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Process of calculation.
Prestressed bolt connections form the majority of bolt and threaded connections used in practice. These connections
are loaded with great internal axis force (mounting prestressing) during assembly. This prestressing provides the
necessary force bond of contact surfaces of the connected materials.
In principle, the designed structural junction should behave as a compact formation. A correctly prestressed
connection forms during operation of a cohesive unit with guaranteed force closing in the contact surfaces and
unchanged mutual position of the connected parts. The mounting prestressing of a bolt connection thus includes two
basic functions. In case of connections loaded in the plane of the connected parts, the prestressing meets the
requirement of shear loading capacity with utilization of friction forces; in case of connections loaded in the axis of the
bolt, it meets the requirement of compactness or tightness of the connection resp.
From the above-mentioned, the individual steps which are necessary for successful design of a prestressed bolt
connection result:
Selection of a suitable connection bolt
2. Set the necessary operational and mounting parameters of the connection. [2.1 - 2.16]
3. Set a factor of implementation of the working force for the connection which is loaded in the axis of the bolt.
[2.17]
4. For a connection with dynamic loading, select a design, desired service life, reliability and safety of the
connection. [2.22 - 2.26]
5. Set the method of design, material and dimensions of the connected parts in the paragraph. [3]
6. Select the material of the bolt [4.1, 4.4] and the type of thread [4.12]. As a hint, the table of recommended
min. diameters of threads in the paragraph may be used [4.2].
7. Pressing the button in the row [4.13] activates a design of dimensions of threads.
8. If you wish to use a non-prismatic alternatively fitted screw instead of a common bolt, specify its geometry in
the paragraph. [4.19]
9. Similarly, you can modify the geometry of the connection in chapter [4.29] if you wish to use a bolt with a
head other than with a hexagonal or cylinder head or a ball seating surface, or with a different diameter of
hole.
10. In chapter [5] check force conditions in the connection and/or modify the designed amount of mounting
prestressing. [5.13]
11. Check results of the strength checks in chapter [6] and [7]. In case any of the mentioned checks are not
sufficient, enlarge dimensions of the thread [4.14] or modify parameters in chapters [4.19, 4.29].
12. Save the workbook with the designed solution under a new name.
Note: This calculation is meant for the design of a connection with one bolt. If you need to calculate bolt connections
with more bolts, first it is necessary, according to general principles (see the chapter "Calculation of bolt fields") to
specify the maximum load falling on one (identically or the most loaded) bolt. This will be then be solved as an
independent bolt connection according to the above-mentioned procedure.
C. Combined loading.
With connections exposed to combined loading, the requirement of compactness and a requirement of shear
loading capacity must be met as well.
Select the desired type of loading in the selective list. After selection, the calculation will be modified into the
configuration which corresponds with the selected type of loading - the parameters, which have no meaning for the
selected type, will be hidden.
1.5 The course of loading.
This list allows users to define the type (course) of loading which acts on the connection. The bolt connection can be
designed for the following types of loading:
A. Quiet (static)
B. Pulsating
C. Repeated
D. Reversed asymmetric
E. Reversed symmetric
With connections exposed to cyclic loading (loading B to E) it is also necessary to carry out, in addition to common
strength checks, checks of the connection bolt in view of fatigue strength.
Select the desired course of loading in the selective list. After selection, the calculation will be modified into the
configuration which corresponds with the selected type of loading - the parameters, which have no meaning for the
selected type, will be hidden.
Note: With bolt connections exposed to radial forces in the plane of the connected parts (see [1.4]), the option of the
course of loading has no effects on the proper calculation of the connection. The connection is dimensioned for the
maximum amount of radial force. For a cyclic course of loading it is advisable to select higher values of safety against
side shift in the row [2.2].
