MOTORS & PANEL

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
 INDEX
INTRODUCTION

HISTORY

TRANSFORMER

MOTOR CONSTRUCTION

COMMUTATOR

ELECTRICALLY EXCITED DC MOTOR

EXTERNALLY COMMUTATED AC MACHINE

SPECIAL MAGNETIC MOTORS

ELECTRIC SWITCHBOARD PANEL

PANEL DEFINITION

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

APPLICATIONS OF INDUCTION MOTORS

COMPANY PROFILE
Diamond Electrical Systems is one of the premier Electric Panels
manufacturers, exporters and suppliers. The company's range of electric
panels is used for industrial purposes, generator panel building or
apartment construction organization purpose and costume built designs.
The company is a group of young, enterprising professionals having vast
experience in the field of industrial automation & distribution systems.
All the products of the company are manufactured as per the international
quality constraints and can compete with their international counterparts.
The company ensures that the products are monitored at each stage of
production, to ensure that only the best products leave the factory. The
company's electric panels are high in looks, performance and durability.
You will be pleased to know that we are an established professionally
managed manufacturing unit for last two decades serving the Indian
Industries/Government with high quality Electrical Control Panels &
Switch Boards Our products are marketed under the brand name of '
A CPRI certified company, we take a close insight into the quality of our
products and ensure that they survice support of all these products with
efficiency and promptness. timely delivery is yet another feature that has
made us a worthwhile name in the industry. We are open to all forms of
suggestions and feedback that can help us in enhancing the features of our
products and help our customers satisfy all their needs related to power
and electricity.
we export our products to many countries and have successfully
established ourselves as a reliable concern of global repute. As a
manufacturer and exporter, our range of product comprises of Control
Panels, PCC Panels , MCC Panels , PDB Panels, DC Drives , etc. We are also a
recognized supplier of AC Drives, Automation Drives, Soft Starters, Electric
Motors, Gear Motors, Eddy Current Drives, PLC, SCADA and Servo Drives.

Panasonic has recently been designated India as regional hub to drive

growth and build deeper inroads into the fast emerging Asiatic, Middle
Eastern and Western economies. Starting from India, the company wants to
create a knowhow to address consumers who are based out of India and
then take the knowledge to emerging markets. India is the sixth strategic
region which will take care of SAARC nations, Middle East Asia and Africa.
Panasonic will aggressively and strategically invest in market research and
product innovation and will recruit/bring the best of global talent using its
in-house open application system and work in areas like energy, water,
remote access and food. Our commitment at Panasonic is to provide a
Better life for our consumers and contribute to creating a Better World
around them. The requirement of our audience differs across geographies
and therefor technological solutions have to be customized to the local
environment. With this philosophy we intend to provide solutions that are
made in India for the Indians, across business and consumer sectors.
India is at the cusp of change, and is being recognized as one of the most
influential markets globally. With more than half of Indias population
under the age of 25 India has a rapidly expanding youth segment. The
country also boasts of a dynamic social and cultural fabric. Taking into
account these unique local conditions, Panasonic is now looking at India as
a priority market. Taking from our legacy, we will continue to provide
solutions which will now be fueled by our Indovation strategy, of weaving
local solutions to our global approach.
ELECTRIC MOTOR

An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical

energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this would be the conversion of
mechanical energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator.

In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction
between an electric motor's magnetic field and winding currents to generate force
within the motor. In certain applications, such as in the transportation industry
with traction motors, electric motors can operate in both motoring and generating or
braking modes to also produce electrical energy from mechanical energy.

Found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools,
household appliances, power tools, and disk drives, electric motors can be powered
by direct current (DC) sources, such as from batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers, or
by alternating current (AC) sources, such as from the power grid, inverters or
generators. Small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors
with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient
mechanical power for industrial use. The largest of electric motors are used for ship
 propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings
reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source
type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, and so on.

Electric motors are used to produce linear or rotary force (torque), and should be
distinguished from devices such as magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers that convert
electricity into motion but do not generate usable mechanical powers, which are
respectively referred to as actuators and transducers.

