Introduction 1

1
I NTRODUCTION

With the tropical climate and unstable landforms, coupled

with high population density, poverty, illiteracy and lack of
adequate infrastructure, India is one of the most vulnerable
developing countries to suffer very often from various natural
disasters, namely drought, flood, cyclone, earth quake, landslide,
forest fire, hail storm, locust, volcanic eruption, etc. Which
strike causing a devastating impact on human life, economy
and environment. Though it is almost impossible to fully recoup
the damage caused by the disasters, it is possible to:
(i) minimize the potential risks by developing early warning
strategies,
(ii) prepare and implement developmental plans to provide
resilience to such disasters,
(iii) mobilize resources including communication and
telemedicinal services, and
(iv) to help in rehabilitation and post-disaster reconstruction.
Space technology plays a crucial role in efficient mitigation
of disasters. While communication satellites help in disaster
warning, relief mobilization and tele-medicinal support, earth
observation satellites provide required database for pre-disaster
preparedness programmes, disaster response, monitoring
activities and post-disaster damage assessment, and
reconstruction, and rehabilitation. The article describes the
role of space technology in evolving a suitable strategy for
disaster preparedness and operational framework for their
monitoring, assessment and mitigation, identifies gap areas
2 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
and recommends appropriate strategies for disaster mitigation
vis-à-vis likely developments in space and ground segments.
Various disasters like earthquake, landslides, volcanic
eruptions, fires, flood and cyclones are natural hazards that kill
thousands of people and destroy billions of dollars of habitat
and property each year.
The rapid growth of the world's population and its increased
concentration often in hazardous environment has escalated
both the frequency and severity of natural disasters. With the
tropical climate and unstable land forms, coupled with
deforestation, unplanned growth proliferation non-engineered
constructions which make the disaster-prone areas mere
vulnerable, tardy communication, poor or no budgetary
allocation for disaster prevention, developing countries suffer
more or less chronically by natural disasters.
Asia tops the list of casualties due to natural disaster.
Among various natural hazards, earthquakes, landslides, floods
and cyclones are the major disasters adversely affecting very
large areas and population in the Indian sub-continent. These
natural disasters are of (i) geophysical origin such as
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, land slides and (ii) climatic
origin such as drought, flood, cyclone, locust, forest fire.
Though it may not be feasible to control nature and to stop
the development of natural phenomena but the efforts could
be made to avoid disasters and alleviate their effects on human
lives, infrastructure and property. Rising frequency, amplitude
and number of natural disasters and attendant problem coupled
with loss of human lives prompted the General Assembly of the
United Nations to proclaim 1990s as the International Decade
for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) through a resolution
44/236 of December 22, 1989 to focus on all issues related to
natural disaster reduction. In spite of IDNDR, there had been
a string of major disaster throughout the decade.
Nevertheless, by establishing the rich disaster management
related traditions and by spreading public awareness the IDNDR
provided required stimulus for disaster reduction. It is almost
impossible to prevent the occurrence of natural disasters and
Introduction 3
their damages. However it is possible to reduce the impact of
disasters by adopting suitable disaster mitigation strategies.
The disaster mitigation works mainly address the following:
(i) minimise the potential risks by developing disaster early
warning strategies,
(ii) prepare and implement developmental plans to provide
resilience to such disasters,
(iii) mobilise resources including communication and tele-
medicinal services and
(iv) to help in rehabilitation and post-disaster reduction.
Disaster management on the other hand involves:
(i) pre-disaster planning, preparedness, monitoring
including relief management capability.
(ii) prediction and early warning.
(iii) damage assessment and relief management.
Disaster reduction is a systematic work which involves
with different regions, different professions and different
scientific fields, and has become an important measure for
human, society and nature sustainable development.
ROLE OF SPACE TECHNOLOGY
Space systems from their vantage position have
unambiguously demonstrated their capability in providing vital
information and services for disaster management.
The Earth Observation satellites provide comprehensive,
synoptic and multi temporal coverage of large areas in real
time and at frequent intervals and 'thus'-have become valuable
for continuous monitoring of atmospheric as well as surface
parameters related to natural disasters. Geo-stationary satellites
provide continuous and synoptic observations over large areas
on weather including cyclone-monitoring. Polar orbiting
satellites have the advantage of providing much higher
resolution imageries, even though at low temporal frequency,
which could be used for detailed monitoring, damage assessment
and long-term relief management.
4 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Introduction 5

The vast capabilities of communication satellites are DROUGHT

available for timely dissemination of early warning and real-
Drought is the single most important weather-related
time coordination of relief operations.
natural disaster often aggravated by human action. Drought's
The advent of Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSAT) and beginning is subtle, its progress is insidious and its effects can
Ultra Small Aperture Terminals (USAT) and phased-array be devastating. Drought may start any time, last indefinitely
antennae have enhanced the capability further by offering low and attain many degrees of severity. Since it affects very large
cost, viable technological solutions towards management and areas for months and years it has a serious impact on economy,
mitigation of disasters. destruction of ecological resources, food shortages and starvation
Satellite communication capabilities-fixed and mobile are of millions of people. During 1967-1991, droughts have affected
vital for effective communication, especially in data collection, 50 percent of the 2.8 billion people who suffered from all natural
distress alerting, position location and co-ordinating relief disasters and killed 35 percent of the 3.5 million people who
operations in the field. In addition, Search and Rescue satellites lost their lives due to natural disasters. Owing to abnormalities
provide capabilities such as position determination facilities in the monsoon precipitation, in terms of spatial and temporal
onboard which could be useful in a variety of land, sea and air variation especially on the late on set of monsoon, prolonged
distress situations. break and early withdrawal of monsoon, drought is a frequent
phenomenon over many parts of India. In India, thirty three
Table : Applications of space remote sensing in percent of the area receives less than 750mm rainfall and is
disaster management chronically drought-prone, and thirty five percent of the area
Disa st er P r even t ion P r epa r edn ess (Wa r n in g) Relief with 750-1125mm rainfall is also subject to drought once in
E a rt h qu a kes Ma ppin g geologica l Geodyn a m ic m ea su r emen t s L ocate strick en areas, four to five years. Thus, 68 percent of the total sown area
lin ea m en t s la n d u se ofst r a in a ccu m u la t ion m apd am age
Volca n ic To p o g ra p h i a n d D e te c tio n /m e a s u re m e n t o f Ma ppin g la va flows,
covering about 142 million hectares are vulnerable to drought
er u pt ion s la n d u se m a ps g a s e o u s e m i s s io n s ash falls a n d la h a rs,m ap conditions. India has faced three major droughts in this century-
d am age
La n dslides To p o g ra p h ic a n d Ra in fa ll,s lo p e s ta b ility M appin g slid e area
1904-1905,1965-66 and 1986-87. The 1987 drought had a lasting
la n d u se m a ps impact on one-third of the country. The role of space technology
F la sh floods La n d u se m a ps Lo c a l ra in fa ll m e a s u re m e n ts M ap flood d am age in drought mitigation is enumerated hereunder:
Ma jor floods F lood pla in m a ps; Region a l Ma p ext en t of floods
la n d u se m a ps r a in fa ll;eva pot r a n spir a t ion
Drought Preparedness
St or m su r ge La n d u se a n d la n d Sea st a t e;ocea n su r fa ce win d M ap exten t of d am age
cover m a ps velocit ies
Drought mitigation involves three phases, namely,
Hu r r ica n es S y n o p tic w e a th e r fo re c as ts M ap exten t of d am age
preparedness phase, prevention phase and relief phase. In case
Tor n a does Nowca st s; loca l wea t h er Loca l M ap am ou n t, exten t of
wea t h er obser va t ion s d am age of drought preparedness, identification of drought prone areas
Dr ou gh t Lo n g ra n g e d c lim a te m o de ls Mon it or in g veget a t ive information on land use and land cover, waste lands, forest
cover and soils is a pre-requisite. Space-borne multi spectral
biom a ss;