1.6 Loading of the connection.
In this row, enter operational forces acting on the bolt connection. In the row [1.7] enter the amount of static axial
(axis) force or the upper value of amplitude of the force with cyclic loading. In the row [1.8] enter the lower value of
amplitude of the force with cyclic loading. The row [1.9] can be used to enter the radial force, but always enter the
maximum amount of this force.
Warning: Input fields for entering forces are accessible according to settings of the loading mode in rows [1.4, 1.5].
Operational and mounting parameters of the connection. [2]
This paragraph is designed for setting various operational and mounting parameters which are necessary for the
design and calculation of a prestressed bolt connection.
2.1 Desired coefficient of tightness (prestressing) of the connection.
A correctly prestressed bolt connection forms during operation a cohesive unit with guaranteed force bond on the
contact surfaces and unchanged mutual position of the connected parts. This requirement of compactness, which is
important particularly with connections exposed to variable loading, is extended in some cases by the requirement for
connection tightness. The pressure on the contact surfaces caused by the prestressing must guarantee a hermetic
bond of the connection during operation.
The requirement of compactness or tightness of the connection is applied with the design of the connection through
this coefficient, which gives the ratio between the residual prestressing of the clamped parts of the connection and the
maximum operational force. The option of this coefficient thus affects the amount of mounting prestressing of the
designed connection. The coefficient is usually selected in the limits according to the following recommendations:
Requirement of compactness of the connection
Requirement of tightness of the connection (higher values used with a variable force or with sealing of a
dangerous medium)
Note 1: This coefficient has no meaning for connections loaded with a radial force only.
Note 2: If the required residual prestressing is entered in the line [2.3], the value shall be calculated automatically.
2.2 Desired safety against side shift.
With a properly designed connection loaded in the plane of the connected parts, the entire radial force must be
transferred using friction between the connected parts, which arises from the mounting prestressing. This safety
coefficient gives the ratio between the actual residual prestressing in the connection and the minimum (calculated
theoretically) clamping force necessary for entire transfer of the radial force. The requirement of the shear loading
capacity of the connection should meet a safety level higher than 1, however, in fact with regards to technological
properties of the operation and possible inaccuracy of theoretical determination of coefficients of friction between the
connected surfaces, it is advisable to specify the safety against side shifts in a range from 1.5 to 3. The upper values
are selected with connections exposed to a variable loading. With combined loading (see [1.4]) or loading with shocks,
it is possible to use a higher safety level.
Note 1: This coefficient has no meaning for connections loaded with axis forces only.
Note 2: If the required residual prestressing is entered in the line [2.3], the value shall be calculated automatically.
2.3 Required residual prestressing of clamped parts of the connection
Adequately large residual prestressing of the clamped parts ensures the necessary force bond of the contact surfaces
during operation.
Note: Upon selecting the check box in this line, the residual prestressing value shall be calculated automatically on
the basis of the values given in the lines [2.1,2.2].
2.4 Desired safety of the bolt at the yield point.
The minimum permissible ratio of the yield point of the selected material of the bolt and the maximum reduced stress
in the bolt core. The lower limit of safety at the yield point with connection bolts is usually selected with regards to the
type of loading, importance of the connection, quality of production, operational conditions and accuracy of
calculation, in a range from 1.5 to 3. The lower values are selected for connections exposed to a static loading, the
upper values are selected for connections exposed to a variable loading. With important connections, connections
exposed to shocks, connections working in a corrosive environment or at high operational temperatures, there are
usually selected even higher values of safety (3 ... 6). General procedures of setting the safety coefficient can be
found in the document "Coefficients of safety".
Warning: In case the calculation does not respect any effects of additional bending stresses [2.8] or effects of
operational temperature [2.11] as the case may be, despite the fact that these effects appear in reality, it is advisable
to design the bolt connection with an adequately increased level of safety.
2.5 Friction coefficient in threads.
The size of the coefficient of friction in threads depends on the material, roughness, surface treatment and thread
angle. The coefficient of friction is lower with flat threads. Coefficient of friction for a sharp thread:
where:
'- coefficient of friction with flat threads
- thread angle
Orientation values of the coefficient of friction for a sharp thread (thread angle 60) are given in the table.
