Bio molecules

1. Carbohydrates
2. Protein and enzymes
3. Lipids
4. Nucleic acids
 Carbohydrates

Most abundant class of

biological molecules on Earth

Originally produced through

CO2 fixation during
photosynthesis
 General characteristics
the term carbohydrate is derived from the french:
hydrate de carbone

compounds composed of C, H, and O

empirical formula - CH2O)n when n = 5 then
C5H10O5

not all carbohydrates have this empirical formula:

deoxysugars, aminosugars

carbohydrates are the most abundant compounds

found in nature (cellulose: 100 billion tons annually)
 General characteristics
Most carbohydrates are found naturally in bound
form rather than as simple sugars

Polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, inulin, gums)

Glycoproteins and proteoglycans (hormones, blood
group substances, antibodies)
Glycolipids (cerebrosides, gangliosides)
Glycosides- sugar is bound to another functional
group via a glycosidic bond eg. Saponin, coumarin
Mucopolysaccharides (hyaluronic acid)
Nucleic acids
 Roles of Carbohydrates

Energy storage (glycogen,starch)

Structural components (cellulose,chitin)

Cellular recognition

Carbohydrate derivatives include DNA, RNA,

co-factors, glycoproteins, glycolipids
 Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides (simple sugars) glucose,
fructose

Disacharides - ,sucrose, lactose

Trisaccahride trehalose, raffinose

Oligosaccharides = - usually 2 to 10

Polysaccharides are polymers of the simple

sugars starch, cellulose, glycogen
 Monosaccharides
Aldoses and ketoses
Empirical formula = (CH2O)n

Aldoses O ketoses
H
C CH2OH

H C* OH C O

HO C* H HO C* H

H C* OH H C* OH

CH2OH CH2OH
D-ribose D-ribulose
Aldoses
ketoses
 Monosaccharides are chiral
Number of possible
steroisomers = 2n (n = the
number of chiral carbons)

O
H
C CH2OH

H C* OH C O

HO C* H HO C* H

H C* OH H C* OH

H C* OH H C* OH

CH2OH CH2OH
D-glucose D-fructose
 Stereochemistry
Enantiomers Diastereomers Epimers
O O O O O O
H H H H H H
C C C C C C

HO C* H H C* OH HO C* H H C* OH H C* OH HO C* H

H C* OH HO C* H HO C* H HO C* H HO C* H HO C* H

HO C* H H C* OH H C* OH HO C* H H C* OH H C* OH

HO C* H H C* OH H C* OH H C* OH H C* OH H C* OH

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

L-glucose D-glucose D-mannose D-galactose D-glucose D-mannose

Enantiomers = mirror images

Diastereomers - Pairs of isomers that have opposite
configurations at one or more chiral centers but are
NOT mirror images are
Epimers = Two sugars that differ in configuration at
only one chiral center
 Enantiomers and epimers
H H
H H C O C O
C O C O HO C H HO C H
H C OH OH C H HO C H HO C H
H C OH OH C H H C OH HO C H
CH2OH CH2OH
H C OH H C OH
these two aldotetroses are enantiomers.
They are stereoisomers that are mirror CH2OH CH2OH
images of each other
these two aldohexoses are C-4 epimers.
they differ only in the position of the
hydroxyl group on one asymmetric carbon
(carbon 4)