measurements hold a great promise in providing such

Nor m a l -Opera t ion a l or needs ver y litt le r esea rch
information.
Un der lined -Resea r ch an d developmen t requ ired
Drought Prediction
B o ld -Requ ir es im pr oved obser va t ion ca pa bilit y
Remote sensing data provide major input to all the three
Italics -Requ ir es im pr oved spa tia l or tem por a l resolu tion
types rainfall predictions; namely such as long-term seasonal
6 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
predictions, medium range predictions and short-term
predictions. Global and regional atmospheric, land and ocean
parameters (temperature, pressure, wind, snow, El-Nino, etc.)
required for long-term prediction, could be generated from
observations made by geo-stationary and polar orbiting weather
satellites such as INSAT and NOAA.
In the medium range weather prediction, the National
Centre Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) uses
satellite-based sea surface temperature, normalised difference
vegetation index, snow covered area and depth, surface
temperature, altitude, roughness, soil moisture at surface level
and vertical sounding and radio sonde data on water vapor,
pressure and temperature, and vertical profile data in the T86/
NMC model. In the short-range rainfall prediction also INSAT-
based visible and thermal data are being used.
Drought Monitoring
Drought monitoring mechanisms exists in most of the
countries using ground-based information on drought-related
parameters such as rainfall, weather, crops condition and water
availability, etc. Conventional methods of drought monitoring
in the various States in India suffer from limitations with
regard to timeliness, objectivity, reliability and adequacy
(Jeyaseelan and Thiruvengadachari, 1986). Further, the
assessment is generally, influenced by local compulsions. In
order to overcome the above limitations,-sponsored a project
titled 'National Agricultural Drought Assessment and
Monitoring System (NADAMS)' and sponsored by the Dept. of
Agriculture and Cooperation and Dept. of Space Dept. of Space
(DOS) was taken up by the National Remote Sensing Agency
in collaboration with the India Meteorological Department
(IMD), Central Water Commission (CWC) and concerned State
Government agencies.
The focus has been on the assessment of agricultural drought
conditions in terms of prevalence, relative severity level and
persistence through the season. Satellite-derived Vegetation
Index (VI) which is sensitive to vegetation stress is being used
as a surrogate measure to continuously monitor the drought
Introduction 7
conditions on a real-time basis. Such an exercise helps the
decision makers in initiating strategies for recovery by changing
cropping patterns and practices. Initially, NDVI derived from
NOAA-AVHRR data was used for drought monitoring biweekly
drought bulletins have been issued between 1989 to 1991, and
reports on monthly detailed crop and seasonal condition during
kharif season (June to October) have been brought out since
1992 at district level.
The project covers eleven agriculturally important and
drought-vulnerable States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat,
Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.
With the availability of Indian Remote Sensing satellite
(IRS) WiFS data with 188m spatial resolution, the methodology
is being updated to provide quantitative information on sowings,
surface water spread, and taluk / mandal /block level crop
condition assessment along with spatial variation in terms of
maps. The IRS WiFS-based detailed monitoring has been
opertionalised for Andhra Pradesh State in 1998, and
subsequently extended to Orissa and Karnataka.
Drought Relief
The State Governments are primarily responsible for both
short-term and long-term relief management. The NADAMS
provide detailed assessment of drought conditions for providing
short-term relief.
Long-term Management
Several chronically drought-affected districts in India
experience acute shortage of drinking and irrigation water. To
address this issue, a nationwide project titled 'Integrated Mission
for Sustainable Development (IMSD)' was taken up in
collaboration with other DOS centres and State Remote Sensing
Applications Centres. The project essentially aims at generating
locale-specific action plan for development of land and water
resources on a micro watershed basis in drought-prone areas
of the country using IRS data. In the first phase, 175 districts
covering 84 million ha has been covered (Rao,1998).
8 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
For providing safe drinking water to rural masses, a
nationwide project titled "National Drinking Water Technology
Mission", was launched by Department of Space (DOS) in
collaboration with other State Remote Sensing Applications
Centres, and Central Ground Water Board and State Ground
water Departments. Ground water potential maps showing
ground water prospect at 1:250,000 scale have been prepared
for entire country. The success rate achieved by drilling wells
through the use of remote sensing data has been found to be
much better than those achieved by conventional means.
Furthermore, as a follow-up large scale (1:50,000) mapping of
ground water prospects for Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerela under Rajiv Gandhi National
Drinking Water Mission is in progress.
CYCLONE
The intense tropical storms are known in different part of
the world by different names. In the Pacific ocean, they are
called 'typhoons', in the Indian ocean they are called 'cyclones'
and over North Atlantic, they are called 'hurricane'. Among
various natural calamaties, tropical cyclones are known to
claim a higher share of deaths and distruction world over.
Records show that about 80 tropical cyclones form over the
globe every year.
India has a vast coast line which is frequently affected by
tropical cyclones causing heavy loss of human lives and property.
Cyclones occurs usually between April and May (called pre-
monsoon cyclonic storms) and between October and December
(called post-monsoon cyclonic storms). While cyclonic storms
can't be prevented, the loss of lives and damage to the properties
can be mitigated if prompt action is taken after receiving timely
warnings.
Cyclone Warning
Meteorologists have been using satellite images for
monitoring storms for about thirty years. One of the most
important applications in this endeavour is to determine the
strength and intensity of a storm. In the late 1960's,
Introduction 9
meteorologists began observing tropical cyclones at more
frequent intervals. The infrared sensors aboard polar orbiting
satellites began providing day-and-night observations while
geo-stationary satellite provided the continuous coverage during
daytime. There exists a very efficient cyclone warning system
in India which is comparable to the best known in the world.
The approach essentially involves the prediction of the track
and intensity of the cyclone using conventional as well as
satellite and radar-based techniques (Kellar, 1997).
A network of 10-cyclone detection radar covering entire
East and West Coasts is being used for cyclone warning each
with a range of 400 km. When cyclone is beyond the range of
coastal radar, its intensity and movement is monitored with
the help of INSAT, and NOAA series of satellites. The INSAT
provides every three-hourly cloud pictures over the Indian
subcontinent. For precise location, every half-an-hour pictures
are used. Warnings are issued by the Area Cyclone Warning
Centers (ACWS) located at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay; and
Cyclone Warning Centers (CWC) located at Bhubaneswar,
Visakhapatnam and Ahmedabad. Around 100 disaster warning
systems have been installed in cyclone-prone villages of Andhra
Pradesh and Tamilnadu. It is planned to expand such facility
with another 100 DWS in Orissa and West Bengal on the East
coast. The DWC disseminates warning of impending event to
village administration, District Collector, State Government
officials, etc. The most memorable use of DWS system has been
during the cyclone that hit the Andhra Pradesh coast on may
9, 1990, in evacuating over 1,70,000 people. The information
helped saving thousands of lives and livestock in this area.
Additional DWS units are being established to cover the entire
coastal areas of the country.
Cyclone Management
The most striking advantage of the earth observation
satellite data has been demonstrated during the recent Orissa
super-cyclone event. A severe cyclonic storm with a wind speed
about 260 kmph hit the Orissa coast at Paradip on 29-oct-99
causing extensive damage to human life, property, live stock
10 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
and public utilities. The National Remote Sensing Agency acted
promptly and provided spatial extent of inundated areas using
pre-cyclone IRS LISS-III data collected on 11th October, 1999
and Radarsat Synthetic Aperture Radar(SAR) data of 2nd
November, 1999 since cloud-free optical sensor data over the
cyclone-hit area were not available.
The map showing inundated area as on 2nd Nov, 1999 was
drapped over topographical map, and was delivered to the
Orissa Government on 3rd Nov,1999. Information, thus
generated, was effectively used by various departments of Orissa
Government involved in relief operations. Subsequently, the
recession of inundated areas was also studied using Radarsat
and IRS data of 5th,8th,11th,13th and 14th November, 1999.
An estimated 3.75 lakh ha in Jagatsinghpur, Kendrapara,
Bhadrak, Balasore, Jajpur, besides Cuttack, Khurda and Puri
districts had been found to be inundated. In addition, the crop
damage assessment was also made and maps along with block-
wise statistics derived using pre-and post-cyclone NDVI image
from IRS WiFS data were also provided to Orissa Government.
FLOODS
India is the worst flood-affected country in the world after
Bangladesh and accounts for one-fifth of the global death count
due to floods. About 40 million hectares or nearly 1/8th of
India's geographical area is flood-prone. An estimated 8 million
hectares of land are affected annually. The cropped area affected
annually ranges from 3.5 million ha during normal floods to
10 million ha during worst flood. Flood control measures consists
mainly of construction of new embankments, drainage channels
and afforestation to save 546 towns and 4700 villages. Optical
and microwave data from IRS, Landsat ERS and Radarsat
series of satellites have been used to map and monitor flood
events in near real-time and operational mode. Information on
inundation and damage due to floods is furnished to concerned
departments so as to enable them organising necessary relief
measures and to make a reliable assessment of flood damage.
Owing to large swath and high repetivity, WiFS data from IRS-
1C and-1D hold great promise in floods monitoring.
Introduction 11
Based on satellite data acquired during pre-flood, flood and
post-flood along with ground information, flood damage
assessment is being carried out by integrating the topographical,
hydrological and flood plain land use/land cover information in
a GIS environment. In addition, spaceborne multispectral data
have been used for studying the post-flood river configuration,
and existing flood control structures, and identification of bank
erosion-prone areas and drainage congestion, and identification
of flood risk zones.
Flood Disaster Impact Minimization
Flood forecasts are issued currently by Central Water
Commission using conventional rainfall runoff models with an
accuracy of around 65% to 70% with a warning time of six to
twelve hours. The poor performance is attributed to the high
spatial variability of rainfall not captured by ground
measurements and lack of spatial information on the catchment
characteristics of the basin such as current hydrological land
use / land cover, spatial variability of soils, etc.
Incorporation of remote sensing inputs such as satellite-
derived rainfall estimates, current hydrological land use / land
cover, soil information, etc. in rainfall-runoff model subsequently
improves the flood forecast. Improvements in flood forecasting
was tested in lower Godavari basin in a pilot study titled
"Spatial Flood Warning System". Under this project, a
comprehensive database including Digital Elevation Model
(DEM) generated using Differential Global Positioning System
(DGPS), hydraulic/hydrologic modeling capabilities and a
Decision Support System (DSS) for appropriate relief response
has been addressed in collaboration with concerned departments
of Andhra Pradesh Government. Initial results have been quite
encouraging. The deviation in the flood forecast from actual
river flood has been within 15%.
EARTHQUAKE
Earthquakes are caused by the abrupt release of strain that
has built up in the earth's crust. Most zones of maximum
earthquake intensity and frequency occur at the boundaries
12 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
between the moving plates that form the crust of the earth.
Major earthquakes also occur within the interior of crustal
plates such as those in China, Russia and the south-east United
States. A considerable research has been carried out to predict
earthquakes using conventional technologies, but the results
to date are inconclusive. Seismic risk analysis based on historic
earthquakes and the presence of active faults is an established
method for locating and designing dams, power plants and
other projects in seismically active areas.
Landsat-TM and SPOT images, and Radar interferograms
have been used to detect the active faults (Merifield and Lamer
1975; Yeats et al.1996; Massonnet et al. 1993). Areas rocked
by Landers earthquake (South California) of magnitude 7.3
were studied using ERS-1 SAR interferometry which matched
extremely well with a model of the earth's motion as well as
the local measurements (Masonnet and Advagna 1993). Active
faults on the seafloor could also be detected by side-scan sonar
system (Prior et al, 1979).
The earthquake prediction is still at experimental stage.
Successful prediction of minor earthquake have, however, been
reported. Among the major earthquakes, Chinese scientists
predicted an earthquake 1-2 days ahead in 1975 (Vogel, 1980).
Information on earthquake is,generally, obtained from a network
of seismographic stations. However, very recently the space
geodetic techniques and high resolution aerial and satellite
data have been used for earthquake prediction. Space geodetic
technique with Global Positioning System (GPS) provides an
accuracy of a centimetre over 1000 km and, thus, helps in
measuring the surface deformations and monitoring accelerated
crystal deformations prior to earth quakes with required
accuracy.
Earthquake risk assessment involves identification of
seismic zones through collection of geological / structural,
geophysical (primarily seismological) and geomorphologic data
and mapping of known seismic phenomena in the region, (mainly
epicenters with magnitudes). Such an effort calls for considerable
amount of extrapolation and interpolation on the basis of
available data. There is also a tendency for earthquake to occur
Introduction 13
in "gaps" which are in places along an earthquake belt where
strong earthquake had not previously been observed.
The knowledge of trends in time or in space helps in defining
the source regions of future shocks (Karnik and Algermissen,
1978). Satellite imagery could be used in delineating geotectonic
structures and to clarify seismological conditions in earthquake
risk zones. Accurate mapping of geomorphologic features
adjoining lineaments reveals active movement or recent tectonic
activity along faults.
The relationship between major lineaments and the seismic
activity has been observed in Latur area of Maharastra, India.
Space techniques have overcome the limitations of ground
geodetic surveys/measurements and have become an essential
tool to assess the movement/displacements along faults/plate
boundaries to even millimetre level accuracy.
Using Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), it has
been possible to record accurately the plate movement of the
order of centimetre along baseline of hundreds of kilometre.
Similarly, satellite-based Global Positioning system (GPS) has
emerged as a powerful geodetic tool for monitoring (geological)
changes over time which is the key for understanding the long-
term geo-dynamical phenomena.
GPS has been particularly useful in measuring the more
complex deformation patterns across plate boundaries where
large and regional scale strain builds up. Plate movements,
slips along faults etc. have been measured using differential
GPS to an accuracy of sub-centimetres.
VOLCANIC ERUPTION
Many times precursors of volcanic eruptions have been
observed in various areas of volcanic activity. Ground
deformations, changes in the compositions of gases emitting
from volcanic vents, changes in the temperatures of fumaroles,
hot springs and crater lakes as well as earth tremors are
preceding volcanic eruptions. Thermal infrared remote sensing
has been applied for volcanic hazard assessment. However,
deficiencies of equipment and coverage suggest that thermal
14 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
infrared has not been adequately evaluated for surveillance of
volcanoes. The National Remote Sensing Agency has
demonstrated the potential of multi-temporal Landsat-TM
thermal band data in the surveillance of active volcanoes over
Barren island volcano which erupted during March 1991 to
September 1991 (Bhatacharya et al. 1992). In the last three
decades, aircraft and satellite-based thermal infrared (TIR)
data have been used extensively to detect and monitor many
of the active volcanoes around the world.
Repetitive coverage, regional scale, and low cost of thermal
infrared images from satellites make it an alternative tool for
monitoring volcanoes. Although the spatial resolution of NOAA
environment satellite is too coarse to record details of surface
thermal patterns, the plumes of smoke and ash from volcanoes
could be detected which is useful in planning the rehabilitation
of affected areas. Studies have shown that the upward migration
of magma from the earth's crust just before eruption inflates
the volcanic cone. Such premonitory signs can easily and quickly
be detected with the aid of differential SAR interferometry.
Extensive calibrations in a variety of test areas have shown
that by using this technique, changes on the earth's surface can
be detected to a centimetre accuracy.
LANDSLIDES
Aerial photographs and large-scale satellite images have
been used to locate the areas with the incidence of landslide.
Higher spatial resolution and stereo imaging capability of IRS-
IC and-1D enable further refining the location and monitoring
of landslides.
A number of studies have been carried out in India using
satellite data and aerial photographs to develop appropriate
methodologies for terrain classification and preparation of maps
showing landslide hazards in the Garhwal Himalayan region,
Nilagiri hills in south India and in Sikkim forest area.
Such studies have been carried out using mostly aerial
photographs because of their high resolution enabling contour
mapping with intervals of better than 2m in height. The
Introduction 15
availability of 1m resolution data from the future IRS mission
may help generating contour maps at 2m intervals making
thereby space remote sensing a highly cost effective tool in
landslide zonation.
CROP PEST AND DISEASES
One of the successful programmes where space technology
has been used in risk assessment from crop pests/diseases is
the Desert Locust Satellite Applications project of the UN/FAO
for the International Desert Locust Commission. Temporal and
spatial distribution of desert vegetation and rainfall derived
from NOAA-AVHRR data have been used to identify the
potential Locust breeding grounds.
In India, the desert locust is epidemic over 2 lakhs sq.km
spread over Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana states. Improved
desert locust forecasting system is being tried with the help of
satellite data by the locust warning organizations by narrowing
down the potential breeding areas to undertake aerial spraying
for arresting further growth of locust.
FOREST FIRE
Several thousands of hectares of forests are burnt annually
due to manmade forest fires causing extensive damage to forest
wealth. The behaviour of forest fire depends upon three
parameters: fuel, weather, and topography. Each parameter
has several characteristic parameters.
The most important task in the preparedness phase is to
assess the risk. For risk assessment variables such as land use/
land cover, demography, infrastructure and urban interface
are considered. Effective mitigation of forest fire involves fuel
(land cover, weather, terrain, vegetation type and moisture
level) mapping, identification of fire risk areas, rapid detection,
local and global fire monitoring and assessment of burnt areas.
The analysis of near-real time low spatial resolution (1km)
and high repetivity data from NOAA and high spatial resolution
data with low repetivity from earth resources satellites could
provide the information on areas under fire. The IRS satellite
16 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
data have been used for monitoring forest fires over Nagarhole
Wild Life Sanctuary of Southern India.
CONCLUSIONS
Apart from loss of human lives, natural disasters inflict
severe damage to ecology and economy of a region. Space
technology has made significant contribution in all the three
phases, i.e. preparedness, prevention and relief of disaster
management. With a constellation of both INSAT and IRS
series of satellites, India has developed an operational
mechanism for disaster warning especially cyclone and drought,
and their monitoring and mitigation. However, prediction of
certain events likes earthquake, volcanic eruption and flood is
still at experimental level. Developments in space-based earth
observation and weather watch capabilities in future may help
refining existing models/approaches for prediction of such events
and their management.
Disaster Risk Management Programme 17
2
DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME
Through Participation of Communities and Local Self
Governments Summary of the Programme: UNDP has been
supporting various initiatives of the central and state
Governments to strengthen disaster management capacities
for nearly a decade. UNDP proposes to accelerate capacity
building in disaster reduction and recovery activities at the
national level and in some of the most-vulnerable regions in
the country through community-based and gender sensitive
approaches with two sub-national Networking Hubs. It is
designed to assist the states in the country, which are most
prone to natural disasters such as Gujarat, Orissa, Bihar, Tamil
Nadu, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh,
Uttaranchal, Assam, Meghalaya and Sikkim. The thematic
focus will be on awareness generation and education, training
and capacity development for mitigation and better
preparedness in-terms of disaster risk management and recovery
at community, district and state levels, and strengthening of
state and district disaster management information centers for
accurate and timely dissemination of warning. Specialized
support to Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) would be provided
to enable them to set up the institutional and administrative
system for disaster risk management.
The overall goal of the programme is "S ustainable Reduction
in Disaster Risk in some of the most hazard-prone districts in
the selected States of India".
Eastern and Western India have been suggested as the
preferred locations of the two Networking Hubs for disaster
18 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
risk management as they are strategically located in terms of
lessons learnt from the disasters they have experienced in the
past. They have all the features of 'disaster-prone' areas given
their high degree of vulnerability. These two networking hubs
will also facilitate better liasioning with state counterparts and
would contribute to UNDP's national efforts in strengthening
capacities for disaster risk management. This programme would
also dovetail all national programmes supported by UNDP,
especially pro-poor initiatives, uncertainty reduction, and
vulnerability adaptation and assessment under the UN