Non-lubricated thread (without any special lubrication, however, not degreased)
Inner thread
Outer steel thread
Steel, untreated Steel, galvanized Grey cast iron Al alloys
Untreated 0.12 ... 0.18 0.14 ... 0.20 0.12 ... 0.18 0.12 ... 0.23
Phosphatised 0.12 ... 0.18 0.14 ... 0.20 0.12 ... 0.18 0.12 ... 0.23
Galvanized 0.14 ... 0.23 0.14 ... 0.25 0.12 ... 0.19 0.14 ... 0.23
Cadmium-coated 0.09 ... 0.14 0.10 ... 0.16 0.09 ... 0.14 0.09 ... 0.15
Degreased 0.19 ... 0.25 0.19 ... 0.25 0.19 ... 0.25 0.19 ... 0.25
Lubricated thread
Inner thread
Outer steel thread
Steel, untreated Steel, galvanized Grey cast iron Al alloys
Untreated 0.10 ... 0.17 0.12 ... 0.18 0.10 ... 0.17 0.11 ... 0.20
Phosphatised 0.10 ... 0.17 0.12 ... 0.18 0.10 ... 0.17 0.11 ... 0.20
Galvanized 0.12 ... 0.20 0.12 ... 0.20 0.11 ... 0.18 0.12 ... 0.20
Cadmium-coated 0.08 ... 0.13 0.09 ... 0.15 0.08 ... 0.13 0.08 ... 0.14
Warning: Some sources state the friction factor values for a flat thread. If you wish to use them in this calculation for
sharp standard threads, it is necessary to modify them in the ratio: friction factor in a standard thread =1.155x of the
friction factor in the flat thread.
2.6 Friction coefficient in seating face of the head (nut) of the bolt.
The size of the coefficient of friction under the head (nut) of the bolt depends on the material of the nut and the
clamped parts, roughness, surface treatment and lubrication. Orientation values of the coefficient of friction for a steel
head of the bolt (nut) are given in the table.
Note: In case you do not wish to include the possible effects of bending stresses in the calculation, it is advisable to
increase safety at the yield point [2.4] by 20 to 50%.
2.11 Influence of the operational temperature on prestressing of the connection.
Upon change of operating temperature, there is a change in the joint prestressing. This may have a fundamental
impact on the functionality of the joint. If the joint should function flawlessly at various temperatures, it is necessary
to consider eventual influence of the temperature already during the design of the joint.
Note: This choice is used only for correct determination of the minimum assembly prestressing [5.12]. The precision
and complete solution of the parameters of a screw joint at a specific operating temperature is covered in a separate
chapter [9]..
2.15 Reduction of mounting prestressing using permanent deformation (settlement) of the connection.
Certain permanent (plastic) deformation of the connection occurs in prestressed bolt connections in operation. This
"settlement" of the connection is caused e.g. by squeezing of the threads on the bolt and/or the nut, squeezing of
contact surfaces of the connected parts and the sealing insert, permanent elongation of the bolt, etc. This deformation
may cause a slow decrease in prestressing of the connection in operation and may also cause possible leakage or non-
compactness of the connection.
Guide values in [mm] for permanent squeezing of the clamped parts (including threads) are given in the following
tables (values in [in] are given in parenthesis):
Tensile/pressure loading of the connection
Roughness of joints
Number of division joints
Ra >= 6.3 Ra <= 3.2
2 0.020 (0.00079) 0.013 (0.00051)
3 0.028 (0.00110) 0.016 (0.00063)
4 0.035 (0.00138) 0.020 (0.00079)
5 0.042 (0.00165) 0.025 (0.00098)
6 0.050 (0.00197) 0.030 (0.00118)
Note: If you decide not to include the possible effects of "settlement" of the connection in the calculation, it is
advisable to design the bolt connection with a higher coefficient of prestressing [2.1], increased by 50 to 80 %.