HISTORY
Early motors

Faraday's electromagnetic experiment, 1821

Perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the
Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s.[2] The theoretical principle behind
production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric current and a
magnetic field, Ampre's force law, was discovered later by Andr-Marie Ampre in
1820. The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy
by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael
Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which
a permanent magnet (PM) was placed. When a current was passed through the wire,
the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close
circular magnetic field around the wire.[3] This motor is often demonstrated in physics
experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlow's wheel was an
early refinement to this Faraday demonstration, these and similar homopolar
motors were to remain unsuited to practical application until late in the century.
Jedlik's "electromagnetic self-rotor", 1827 (Museum of Applied Arts, Budapest). The historic
motor still works perfectly today.

In 1827, Hungarian physicist nyos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic

coils. After Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the
invention of the commutator, he called his early devices "electromagnetic self-rotors".
Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated
the first device to contain the three main components of practical DC motors:
the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the
magnetic fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely
by the currents flowing through their windings.

Success with DC motors

After many other more or less successful attempts with relatively weak rotating and
reciprocating apparatus the Prussian Moritz von Jacobi created the first real rotating
electric motor in May 1834 that actually developed a remarkable mechanical output
power. His motor set a world record which was improved only four years later in
September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a
boat with 14 people across a wide river. It was not until 1839/40 that other developers
worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance.

The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by
the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832.[12] Following Sturgeon's work, a
commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial
use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in
1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute and powered machine tools
and a printing press.[13] Due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were
commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed
Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery
power cost issues. No electricity distribution had been developed at the time. Like
Sturgeon's motor, there was no practical commercial market for these motors.

In 1855, Jedlik built a device using similar principles to those used in his
electromagnetic self-rotors that was capable of useful work. He built a model electric
vehicle that same year.[15]

A major turning point in the development of DC machines took place in 1864,

when Antonio Pacinotti described for the first time the ring armature with its
symmetrically grouped coils closed upon themselves and connected to the bars of a
commutator, the brushes of which delivered practically non-fluctuating current. The
first commercially successful DC motors followed the invention by Znobe
Gramme who, in 1871, reinvented Pacinotti's design. In 1873, Gramme showed that
his dynamo could be used as a motor, which he demonstrated to great effect at
exhibitions in Vienna and Philadelphia by connecting two such DC motors at a
distance of up to 2 km away from each other, one as a generator. (See also 1873 :
l'exprience dcisive [Decisive Workaround] .)

In 1886, Frank Julian Sprague invented the first practical DC motor, a non-sparking
motor that maintained relatively constant speed under variable loads. Other Sprague
electric inventions about this time greatly improved grid electric distribution (prior
work done while employed by Thomas Edison), allowed power from electric motors
to be returned to the electric grid, provided for electric distribution to trolleys via
overhead wires and the trolley pole, and provided controls systems for electric
operations. This allowed Sprague to use electric motors to invent the first electric
trolley system in 188788 in Richmond VA, the electric elevator and control system
in 1892, and the electric subway with independently powered centrally controlled
cars, which were first installed in 1892 in Chicago by theSouth Side Elevated
Railway where it became popularly known as the "L". Sprague's motor and related
inventions led to an explosion of interest and use in electric motors for industry, while
almost simultaneously another great inventor was developing its primary competitor,
which would become much more widespread. The development of electric motors of
acceptable efficiency was delayed for several decades by failure to recognize the
extreme importance of a relatively small air gap between rotor and stator. Efficient
designs have a comparatively small air gap. The St. Louis motor, long used in
classrooms to illustrate motor principles, is extremely inefficient for the same reason,
as well as appearing nothing like a modern motor.