Framework for Convention on Climatic Change. To achieve the
programme results, resources required for the DRM programme
in 125 most-hazard prone districts of 12 States would be
approximately US$ 27 million over a period of six years.
This programme forms the nucleus of a much larger
programme for which resources would be mobilized under a
multi-donor framework constituted by Govt of India to achieve
the overall goal of the programme.
Govt of India-UNDP have earlier approved US$ 2 million
from CCF-I to initiate the programme in 28 districts of Orissa,
Bihar and Gujarat along with national level capacity building
support to the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).
The Community based approach that was envisaged in the
programme has been well-received by communities, Panchayati
Raj Institutions (PRIs) and State Governments in the 3 pilot
states in Phase I, where successful partnerships have been
established with Governments, civil society, as well as private
sector. A group of international and national experts evaluated
the approach and process under this programme, and rated it
as an effective and sustainable initiative. The team also noted
that the approach and scale make it a pioneering initiative.
Following the successful initiation of activities in Phase I, The
Government of India has formulated The National Disaster
Management Framework and Roadmap for the country with
UNDP support, making this programme a platform for future
National initiatives in disaster risk management. The
Government of India has taken initiative in mobilising resources
for this programme from bilateral and other funding partners.
Disaster Risk Management Programme 19
It is now proposed to utilize additional US $ 5 million for
(1) National and state level vulnerability reduction strategies
(2) development of risk and vulnerability reduction indices (3)
multi-hazard preparedness and mitigation plans in 45 districts
in ten most-disaster prone states of India.
Need for creativity, flexibility and multiple partnerships in
implementation of this Programme are crucial factors and thus,
MHA would execute the programme under National Execution
(NEX) guidelines with UNDP Country Office Support for the
resources from Country Cooperation Framework.
SITUATION ANALYSIS
The Indian sub continent is highly prone to natural disasters.
Floods, droughts, cyclones and earthquakes are a recurrent
phenomenon in India. Susceptibility to disasters is compounded
by frequent occurrences of manmade disasters such as fire,
epidemics etc. Between 1988 and 1997, disasters killed 5,116
people and affected 24.79 million every year. The changing
topography due to environmental degradation has also increased
the vulnerability of the country. In 1988, 11.2 % of total land
area was flood prone, but in 1998 floods inundated 37%
geographical area. Two major disasters that India has
experienced in the recent past are the Super cyclone in Orissa
(1999) and the Earthquake in Gujarat (2001).
Frequent disasters lead to erosion of development gains
and restricted options for the disaster victims. Physical safety-
especially that of the vulnerable groups-is routinely threatened
by hazards. These two major disasters have very clearly
illustrated that we need multi-hazard prevention, response
and recovery plans for natural hazards so that threat to human
life and property is minimized.
Disaster risk management is essentially a development
problem and thus any preparedness and mitigation planning
will have to be taken up in tandem with environmental concerns
that the country is facing today. The Government of India has
set up a National Committee on Disaster Management (NCDM)
under the Chairmanship of the Prime Minister. The
20 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
recommendations of this National Committee would form the
basis of national disaster risk management programme and
strengthening the natural disaster management and response
mechanisms. The High Powered Committee [HPC] on Disaster
Management was earlier constituted in August 1999. The
mandate of the HPC was to prepare Disaster Management
Plans at National, State and District level and also suggest
strengthening of existing arrangements. The recommendations
of the HPC relating to the distribution of relief and human
resource development that primarily concerns the States have
been communicated to the States for appropriate action. The
Ministry of Home Affairs in the National Government is the
new nodal ministry for disaster management.
Disaster management is deemed to be a 'state subject' and
different states have initiated efforts to strengthen their agencies
responsible for disaster management. Orissa State Disaster
Mitigation Authority (OSDMA) and Gujarat State Disaster
Management Authority (GSDMA) were constituted after two
major disasters that the respective states experienced. They
are autonomous agencies of the respective state governments,
and UNDP has been working closely with both these agencies.
UNDP's partnerships with the national and state
institutions have been based on the links that natural disasters
have with scarcity, inequality and vulnerability.
This Programme essentially aims at strengthening
community, local self-governments and district administrations'
response, preparedness and mitigation measures in some of the
most vulnerable districts [ref: Vulnerability Atlas, GoI] along
with states' and national response.
The key element of this programme is establishing linkages
between the Government and civil society response plans and
capacity building of Government institutions and the local self-
governments in disaster mitigation, preparedness and recovery.
Panchayati Raj and Urban Planning Institutions at all levels
in the selected districts would be directly involved in the
planning process to ensure sustainability of these initiatives.
A wide representation of women is envisaged in this project
Disaster Risk Management Programme 21
during the planning process. Self-help groups of women in the
programme areas would be directly involved in the disaster
risk management programme. This project will work closely
relevant Government departments and institutions at the
national and State levels. Learnings from this programme will
feed into the national capacity building programmes of the
Govt of India, and the global knowledge base on disaster risk
management.
PROGRAMME STRATEGY
UNDP intends to support national and state efforts in
disaster management with emphasis on the most multi-hazard
prone districts by strengthening the capacities of the
communities, local-self governments and districts to deal with
future disasters. This programme design is based on UNDP
support to the states of Orissa and Gujarat after the two
disasters these states experienced. There is a need for capacity
building at each level: community, and local self-governments
in both urban and rural areas, district and state administration
and national institutions.
On the basis of the Vulnerability Atlas prepared by Building
Materials Promotion and Technology Council (BMPTC),
Government of India, UNDP and Ministry of Home Affairs
have identified 199 multi-hazard prone districts in the country.
UNDP would focus on all multi-hazard prone districts in select
States, which are extremely vulnerable to natural hazards
such as Gujarat, Orissa, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal,
Maharashtra, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Assam,
Meghalaya and Sikkim for a comprehensive programme on
disaster risk management. In this programme, a multi-pronged
strategy would be adopted:
• Support to Ministry of Home Affairs for ensuring
administrative, institutional, financial and legal
mechanisms for disaster risk management.
• Support National Government [MHA] efforts in
strengthening its role in community and local self-
governments' preparedness and response, including
22 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
support to National Civil Defense College [NCDC] &
National Fire Service College [NFSC].
• Comprehensive disaster risk management programme
in the selected 125 most vulnerable districts falling in
Gujarat, Orissa, Bihar, Tamilnadu, West Bengal,
Maharashtra, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Assam,
Meghalaya and Sikkim in two phases.
These states are exposed to various natural disasters
and strengthening disaster prevention, response and
recovery in all multi-hazard prone districts would
minimize disaster risk. The programme components
would include the following:
— Development of state and district disaster
management plans.
— Development of disaster risk management and
response plans at Village/ Ward, Gram Panchayat,
Block/Urban Local Body levels.
— Constitutions of Disaster Management Teams and
Committees at all levels with adequate
representation of women in all committees and team.
(Village/ Ward, Gram Panchayat, Block/Urban local
body, District and State.)
— Capacity building of Disaster Management Teams
at all levels. Special training for women in first aid,
shelter management, water and sanitation, rescue
and evacuation, etc.
— Capacity building in cyclone and earthquake
resistant features for houses in disaster-prone
districts, training in retrofitting, and construction
of technology demonstration units.
— Integration of disaster management plans with
development plans of local self-governments.
The Super Cyclone (1999) and the floods of 2001 in Orissa
have many lessons to offer in design of effective disaster
management systems for cyclones and floods. Similarly, Gujarat
Disaster Risk Management Programme 23
has many best practices to offer in earthquake response and
recovery. UNDP has been working very closely with the key
stakeholders in these two states.
UNDP would support Governments, civil society
organizations and institutions in the programme states, in
replicating and enhancing the successful initiatives in
community based disaster reduction and recovery in Orissa
and Gujarat in the 125 most hazard-prone districts. Disaster
Risk Management can be addressed in three ways: structural
measures, non-structural measures and establishing failsafe
communication networks.
Structural measures would reduce the impact of disasters
and non-structural measures would enhance the management
skills and improve capacities of the community, local self-
governments, urban bodies and the State authorities to prepare,
prevent & respond effectively to disasters. Non-structural
measures are of utmost importance, and include vulnerability
mapping, risk assessment analysis, hazard zoning, inventory
of resources to meet the emergency, etc.
The project envisages the following:
• Appropriate specialized support to Ministry of Home
Affairs (MHA) for setting up the system and framework
for disaster risk management.
• Development of national/state database on vulnerability,
disaster risk management and sustainable recovery.
• Strengthening National and State Governments through
support for hardware and software for disaster risk
management and capacity building of institutions.
• Awareness campaigns on disaster mitigation and
preparedness for each programme state.
• Support to include disaster management in school
curriculum and schedule to drills in disaster prevention
and response for schools.
• Promoting partnerships with academic institutions and
private sector in development of disaster risk
management plans.
24 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
• Development of training manuals in Disaster
Management for District, Block, Gram Panchayat,
Villages/Wards for each State in vernacular languages.
• Capacity building activities for all stakeholders including
civil society organizations in the rescue, relief and
restoration in disaster situations, and the use of
equipment involved.
• District multi-hazard preparedness and mitigation plans
intergrating Block/ULB, Gram Panchayat, Village/Ward
plans which would involve vulnerability mapping, risk
assessment and analysis, hazard zoning, resource
inventory, response structure, etc
• Strengthening disaster management information centers
in programme states and districts for accurate
dissemination of early warning and flow of information
for preparedness and quick recovery operations.
• Dissemination of cost effective alternate technologies
for hazard resistant housing-including retrofitting/roof
top rainwater harvesting features as long-term
mitigation measures.
• Developing Vulnerability and Risk Indices, and annual
Vulnerability and Risk Reduction Reports for creating
benchmarks to measure disaster risk management. The
entire programme would be divided into two phases for
six years. In Phase-I [2002-2004], it is proposed to provide
support to Ministry of Home Affairs as National Nodal
Agency and intensive natural disaster risk management
activities in 28 most vulnerable districts of Orissa,
Gujarat and Bihar. 2 million USD would be available
from CCF I during this phase.
In Phase II [2003-2007], programme support would include
support to the 97 districts in the remaining states of Tamil
Nadu, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Delhi, Assam, Sikkim,
Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and Meghalaya and few more
districts of pilot states of CCF-I, initiating the Risk and
Vulnerability Indexing and reporting in all programme states,
and institutional support to Ministry of Home Affairs. Resources
Disaster Risk Management Programme 25
would be mobilized from donors to meet the shortfall in achieving
the programme objectives in all programme states and national
level capacity building initiatives.
Resource Mobilization Strategy
This programme would be initiated with US$ 2 million
from CCF-I and US $ 5 million from CCF-II and would form
the nucleus of a much larger Government of India initiative for
disaster risk reduction and sustainable recovery. MHA aims to
address the disaster risk management needs of the most multi-
hazard prone districts in 12 states of India through this
programme. The resources required for the programme would
be US$ 27 million approximately, over a period of six years.
Multi-donor meetings would be held by Ministry of Home Affairs
with UNDP support to mobilize funds for this programme.
GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
Goal: Sustainable Reduction in Disaster Risk in some of
the most hazard prone Districts in selected States of India
Indicators: The indicators of achievement of this goal
would be:
• Risk reduction factored in rapid disaster recovery.
• Disaster mitigated and development gains protected.
• Disaster risk considerations mainstreamed into
development.
• Gender equity in disaster preparedness.
PSO-I
National capacity building to institutionalize the system
for natural disaster risk management in Ministry of Home
Affairs.
PSO-II
Environment building, education, awareness programmes
and strengthening capacities at all levels in natural disaster
risk management and sustainable recovery. [ Development of
manuals and training modules, information, education and
26 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
communication materials and their dissemination, awareness
campaign strategy and implementation for disaster reduction
and recovery.]
PSO-III
Multi-hazard preparedness, response and mitigation plans
for disaster risk management at state, district, block, village
and ward level in 125 most multi-hazard prone districts of 12
selected states.
PSO-IV
Networking knowledge on effective approaches, methods
and tools for disaster risk management, developing and
promoting policy frameworks at State and National levels. The
activities envisaged are as follows:
Activities under PSO I:
• Supporting the Ministry of Home Affairs for
establishment of institutional, administrative, financial
and legal systems for disaster risk management, with
built-in mechanisms to ensure adequate representation
of women at community level.
• Capacity building of functionaries at National level to
sustain the programme.
• Support to NCDC and NFSC to strengthen them as
resource centers for disaster management.
• Exposure visits to understand the best practices in the
area of disaster risk management and sustainable
recovery.
• Support for outlining the development of policy
initiatives for disaster risk management in the country,
building on the work of High Powered Committee report,
and with a conscious effort to mainstream gender (by
giving special thought to the needs of women and
disabled persons in policy, in preparedness, mitigation
as well as response) and decentralization (by ensuring
PRIs' ownership in disaster management activities and
plans at community level) at all levels of disaster
management.
Disaster Risk Management Programme 27
Activities under PSO II:
• Consultations with National and State Governments,
NGOs, training institutions, private sector etc., at state,
district and sub-district levels for area specific disaster
reduction and recovery strategies.
• Finalization of districts for the programme in the selected
States.
• Sensitization of all stakeholders, including women
representatives and PRIs on the need for disaster risk
management and mitigation.
• Formulation of state specific awareness campaigns and
strategies for implementation for disaster risk
management in the selected districts (hazard specific
Do's and Don'ts, checklist for preventive measures, etc.)
• Awareness generation programmes at all levels including
all villages/wards in selected districts through
workshops/seminars/training, posters/leaflets, wall
painting, and observation of disaster risk management
day/week. At the community level, women volunteers,
village level functionaries and PRIs would be used to
organize the events.
• Development of school primers on disaster management,
training of teachers in curricula, preparedness and
response activities, mock drills in schools, etc.
• Development of manuals for District, Block, Gram
Panchayat, Community and Ward level for preparing
disaster risk management and response plans.
• Development of manuals for design and construction of
hazard-resistant houses in the selected districts.
• Development of user-friendly manuals for retrofitting,
roof top rainwater harvesting features, etc.
• Training of all stakeholders on the process of
development of village/ward based disaster risk
management and response plans.
• Manuals for training and orientation of Disaster
28 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Management Teams [DMT] at all levels in dissemination
of accurate warning, search and rescue operations, first
aid, water & sanitation, shelter management, counseling
and damage assessment for early response and recovery,
proper utilization and better coordination of relief
materials during crisis time. All manuals would address
disaster response and recovery needs of special groups
such as disabled persons, children, elderly people,
pregnant women, etc.
Activities under PSO III:
• Geographical Information System (GIS) based hazard
and vulnerability mapping along with risk modeling of
the 125 multi-hazard prone districts in the 12 programme
states.
• Identification and establishment of working networks
of nodal agencies and partners at different levels for
implementation of the programme. Formations of
committees to look at gender mainstreaming.
• Formation of State, District, Block, Gram Panchayat,
Village/Ward Disaster Management Committees [DMC],
which would include all concerned Government
Departments/functionaries, Senior Citizens, National
Cadet Corps (NCC), National Social Service (NSS),
Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan (NYKS), Zilla Sainik
Board, elected members (PRIs), NGOs, Community
Based Organizations (CBOs) and other civil society
response groups. Each DMC would have equal
representation of women, and at community level, would
include schoolteachers, disabled persons, village
volunteers and members of isolated hamlets.
• Vulnerability mapping and risk assessment in all the
multi-hazard prone districts with special emphasis on
vulnerability and risk of women, disabled persons and
children, to help in formulating gender equitable and
sustainable community plans for disaster preparedness.
• Development of disaster management plans at district,
block, municipality, gram panchayat, village/ward levels.
Disaster Risk Management Programme 29
Women and disabled persons, socially marginalised
sections, etc would be an integral part of the plan
preparation activity.
• Development of Inventory of resources at all levels for
speedy response during emergencies-use of GIS to project
the resources on the maps for immediate decision-
making.
• Development of disaster response structure from village/
ward to district level.
• Formation and training of Disaster Management Teams
[DMT] at all levels. Each DMT would ensure adequate
representation of women. Members of DMTs at all levels
would be sensitised to response and recovery needs of
special groups.
• Identification aprons and emergency response kits for
DMT members.
• Disaster Response Mock drills at all levels-National,
State, Districts, Block, Gram Panchayat and village/
ward levels.
• Installation of Information Technology (IT) based early
warning systems in the National Control Room, State
Control Rooms and District Disaster Management
Information Centers (control rooms) for dissemination
of accurate/user-friendly warnings.
• Enable citizen's access to disaster risk management and
development related information at District Disaster
Management Information Centers.
• Support to Districts: emergency kits [e.g. mobile control
rooms, boats, tents, etc.]
• Training of masons and engineers to upgrade their skills
in the construction of cost effective disaster resistant
houses and in retrofitting features. Women construction
workers would be encouraged to train as masons, and
training sessions would ensure women's participation
• Model technology demonstration units showing
30 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
retrofitting initiatives and rooftop rainwater harvesting
features as mitigation measures in the selected districts.
Participation of women would be encouraged. Activities
under PSO IV:
• National database on disaster risk management and
disaster response plans.
• Capability assessment and national training plan for
natural disaster risk management
• Capacity building of State Administrative Training
Institutions (ATIs) at National and State levels for
development of disaster risk management plans.
• Research and documentation on disaster risk
management indices for each State.
• Development of Risk and Vulnerability Reduction Indices
and annual reports.
• Documentation and sharing of best practices in India
in disaster risk management for wider circulation as
part of training curriculum.
• Development and use of a web-site linking DRM
Programme implementation partners (National and
State Governments, UNDP, etc) to share activities,
approaches, methods to mainstream disaster
management, gender, decentralization etc. and exchange
best practices and lessons learnt between States..
• Consultations and studies in disaster risk management
and global climatic change linkages.
• Development of GIS based disaster vulnerability
database for States and its use to generate risk and
vulnerability reports, to be used as policy instruments
to direct national and state policy on disaster risk
management.
RESULT FRAMEWORK
The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) is the nodal agency
for disaster risk management at national level, to ensure the
Disaster Risk Management Programme 31
sustainability of the all activities. This programme proposes to
provide capacity building support to nodal ministry.
The interventions are aimed at reducing the risk and
vulnerability of these states and districts towards different
natural hazards by involving all stakeholders, including NGOs,
Civil society organization and private sectors through proper
guidance from the nodal agency. The programme also aims at
enhancing the capacity of the functionaries to respond properly
during the time of emergencies. Expected results would be
higher degree of awareness starting from village to district to
state levels. Research centers and training institutions would
assist in developing a suitable strategy for each state and
advocacy for replication of the outcomes of the project in other
areas. It would also facilitate to establish networking among
all project states for sharing of information and helping each