2.17 Factor of implementation of operational force.
Places of inputs of external axial loading do not always have to be located in the bearing surfaces under heads and
nuts of the bolts. On the contrary, the axial forces usually act in places inside the clamped parts. The factor of
implementation of operational force gives a ratio between distances of actual points of actions of the operational force
and the total height of the clamped parts, and with regards to possible limiting conditions it reaches values in the
range [0...1]. This ratio may significantly affect distribution of loading from the operational force between the
connection bolt and the clamped parts and thus the amount of necessary mounting prestressing of the connection.
Factor of implementation of operational force - limiting conditions
Whilst the position of the point of action of the operational force is quite obvious with some connections, such
positions are more intuitive with other connections and its exact determination may be quite difficult. The existence of
two limiting conditions, between which reality can be found, is a certain guideline. If determination of the coefficient
of implementation of the operational force is not obvious from the geometry of the connection, it is presupposed as
n=0.5 in connections with bolts through and n=0.75...0.25 according to the design of the connection in connections
with stud bolts.
Determination of coefficient of implementation of operational force in flange connections
More precise values of the factor of implementation of operational force can be obtained e.g. from the following table
according to VDI 2230:
Type of design of the bolt connection
b/L a/L
SV1 SV2 SV3 SV4 SV5 SV6
0.00 0.70 0.57 0.44 0.42 0.30 0.15
0.10 0.55 0.46 0.37 0.34 0.25 0.14
0.00
0.30 0.30 0.30 0.26 0.25 0.22 0.14
0.50 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.10 0.07
0.00 0.52 0.44 0.35 0.33 0.24 0.13
0.10 0.41 0.36 0.30 0.27 0.21 0.12
0.10
0.30 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.16 0.15 0.10
0.50 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06
0.00 0.34 0.30 0.26 0.23 0.19 0.11
0.10 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.19 0.17 0.11
0.20
0.30 0.16 0.16 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.09
0.50 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.06
0.00 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.14 0.14 0.10
0.10 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.10
0.30
0.30 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.10 0.10 0.08
0.50 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03
where the meaning of individual dimensions and the type of design are defined on the following illustration:
Note: Parameters of implementation of operational force can be described in the calculation in two ways. The first
way is to enter a coefficient of implementation of operational force [2.18]; the second is to enter the exact distance of
the point of action of the operational force from the head/nut of the bolts [2.19, 2.20]. The way is determined by
setting the switch at the respective row. The second way gives more exact results in case of connection with more
connected parts made of different materials.
2.22 Special modification of the connection.
Select the corresponding joint design from the list. Special modifications of the joint are used to increase the fatigue
strength of the bolt.
Hint: Detailed description of the special modifications of a joint are available in the chapter "Causes of failures of bolt
connections, increase in loading capacity of the bolt".
2.23 Thread design.
The way of calculation of production of the thread significantly affects the fatigue strength of the connection bolt. As
far as fatigue loading, the cut thread gives the worst results. Special (additional) modifications of the threads are used
to increase the fatigue strength of the bolt. You will find their description in the paragraph "Technological
modifications of the connection" of the chapter "Causes of failures of bolt connections, increase in loading capacity of
the bolt".
Recommendations: If you do not know the method of production of the thread, select a cut thread.
2.24 Desired service life of the connection.
Select the required service life of the joint from the list in working cycles.
The fatigue strength of the jointing bolts declines with the increase of the number of working cycles. In the case of
steel bolts, this strength declines to the level of about 10 6 operational cycles. In the area of required service life
greater than 106 operational cycles, the material fatigue limit remains and the strength of the jointing bolt remains
almost constant.
2.25 Desired reliability of the connection.
The coefficient of reliability is, in principle, a percentage of the service life and expresses the probability of trouble-free
operation of the connection. In mechanical engineering, reliability is usually considered to be between 80 and 99.9%.