Application of electric motors revolutionized industry. Industrial processes were no

longer limited by power transmission using line shafts, belts, compressed air or
hydraulic pressure. Instead every machine could be equipped with its own electric
motor, providing easy control at the point of use, and improving power transmission
efficiency. Electric motors applied in agriculture eliminated human and animal muscle
power from such tasks as handling grain or pumping water. Household uses of electric
motors reduced heavy labor in the home and made higher standards of convenience,
comfort and safety possible. Today, electric motors stand for more than half of the
electric energy consumption in the US.
 What is a Transformer

Transformers
Michael Faraday propounded the
principle of electro-magnetic induction in 1831.
It states that a voltage appears across the terminals of an electric coil when the
flux linked With the same changes. The magnitude of the induced voltage is
proportional to the rate of change of the flux linkages. This _winding forms the
basis for many magneto electric machines.
The earliest use of this phenomenon was in the development of induction coils.
These coils were used to generate high voltage pulses to ignite the explosive
charges in the mines. As the d.c. power system was in use at that time, very little
of transformer principle was made use of. In the d.c. supply system the
generating station and the load centre have to be necessarily close to each other
due to the requirement of economic transmission of power.
Also the d.c. generators cannot be scaled up due to the limitations of the
commutator. This made the world look for other efficient methods for bulk
power generation and transmission. During the second half of the 19th century
the alternators, transformers and induction motors were invented. These
machines work on alternating power supply. The role of the transformers
became obvious. The transformer which consisted of two electric circuits linked
by a common magnetic circuit helped the voltage and current levels to be
changed keeping the power invariant. The efficiency of such conversion was
extremely high. Thus one could choose a moderate voltage for the generation of
a.c. power, a high voltage for the transmission of this power over long distances
and _normally use a small and safe operating voltage at the user end. All these are
made possible by transformers. The a.c. power systems thus got well established.
Transformers can link two or more electric circuits. In its simple form two
electric circuits can be linked by a magnetic circuit, one of the electric coils is
used for the creation of a time varying magnetic led. The second coil which is
made to link this field has an induced voltage in the same. The magnitude of the
induced emf is decided by the number of turns used in each coil. Thus the voltage
level can be increased or decreased by changing the number of turns. This
excitation winding is called a primary and the output winding is called a
secondary. As a magnetic medium forms the link between the primary and the
secondary windings there is no conductive connection between the two electric
circuits. The transformer thus provides an electric isolation between the two
circuits. The frequency on the two sides will be the same. As there is no change in
the nature of the power, the resulting machine is called a `transformer' and not a
`converter'. The electric power at one voltage/current level is only
`transformed' into electric power, at the same frequency, to another
voltage/current level.
Even though most of the large-power transformers can be found in the power
systems, the use of the transformers is not limited to the power systems. The use
of the principle of transformers is universal. Transformers can be found
operating in the frequency range starting from a few hertz going up to several
mega hertz. Power ratings vary from a few milli-watts to several hundreds of
megawatts. The use of the transformers is so wide spread that it is virtually
impossible to think of a large power system without transformers. Demand on
electric power generation doubles every decade in a developing country. For
every MVA of generation the installed capacity of transformers grows by about
7MVA. These _guards show the indispensable nature of power transformers.

BASICALLY
An Electrical Power Transformer is a static device which transforms electrical
energy from one circuit to another circuit without any direct electrical
connection and with the help of mutual induction between two windings. It
transforms power from one circuit to another without changing its frequency but
may be in different voltage level.
This is a very simple and short definition of transformer. As we will go through
this portion of tutorial related to electrical power transformer, we will
understand more clearly and deeply what is transformer? and basic theory of
transformer.

Working principal of Transformer:

The working principal of transformer is very simple. It depends upon faradays law
electromagnetic induction. Actually, mutual induction between two or more winding
is responsible for transformation action an electrical transformer. As mentioned
earlier the transformer is a static device working on the principle of Faraday's law of
induction. Faraday's law states that a voltage appears across the terminals of an
electric coil when the flux linkages associated with the same changes. This emf is
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages. E is the induced emf in volt and, F
is the flux linkages in Weber turn. The change in the flux linkage can be brought
about in a variety of ways coil may be static and unmoving but the flux linking the
same may change with time.

Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction

According to these faradays law,
 Rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time is directly
proportional to the induced EMF in a conductor of coil.