other during the time of crisis. Simultaneously all control rooms
would be strengthened with equipments and operational
manuals to function as disaster management information
centers. Information Technology (IT) centers set up at the
district level would enable the community to have easy access
to information on disaster risk management along with meeting
other information needs of the community.
Following are the direct outcomes of the programme:
• Administrative and institutional framework developed
for Natural Disaster Risk Management Cell in Ministry
of Home Affairs.
• Enhanced capacity in Ministry of Home Affairs for
natural disaster risk management
• Disaster risk management cell with scientific warning
dissemination system at MHA able to provide adequate
and timely support to the implementing agencies.
• Comprehensive disaster risk management framework
and recovery strategies in 125 districts of 12 programme
states within proposed 6 years.
• Aware and informed community in 125 hazard-prone
districts on disaster risk management and mitigation.
32 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
• 125 multi-hazard prone districts have multi-hazard
disaster risk management, response and mitigation plans
based on vulnerability and risk assessment of women
and children towards natural disasters.
• Greater participation of elected women representatives
of local self-governments in 125 districts in the process
of disaster preparedness and risk management.
• Enhanced capacity of the government functionaries of
the nodal agency at the state level and in all selected
districts in developing and updating the risk
management and response plans for different hazards
from time to time.
• Enhanced capacity of women in First aid, Shelter
management, Water and Sanitation and Rescue
Evacuation.
• Well-equipped disaster risk management information
centers at selected States and Districts.
• Emergency kit at all selected districts of 12 states.
• Manual, training module and awareness strategies are
available for replication in other areas.
• Enhanced capacity of the training institutions for
training in disaster risk management.
• Trained skilled masons and engineers for hazard-
resistant housing.
• Models for dissemination of best practices in retrofitting
in roof top rainwater harvesting.
• Knowledge network for better involvement of
stakeholders
• National and State database on natural disaster risk
management developed.
• Vulnerability and Risk Reduction Reports prepared for
integration of vulnerable reduction into development
programmes to allocate resources more effectively to
the needy states.
Disaster Risk Management Programme 33
The following are indirect outcomes of the programme:
• Reduction of expenditure on disaster relief & increased
investment in preparedness measures.
• Sharing of disaster relief cost by the community.
• Self-reliant village, Gram Panchayat, Blocks and
Districts for preparedness.
• Convergence of services & links to area development
plans.
• People's awareness and participation increased.
• Access to information by the people.
• Cost reduction in housing construction.
MANAGEMENT ARRANGEMENTS
Execution arrangements
Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt of India would execute this
programme under National Execution [NEX] guidelines.
The programme involves partnerships at different levels
and with different stakeholders. It aims to reach most multi-
hazard prone states and districts and thus it has a multi-state
focus. The programme seeks to establish close partnership with
communities and civil society organizations. Programme
demands greater flexibility, creativity and innovative
approaches for natural disaster risk management. In view of
the complexities involved in the implementation.
Institutional Arrangements
• Coordination at the National Level: The Ministry of
Home Affairs, Government of India will be the nodal
agency at central level for smooth execution of the
programme supported out of Country Cooperation
Framework resources. There would be a Programme
Management Board (PMB) headed by the Secretary,
MHA to provide overall guidance to the programme.
Programme Steering Committee (PSC) headed by the
Joint Secretary [DM] in MHA would be constituted,
34 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
which will meet in every quarter to review the progress
of the programme.
• Monitoring at the State Level: In each state, a State
Steering Committee (SSC) headed by Chief Secretary
will review the programme at periodic intervals. The
committee may consist of executing agencies,
implementing agency and UNDP. A joint UNDP-Govt
of India assessment would be carried out to examine the
effectiveness of the programme at the end of each
programme year.
• The financial arrangement and audit would as per the
guidelines of Department of Economic Affairs, UNDP
guidelines and procedures established for Country Office
Support agreements.
The UNDP Country Office, Delhi would liaise with central
government for smooth implementation of the programme and
provide effective backstopping to the state offices for planning,
implementation, resource mobilization and financial
management.
Implementation Arrangements
The programme would be implemented by UNDP in
partnership with the state nodal institutions and NGOs in
Programme states and districts.
The national nodal agency, Ministry of Home Affairs would
be provided support to develop national disaster risk
management framework, strengthen the institutional,
administrative, techno-legal and legal systems for disaster risk
management. Nodal agencies in each of the twelve states would
be provided the support of one trained State Project Officer
specialist on Community Based Disaster Risk Management for
development of disaster risk management plans. For smooth
execution and to ensure sustainability, State nodal agencies
will take support of the existing training institutions/ resource
units in the state for up gradation of the disaster risk
management plan and the training capabilities of the different
stakeholders.
Disaster Risk Management Programme 35
In addition to this an Engineer specialist on disaster
resistant/ cost effective technology [National UN Volunteer]
would be provided to each programme district to strengthen
the technology transfer in housing sector training of masons
and engineers for hazard-resistant housing programme, model
retrofitting initiates and rooftop rainwater harvesting features.
Appropriate programme management system would be put in
place for effective implementation of the programme. The entire
programme would be overseen and managed by a senior
professional of proven project management capabilities. The
state offices would also facilitate in undertaking research
activities and providing support to each programme state with
training manual, guideline and development of database with
other UNDP supported programmes such as strengthening of
regional resource centers for Panchayati Raj Institutions,
support to ATIs under administrative reforms programme,
programmes in the energy and environment sector and all
community-based pro-poor initiatives etc.
Village/ward based multi-hazard preparedness and response
plans would be prepared by the local institutions and linkages
with the existing developmental programme would be
established to address the causes of vulnerabilities. Local-self
governments at all levels would be directly involved in these
exercises for sustainability of the programme in long term.
Disaster Management Specialists and experienced project
management professionals, who have expertise in disaster risk
management at the community levels in post-disaster situations,
would work with state and district governments, civil society
partners and communities.
Implementation Process
The disaster management plan would start from the village/
ward level and would be consolidated through similar planning
at the Panchayat, Block, District and Urban Local Bodies levels
in the selected districts. A cadre of village volunteers would be
created to carry out the village based natural disaster risk
management programmes in the select programme districts.
These Village Volunteers will be drawn from the community
36 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
with the help of civil society organizations such as NCC, NSS,
NYKS, Scouts and Guides and Civil Defence etc. The plans
would focus on the disaster risk prevention and early recovery
through community-based preparedness and response plans,
skill development for construction of hazard-resistant housing
and enhanced access to information as per the need of the
community. Information Technology Specialists would be
responsible for development of disaster database at state and
district levels for emergency response.
28 districts will be covered under the massive village based
disaster preparedness programme including development of
village contingency plan, Gram Panchayat, Block and district
disaster management plans and formation of Disaster
Management Committees and DMTs in the year of 2002-2004
and remaining districts will be covered by the end of 2007 in
phases. Under Phase-I, three states namely Orissa, Gujarat
and Bihar will be covered all vulnerable villages in the selected
28 districts for development of contingency plans.
Phase I: The programme will strengthen the disaster risk
reduction initiatives of the Ministry of Home Affairs [Govt of
India], the states of Orissa, Gujarat and Bihar and 28 districts
from these three states in first two years under CCF-I.
Environment building and initiation of the natural disaster
risk management programme will be also part of the programme
and initiated in all levels simultaneously in these three states
along with national and state consultation for strategy
development for sustainable recovery and massive awareness
campaign, transformation of technology, database etc. Some of
the activities will be taken up in the third year of the programme
implementation depending on the availability of resources.
Phase II: Remaining 97 most vulnerable districts in nine
states of India would be covered in Phase II depending on the
availability of resources under CCF II and resources mobilized
from donors for disaster risk management programme. The
State offices would provide required specialized programme
implementation support to strengthen the state nodal agencies
and civil society partners in the Programme states for
implementation of this programme. National Institute of
Disaster Risk Management Programme 37
Industrial Security, Hyderabad [CISF]/ State Administrative
Training Institutes would be entrusted to train the State
government functionaries, Civil Society response groups and
state taskforce on disaster management. Research centers and
academic institutions in different states would be engaged to
carry out studies of existing system for disaster response and
recovery in the state along with traditional coping mechanism
in the communities for development of appropriate strategies
and would be followed by field-testing.
The State Nodal Authorities, Panchayati Raj Departments
/ Urban Bodies and national organizations such as NYKS and
NSS would play major role in the implementation of the
programme.
The following activities will carried on in partnership with
state nodal agencies and civil society response groups.
Awareness Campaign Strategy
An effective disaster risk management campaign strategy
will be developed in consultation with all stakeholders of the
selected states for public education to take preventive measures
in the wake of natural hazards to minimize the loss. The state
nodal agency with the help of civil society response groups
would take up a massive awareness campaign through out the
selected districts for preparedness through rallies, mass meeting,
different competitions like essay, debate, drawing etc. among
school students, posters, leaflets. Similarly wall paintings will
be done in each village explaining Dos and Don'ts of various
disasters, showing the safe shelters and safe routes for
evacuation etc.
Gender equity in disaster preparedness and mitigation:
Special groups such as women, disabled persons,
children, etc. are more vulnerable in an emergency
situation and hence require special attention. The
programme will aim at strengthening capacities of
these groups to respond to disasters. Vulnerability
and risk assessment in all the multi-hazard prone
districts would have special emphasis on women and
38 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
children. Adequate representation of women in
Disaster Management Committees and Teams shall
ensure their participation in decision making in all
stages of the disaster continuum. This would result
in formulation of gender equitable and sustainable
community plans for disaster preparedness.
Special training shall be provided to women for enhancement
of their capacities to carry out the activities effectively. Capacity
building of women groups will include skill upgradation in use
of the latest know-how for effective response and sustainable
recovery in disaster situations.
Manuals and Standard Operating Guidelines
Based on the experiences of Orissa and Gujarat disaster
preparedness programmes, the state nodal agencies and
research units will develop training manuals for Village, Gram
Panchayat, Block, District and State disaster management team,
manuals for development of contingency plans for different
hazards and Standard Operating Procedures [SOPs] for all
levels. The manuals would be printed in vernacular languages
after field-testing. Training will be provided to the stakeholders
to use the manuals and widely circulated for replication of the
programme. In all manuals special column shall be there for
coping mechanism of women in disaster situations.
Formation of Disaster Management Team/Committees
Disaster Management Teams (DMT) would be formed at
different levels to carry out the activities during emergency for
sustainable recovery from disaster such as State, District,
Municipality, Block, Gram Panchayat, Community and Ward.
DMT at village/ward level would comprise of a group of 10-12
people in task-based groups such as Early Warning (EW), Search
and Rescue Operation (SRO), First Aid & Water & Sanitation
(FAWA), Shelter Management (SM), Trauma Counseling (TC)
and Damage Assessment (DA) groups. Similarly, DMT at Gram
Panchayat, Municipal and Block level may be formed with the
involvement of people' representatives, members from local
administrative system like local police, Medical Officer, Junior
Disaster Risk Management Programme 39
Engineer from Rural Water Supply and Sanitation, Veterinary
Assistance Surgeon / Inspectors, Revenue Inspector, Block
Development Officers (BDO) etc. BDO would be the convener
of the team at the Block level.
At the District level, the team may include District Collector
(DC/DM), Superintendent of Police (SP), Chief of District Fire
Services, Chief District Medical Officer (CDMO), District Public
Relation Officer (DPRO), Executive Engineers of Irrigation,
Roads and Buildings, District Civil Supply Officer,
representative of the NGOs/CBOs, Civil Defence and others.
The team will work under the direct supervision of District
Collector.
At the State level, the Chief Secretary will head the DMT.
The team may comprise of Relief Commissioner/ Revenue
Secretary, Secretary Home Depts, State Police Chief (IG), State
Chief of Metrological Department (IMD), State Chief of Fire
Services, Health Secretary, Secretary/Director (Animal
Husbandry), State Civil Supply Officer, Secretary commerce
and transportation, Director (NYKS/NCC/NSS), Chief Engineers
of Irrigation, Roads and Building, representatives from civil
society organizations and others.
In addition, there will be an Advisory Committee at each
levels to facilitate the preparedness programme and develop
the natural disaster risk management and emergency response
plans and providing timely support to the DMTs.
Training/ Capacity Building
State nodal agency and UNDP will organize the Training
of trainers (ToT) at state, district and block levels to enhance
the capacity of disaster management committees and prepare
a core team to trainers and training. Training would be a
continuous process on disaster risk management programme.
The trained cadre will facilitate the process of contingency plan
development at different levels.
Selected village volunteers will be provided with three
modular training programmes to develop the village contingency
plans. One or two volunteers will be selected by the PRIs/
40 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
CBOs/NGOs from their own locality, based on their past
experiences on relief and rehabilitation activities for facilitating
the process at village and GP levels. More emphasis will be
given to women volunteers in development of village disaster
management activities.
Specialized training will be organized at different levels for
the disaster management team members for enhancement of
skills to effectively carry out their responsibilities such as
warning dissemination, search and rescue operation, shelter
management, fist aid, trauma counseling and damage
assessment etc. The DMT members will be provided a specific
type of apron or jacket for easy identification after the training.
Adequate training will be provided to the women DMTs to
carry out activities during emergency situation. Exposure visit
of the Government Officials, PRIs and DMTs will be arranged
to the best practice areas in sustainable recovery and
preparedness on disaster risk management for capacity building.
Regular studies, research and workshops will be conducted
at state and national levels on the vulnerability analysis, existing
coping mechanism, revision and modification of the existing
administrative, legal, techno-legal and institutional systems,
as per the suitability of different localities and need of the
areas.
Training manuals, standard operating procedures and
documentation of the best practices are important components
of disaster preparedness programmes and will be developed for
different levels for easy adoption, replication and sharing.
Development of Disaster Risk Management Plan
The trained volunteers, government functionaries, CBOs/
NGOs and PRIs will facilitate the process of development of
Contingency Plan [CCP] based on the vulnerability of the areas
and available resources and form the DMT as per the need at
village/ ward, Gram Panchayat and Blocks disaster risk
management plan respectively. Palli Sabha, Gram Sabha and
Panchayat Samitis will approve all the plans respectively to
make it as a part of the ongoing programme.
Disaster Risk Management Programme 41
The District Disaster Management Committees will develop
district multi-hazard risk management plan with support from
the UNDP District Project Officer and prepare response plans
to meet the emergency needs after undertaking resource
mapping and vulnerability analysis. The plan will be based on
the compilation of all 'Block/Taluka disaster management plans'
and it will be approved by the Zillah Parishad. Based on the
disaster preparedness and response plan there will be mock
drills before disaster seasons to find out the feasibility of the
plan and to ensure greater role clarity of the key players. It
will also ensure the availability and functional condition of
equipments and resources.
Demonstration Unit
Construction of demonstration unit on disaster resistant
and cost effective technology in housing sector would be done
through trained masons and engineers for wider dissemination
and adoption of the technology in selected districts, which
enable the communities to adopt disaster-resistant and cost-
effective technologies. Training and skill up-gradation of
engineers and masons in construction of multi-hazard resistant
houses would lead to safer habitat for the community. Model
retrofitting and roof top rainwater harvesting initiatives in
some multi-hazard prone programme districts will facilitate in
dissemination of structural mitigation measures.
Emergency Rescue Kits
Support will be provided to the district administration for
having an emergency kit with some essential equipments like
a boat, portable power generator set, early warning equipments,
tents, power saw etc. to meet the emergency need at the time
of natural disasters like cyclones or flood or earthquakes. Each
selected district will be provided the equipment kit as per their
need. Equipments will procure in consultation with state and
district administration and the maintenance will be the
responsibility of the district administration.
Resource Inventory Data Base
Support will be provided to each state to have a web enabled
resource inventory for mobilization of resources and volunteers
42 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
for emergency. IT facilitators will support the state government
for development of a resource database, which will updated
regularly by the nodal agency to know the status of the resource
availability. Similarly, each state will have a list of volunteers
with specific skill set-those who can be utilized by the state
nodal agencies during emergencies.
Strengthening State and District Disaster Management
Information Centers
Necessary support will be provided in terms of equipments
like advance communication equipments such as computer with
internet facilities, HAM equipments, FAX etc to the district
control room and state control room and training to the
functionaries to handle the equipments during emergency. Thus
there will be well-equipped control room at state and district
levels to disseminate accurate warning for advance action.
These control rooms will also provide platform for the
coordination during and post emergencies.
Vulnerability and Risk Indexing and Report
Benchmarking of vulnerability and risk would be attempted
through national level research on the subject. Vulnerability
and Risk Index would evolve through a consultative process.
A national database would also be developed for assessment of
preparedness and Risk Vulnerability Reports.
Sustainability
Village disaster preparedness and response plans will be
approved by the Palli Sabha/ Village meeting /assembly to
make it a public document. It will establish linkages with the
existing development programmes to reduce the vulnerability
of the areas. Similarly, the Gram Panchayat disaster
management plans will be the compilation of all village plans,
which will be approved by the Gram Sabha, and Panchayat will
endeavor to support mitigation plans under the annual
development plans.
The Gram Panchayat mitigation plan will be reflected in
the Panchayat Samiti plan and Panchayat Samiti plan in the
Zillah Parishad plan. This will be an ongoing process at all
Disaster Risk Management Programme 43
levels and district mitigation plan would be a sub-set of district
annual development plan. Disaster preparedness and mitigation
planning will be an integral part of all developmental planning
process.
Specifically, the following will be the measurable indicators
of success of the programme:
• Preparedness, response and mitigation planning becomes
an integral part of Annual Development Planning process
at all levels
• Disaster Management Committees and Disaster
Management Teams conduct regular mock drills to
enhance preparedness
• Well equipped and functional state and district disaster
management information system [Clear line of command
for warning dissemination at different levels]
• Specific modification in building codes and techno-legal
systems for risk reduction
• Adequate human resource capacity for training and
capacity building in disaster preparedness and response
functions
• Manuals and guidelines will be available for all
operations for pre, during and post-emergencies
• Trained masons available at village level on alternate
and cost effective technology for building a safer habitat
Exit Strategy
The exit strategy would be based on strengthening local
capacities for development and upgradation of disaster
preparedness and response plans along with regular mock
drills. With trained human resource made available in the
state and district and the entire planning process linked
to development plans, UNDP programme implementation
support could be withdrawn gradually from all programme
districts.
UNDP implementation strategy is based on partnerships
with local institutions and empowering District Disaster
44 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Disaster Risk Management Programme 45