A value of desired reliability higher than 99.9% is used only with very important equipment, whose failure could pose
a threat to human lives or high material losses. In case of common bolt connections with a variable loading, the value
of reliability between 95 and 99.5% is usually chosen.
Constructional principles for design of connections exposed to variable loading are given in the chapter "Causes of
failures of bolt connections, increasing loading capacity of bolts".
Note 1: For connections where additional bending stresses appear (see [2.8]), higher safety values are required (2 ...
3).
Note 2: Substantially higher safety values are used for connections exposed to shocks, used in a corrosive
environment or at high temperatures.
Note: This parameter is insignificant for calculation of rigidity according to VDI 2230 (see the chapter "Setting,
change the language").
3.2 Number of clamped parts.
Select the number of clamped parts in the selective list. Define their dimensions in the table [3.6].
3.5 Total height of the clamped parts.
The total height of the clamped parts is considered as the distance between the head of the bolt and the nut. If the
bolt connection is provided with washers, it is necessary to include the thickness of the washers in the total clamping
height.
3.6 Material and height of the connected parts.
Enter the height and material of the clamped parts in the table. The connected parts are arranged in the table
successively going down from the head of the bolt.
The meaning of parameters in the table:
Increase of the operational prestressing of the connection due to heating of the connection to
operating temperature:
Solution - A suitable constructional modification of the connection, e.g..:
- ensure uniform heating of the bolt and the connected parts
- increase elastic pliability of the connection by reducing the diameter of the bolt shank or inserting a spacing
pipe between the nut and the connected parts
- use bolts with high strength
Note: Automatic design functions only for standardized types of threads (see [4.11]).
Warning: In case of use of automatic design of the bolt, the data are preset in the paragraphs [4.19, 4.29] according
to the above-mentioned rules.
4.19 Design and geometry of the bolt.
Sometimes it may be suitable, from a technological or constructional viewpoint, to use a special bolt in the connection
instead of a common prismatic bolt with several different cross- sections. For example in cases of request for accurate
connection of the parts using fitted bolts or when using the connecting bolt with shortened stem to reduce the
influence of the additional bending tensions. Pliable bolts with special treatment are also frequently used with
connections exposed to a variable loading.
This paragraph can be used to define these special bolts. The number of sections of a bolt with different cross-
sections is entered in the row [4.23], the length and diameter of the particular section is defined in rows [4.26, 4.27].
Individual sections of the bolt are numbered in increasing order from the nut of the bolt.
Outer diameter of seating face (contact surface) [4.32] - The diameter is preset for a common
standardized bolt with a hexagonal head according to the size of the thread selected in [4.11].
Inner diameter of seating face (contact surface) [4.33] - The diameters coincident with the diameter of
the hole is preset in accordance with the most frequently used design.
Note: If you wish to enter your own values for some of the above-mentioned dimension, first it is necessary to
disable the check mark box in the row [4.30].
4.30 Design of seating faces below heads (nuts) of bolts.
In case of bolt connections, three basic types of designs of seating surfaces below heads (nuts) of bolts are used.
A. Annulus seating face.
The most common and natural case of contacts in bolt connections with normal nuts if the seating surfaces
are perpendicular to the axis of the bolt.
Note: Individual designs differ, above all, as regards the technology and areas of utilization. In view of the design of
a prestressed bolt connection, various designs of contact surfaces have no substantial effects on the calculation itself
and differ only in the amount of friction moment below the head (nut) of the bolt and hence in the amount of
necessary tightening torque.