Basic Theory of Transformer

Say you have one winding which is supplied by an alternating electrical source. The
alternating current through the winding produces a continually changing flux or
alternating flux that surrounds the winding. If any other winding is brought nearer to
the previous one, obviously some portion of this flux is continually changing in its
amplitude and direction, there must be change in flux linkage in the second winding
or coil. According to faradays law of electromagnetic induction, there must be an
EMF induced in the second. If the circuit of the later winding is closed, there must be
an current flowing through it. This is the simplest form of electrical power
transformer and this is the most basic of Working Principal of Transformer.

A transformer is a static device which is used to step up or step down the voltage as
per the need.
These transformers are different types based on construction and need.
The transformer construction basically consists of two coils named as primary and
secondary.

Constructional parts of transformer

Three main parts of a transformer

1. Primary winding of transformer: which produces magnetic flux

when it is connected to electrical source.

2. Magnetic core of a transformer: the magnetic flux produced by the

primary winding that will pass through this low reluctance path linked
with secondary winding and create a closed magnetic circuit.
3. Secondary winding of a transformer: the flux, produces by primary
winding, passes through the core, will link with the secondary
winding. this winding also wounds on the same core and gives the
desired output of the transformer.
MAIN PARTS OF TRANSFORMER

1. OIL LEVEL INDICATOR

2. DEHYDRATION BREATHER
3. OIL FILTER PLUG
4. CONSERVATOR
5. CONTACT THERMOMETER
6. BUCHHOLZ RELAY
7. RATING PLATE
8. TERMINAL BOX
9. CORRUGATED TANK
10.WHEEL
 MOTOR CONSTRUCTION

Electric motor rotor (left) and stator (right)

Rotor
Main article: Rotor (electric)

In an electric motor the moving part is the rotor which turns the shaft to deliver the
mechanical power. The rotor usually has conductors laid into it which carry currents
that interact with the magnetic field of the stator to generate the forces that turn the
shaft. However, some rotors carry permanent magnets, and the stator holds the
conductors.

Stator
Main article: Stator

The stator is the stationary part of the motors electromagnetic circuit and usually
consists of either windings or permanent magnets. The stator core is made up of many
thin metal sheets, called laminations. Laminations are used to reduce energy losses
that would result if a solid core were used.
Air gap

The distance between the rotor and stator is called the air gap. The air gap has
important effects, and is generally as small as possible, as a large gap has a strong
negative effect on the performance of an electric motor. It is the main source of the
low power factor at which motors operate.The air gap increases the magnetizing
current needed. For this reason air gap should be minimum. Very small gaps may pose
mechanical problems in addition to noise and losses.

Salient-pole rotor

Windings
Main article: Windings

Windings are wires that are laid in coils, usually wrapped around a laminated soft
iron magnetic core so as to form magnetic poles when energized with current.

Electric machines come in two basic magnet field pole configurations: salient-
pole machine and nonsalient-pole machine. In the salient-pole machine the pole's
magnetic field is produced by a winding wound around the pole below the pole face.
In the nonsalient-pole, or distributed field, or round-rotor, machine, the winding is
distributed in pole face slots. A shaded-pole motor has a winding around part of the
pole that delays the phase of the magnetic field for that pole.

Some motors have conductors which consist of thicker metal, such as bars or sheets of
metal, usually copper, although sometimes aluminum is used. These are usually
powered by electromagnetic induction.
 COMMUTATOR
Main article: Commutator (electric)

A toy's small DC motor with its commutator

A commutator is a mechanism used to switch the input of most DC machines and

certain AC machines consisting of slip ring segments insulated from each other and
from the electric motor's shaft. The motor's armature current is supplied through the
stationary brushes in contact with the revolving commutator, which causes required
current reversal and applies power to the machine in an optimal manner as
the rotor rotates from pole to pole. In absence of such current reversal, the motor
would brake to a stop. In light of significant advances in the past few decades due to
improved technologies in electronic controller, sensorless control, induction motor,
and permanent magnet motor fields, electromechanically commutated motors are
increasingly being displaced by externally commutated induction and permanent-
magnet motors.

