Aircraft Instruments Guide

AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS :
1:ENGINE
INSTRUMENTS
2: NAVIGATION
INSTRUMENTS
3 : FLIGHT
INSTRUMENTS
provided by capt javidpour 1

A:Pitot/static
instruments
Flight B:magnetic compass

INSTRUMENTS
C:Gyroscopic flight
instruments
Airspeed
indicator
PITOT/STATIC
(PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL) Altimeter
INSTRUMENTS
Vvi/vsi
Vertical velocity indicator/
Vertical speed indicator

AND
WHATIS THE AIR
PRESSURE ?
WHAT IS THE AIR PRESSURE ?

Air
consist
Of:

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

ATMOSPHERIC MASS
BY ALTITUDE

WEIGHT
OF THE
AIR
Aneroid barometer

Because pressure and temperature
always changes during days , weeks,.
so
To provide a common reference
for pressure and temperature
ISA has been established
ISA
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD
ATMOSPHERE 12
provided by capt javidpour
1-Mean Sea Level
2-Surface Temperature 15C /59F
3-Surface pressure 29.92 in.hg/1013.25mb/14.7Lb sqin/760MM/2116LB/sqft
l tt
/
4-Density or Air property of 1225g/m/0.0765Lb/F/0.002378Slug/F

5-Standard Pressure laps rate 1000ft altitude 1in.hg of pressure
6-Standard Temperature laps rate 1000ft altitude 2c of Temperature
7-Tropopause ALT 36000Ft(at mid LAT)

8-Tropopause Temperature 57
1 in.hg = 33.863 mb provided by13capt javidpour

Standard
Laps
Rate
14 provided by capt javidpour
STATIC
TRUE
OUTSIDE
AIR
AMBIENT
SURRONDING PRESSURE
ACTUAL

Static
ports

PITOT
IMPACT
EXERTED AIR
RAM
DAYNAMIC
PRESSURE

pitot
tube
Air speed
indicator
Pitot = Dynamic + Static
P=Dy + S
Pt = Total Pitot pressure =S + q
q=Dy = v
Pt =S+ v

( v+ S ) S =
Dy= v
S
Airspeed
S S
( v + S )
S
Airspeed indicator
Displays the speed of your airplane
Through the air
by
Comparing
RAM air pressure
with
static air pressure
The greater the differential
The greater the speed

Indicated airspeed (IAS)
Is the reading you get directly from the

Air speed indicator
The recommended air speed for a

given situation is not affected
by altitude and temperature

Calibrated air speed (CAS)
Is IAS corrected for installation
(position) And instruments errors.

Difference between
IAS and CAS is greatest
at slow speeds
smallest at
cruising speeds
000000 0 0
O 00000000000
000000000 0 0 0 0 0 0
0000000000000
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
More
0000000000000000 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0
Less
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ISA
0000000000000000 0000000000000
Dense 000000000000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0000000000000000
00000000000000 00000000000 Dense
0 0 0 0 0 00
0 0 0 0 0
0000000000000 00000000000
00 000000 0 0 0
00000000
00 0 0
IAS IAS IAS

150kts 150kts 150kts
True air speed (TAS)
Is CAS corrected for altitude(pressure)
and nonstandard temperature.
TAS is the actual speed of your

airplane through the air.

For estimating TAS
Add 2% of CAS per

1000 feet of altitude
to CAS
Ground speed (GS)
Is TAS adjusted for wind
GS is your actual speed

Over ground.
Motion of the air
affects the speed
with which
airplanes move
over the
Earths surface.
Airspeed ,
the rate at which
an airplane moves
through the air ,
is not affected by
air motion.
35
At MSL & ISA
CAS=TAS
Air speed limitations
V - Speeds

In aviation, V-speeds or
Velocity-speeds are standard
terms used to define airspeeds
important or useful to the
operation of aircraft,

These speeds are derived from data
obtained by aircraft designers and
manufacturers during flight testing and
verified in most countries by
government flight inspectors during
aircraft type-certification testing. Using
them is considered a best practice to
maximize aviation safety, aircraft
performance or both.
VS :
Stall speed or minimum
steady flight speed
for which the aircraft is
still controllable
VSo
Stalling speed or minimum steady
flight speed in the landing
configuration.
In small airplanes ,this is power off stall speed at the
maximum landing weight in landing configuration
(Gear & flaps down)