where:
F0 - mounting prestressing of the connection
L1 - deformation (elongation) of the bolt due to mounting prestressing
L2 - deformation (squeezing) of the clamped parts due to mounting prestressing
c1 = tg 1 - constant of stiffness of the bolt
c2 = tg 2 - constant of stiffness of the clamped parts
Fa - maximum operational axial force loading the connection
F1 - the part of the axis component of the operational force additionally loading the bolt
F2 - the part of the axis component of the operational force relieving the clamped parts
F1 - maximum internal axial force in the bolt
F2 - residual prestressing of clamped parts of the connection
The given diagram is compiled with the presupposition that the points of inputs of the external axial loading are
situated at the ends of the clamping length, in seating surfaces below the head and nut of the bolt. However, in reality
the axial forces act usually on points situated inside the clamped parts (see The factor of implementation of the
operational force [2.17]). This causes changes in the ratio of stiffness between the loaded and relieved parts of the
connection, hence changes in the angles 1 a 2.
5.21 Coefficient of tightness (prestressing) of the connection.
This coefficient gives the ratio between the residual prestressing of the clamped parts of the connection [5.19] and
the maximum axis operational force [5.7]. Detailed information can be found in [2.1].
Note: The coefficient of tightness of the connection has no meaning for connections loaded with radial forces only.
5.22 Safety against side shift.
This coefficient of safety gives the ratio between the actual residual prestressing in the connection [5.19] and the
minimum (theoretically calculated) clamping force [5.9] necessary for full transfer of the radial force. Detailed
information can be found in [2.2].
Note: This safety has no meaning for connections loaded with axial forces only.
where:
- tensile stress in the bolt core for the maximum axis force
b - additional bending stress
- torsional stress in the bolt core for the tightening torsional moment
k - reduction coefficient (see the chapter "Setting, change the language")
If the designed bolt has to meet all requirements of the strength check, the resulting level of safety [6.8] must be
higher or equal to the desired level of safety [2.4].
6.9 Strength check of connections in the assembly state.
The strength check is executed by comparing the resulting reduced stress in the bolt core [6.12] with the yield point
of the material of the bolt. According to the general recommendations, the comparative stress should not exceed 90%
of the yield point.
The reduced stress is calculated according to the formula:
where:
0 - tensile stress in the bolt core for the assembly preload
b - additional bending stress
- torsional stress in the bolt core for the tightening torsional moment
6.14 Check of pressure in seating face of the bolt head.
If the designed bolt connection has to meet specifications of the check, the pressure in the seating surface [6.15]
must be lower than the permitted pressure in the marginal connected part [6.16]. If the designed connection does not
meet the specifications, modify the design so that the head (nut) seating surface is enlarged.
6.17 Strength check of connections for maximum prestressing.
If there is a decline in the prestressing of the joint due to temperature change [5.16] or subsidence of a joint [5.17],
the bolt may be exposed short-term to a substantially higher load than the one for which it was tested in the
paragraph [6.1]. In such case, it is suitable to also consider testing the bolt for this maximum load. The peak of the
resultant stress should then not substantially exceed the yield point of the bolt material.
where:
Sy - yield point of the material of the bolt
f - fatigue limit
0 - stress in the thread core from prestressing of the connection
A - amplitude component of limit fatigue strength of the bolt for the given course of loading
m - medium stress of the operational cycle in the thread core
a - amplitude component of the stress of the operational cycle in the thread core
Also in case of a dynamically loaded connection, the designed bolt must meet requirements of the "static" check at the
yield point for loads from the maximum axis force [6.1].
7.1 Strength check in the thread core.
Resistance against a possible fatigue break of the connection bolt is considered on the basis of the resulting coefficient
of dynamic safety [7.10]. This level of safety evaluates the position of the bolt in view of variable tensile stress and is
defined as the ratio between amplitude components of the stress of the limit cycle A and the operational cycle a. If
the designed bolt has to meet all requirements of the strength check, the resulting safety level [7.10] must be higher
or equal to the desired safety level [2.26].
Warning: This strength check does not take into account any effects of additional bending stress (see [2.8]), which
may very negatively affect the fatigue strength of the bolt. Therefore, it is necessary, particularly with connections
loaded with variable loading, to eliminate as much as possible the creation of bending stress by using suitable
constructional modifications, or by taking its presence into account when considering the dynamic safety of the
connection.