Motor supply and control

Motor supply

A DC motor is usually supplied through slip ring commutator as described above. AC

motors' commutation can be either slip ring commutator or externally commutated
type, can be fixed-speed or variable-speed control type, and can be synchronous or
asynchronous type. Universal motors can run on either AC or DC.
ELECTRICALLY EXCITED DC MOTOR

A commutated DC motor has a set of rotating windings wound on

an armature mounted on a rotating shaft. The shaft also carries the commentator, a
long-lasting rotary electrical switch that periodically reverses the flow of current in the
rotor windings as the shaft rotates. Thus, every brushed DC motor has AC flowing
through its rotating windings. Current flows through one or more pairs of brushes that
bear on the commentator; the brushes connect an external source of electric power to
the rotating armature.

The rotating armature consists of one or more coils of wire wound around a
laminated, magnetically "soft" ferromagnetic core. Current from the brushes flows
through the commentator and one winding of the armature, making it a temporary
magnet (an electromagnet). The magnetic field produced by the armature interacts
with a stationary magnetic field produced by either PMs or another winding (a field
coil), as part of the motor frame. The force between the two magnetic fields tends to
rotate the motor shaft. The commentator switches power to the coils as the rotor turns,
keeping the magnetic poles of the rotor from ever fully aligning with the magnetic
poles of the stator field, so that the rotor never stops (like a compass needle does), but
rather keeps rotating as long as power is applied.

Many of the limitations of the classic commentator DC motor are due to the need for
brushes to press against the commentator. This creates friction. Sparks are created by
the brushes making and breaking circuits through the rotor coils as the brushes cross
the insulating gaps between commentator sections. Depending on the commentator
design, this may include the brushes shorting together adjacent sections and hence
coil ends momentarily while crossing the gaps. Furthermore, the inductance of the
rotor coils causes the voltage across each to rise when its circuit is opened, increasing
the sparking of the brushes. This sparking limits the maximum speed of the machine,
as too-rapid sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the commentator. The current
density per unit area of the brushes, in combination with their resistivity, limits the
output of the motor. The making and breaking of electric contact also
generates electrical noise; sparking generates RFI. Brushes eventually wear out and
require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance (on
larger motors) or replacement (on small motors). The commutator assembly on a large
motor is a costly element, requiring precision assembly of many parts. On small
motors, the commutator is usually permanently integrated into the rotor, so replacing
it usually requires replacing the whole rotor.

While most commutators are cylindrical, some are flat discs consisting of several
segments (typically, at least three) mounted on an insulator.

Large brushes are desired for a larger brush contact area to maximize motor output,
but small brushes are desired for low mass to maximize the speed at which the motor
can run without the brushes excessively bouncing and sparking. (Small brushes are
also desirable for lower cost.) Stiffer brush springs can also be used to make brushes
of a given mass work at a higher speed, but at the cost of greater friction losses (lower
efficiency) and accelerated brush and commutator wear. Therefore, DC motor brush
design entails a trade-off between output power, speed, and efficiency/wear.

DC machines are defined as follows:

Armature circuit - A winding where the load current is carried, such that can be
either stationary or rotating part of motor or generator.
Field circuit - A set of windings that produces a magnetic field so that the
electromagnetic induction can take place in electric machines.
Commutation: A mechanical technique in which rectification can be achieved, or
from which DC can be derived, in DC machines.
A: shunt B: series C: compound f = field coil

There are five types of brushed DC motor:-

DC shunt-wound motor
DC series-wound motor
DC compound motor (two configurations):
Cumulative compound
Differentially compounded
PM DC motor (not shown)
Separately excited (not shown).

Permanent magnet DC motor[edit]

Main article: Permanent-magnet electric motor

A PM motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead relying on PMs
to provide the magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to produce torque.
Compensating windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors to
improve commutation under load. Because this field is fixed, it cannot be adjusted for
speed control. PM fields (stators) are convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the
power consumption of the field winding. Most larger DC motors are of the "dynamo"
type, which have stator windings. Historically, PMs could not be made to retain high
flux if they were disassembled; field windings were more practical to obtain the
needed amount of flux. However, large PMs are costly, as well as dangerous and
difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for large machines.