VS1
Stalling speed or minimum
steady flight speed obtained in
a specified configuration.
In small airplanes ,this is power off stall speed at the
maximum takeoff weight in clean configuration
(Gear up , if retractable, & flaps up)

VNO
Maximum structural cruising speed or
maximum speed
for normal operations
Do not exceed it except in

smooth air
VNE
Never exceed speed
Operating above it may
result in damage or
structural failure.
Operating
=
Extending
and /or
Retracting
VFE
Maximum flaps extended speed
VFo
Maximum flaps operating speed
VLE
Maximum landing gear
extended speed
VLo
Maximum landing gear
operating speed
VFo VFE
VLo VLE
VA
Design manoeuvering speed
Is the maximum speed for
full & abrupt use of the
controls without risk of
structural damage
also known as the
"Speed for maximum control deflection.
This is the speed above which it is

unwise to make full application of any
single flight control as it may generate
a force greater than the aircraft's
structural limitations

VA
IT is Maximum speed
For flight in
TURBULENT
Conditions.
The heavier an
aircraft is loaded
the faster this speed.
Since VA Changes
with aircraft weight,
it is not marked on the
airspeed indicator.
Color Codes

White Arc
V to V
SO FE
Flaps Operating Range

Green Arc
V to
S1 V
NO
Normal Operating
Range
Yellow ARC
V V
to NE
NO
Caution Range

Red Line
V
NE
Never- Exceed Speed

Effect of
Blockage
Of the
Pitot / Static
System
On the
Air speed Indicator
Air speed
Indicator
Drop to
Zero
At Cruise
Last indication
IN Climb
Shows an
increase in speed
Over Reading
IN Descent
Shows a
Decrease in speed
Under Readin
provided by capt 62
javidpour
At Cruise
Correct
indication
IN Climb
Shows a
Decrease in speed
Under
Reading
IN Descent
Shows an
increase in speed
Over Reading
Instrument check
1- Before taxi, indicator reads zero
2- Direct strong wind, may

affect indicator
3- Increasing speed , during

initial T.O roll acceleration
Altimeter

Altimeter shows
ALTITUDE

What is the
ALTITUDE?
Altitude is vertical
distance
between AIRCRAFT,
and
a point ,a level ,or a
reference level .
Pressure level 28.05
28.05
ISOBAR 28.05
28.05 28.05 28.05 28.05 28.05

28.05 71
The altimeter measures the
vertical elevation of an object
above a given reference point.
(pressure level )

TYPES OF PRESSURE
25.00 QFE
26.00
27.00
FE= 4000
28.00
29.00 QNH
TYPES OF PRESSURE
QFE Station pressure
Station pressure corrected

QNH to MSL according to ISA
QNE 29.92,1013.25,.
middle
Short hand
hand
Cross
Hatch
Area
Altimeter
Setting
window
Long Barometric
hand provided by capt javidpour
scale
75
How does
ALTIMETER
Work?

24.00
-- 1000 25.00 0 QFE25.00
26.00 1000
27.00 2000
28.00 3000
29.00 4000
FE 5000 QNH 30.00 5000

Indicated altitude is:
the altitude measured
by your altimeter,
and
the one you will use
most often
during flight.
Calibrated Altitude is:
indicated altitude
corrected to compensate for
Installation
and
instrument
error.
True altitude is the actual
height of an object above
mean sea level (MSL).

During flight , true altitude, and indicated altitude
are all equal, but only with the correct altimeter
setting in a standard atmosphere.
On the ground ,true altitude will match

indicated altitude(field elevation)
when you set the altimeter to the local pressure
setting.
On aeronautical charts, the elevation figures for
fixed objects, such as airports, towers, and TV
antennas, are true altitudes.
The actual height of the airplane
above the surface over which it is
flying is referred to as:
absolute altitude.
This altitude varies with the
height of the airplane , as well as
the height of the surface.
Absolute altitude is commonly
referred to as height above
ground level (AGL).
84
Pressure altitude is the
height above the standard
datum plane when 29.92 is
set in the altimeter scale.