Management Committees and Disaster Management Teams at BUDGET

all levels. Mainstreaming risk management and vulnerability
UNDP now proposes to utilize US$ 5 million from CCF-II
reduction activities in the development plans and enhancing
for this programme in this phase in addition to US $ 2 million
capacities of Government functionaries would ensure that the
available from CCF-I[during Phase-I] towards institutional
achievements of the programme are sustained, even after the
support to Ministry of Home Affairs, comprehensive natural
programme duration.
disaster risk management programmes in 73 multi-hazard prone
Transparency and Accountability districts in Gujarat, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal,
Meghalaya, Sikkim, Uttaranchal, Delhi, Maharashtra,
UNDP will ensure quarterly reporting to the nodal agency
Tamilnadu and Uttarpradesh. References:
in order to maintain better coordination and accountability.
There will be review committees at state as well as national List of 125 Most Hazard Prone Districts in
level to review the implementation of the programme. Progress Programme States
report along with financial report will be shared with all for
Sl.No. Phase District State
better understanding and transparency. Utilization of resources
under the programme would be based on decisions of the 1 II Barpeta Assam
Programme Steering Committee. 2 II Cachar Assam
LEGAL CONTEXT 3 II Dhemaji Assam

This project document shall be the instrument referred to 4 II Dhubri Assam

as such in Article I, Paragraph I. of the Standard Basic 5 II Goalpara Assam
Assistance Agreement between the Government of India and 6 II Hailakandi Assam
the United National Development Programme upon signature 7 II Kamrup Assam
by the concern parties. The following types of revisions may be
made to this programme document with the UNDP Resident 8 II Karimganj Assam
Representative only, provided he or she is assured that the 9 II Lakhimpur Assam
other signatories of the project document have no objection to 10 II Marigaon Assam
the proposed changes: 11 II Nagaon Assam
• Revision in, or addition of, any of the annexes of the 12 II Nalbari Assam
Project Document;
13 I Araria Bihar
• Revisions which do not involve significant changes in
14 II Begusarai Bihar
the Immediate Objectives, Outputs or Activities of a
project, but are caused by the rearrangement of inputs 15 I Darbhanga Bihar
agreed to or by cost increases due to inflation; and 16 II Khagaria Bihar
• Mandatory annual revisions that rephrases the delivery 17 I Kishanganj Bihar
of the agreed project inputs or increased expert of other 18 II Madhepura Bihar
costs due to inflation or which take into account agency 19 I Madhubani Bihar
expenditure flexibility.
20 II Munger Bihar
46 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Disaster Risk Management Programme 47

Contd... Contd...

Sl.No. Phase District State Sl.No. Phase District State

21 II Muzaffarpur Bihar 50 II Kolhapur Maharashtra

22 I Patna Bihar 51 II Latur Maharashtra
23 II Saharsa Bihar 52 II Mumbai Maharashtra
24 II Samastipur Bihar 53 II Mumbai (Suburban) Maharashtra
25 II Sitamarhi Bihar 54 II Nasik Maharashtra
26 II Supaul Bihar 55 II Osmanabad Maharashtra
27 II Central Delhi Delhi 56 II Pune Maharashtra
28 II East Delhi Delhi 57 II Raigarh Maharashtra
29 II New Delhi Delhi 58 II Ratnagiri Maharashtra
30 II North Delhi Delhi 59 II Satara Maharashtra
31 II North East Delhi Delhi 60 II Sindhudurg Maharashtra
32 II North West Delhi Delhi 61 II Thane Maharashtra
33 II South Delhi Delhi 62 II Ahmednagar Maharashtra
34 II South West Delhi Delhi 63 II Dhule Maharashtra
35 II West Delhi Delhi 64 II East Garo Hills Meghalaya
36 I Amreli Gujarat 65 II East Khasi Hills Meghalaya
37 II Banas Kantha Gujarat 66 II Jaintia Hills Meghalaya
38 I Bharuch Gujarat 67 II Ri Bhoi Meghalaya
39 I Bhavnagar Gujarat 68 II South Garo Hills Meghalaya
40 I Jamnagar Gujarat 69 II West Garo Hills Meghalaya
41 I Junagadh Gujarat 70 II West Khasi Hills Meghalaya
42 I Kachchh Gujarat 71 I Balasore Orissa
43 I Surat Gujarat 72 I Bhadrak Orissa
44 II Sabar Kantha Gujarat 73 I Cuttack Orissa
45 II Surendranagar Gujarat 74 I Ganjam Orissa
46 II Patan Gujarat 75 I Jagatsinghapur Orissa
47 I Porbandar Gujarat 76 I Jajpur Orissa
48 I Rajkot Gujarat 77 I Kendrapara Orissa
49 I Vadodara Gujarat 78 I Khordha Orissa
48 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Disaster Risk Management Programme 49

Contd... Contd...