To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy
magnets made with neodymium or other strategic elements; most such are
neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With their higher flux density, electric machines with
high-energy PMs are at least competitive with all optimally designed singly-
fed synchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature motors resemble the
structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three rotor poles (to ensure
starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing is a steel tube that
magnetically links the exteriors of the curved field magnets.
Electronic commutator (EC) motor
Brushless DC motor
Main article: Brushless DC electric motor

Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the BLDC design. In
this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator is replaced by an external
electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position. BLDC motors are typically 85
90% efficient or more. Efficiency for a BLDC motor of up to 96.5% have been
reported, whereas DC motors with brushgear are typically 7580% efficient.

The BLDC motor's characteristic trapezoidal back-emf waveform is derived partly

from the stator windings being evenly distributed, and partly from the placement of
the rotor's PMs. Also known as electronically commutated DC or inside out DC
motors, the stator windings of trapezoidal BLDC motors can be with single-phase,
two-phase or three-phase and use Hall effect sensors mounted on their windings for
rotor position sensing and low cost closed-loop control of the electronic commutator.

BLDC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as in
computer disk drives or in video cassette recorders, the spindles within CD, CD-ROM
(etc.) drives, and mechanisms within office products such as fans, laser printers and
photocopiers. They have several advantages over conventional motors:

Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient, running
much cooler than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation leads to much-
improved life of the fan's bearings.
Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a BLDC motor can be significantly
longer compared to a DC motor using brushes and a commutator. Commutation
also tends to cause a great deal of electrical and RF noise; without a commutator
or brushes, a BLDC motor may be used in electrically sensitive devices like audio
equipment or computers.
The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide a
convenient tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled)
 applications. In fans, the tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK" signal
as well as provide running speed feedback.
The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading to
precise speed control.
BLDC motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making them
better suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels. Also, sparking
generates ozone which can accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings risking harm
to occupants' health.
BLDC motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are
generally used in fans to get rid of unwanted heat.
They are also acoustically very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used
in equipment that is affected by vibrations.

Modern BLDC motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts.
Larger BLDC motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric vehicles. They
also find significant use in high-performance electric model aircraft.
ELECTRIC SWITCHBOARD PANEL
A modern electric switchboard

Antique electrical switchboard, operational at a US plant in

2014. It features open style breakers, mounted on slabs of

slate stone insulator.

An electric switchboard is a device that directs electricity from one or more sources of

supply to several smaller regions of usage. It is an assembly of one or more panels, each of

which contains switches that allow electricity to be redirected.

Definition

The U.S. National Electrical Code (NEC) defines a switchboard as "a large single panel, frame, or

assembly of panels on which are mounted, on the face, back, or both, switches, over-current and other

protective devices,buses, and usually instruments". The role of a switchboard is to allow the division of the

current supplied to the switchboard into smaller currents for further distribution and to provide switching,

current protection and (possibly) metering for those various currents. In general, switchboards may

distribute power to transformers, panelboards, control equipment, and, ultimately, to individual system

loads.

Components

Inside a switchboard there will be one or more busbars. These are flat strips of copper or aluminum, to

which the switchgear is connected. Busbars carry large currents through the switchboard, and are

supported by insulators. Bare busbars are common, but many types are now manufactured with an

insulating cover on the bars, leaving only connection points exposed.

The operator is protected from electrocution by safety switches and fuses. There may also be controls for

the supply of electricity to the switchboard, coming from a generator or bank of electrical generators,

especiallyfrequency control of AC power and load sharing controls, plus gauges showing frequency and

perhaps a synchroscope. The amount of power going into a switchboard must always equal to the power

going out to the loads.

Enclosure

Modern industrial switchboards are metal enclosed and of "dead front" construction; no

energized parts are accessible when the covers and panels are closed. Previously, open

switchboards were made with switches and other devices were mounted on panels made of

slate, granite, or ebony asbestos board. The metal enclosure of the switchboard is bonded to

earth ground for protection of personnel. Large switchboards may be free-standing floor-
mounted enclosures with provision for incoming connections at either the top or bottom of

the enclosure. A switchboard may have incoming bus bars or bus duct for the source

connection, and also for large circuits fed from the board. A switchboard may include a

metering or control compartment separated from the power distribution conductors.

