entrance hall. This temple is a
single storey temple. Pediments of this temple at four porches
are larger than that of early temples. The form composition of
this temple was not built depend on architectural edifices of
Thalbyinnyu and Ananda temples. In this period, Thatbyinnyu
temple was a sample one for creation of late period temples.
Fig 11. Plan-shape of Dhammayangyi temple
Fig 12. Form composition
By analyzing the first portion of late period, temple plan-
shaped that was based on early and middle period temples was
created with required invention and reformation. Plan-shape
became distinct characters from early temples. And, temples
that were built during this period were in greater number that
of other periods. The same characters of temples are high and
light forms. Temples are built not only one storey but also up
to two storey, three storey, and four storey. In addition, these
temples are created not only rectangular form but also circular
and pentagonal forms.
Plan-shape of Sulamani and Gawdawpalin temples
that were built during the reign of King Narapatisithu are
similar with that of Thatbyinnyu temple in middle period.
Sulamani and Gawdawpalin temples are two storey and four
storey temples. Sulamani temple is one of the highest one
among temples in Bagan. In this temple, Buddha image was
placed at ground floor as not like Thatbyinnyu temple. This
temple was created to worship Buddha image obviously from
entrance hall because of high and wide porches. And, the
interior space can get good lighting and ventilation from
porches and lateral porches. The temple was created grand and
wide spaces compared with Thatbyinnyu temple as shown in
Fig. 13. In addition, its plan-shape was not symmetrical
balance. It, however, proportioned horizontal and vertical
height due to axial stupas, sequence of corner stupas, square
tower and terraces. The whole temple was composed as a
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unity with steps of terraces, corner stupas, axial stupas,
pediments, axial gateways and square tower. And it was a
beautiful temple that has rhythm and harmony with each part
of architectural components. In exterior decorations, it was
decorated with glazed elements and stucco mouldings.
Therefore, it was beautiful according to pattern and textures.
In Sulamani temple, architectural edifices of late period were
successfully used.
Fig 13.Ground and first floor plans of Sulamani temple
Fig 14.Form composition
King Htilominlo, son of King Narapatisithu built Htilominlo
temple that was same form with Sulamani temple. In this
temple, was not changed and invented as architectural edifices.
In late portion of late period, religious monuments are not
built like as early periods. In this period, most temples are
built as the same forms of early portion of late period.
Although architectural edifice was developed in early portion
of late period, it is unchanged at development of architectural
edifice of temples in late portion of late period.
In Bagan period, King Narapatisithu created architect-ural
edifices of temples based on early and middle period temples.
Along Bagan periods, Sulamani temple was the most
outstanding and famous levels in development of temple
architect-ure in Bagan. Therefore, it reached at a peak point in
development of architectural edifices.
 V. CONCLUSION REFERENCES
On reviewing the study on architectural aspects of temples [1] U.Aung Thaw, Historical Sites in Burma, Sarpay Beikman, Yangon,
during the reign of King Narapatisithu, three main factors can 1975.
be viewed as follows; [2] Aung Kyaing, Minbu.. Architecture of Bagan Anci-ent Monuments,
Sarpay Beikman, Yangon, 1997.
(i) the reflections of the historical background in the [3] Ba Shin, Bo Mhu. The Process of Developments and Changes in Art
reign of King Narapatisithu and Architecture of Pagan, Union of Burma Life Science Journal, 1969.
[4] Dr. Khin Maung Nyunt, Glimpses of Glorious Bagan, Yangon, 1986.
(ii) the special features and ideas of creative ability [5] U Lu Pe Win, Pictorial Guide to Pagan, Yangon, Dr. Lwin Aung, Space
and Mass Composition of Pagan Monuments, University Maga-zine
during the reign of study (Science), Vol.9. 1979
[6] G.H.Luce, Old Burma Early Pagan, Vol.I, N.Y., 1969.
(iii) the developments and changes in architectural [7] U Myo Nyunt Aung, Architectural and Decorative Motifs of Bagan
typology of temples Monuments in Myanmar, Research Paper, Department of Archaeology,
During the reign of King Narapatisithu, he built the 2003.
most monuments than the other reigns. And then, early Bagan [8] U Myo Nyunt,. Art and Architecture of Monuments in Ancient Bagan,
Yangon, 1999.
monuments were built in the city and nearby. In the reign of [9] Ma Min Thet Mon, Appreciation of Reflections of Buddhism in Early
King Narapatisithu, monuments were built at the new places Bagan Period, M.Arch. (Thesis), 1998.
beyond the city. According to stone inscriptions, they were [10] U Pe Maung Tin, The Glass Palace Chronicle (tr), Burma Research
built at Myinkaba, Minnanthu, east and west Pwasaw Society, Luce, G.H Rangoon, 1960.
[11] Strachan, Paul, Pagan, Art and Architecture of Old Burma, Arran, 1989.
especially towards the Tuyintaung. King Narapati-sithu also [12] Sein Tin, Thatkatho. Bagan Shar Pon Taw-2 (Anantathuyiya,
built many temples and stupas in the other places such as Narapatisithu and Wailuwaddy), Armanthit Sarpay, 2001.
Kyaukse, Monywa, Shwebo, Thayet, Taloke, Aneint, Kale, [13] Than Swe, Ancient Monuments in Bagan, Sarpay Beikman, Yangon,
Kyankhin, Kanbalu, Sidoktaya, Kyanhnyat, Singu, Samoon, 1975.
Sagaing and Amyint. It can imagine that King Narapatisithu
purposed to spread out his power in these places.
Although the architectural aspects in early Bagan
were conserved, there was much inventiveness during the
reign of study. They built the temples not only one or two
storey but also three and four storey. After that, they built the
temples on the platform which showed the distinctive features
of the philosophy of Buddhism and their powers. And then,
not only rectangular plan-shaped but also pentagonal and
circular plan-shaped were built. Among them, the pentagonal
plan shape was more required in skill for estimating, drawing
and construction. In the decorative aspects, they also invented
as the line drawing with symbolical of stylistic.
In the Bagan periods, two and half centuries
(Between the reign of King Anawrahta and Narathihapate),
Bagan reached the zenith of its power. In these periods,
Myanmar Arts and Architecture passed through a golden age.
In early Bagan period, they built mostly single storey temples
with curvilinear roof. And then, they provided with perforated
windows to admit light into the temples. In the later Bagan
period, they built temples as high as possible with two or three
or four storey with flat terraces. During the reign of King
Narapatisithu, the architectural aspects were changed and
developed.
This research hopes to convey the architectural and
technological achievements of Myanmar Religious
Architecture that reached its peak during the reign of
King Narapatisithu (1174 AD -1211 AD).

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would also like to thank Dr. Swe Swe Aye for
guidance and support, Dr. Su Su for their advice, kindness,
pointing out my mistake and good instruction for me, all my
teachers and friends from Department of Architecture for their
helps and suggestions.

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