7.6 Basic fatigue limit.
Theoretically calculated fatigue limit in tension of a smooth rod with a circular diameter of the selected material of the
bolt, loaded with an alternate axial loading.
7.7 Fatigue limit with a limited service life.
Fatigue limit in tension of the designed bolt material for the desired service life of the connection [2.24].
7.8 Corrected fatigue limit in tension of the given bolt.
Fatigue limit in tension of the designed bolt. Corrected value of the basic fatigue limit [7.7] with regards to the
selected design of the connection [2.22, 2.23], type and dimensions of thread [4.11] and desired reliability of the
connection [2.25].
Note: The value of the corrected fatigue limit is determined theoretically using empirically acquired coefficients. If you
have more precise data for the given bolt, which are based on fatigue tests, you can enter such data upon selecting
the check box located on the right side of the input field.
7.11 Strength check in the reduced shank.
In the case of shoulder bolts, a fatigue fracture sometimes occurs at the point of transition to the reduced shank.
This strength test is done according to the same principles as the test in the thread core. The corrected fatigue limit
[7.14] shall however be higher in the case of this test. If the designed bolt has to meet all requirements of the
strength check, the resulting safety level [7.16] must be higher or equal to the desired safety level [2.26].
Warning: This strength check does not take into account any effects of additional bending stress (see [2.8]), which
may very negatively affect the fatigue strength of the bolt. Therefore, it is necessary, particularly with connections
loaded with variable loading, to eliminate as much as possible the creation of bending stress by using suitable
constructional modifications, or by taking its presence into account when considering the dynamic safety of the
connection.
7.14 Corrected fatigue limit in tension of the given bolt.
Fatigue limit in tension of the designed bolt. Corrected value of the basic fatigue limit [7.7] with regards to the
selected geometry of the bolt [4.19] and desired reliability of the connection [2.25].
Note: The value of the corrected fatigue limit is determined theoretically using empirically acquired coefficients. If you
have more precise data for the given bolt, which are based on fatigue tests, you can enter such data upon selecting
the check box located on the right side of the input field.
1.4 to 1.6 Torque-controlled tightening with hydraulic tool. Setting via pressure mea
Torque-controlled tightening with torque wrench, signalling wrench or Experimental determinat
1.4 to 1.6
motorized nut-runner with dynamic torque measurement. member (for example, by
Torque-controlled tightening with torque wrench, signalling wrench or
1.6 to 2.0 motorized nut-runner with dynamic torque measurement.
For friction coefficient =0.08~0.16
Determination of the req
Torque-controlled tightening with torque wrench, signalling wrench or coefficient (surface and lu
1.7 to 2.5 motorized nut-runner with dynamic torque measurement.
For friction coefficient =0.04~0.10
Information on options of 2D and 3D graphic outputs and information on cooperation with 2D and 3D
CAD systems can be found in the document "Graphic output, CAD systems".
Additional bending stress in the bolt due to shape and position deviations of the bolts and nuts.
Solution - Bending loading can be eliminated using ball washers, longer bolts with shafts with reduced diameters
and parallel machining of the connected surfaces.
Loss of prestressing caused by thermal elongation or plastic deformation of the bolt and connected parts.
Solution - Use high-strength pliable bolts. Do not use soft washers, but rather hard tempered washers to
eliminate seating as much as possible.
Solution - Suitable technological and constructional modifications to increase the loading capacity of the bolt
(described in detail in the following chapter).
Technological and constructional modifications to increase the loading capacity of the bolt
Fatigue breaks occur in parts exposed to variable loading, usually at points of stress concentration (in places of
constructional notches), though the value of the nominal stress is well below the ultimate strength. Statistics shows
that of the total number of evaluated standardized bolts, breaks occur in 65% of bolts at the point of the first load
carrying thread, in 20% at the run-out of the thread and in 15% at the place of the transition of the shaft into the
head of the bolt. The above-mentioned classification of frequencies of fatigue breaks shows some evident critical
points which must be taken into account with designs of dynamically loaded connections.