TALT A.ALT A.ALT
A.ALT
PALT HEIGHT
ELEVATION

Density altitude
Density altitude
1000
2000
6000 6000 3000
4000
5000
2000

Density altitude is
the pressure altitude
corrected for nonstandard
temperature .

QNE
FLIGHT LEVEL
TRANSITION LEVEL
(TL)
TRANSITION LAYER 500-2500 aboveTA
TRANSITION ALT
ALTITUDE (TA)
QNH
If you fly from an area of high
pressure to an area of lower
pressure without resetting
your altimeter, the altimeter
will indicate higher than the
actual (true) altitude.

If you do not reset your
altimeter when flying from
a low pressure area to an
area of high pressure, your
altimeter will indicate lower
than actual (true) altitude.
provided by Capt. m.h.javidpour
When atmospheric temperature is
higher than standard, pressure levels
are raised, and your true altitude is
higher than your indicated altitude.
When temperature is colder than
standard, pressure levels are lowered,
and your true altitude is lower than
your indicated altitude.

When flying
From HOT to COLD
or
From HIGH to LOW
Look out below

When flying
From COLD to HOT
or
From LOW to HIGH
Watch out sky

Effect of
static
blockage
on the
altimeter
INSTRUMENT CHECK
1 Set altimeter to current QNH
2 Check actual elevation with your Altimeter
3 The altimeter error less than 75 feet
is acceptable
FIELD ELEVATION
50 feet
75 feet

VERTICAL SPEED
INDICATOR
(VSI)
vertical velocity indicator
(VVI)
The vertical speed
indicator tells you how
fast you are climbing
or descending.

The VSI is capable of displaying two
different types of information
One is called trend , and the other is
called rate.
Trend information shows you an immediate
indication of an
increase or decrease in the airplane's rate of
climb
or descent . Rate information shows you a
stabilized rate of change.
Meridian
of
Longitude
East
180
West

Parallel
Of
latitude
North
90
South
Magnetic poles
are continually changing position
by a small amount
and at any point on the
earth's surface the
field is not constant,
being subject to changes
both periodic and Irregular.
Presently,
the north magnetic pole
is situated near
Hudson Bay (Canada) 82.7N 114.4 W,
and
the south magnetic pole near
Victoria Land (Antarctica)
at about 64.7S 138 E.
provided by captain M.H.Javidpour 118

Heading is
Angle between NORTH
And
CLOCKWISE
Longitudinal axis of aircraft

North
Heading

True North
True
Heading

Magnetic North
Magnetic
Heading

VARIATION
is :
The angle ,
measured in the horizontal plane,
between the magnetic lines of force
at a given point
on the earth' surface ,
and the true meridian at the same point .
Magnetic
meridians are
in red while
the lines of
longitude
and latitude
are in blue.
From these lines of variation (magnetic meridians), one
can determine the effect of local magnetic variations on a
magnetic compass.
MN is at West of TN
B So
VAR is WEST
TN MN
C
VAR is Zero
A
MN is at East of TN
So
VAR is EAST
TN
MAGNETIC
MN
VARIATION

MAGNETIC
VARIATION
EAST provided by capt javidpour 129

MAGNETIC
VARIATION
WEST provided by capt javidpour 130

ISOGONIC
LINES
Agonic
LINE

Lines of magnetic force flow out
from each pole in all directions, and
eventually return to the opposite pole.
A freely mounted bar magnet will align itself with

the magnetic axis formed by the north/south magnetic
field of the earth.

compass

The magnetic compass is a self-contained unit which
does not require electrical or suction power.
To determine direction, the compass uses a simple
bar magnet with two poles.
The bar magnet in the compass is mounted so it can
pivot freely and align itself automatically with the
earth's magnetic field.
Magnetic fields within the
aircraft may deflect the
compass magnets from their
intended alignment.
The direction in which the
compass needle actually
indicates North is called
Compass North.
COMPASS MN CN
DEVIATION