Sl.No. Phase District State Sl.No. Phase District State

79 I Koraput Orissa 108 II Chamoli Uttaranchal

80 II Nayagarh Orissa 109 II Dehradun Uttaranchal
81 I Nuapada Orissa 110 II Nainital Uttaranchal
82 I Puri Orissa 111 II Pithoragarh Uttaranchal
83 II Sambalpur Orissa 112 II Rudraprayag Uttaranchal
84 II Rayagada Orissa 113 II Tehri Garhwal Uttaranchal
85 II East Sikkim 114 II Udhamsingh Nagar Uttaranchal
86 II North Sikkim 115 II Uttarkashi Uttaranchal
87 II South Sikkim 116 II Bardhaman West Bengal
88 II West Sikkim 117 II Jalpaiguri West Bengal
89 II Chennai Tamil Nadu 118 II Kooch Bihar West Bengal
90 II Cuddalore Tamil Nadu 119 II Murshidabad West Bengal
91 II Kancheepuram Tamil Nadu 120 II Nadia West Bengal
92 II Kanyakumari Tamil Nadu 121 II North 24 Parganas West Bengal
93 II The Nilgiri Tamil Nadu 122 II Puruliya West Bengal
94 II Thiruvallur Tamil Nadu 123 II South 24 Parganas West Bengal
95 II Bahraich Uttar Pradesh 124 II Uttar Dinajpur West Bengal
96 II Balrampur Uttar Pradesh 125 II Maldah West Bengal
97 II Bijnor Uttar Pradesh
List Of 28 Hazard-prone Districts [Phase I]
98 II Budaun Uttar Pradesh
99 II Deoria Uttar Pradesh Sl.No. CCF-I District State

100 II Ghazipur Uttar Pradesh 1 I Khagaria Bihar

101 II Gonda Uttar Pradesh 2 I Madhubani Bihar
102 II Gorakhpur Uttar Pradesh 3 I Muzaffarpur Bihar
103 II Rampur Uttar Pradesh 4 I Sitamarhi Bihar
104 II Saharanpur Uttar Pradesh 5 I Supaul Bihar
105 II Sant Kabir Nagar Uttar Pradesh 6 I Amreli Gujarat
106 II Siddharthnagar Uttar Pradesh 7 I Bharuch Gujarat
107 II Sitapur Uttar Pradesh 8 I Bhavnagar Gujarat
50 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Disaster Risk Management Programme 51

Contd... Contd...

Sl.No. CCF-I District State Sl.No. Districts States Funding

9 I Jamnagar Gujarat 7 East Delhi Delhi CCF-II

10 I Junagadh Gujarat 8 North Delhi Delhi CCF-II
11 I Kachchh Gujarat 9 North East Delhi Delhi CCF-II
12 I Surat Gujarat 10 North West Delhi Delhi CCF-II
13 I Porbandar Gujarat 11 East Sikkim CCF-II
14 I Rajkot Gujarat 12 North Sikkim CCF-II
15 I Vadodara Gujarat 13 South Sikkim CCF-II
16 I Patan Gujarat 14 West Sikkim CCF-II
17 I Balasore Orissa 15 Cachar Assam CCF-II
18 I Bhadrak Orissa 16 Dhuburi Assam CCF-II
19 I Cuttack Orissa 17 Hailakandi Assam CCF-II
20 I Ganjam Orissa 18 Kamrup Assam CCF-II
21 I Jagatsinghapur Orissa 19 Karimganj Assam CCF-II
22 I Jajpur Orissa 20 Bardhaman West Bengal CCF-II
23 I Kendrapara Orissa 21 Nadia West Bengal CCF-II
24 I Khordha Orissa 22 North 24 Parganas West Bengal CCF-II
25 I Puri Orissa 23 South 24 Parganas West Bengal CCF-II
26 I Rayagada Orissa 24 Uttaradinajpur West Bengal CCF-II
27 I Koraput Orissa 25 Chamoli Uttranchal CCF-II
28 I Nuapada Orissa 26 Derahdun Uttranchal CCF-II
27 Nainital Uttranchal CCF-II
List of 45 Hazard-prone Districts [CCF-II]
28 Udhamasinghnagar Uttranchal CCF-II
Sl.No. Districts States Funding 29 Bahraich Uttar Pradesh CCF-II
1 Araria Bihar CCF-II 30 Balrampur Uttar Pradesh CCF-II
2 Begusarai Bihar CCF-II 31 Bijnor Uttar Pradesh CCF-II
3 Darbhanga Bihar CCF-II 32 Budaun Uttar Pradesh CCF-II
4 Kishanganj Bihar CCF-II 33 Deoria Uttar Pradesh CCF-II
5 Madhepura Bihar CCF-II 34 Pune Maharashtra CCF-II
6 Central Delhi Delhi CCF-II 35 Raigarh Maharashtra CCF-II
52 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Emergency Management 53

Contd...

Sl.No. Districts States Funding

36 Ratnagiri Maharashtra CCF-II

37 Thane Maharashtra CCF-II
38 Dhule Maharashtra CCF-II 3
39 East Garo Hills Meghalaya CCF-II
40 East Khasi Hills Meghalaya CCF-II EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT
41 Jaintia Hills Meghalaya CCF-II
42 Ri Bhoi Meghalaya CCF-II
Emergency management (or disaster management) is the
43 Chennai Tamilnadu CCF-II discipline of dealing with and avoiding risks. It is a discipline
44 Thiruvulur Tamilnadu CCF-II that involves preparing, supporting, and rebuilding society when
45 Kancheepuram Tamilnadu CCF-II
natural or human-made disasters occur. In general, any
Emergency management is the continuous process by which all
individuals, groups, and communities manage hazards in an
effort to avoid or ameliorate the impact of disasters resulting
from the hazards.
Actions taken depend in part on perceptions of risk of those
exposed. Effective emergency management relies on thorough
integration of emergency plans at all levels of government and
non-government involvement. Activities at each level
(individual, group, community) affect the other levels. It is
common to place the responsibility for governmental emergency
management with the institutions for civil defense or within
the conventional structure of the emergency services. In the
private sector, emergency management is sometimes referred
to as business continuity planning.
Emergency Management is one of a number of terms which,
since the end of the Cold War, have largely replaced Civil
defense, whose original focus was protecting civilians from
military attack. Modern thinking focuses on a more general
intent to protect the civilian population in times of peace as
well as in times of war. Another current term, Civil Protection
is widely used within the European Union and refers to
government-approved systems and resources whose task is to
protect the civilian population, primarily in the event of natural
54 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
and human-made disasters. Within EU countries the term
Crisis Management emphasises the political and security
dimension rather than measures to satisfy the immediate needs
of the civilian population. The academic trend is towards using
the more comprehensive term disaster risk reduction,
particularly for emergency management in a development
management context.
Phases and Professional Activities
The nature of emergency management is highly dependent
on economic and social conditions local to the emergency, or
disaster. This is true to the extent that some disaster relief
experts such as Fred Cuny have noted that in a sense the only
real disasters are economic. Experts, such as Cuny, have long
noted that the cycle of emergency management must include
long-term work on infrastructure, public awareness, and even
human justice issues. This is particularly important in
developing nations. The process of emergency management
involves four phases: mitigation, preparedness, response, and
recovery.
Mitigation
Mitigation efforts attempt to prevent hazards from
developing into disasters altogether, or to reduce the effects of
disasters when they occur. The mitigation phase differs from
the other phases because it focuses on long-term measures for
reducing or eliminating risk. The implementation of mitigation
strategies can be considered a part of the recovery process if
applied after a disaster occurs. However, even if applied as part
of recovery efforts, actions that reduce or eliminate risk over
time are still considered mitigation efforts.
Mitigative measures can be structural or non-structural.
Structural measures use technological solutions, like flood
levees. Non-structural measures include legislation, land-use
planning (e.g. the designation of nonessential land like parks
to be used as flood zones), and insurance. Mitigation is the most
cost-efficient method for reducing the impact of hazards.
However, mitigation is not always suitable and structural
Emergency Management 55
mitigation in particular may have adverse effects on the
ecosystem.
A precursor activity to the mitigation is the identification
of risks. Physical risk assessment refers to the process of
identifying and evaluating hazards. In risk assessment, various
hazards (e.g. earthquakes, floods, riots) within a certain area
are identified. Each hazard poses a risk to the population
within the area assessed. The hazard-specific risk (Rh) combines
both the probability and the level of impact of a specific hazard.
The equation below gives that the hazard times the populations'
vulnerability to that hazard produce a risk. Catastrophe
modeling tools are used to support the calculation. The higher
the risk, the more urgent that the hazard specific vulnerabilities
are targeted by mitigation and preparedness efforts. However,
if there is no vulnerability there will be no risk, e.g. an
earthquake occurring in a desert where nobody lives.
Preparedness
In the preparedness phase, emergency managers develop
plans of action for when the disaster strikes. Common
preparedness measures include the
• communication plans with easily understandable
terminology and chain of command
• development and practice of multi-agency coordination
and incident command
• proper maintenance and training of emergency services
• development and exercise of emergency population
warning methods combined with emergency shelters
and evacuation plans
• stockpiling, inventory, and maintenance of supplies and
equipment
An efficient preparedness measure is an emergency
operations center (EOC) combined with a practiced region-wide
doctrine for managing emergencies. Another preparedness
measure is to develop a volunteer response capability among
civilian populations. Since, volunteer response is not as
56 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Emergency Management 57

predictable and plannable as professional response, volunteers that might otherwise be unpopular. Citizens of the affected
are most effectively deployed on the periphery of an emergency. area are more likely to accept more mitigative changes when
a recent disaster is in fresh memory.
Response
In the United States, the National Response Plan dictates
The response phase includes the mobilization of the
how the resources provided by the Homeland Security Act of
necessary emergency services and first responders in the disaster
2002 will be used in recovery efforts. It is the Federal government
area. This is likely to include a first wave of core emergency
that often provides the most technical and financial assistance
services, such as firefighters, police and ambulance crews. They
for recovery efforts in the United States.
may be supported by a number of secondary emergency services,
such as specialist rescue teams. Phases and Personal Activities
In addition volunteers and non-governmental organizations Mitigation
(NGOs) such as the local Red Cross branch or St. John
Personal mitigation is mainly about knowing and avoiding
Ambulance may provide immediate practical assistance, from
unnecessary risks. This includes an assessment of possible
first aid provision to providing tea and coffee. A well rehearsed
risks to personal/family health and to personal property.
emergency plan developed as part of the preparedness phase
enables efficient coordination of rescue efforts. Emergency plan One example of mitigation would be to avoid buying property
rehearsal is essential to achieve optimal output with limited that is exposed to hazards, e.g. in a flood plain, in areas of
resources. In the response phase, medical assets will be used subsidence or landslides. Homeowners may not be aware of a
in accordance with the appropriate triage of the affected victims. property being exposed to a hazard until it strikes. However,
specialists can be hired to conduct risk identification and
Where required, search and rescue efforts commence at an
assessment surveys. Purchase of insurance covering the most
early stage. Depending on injuries sustained by the victim,
prominent identified risks is a common measure.
outside temperature, and victim access to air and water, the
vast majority of those affected by a disaster will die within 72 Personal structural mitigation in earthquake prone areas
hours after impact. includes installation of an Earthquake Valve to instantly shut
off the natural gas supply to a property, seismic retrofits of
Individuals are often compelled to volunteer directly after
property and the securing of items inside a building to enhance
a disaster. Volunteers can be both a help and a hindrance to
household seismic safety. The latter may include the mounting
emergency management and other relief agencies.
of furniture, refrigerators, water heaters and breakables to the
Recovery walls, and the addition of cabinet latches. In flood prone areas
houses can be built on poles, as in much of southern Asia. In
The aim of the recovery phase is to restore the affected area
areas prone to prolonged electricity black-outs installation of
to its previous state. It differs from the response phase in its
a generator would be an example of an optimal structural
focus; recovery efforts are concerned with issues and decisions
mitigation measure. The construction of storm cellars and fallout
that must be made after immediate needs are addressed.
shelters are further examples of personal mitigative actions.
Recovery efforts are primarily concerned with actions that
involve rebuilding destroyed property, re-employment, and the Preparedness
repair of other essential infrastructure. An important aspect
Unlike mitigation activities, which are aimed at preventing
of effective recovery efforts is taking advantage of a 'window
a disaster from occurring, personal preparedness focuses on
of opportunity' for the implementation of mitigative measures
58 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Emergency Management 59