Constructional modifications of the connection:
Use of pliable bolts instead of common standardized bolts.
In view of reduction of the amplitude component of the stress, it is advisable to design a connection with as
high a ratio of stiffness c2/c1 as possible. Hence the bolt has to be elastic and the stiffness of the connected
parts as high as possible. Pliable bolts are modified using a reduction in their diameters, or drilling or elongation
of their shafts.
Decreasing the notch coefficient in the run-out of the thread with a rounded transition into a shaft with a
reduced diameter.
Increasing the transition radius from the head to the shaft.
If possible, do not use threads with fine spacing.
If possible, do not use bolts of large diameters.
It is advisable to use two smaller bolts instead of one big bolt.
Suitable constructional design of connections with stud bolts.
It is advisable to design a connection with overlapping threads of the bolts in open holes. In case of blind holes,
it is better to use a stud bolt with a nut bearing against the hole bottom instead of a common bolt with a head.
The most advantageous case is to use a stud bolt with a ball end or a small ball inserted.
The group connection is then designed as an independent bolt connection exposed to the axial force F ai.
Loading of the connection by a force inclined to the contact surface running through the centre of
gravity of the connection.
The external force is decomposed into component F a, perpendicular to the contact surface, and component F r, parallel
to it. The connection bolts will be loaded uniformly, thus:
Axial loading falling on one bolt:
The group connection is then designed as an independent bolt connection exposed to a combined loading from the
axis force Fai and the cross force Fri.
Loading of the connection by a force inclined to the contact surface not running through the connection
gravity centre.
The external force is decomposed into component F a perpendicular to the contact surface and component F r parallel to
it, acting on the centre of gravity of the connection:
The condition of non-deviation of the left margin of the basic plate causes the minimum needed stress:
where e.g. for a rectangular contact surface the contact surface "A" of the connection and the sectional module "W"
can be determined using the relations:
where:
a - length of the connection
b - width of the connection
When designing a connection, it is also necessary to determine maximum values of partial forces acting on one bolt.
Axis forces in bolts from force Fa:
The group connection is then designed as an independent bolt connection exposed to combined loading from axis
force Famax and cross force Fri. It is also necessary not to forget to check the designed prestressing of the connection
[5.17] with regards to minimum necessary prestressing F0min, determined using the condition of non-deviation of the
margin of the basic plate.
Loading of a connection by a force lying in the plane of the connection running through the centre of
gravity of the connection.
The group connection is then designed as an independent connection exposed to cross force F ri.
Loading of the connection by a moment in the plane of the connection.
If circular flanges are exposed to a torsional moment only, individual bolts will be exposed uniformly to the radial
force:
The group connection is then designed as an independent bolt connection exposed to cross force F ri.
Loading of the connection by a force running through the centre of gravity and a moment in the plane of
the connection.
The cross force acting in the centre of gravity of the connection is distributed uniformly to all bolts:
The torsional moment causes loading of each individual bolt by a radial force:
The resulting force acting on one bolt is a vector sum of partial forces F ri, FMi. The group connection is further
designed as an independent bolt connection exposed to maximum cross force F rmax.
where:
- tensile stress in the bolt core for the maximum axis force
b - additional bending stress
- torsional stress in the bolt core for the tightening torsional moment
k - reduction coefficient
The reduction coefficient may have values in the interval <0..1>. For variable "0", the torsional stress is completely
neglected and the bolt is tested only in terms of tensile stress (a method usually used in literature in the USA). For
variable "1", the strength test on the contrary includes the total size of the torsional stress from the tightening torque
(this procedure favours safety and is often stated in older European literature).
Recommendations: The VDI 2230 Standard recommends the size of the reducing coefficient k=0.5.