COMPASS MN
CN
DEVIATION

W
TC V = MC
E
MC D = CC
E
T V M D C
rue ariation agnetic eviation ompass
W+ E-
Earth' Magnetic
field
MAGNETIC
DIP
MAGNETIC DIP
When the bar magnet contained in
the compass is pulled by the earth's
magnetic field, it tends to point
north and somewhat downward.
The downward pull , called
magnetic dip,
Which is greatest near the poles and
diminishes as you approach the equator.
Within approximately 300 miles
of either magnetic pole, these
errors are so great that use of
the compass for navigation is
impractical.
In order to minimize the tilting force on the bar
magnet caused by magnetic dip, a weight is placed on
the side nearest the equator.
For aircraft that fly in the northern hemisphere , the
weight is placed on the south end of the bar magnet.
Unfortunately, the corrective

weight, as well as magnetic dip
itself, both contribute to
acceleration and turning errors.
COMPASS Magnetic variation
INHERENT Compass deviation
Acceleration error
Magnetic dip Deceleration error
ERRORS
Turning error

Magnetic
meridians are
in red while
the lines of
longitude
and latitude
are in blue.
From these lines of variation (magnetic meridians), one
can determine the effect of local magnetic variations on a
magnetic compass.
If you accelerate an airplane in
the northern hemisphere, the compass
shows a turn to the north
If you decelerate, it indicates a
turn to the south.
The error is most pronounced when
flying on headings of east or west
It doesn't occur when you are flying
directly on a north or south heading.
Turning error is directly
related to magnetic dip.
The greater the dip,

the greater the turning error.
In the northern hemisphere, a
magnetic compass will initially
indicate a turn to the west if a
right turn is entered from a
heading of north.
A left turn under the same
circumstances will cause a
magnetic compass to initially
indicate a turn toward the east.
Showing Movie
Acceleration Error
Deceleration Error
Turning Error
The magnetic compass provides
accurate indications only when you
are flying in smooth air and in
straight-and-level, unaccelerated
flight.
Gyroscopic
Instruments

Turn coordinator
Gyroscopic
Attitude indicator
Instruments
Heading indicator

Gyro:
???????

Gyros Components
OUTER
Rotor Gimbal
Ring
INNER

GYROSCOPE ROTOR

Gyroscopic
Properties:

1- Rigidity in space Or Gyroscopic inertia
A spinning mass( rotor)

Tends to maintain
its axis Pointing in
a fixed direction
( position) in space
and resists external
forces applied to it

2 Precession:
Tilting or turning of
gyro in
response
to
pressure

In order to provide accurate
instrument indications, a
source of power is required
to keep the gyros spinning.

Source Of POWER:
A - electrically powered
venturi.
B Vacuum(suction)
venturi+suction
Air is first drawn into the vacuum system through a filter
assembly . It then moves through the attitude and heading
indicators where it causes the gyros to spin. After that, it
continues to the engine-driven vacuum pump where it is
expelled. A relief valve prevents the vacuum pressure or
suction from exceeding prescribed limits.
The turn coordinator typically
uses electrical power while an
engine-driven vacuum pump is
used to power the attitude and
heading indicators.
What is the turn ?
Flying around a point
or
Flying on a circle or arc of that

What is the rate of turn ?
Number of degrees flown in

Period of time

Radius of a turn
is
The radius of a circle
that aircraft flies
around it
What is the relation
between radius and
rate of turn?

Radius of turn
Rate of turn
Rate of turn depends on:
TAS and Bank angle

With
Constant bank angle:
Radius of turn
As TAS increases
Rate of turn
vice versa
With
Constant TAS:
Radius of turn
As BA increases
Rate of turn
vice versa
Standard rate turn
(rate one turn):
360 in 2 minutes
or
3 in1sec
Half Standard Rate Turn:
360 in 4 minutes
or
1,1/2 in1sec
Estimating BA for performing
(rate one turn)
(TAS /10)+ 5
Turn
coordinator
The turn coordinator shows aircraft
yaw and roll movement.
Turn coordinator uses
Electrical Power
The turn coordinator
shows aircraft yaw and
roll movement.