preparing equipment and procedures for use when a disaster recommended to consider the location or construction material
occurs, i.e. planning. Preparedness measures can take many of the property.
forms including the construction of shelters, installation of
The most extreme home confinement scenarios include war,
warning devices, creation of back-up life-line services (e.g. power,
famine and severe epidemics and may last a year or more. Then
water, sewage), and rehearsing evacuation plans. Two simple
recovery will take place inside the home. Planners for these
measures can help prepare the individual for sitting out the
events usually buy bulk foods and appropriate storage and
event or evacuating, as necessary. For evacuation, a disaster
preparation equipment, and eat the food as part of normal life.
supplies kit may be prepared and for sheltering purposes a
A simple balanced diet can be constructed from vitamin pills,
stockpile of supplies may be created. The preparation of a
whole-meal wheat, beans, dried milk, corn, and cooking oil.
survival kit, commonly referred to as a "72-hour kit", is often
One should add vegetables, fruits, spices and meats, both
advocated by authorities. These kits may include food, medicine,
prepared and fresh-gardened, when possible.
flashlights, candles and money.
As a Profession
Response
Emergency managers are trained in a wide variety of
The response phase of an emergency may commence with
disciplines that support them through out the emergency life-
search and rescue but in all cases the focus will quickly turn
cycle. Professional emergency managers can focus on
to fulfilling the basic humanitarian needs of the affected
government and community preparedness (Continuity of
population. This assistance may be provided by national or
Operations/Continuity of Government Planning), or private
international agencies and organisations. Effective coordination
business preparedness (Business Continuity Management
of disaster assistance is often crucial, particularly when many
Planning). Training is provided by local, state, federal and
organisations respond and local emergency management agency
private organizations and ranges from public information and
(LEMA) capacity has been exceeded by the demand or
media relations to high-level incident command and tactical
diminished by the disaster itself.
skills such as studying a terrorist bombing site or controlling
On a personal level the response can take the shape either an emergency scene.
of a home confinement or an evacuation. In a home confinement
In the past, the field of emergency management has been
a family would be prepared to fend for themselves in their
populated mostly by people with a military or first responder
home for many days without any form of outside support. In
background. Currently, the population in the field has become
an evacuation, a family leaves the area by automobile (or other
more diverse, with many experts coming from a variety of
mode of transportation) taking with them the maximum amount
backgrounds and having no military or first responder history
of supplies they can carry, possibly including a tent for shelter.
at all. Educational opportunities are increasing for those seeking
If mechanical transportation is not available, evacuation on
undergraduate and graduate degrees in emergency management
foot would ideally include carrying at least three days of supplies
or a related field.
and rain-tight bedding, a tarpaulin and a bedroll of blankets
being the minimum. Professional certifications such as Certified Emergency
Manager (CEM) and Certified Business Continuity Professional
Recovery (CBCP) are becoming more common as the need for high
The recovery phase starts after the immediate threat to professional standards is recognized by the emergency
human life has subsided. During reconstruction it is management community, especially in the United States.
60 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Tools
In recent years the continuity feature of emergency
management has resulted in a new concept, Emergency
Management Information Systems (EMIS). For continuity and
interoperability between emergency management stakeholders,
EMIS supports the emergency management process by providing
an infrastructure that integrates emergency plans at all levels
of government and non-government involvement and by utilizing
the management of all related resources (including human and
other resources) for all four phases of emergencies.
Within other Professions
Practitioners emergency management (disaster
preparedness) come from an increasing variety of backgrounds
as the field matures. Professionals from memory institutions
(e.g., museums, historical societies, libraries, and archives) are
dedicated to preserving cultural heritage-objects and records
contained in their collections. This has been a major component
within these fields, but now there is a heightened awareness
following the events on 9/11 and the hurricanes in 2005.
To increase the opportunity for a successful recovery of
valuable records, a well-established and thoroughly tested plan
must be developed. This task requires the cooperation of a well-
organized committee led by an experienced chairperson.
Professional associations schedule regular workshops and hold
focus sessions at annual conferences to keep individuals up to
date with tools and resources in practice.
Tools
The joint efforts of professional associations and cultural
heritage institutions have resulted in the development of tools
to assist professionals in preparing disaster and recovery plans.
The tools are available to users as well as templates created
by existing libraries and archives that can be helpful to a
committee preparing a disaster plan or updating an existing
plan.
dPlan™, The Online Disaster Planning Tool, developed in
partnership between the Northeast Document Conservation
Emergency Management 61
Center (NEDCC) and Massachusetts Board of Library
Commissioners (MBLC) is free and fairly simple to use. Users
log-in to complete the comprehensive interactive form, the
information is saved and stored, then, a hardcopy (PDF file)
can be printed. The hardcopy should be readily available in
case of emergency.
With dPlan™, there are seven sections including:
Institutional Information; Prevention; Response and Recovery;
Supplies and Services; Scope and Goals; Staff Training;
Distribution, Review and Updating. It does not have to be
completed in one sitting. The Data Collection Form can be
printed in advance and the template can be filled in by hand
before entering the data online. Or, it is possible to enter the
data online and save it along the way. The 129-page document
may seem daunting, but will prove to be invaluable. To reduce
the amount of time needed to complete the form, check boxes
and pull-down menus are provided. A scale of 1 to 4 is (one
being serious risk and four not a risk at all) is used to measure
conditions. The scale forces the user to make a choice resulting
in a more effective reading. dPlan™ offers consistency in plans
through vocabulary and format, yet an upload file feature
allows for flexibility-necessary attachments and/or appendices
may be added to supplement the plan.
The Emergency Response and Salvage Wheel is another
useful tool. It was produced by the Heritage Emergency National
Task Force on Emergency Response. The design of the
waterproof, hand-held tool provides essential information in an
easy to read format. The two-sided disc outlines action steps
and salvage steps for emergency situations, including a section
on electronic records. It is also available in Spanish.
The Disaster Mitigation Planning Assistance Website. is a
Website created by Michigan State University Libraries, the
Center for Great Lakes Culture and the California Preservation
Program. It is possible to search resources based on individual
needs. Pull down menus filter results and an export feature
makes it possible to download the data to an (CSV) Excel
document. The document may contain company names,
addresses, phone numbers, email addresses, and URL addresses
62 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
for the corresponding service, supplier, or expert on file. It is
also possible to submit resource as well as view sample plans
from this Website.
There are workbooks from libraries and archives with
published disaster plans. Many can be found online, but only
two will be named at this time. The first one is New York
University Library's Disaster Plan Workbook. A committee of
ten works in partnership with the Library's Preservation
Department to administer the plan. It contains seven chapters
with forms, priorities and procedures along with a table of
contents, appendices-divided into six sections-and index.
"Instructions in the workbook provide undamaging salvage
methods for all types of library materials, including a list of
supplies needed for each. Consultants, specialists, hardware
stores and staff telephone trees are listed."
The workbook is displayed using HTML for navigation
between the pages by clicking. It is not possible to type into
the pages of the Workbook, but the pages may be printed and
customized with pertinent information of the library or archive
using this format.
Western New York Disaster Preparedness and Recovery
Manual for Libraries and Archives is available for download as
a PDF document. This manual provides a number of worksheets
to be completed by the user. It contains a glossary of terms to
ensure those involved in the planning and executing process
are speaking the same language. A section on "Protection" lists
emergency supplies; decisions to make when assembling in-
house disaster response teams; and types of alarms and systems
to warn against smoke and fire. Salvaging techniques and
rehabilitation are also covered extensively. It is not limited to
paper materials but also includes film, magnetic and digital
media.
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS
International Association of Emergency Managers
The International Association of Emergency Managers
(IAEM) is a non-profit educational organization dedicated to
Emergency Management 63
promoting the goals of saving lives and protecting property
during emergencies and disasters. The mission of IAEM is to
serve its members by providing information, networking and
professional opportunities, and to advance the emergency
management profession.
Red Cross/Red Crescent
National Red Cross/Red Crescent societies often have pivotal
roles in responding to emergencies. Additionally, the
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent
Societies (IFRC, or "The Federation") may deploy assessment
teams to the affected country. They specialize in the recovery
component of the emergency management framework.
United Nations
Within the United Nations system responsibility for
emergency response rests with the Resident Coordinator within
the affected country. However, in practice international response
will be coordinated, if requested by the affected country's
government, by the UN Office for the Coordination of
Humanitarian Affairs (UN-OCHA), by deploying a UN Disaster
Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team.
Australia
The key federal coordinating and advisory body for
emergency management in Australia is Emergency Management
Australia (EMA). Each state has its own State Emergency
Service. The Emergency Call Service provides a national 000
emergency telephone number to contact state Police, Fire and
Ambulance services. Arrangements are in place for state and
federal cooperation.
India
The Indian government spends a lot in managing
disasters.There has been a shift from "disaster response and
recovery" to "disaster risk management and reduction" strategies
and from "Government centred approach" to "community
participation".
64 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Canada
Public Safety Canada (PSC) is Canada's national emergency
management agency. Each province is required to set up their
Emergency Management Organizations.
PSC coordinates and supports the efforts of federal
organizations ensuring national security and the safety of
Canadians. They also work with other levels of government,
first responders, community groups, the private sector (operators
of critical infrastructure) and other nations.
PSC's work is based on a wide range of policies and
legislation through the Public Safety and Emergency
Preparedness Act which defines the powers, duties and functions
of PSC are outlined. Other acts are specific to fields such as
corrections, emergency management, law enforcement, and
national security.
Provincial EMOs
• Provincial Emergency Program, Province of British
Columbia's EMO.
Germany
In Germany the Federal Government controls the German
Katastrophenschutz (disaster relief) and Zivilschutz (civil
defense) programs. The German fire department and the
Technisches Hilfswerk (Federal Agency for Technical Relief,
THW) are part of these programs. The German Armed Forces
(Bundeswehr) can be deployed for disaster relief operations.
New Zealand
In New Zealand the Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency
Management (MCDEM) has statutory authority for managing
any state of emergency declared by the central government.
Local government bodies such as city and regional councils
have their own emergency management agencies to manage
localised states of emergency, but these all defer to the MCDEM
in the event of a national state of emergency. The Wellington
Emergency Management Office (WEMO) occupies a purpose
built building with its own water, electricity, communications
Emergency Management 65
and sewerage facilities to ensure continued operations in the
event of an emergency or disaster.
Russia
In Russia the Ministry of Emergency Situations
(EMERCOM) is engaged in fire fighting, Civil Defense, Search
and Rescue, including rescue services after natural and human-
made disasters.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom adjusted its focus on emergency
management following the 2000 UK fuel protests, severe UK
flooding in the same year and the 2001 United Kingdom foot-
and-mouth crisis. This resulted in the creation of the Civil
Contingencies Act 2004 (CCA) which legislated the
responsibilities of all category one responders regarding an
emergency response. The CCA is managed by the Civil
Contingencies Secretariat through regional disaster centres
and at the local authority level.
Disaster Management training is generally conducted at
the local level by the organisations involved in any response.
This is consolidated through professional courses that can be
undertaken at the Emergency Planning College. Furthemore
diplomas and undergraduate qualifications can be gained
throughout the country-the first course of this type was carried
out by Coventry University in 1994. Institute of Emergency
Management is a charity organisation, established in 1996, to
provide consulting services for the government, media and
commercial sectors.
The Professional Society for Emergency Planners is the
Emergency Planning Society.
The UK's largest ever emergency exercise was carried out
on 20 May 2007 near Belfast, Northern Ireland, and involved
the scenario of a plane crash landing at Belfast International
Airport. Staff from five hospitals and three airports participated
in the drill, and almost 150 international observers assessed
its effectiveness.
66 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
United States
Under the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), the
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is lead agency
for emergency management. The HAZUS software package
developed by FEMA is central in the risk assessment process
in the country. The United States and its territories are covered
by one of ten regions for FEMA's emergency management
purposes. Tribal, state, county and local governments develop
emergency management programs/departments and operate
hierarchially within each region. Emergencies are managed at
the most-local level possible, utilizing mutual aid agreements
with adjacent jurisdictions. If the emergency is terrorist related
or if declared an "Incident of National Significance", the
Secretary of Homeland Security will initiate the National
Response Plan (NRP). Under this plan the involvement of
federal resources will be made possible, integrating in with the
local, county, state, or tribal entities. Management will continue
to be handled at the lowest possible level utilizing the National
Incident Management System (NIMS).
The Citizen Corps is an organization of volunteer service
programs, administered locally and coordinated nationally by
DHS, which seek to mitigate disaster and prepare the population
for emergency response through public education, training,
and outreach. Community Emergency Response Teams are a
Citizen Corps program focused on disaster preparedness and
teaching basic disaster response skills. These volunteer teams
are utilized to provide emergency support when disaster
overwhelms the conventional emergency services.
ICT IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Looking at disaster events of the last few years it is evident
that by no means natural or man-made disasters can be fully
prevented. Only the loss caused by these events can be
prevented.
Information and Communications Technology (ICT) can be
used to minimize this impact in many ways. ICT is used in
almost all phases of the disaster management process. In the
Emergency Management 67
disaster mitigation and preparedness process, ICT is widely
used to create early warning systems. An early warning system
may use more than one ICT media in parallel and these can
be either traditional (radio, television, telephone) or modern
(SMS, cell broadcasting, Internet). As demonstrated by AlertNet,
on-line media play an important role.
In the immediate aftermath of a disaster, special software
packages built for the purpose can be used for activities such
as registering missing persons, administrating on-line requests
and keeping track of relief organizations or camps of displaced
persons. In addition, geographic information systems (GIS) and
remote sensing software are being effectively used in all phases
of disaster management. It is essential that ICT is given its due
place in disaster management but it should also not be taken
as panacea for all ills. ICT, like any other tool, can deliver its
best when the other necessary ingredients are in place.
WHY DISASTER MANAGEMENT?
Disaster management (also called disaster risk
management) is the discipline that involves preparing, warning,
supporting and rebuilding societies when natural or man-made
disasters occur. It is the continuous process by which all
individuals, groups and communities manage hazards in an
effort to avoid or minimize the impact of disasters resulting
from hazards.
Effective disaster management relies on thorough
integration of emergency plans at all levels of government and
non-government involvement. Activities at each level
(individual, group, community) affect the other levels. Events
over the last two years have shown that there is no country
that does not stand the threat of a disaster.
Countries like China, Indonesia, Iran and Pakistan are
prone to earthquakes. Small Islands States in the Pacific region
and countries like Maldives are prone to various types of threats
from the sea. Bangladesh and parts of China and India
experience floods each year. Therefore, disaster preparedness
is no longer a choice; it is mandatory irrespective of where one
lives.
68 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND THE MDGS
It is somewhat surprising that no Millennium Development
Goal (MDG) directly addresses the issues related to disaster
management. Perhaps it is because it is so obvious that building
a safer world is a prerequisite for the achievement of all the
eight MDGs. Poverty eradication, freedom from hunger, primary
education, freedom from disasters, and building a sustainable
world etc. are all key aspects of the disaster management
process. It has been shown that any nation should have effective
disaster reduction and recovery processes in place to achieve
the MDGs by the expected deadline of year 2015.
WHERE ICT FITS IN?
The disaster management cycle involves four key phases.
o Mitigation-includes any activities that prevent a disaster,
reduce the chance of a disaster happening, or reduce the
damaging effects of unavoidable disasters.
o Preparedness-includes plans or preparations made to
save lives or property, and to help the response and
rescue service operations.
o Response-includes actions taken to save lives and
prevent property damage, and to preserve the
environment during emergencies or disasters. The
response phase is the implementation of action plans.
o Recovery-includes actions that assist a community to
return to a sense of normalcy after a disaster.
These four phases usually overlap. ICT is being used in all
the phases, but the usage is more apparent in some phases
than in the others.
ICT for Disaster Mitigation and Preparedness
The importance of timely disaster warning can never be
underestimated. When the tsunami in 2004 hit several countries
in the Asian region, it caused a loss of hundreds of thousands
of human lives, because there was no timely disaster warning.
The history repeated in Northern Pakistan in the Kashmiri
Emergency Management 69
earthquake nearly a year later. On the other hand, the US was
relatively well prepared and could evacuate the population of
New Orleans, and thus, minimized the number of deaths as a
result of the hurricane Katrina in 2005, which was no less
damaging than the Asian tsunami or Kashmiri earthquake.
An early warning system involves several players and has
many links. At one end there is the central authority that
monitors and issues the warning. At the other end are the
communities to whom the warning message is intended. In
between, one or more channels are linking these two ends. This
is where ICT plays the most crucial role. However, in this case
it is not a question of one medium against another. The
requirement is to pass the warning as quick and as accurate
as possible. Any one-or a combination-of the following ICT and
media tools can be used for that purpose.
Radio and Television: Considered the most traditional
electronic media used for disaster warning, radio and television
still have a valid use. The effectiveness of these two media is
high because even in developing countries and rural
environments where the tele-density is relatively low, they can
be used to spread a warning quickly to a broad population. The
only possible drawback of these two media is that their
effectiveness is significantly reduced at night when they are
normally switched off.
Telephone (fixed and mobile): Telephones can play an
important role in warning communities about the impending
danger of a disaster. There were many examples of how simple
phone warnings saved many lives in South Asian countries
during the 2004 tsunami. Perhaps the most famous was an
incident that occurred in one small coastal village of Nallavadu
in Pondicherry, India. A timely telephone call-warning about
the impending tsunami-was said to have saved the village's
entire population of 3,600 inhabitants, as well as those of three
neighbouring villages.
Short Message Service (SMS): During the 2005 hurricane
Katrina disaster in the US, many residents of affected coastal
areas were unable to make contact with relatives and friends
70 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
using traditional landline phones. However, they could
communicate with each other via SMS more easily when the
network was functional. This is because SMS works on a
different band and can be sent or received even when the phone
lines are congested. SMS also has another advantage over voice
calls in that one message can be sent to a group simultaneously.
Cell Broadcasting: Most of today's wireless systems support a
feature called cell broadcasting.
A public warning message in text can be sent to the screens
of all mobiles devices, which have such a capability in any
group of cells of any size, ranging from one single cell (about
8 kilometres across) to the whole country if necessary. GSM,
D-AMPS, UMTS and CDMA phones have this capability.
Satellite Radio: Satellite radio can play a key role during both
the disaster warning and disaster recovery phases. Its key
advantage is the ability to work even outside of areas not
covered by normal radio channels. Satellite radio can also be
of help when the transmission towers of the normal radio
channels are damaged in a disaster.
Internet and Email: The role Internet and email can play
in disaster warning depends entirely on their penetration within
a community. These media can play a prominent role in a
developed country where nearly half of all homes and almost
all offices have Internet connections. In many developing
countries, however, less than five percent of the population
uses the Internet and even those who are users, do not use it
on a regular basis. In such a situation, it is difficult to expect
Internet and email to play any critical role in disaster warning.
However, both Internet and email can play an important role
in the other phases of disaster management.
Amateur Radio and Community Radio: For almost a
century, amateur radio operators have assisted their
communities and countries during disasters by providing reliable
communications to disaster relief organizations at a moment's
notice-especially when the communication infrastructure breaks
down. In such a situation, amateur radio operators transmit
emergency traffic on voice mode about the well-being of survivors
as well as information on casualties to friends and relatives.
Emergency Management 71
ROLE OF ON-LINE MEDIA IN DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
Reuters' AlertNet is a good example of an ICT/media
initiative that contributes towards early disaster warning and
management, at an international level. "AlertNet started in
1997 by Reuters Foundation-an educational and humanitarian
trust-to place Reuters' core skills of speed, accuracy and freedom
from bias at the service of the humanitarian community. It is
a humanitarian news network based on a popular website that
aims to keep relief professionals and the wider public up-to-
date on humanitarian crises around the globe." (AlertNet, 2007)
AlterNet has been in operation for more than a decade now.
It was born in the aftermath of the Rwanda crisis of 1994, when
the Reuters Foundation became interested in media reports of
poor coordination between emergency relief charities on the
ground. Reuters Foundation surveyed charities to determine
what could be done to remedy this. AlertNet now attracts more
than three million users a year, it has a network of four hundred
contributing humanitarian organizations and its weekly email
digest is received by more than 17,000 readers.
ICT FOR DISASTER RESPONSE AND RECOVERY
The most difficult period of a disaster is the immediate
aftermath. This period calls for prompt action, within an
exceptionally short period of time. In the aftermath of any
disaster, a significant number of individuals will be injured
and/or displaced. Many of them might still be living with the
trauma they have encountered, including loss of loved ones.
Affected individuals might also be without food or other essential
items. They might be waiting in temporary shelters, with no
idea of what to do next. Some might need immediate medical
attention, while the disaster aftermath environment also creates
ideal breeding grounds for possible epidemics.
ICT can play a key role in such an environment in managing
the available resources.
A good example of this is Sahana, a free and open source
software (FOSS)-based disaster management system that grew
72 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
out of the events during the 2004 Asian tsunami disaster. This
system was developed in Sri Lanka-one of the countries hardest
hit by the tsunami-by a team of ICT volunteers to help track
families and coordinate work among relief organizations during
and after the tsunami disaster. Subsequently, Sahana has been
deployed to manage the earthquake disaster in Northern
Pakistan (2005), the Guinsaugon landslide in the Philippines
(2006) and the earthquake in Yogjakarta, Indonesia (2006).
Sahana provides four main solutions:
o Sahana Missing Person Registry: This is an on-line
bulletin board of missing and found people. Information
about the person seeking another person is also captured,
which increases the chances of people finding each other.
o Sahana Organization Registry: This registry keeps track
of all the relief organizations and civil society groups
working in the disaster region. It captures not only the
places where they are active, but also information on
the range of services they are providing in each area.
o Sahana Camps Registry: This registry keeps track of
the location of all the camps in the region and provides
basic data on the facilities they may have and the number
of people in them. It also provides a GIS view to plot
the location of the camps in the affected area.
o Sahana Request Management System: This is a central
on-line repository where all relief organizations, relief
workers, government agents and camps can effectively
match requests of aid and supplies to pledges of support.
It looks like an on-line aid trading system tracking
request to fulfillment.
GIS AND REMOTE SENSING IN DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
GIS can be loosely defined as a system of hardware and
software used for storage, retrieval, mapping and analysis of
geographic data. Spatial features are stored in a coordinate
system (latitude, longitude, state plane etc.) that references a
particular place on the earth. Descriptive attributes in tabular
Emergency Management 73
form are associated with spatial features. Spatial data and
associated attributes in the same coordinate system can then
be layered together for mapping and analysis. GIS can be used
for scientific investigations, resource management and
development planning.
Remote sensing is the measurement or acquisition of
information about an object or phenomenon, by a recording
device that is not in physical or intimate contact with the
object. In practice, remote sensing is the remote utilization (as
from aircraft, spacecraft, satellite or ship) of any device for
gathering information about the environment. Thus, an aircraft
taking photographs, earth observation and weather satellites,
monitoring of a foetus in the womb via ultrasound, and space
probes are all examples of remote sensing. In modern usage,
the term generally refers to techniques involving the use of
instruments aboard aircraft and spacecraft.
GIS and remote sensing are examples of ICT tools being
widely used in almost all the phases of disaster management
activities.
In the planning process GIS can be used to identify and
pinpoint risk prone geographical areas, as a GIS-based 3D map
provides much more information compared to an ordinary 2D
map. Earth observation satellites can be used to view the same
area over long periods of time and as a result, make it possible
to monitor environmental change, human impact and natural
processes. In the mitigation phase, GIS are helpful in monitoring.
GIS play several roles in the recovery phase too. It can
identify the damage, assess it and begin to establish priorities
for action (triage). GIS can also ensure uniformity in the
distribution of supplies (medicine, food, water, clothing, etc.)
to emergency distribution centres. They can be assigned in
proper amounts based on the amount and type of damage in
each area.
CONCLUSION
It is essential that we look at disaster management from
the development angle. Disaster management is no longer either
74 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 75