 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE
INDUCTION MOTOR
The induction motor is a sturdy and reliable equipment. It has revolutionized industry and
has made electromechanical conversion more efficient. Induction motors constitute more
than 60% of loads in the industry.

Induction motors have many advantages and a few disadvantages.

The advantages of induction motors are

1. They are robust and sturdy. They can operate in a wide range of industrial conditions.
2. Induction motors are cheaper in cost.
3. The construction is simple. Induction motors do not have accessories such as brushes,
slip rings or commutators
4. Low Maintenance. Very little maintenance is required for induction motors.
5. It does not require any complex circuit for starting. The three phase motor is self
starting while the single phase motor can be made self-starting simply by connecting a
capacitor in the auxiliary winding.
6. They can be operated in hazardous environments and even under water as they do not
produce sparks unlike dc motors
Disadvantage of induction motor

1. Speed control in induction motors is difficult

2. At low loads, the power factor drops to very low values
3. Efficiency drops at low loads. This is because, the low power factor causes a higher
current to be drawn. This results in higher copper losses.
4. Poor starting torque. Induction motors have notoriously low starting torque. Hence,
they cannot be used for application such as traction and in lifting loads. Slip ring
induction motors can be made to produce good starting torque by adding resistors to
the rotor windings.
 APPLICATIONS OF INDUCTION MOTOR
The Polyphase Induction Motor is a motor whose stator contains a number of windings. They
are greater than one horse power or one kilowatt. The National Electrical Manufacturers
Association (NEMA) has specified the motors according to the various Class, which are
discussed below in detail. There are various applications of Polyphase wound rotor induction
motors, Polyphase cage induction motors. They are as follows:-

Applications of Polyphase Wound Rotor Induction Motors

Wound rotor motors are suitable for loads requiring high starting torque and where
a lower starting current is required.
The Wound rotor induction motors are also used for loads having high inertia, which
results in higher energy losses.
Used for the loads which require a gradual buildup of torque.
Used for the loads that require speed control.
The wound rotor induction motors are used in conveyors, cranes, pumps, elevators
and compressors.
The maximum torque is above 200 percent of the full load value while the full load
slip may be as low as 3 percent. The efficiency is about 90 %.

Applications of Polyphase Cage Rotor Induction Motors

Many polyphase cage induction motors are available in the market to meet the demand of the
several industrial applications and various starting and running condition requirement. They
are classified according to the Class.

The speed torque characteristics of Cage Induction Motor of various Classes are shown
below.
Class A Motors

Class A motors have normal starting torque, high starting current and low operating slip
(0.005-0.015). The design has low resistance single cage rotor. The efficiency of the motor is
high at full load. Applications of Class A motors are fans, blowers, centrifugal pumps, etc.

Class B Motors

Class B motors have normal starting torque, low starting current and low starting current and
low operating slip. The motor is designed, in such a way to withstand the high leakage
reactance, as a result, the starting current is reduced. The starting torque is maintained by use
of a double cage or deep bar rotor.

The Class B motors are most commonly used motor and used for full voltage starting. The
applications and the starting torque are same as that of Class A motors.

Class C Motors

The class C motors have high starting torque and low starting current. Such motors are of the
double cage and deep bar and has higher rotor resistance. The loads are compressors,
conveyors, reciprocating pumps, crushers, etc.
Class D Motors

Class D motors have the highest starting torque as compared to all the other class of motors.
The bars of the rotor cage are made up of brass. These types of motors have low starting
current and high operating slip. The value of full load operating slip varies between 8 to 15%.
Thus, the efficiency of the motor is low.

These motors are suitable for driving intermittent loads which require frequent acceleration
and high loads. For example punch presses, bulldozers and die stamping machines. When
the motor is driving the high impact loads, it is coupled to a flywheel to provide kinetic
energy.