Total
lift lift
VCL
Centrifugal
thrust
HCL drag
force
load
weight
Forces acting on aircraft

In the coordinated turn
CF HCL

Total
lift lift
VCL
Centrifugal
thrust
HCL drag
force
load
weight

In the slip
In slip rate of turn is
too slow for angle of
bank and aircraft yaw
to the outside of the turn
Ball moves to the inside
of the turn
CF HCL

Recovery From Slip
1 apply rudder pressure on the
side where the ball is deflected.
(Step on the ball)
(Increase rate of turn)
2 Decrease bank angle
or
Combination of all 2 above
Total
lift lift
VCL
Centrifugal
thrust
HCL drag
force
weight load

In the skid
In skid rate of turn is
too great for angle of
bank and aircraft yaw
to the inside of the turn
Ball moves to the outside
of the turn
CF HCL

Recovery From Skid
1 Step on the ball
(Decrease pedal pressure)
2 Increase bank angle
or
Combination of all 2 above
So turn coordinator indicates:
Turn
1- direction of turn(miniature airplane )
2- quality of turn (by the BALL)
3- quantity of turn (miniature airplane )
4- indirect indication(miniature airplane )

of bank
5- rate of roll (miniature airplane )
Coordinator provided by capt javidpour 235

Instrument check
1 The miniature airplane should
be level while the airplane is
stopped or taxiing straight ahead
and correct direction in the turn
2 BALL should be center and during
turns will swing to the outside
of the turn
3 Inclinometer should be full of fluid

General rules about slip &skid
1- The ball in inclinometer indicates position
of the aircrafts tail about its vertical axis.
2- HCL shows direction of the turn.
3-The ball in inclinometer is always to
the side of the largest component.
4- If ball is to the side of the turn , HCL is
largest one, and the aircraft is in slip.
5- If the ball is to the opposite side of the turn ,
CF component is larger than HCL ,
and the aircraft is in skid.
1 2 3 4 5 6
HCL CF A
HCL CF B
HCL CF C
CF HCL D
CF HCL E
CF HCL F
1 2 3 4 5 6
E C A D B F
HCL CF A
HCL CF B
HCL CF C
CF HCL D
CF HCL E
CF HCL F
Attitude
indicator
240
The attitude indicator
senses roll and pitch,
which is the up and down
movement
of the airplane's nose.
The miniature airplane
is adjustable and should
be set to match the
level flight indication of
the horizon bar.
Heading
indicator
You should align the heading indicator (right)with the magnetic compass(left)
before flight and check it at approximately 15-minute intervals during flight. When
aligning the heading indicator while airborne, be certain you are in straight-and-
level, unaccelerated flight, with the magnetic compass showing a steady indication,
a precession error of no more than 3 degrees in 15- minute
is acceptable for normal operation.

If you have any
problems
Thanks or
Please questions
in
do not the future
Forforget
your about
just call me
practicing and
Attention
09125211908
reviewing

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AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS :

provided by capt javidpour 1

Flight B:magnetic compass

provided by capt javidpour 3

WHAT IS THE AIR PRESSURE ?

provided by capt javidpour 6

provided by capt javidpour 7

provided by capt javidpour 8

provided by capt javidpour 10

4-Density or Air property of 1225g/m/0.0765Lb/F/0.002378Slug/F

7-Tropopause ALT 36000Ft(at mid LAT)

1 in.hg = 33.863 mb provided by13capt javidpour

provided by capt javidpour 16

provided by capt javidpour 17

provided by capt javidpour 18

provided by capt javidpour 23

The greater the speed

provided by capt javidpour 27

Is the reading you get directly from the

The recommended air speed for a

provided by capt javidpour 28

provided by capt javidpour 29

IAS IAS IAS

TAS is the actual speed of your

provided by capt javidpour 32

Add 2% of CAS per

Is TAS adjusted for wind

GS is your actual speed

provided by capt javidpour 38

provided by capt javidpour 39

provided by capt javidpour 42

provided by capt javidpour 43

Do not exceed it except in

This is the speed above which it is

provided by capt javidpour 51

provided by capt javidpour 54

Flaps Operating Range

provided by capt javidpour 55

provided by capt javidpour 57

Never- Exceed Speed

2- Direct strong wind, may

3- Increasing speed , during

provided by capt javidpour 67

provided by capt javidpour 68

28.05 28.05 28.05 28.05 28.05

provided by capt javidpour

provided by capt javidpour 72

QFE Station pressure

Station pressure corrected

provided by capt javidpour 77

provided by capt javidpour 78

provided by capt javidpour 81

On the ground ,true altitude will match

provided by capt javidpour 86

provided by capt javidpour 87

provided by capt javidpour 88

provided by capt javidpour 89

provided by capt javidpour 95

provided by capt javidpour 100

From HIGH to LOW

Look out below

Watch out sky