a one-off or stand alone activity. Despite the fact that disaster

preparedness has not been identified as one of the MDGs, it
is apparent that proper mechanisms for disaster awareness
and means of disaster recovery are essential to achieving the
MDGs. One obvious challenge faced by the Asia-Pacific region
is the low ICT penetration levels in most of the region's
developing countries. According to the UNDP Human
Development Report of 2005 the tele-densities of Cambodia,
Nepal and Bangladesh in 2003 were 38, 18 and 15 per 1,000
people, respectively. The situation is not different when it
comes to radio and television. The irony is that while a limited
section of households might have all these ICT-based media,
the majority does not have any of them. With such low
penetration levels it is extremely difficult to establish an effective
disaster warning system. For these communities it is essential
to think of other means (such as community radio or public
address systems) for effective disaster warning.
Unless the telephone, radio and television penetration can
be reasonably increased it is difficult to guarantee that any
community can be free from the risk from disasters irrespective
of the efficiency of the disaster monitoring systems. Another
big challenge is the reluctance of some national governments
to implement ICT-friendly policies. There are many governments
that do not see investments in ICT or even building
infrastructure as priorities. The result invariably will be that
ICT and technology in general take a back seat to presumed
priorities such as ensuring good governance practices, providing
healthcare facilities and addressing gender barriers come under
the spotlight. The examples highlighted in this APDIP e-Note
make it obvious that as far as disaster management is concerned,
there is no reason why ICT should take a secondary role.
4
BUILDING DISASTER RISK REDUCTION IN
ASIA: A WAY FORWARD
ADPC LOOKS AHEAD TO 2015
It is with great pleasure that, on the occasion of the World
Conference on Disaster Reduction (WCDR) in Kobe, Japan, I
present this report which reviews the strategies adopted by
ADPC to address the thematic areas of disaster risk
management, the issues encountered and lessons learnt, and
its future priorities.
The past decade,since the Yokohama Conference and the
Kobe Earthquake,have seen an exponential increase in the
incidence and impact of disasters. In Asia, people and sustainable
development continue to be threatened and impeded by the
negative impacts of disasters, which destroy infrastructure and
livelihoods, endanger physical and food security, hinder social
and economic progress, and reverse cumulative gains in reducing
poverty.
Natural disasters result in deforestation, loss of biodiversity
and historic cultural assets, reduced water supply and
desertification, which contribute significantly to environmental
degradation. History has shown that the Asia-Pacific region is
the most disaster prone area in the world. Witness in 2004, the
floods in Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia and The
Philippines, the cyclones in Japan and Vietnam, the earthquakes
in Indonesia, Iran and Japan and the catastrophic tsunami
that struct countries in the Indian Ocean.
76 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
The extremely high urban population density, the level
ofdevelopment and the extent ofpoverty in most Asian countries
further exacerbate the cumulative impact ofdisasters on
sustainable development. Since its establishment nearly two
decades ago, ADPC has played a key role in advancing
developments in disaster risk management by structuring itself
to focus on specific technical areas-climate risk management,
disaster managementsystems,public health in emergencies,
strategic disaster risk management and urban disaster risk
management-which optimizes ADPC's accumulated operational
expertise and experience. Projects and programs include
community-based disaster risk management, building national
and provincial disaster management systems, promoting
regional cooperation, identifying disaster risk management
needs and developing strategic solutions, and multi-level
institutional capacity building and training. These activities
are meant to address current and future disaster risk
management challenges and issues.
In the coming years, ADPC will continue to develop effective
operational partnerships and collaborations with stakeholders
in disaster risk management and systematically advocate and
support mainstreaming disaster risk management into
sustainable development policies, plans and practices
throughout the Asia-Pacific region. In acknowledging the
encouragement and support received from international
development agencies and partners, and the dedicated efforts
of a hard-working and professional ADPC staff, I fervently re-
affirm ADPC's commitment to pursuing its vision of building
safer communities and sustainable development through
disaster reduction.
Asian Disaster Preparedness Center was established nearly
two decades ago by Col Brian Ward, as a result of a joint
feasibility study on the needs of Asian countries in strengthening
their national disaster management systems. The study was
commissioned by the United Nations Disaster Relief
Organization (UNDRO), now the United Nations Office for the
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA), and the
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) with funding support
Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 77
from UNDP. Training was identified as "the greatest need of
all" for the region. Since then, ADPC has come a long way in
meeting the needs and challenges of the region through capacity
building, project implementation, facilitating regional
cooperation, information sharing and networking.
Although ADPC is not the only disaster management
organization in Asia today, it has emerged as the leading regional
resource center and is one of the longest serving regional
resource centers in the world for disaster risk management.
ADPC has a team of over 50 professionals from 16 countries
covering Asia, Australia, the United States and Europe.
ADPC restructured in July 2003 to focus on specific technical
areas: climate variability and change management, urban
disaster risk management, public health in emergencies,
building national and provincial disaster management systems,
and community based disaster risk management, promoting
regional cooperation, identifying disaster risk management
needs in the region and developing strategic solutions. The
consolidation enables our teams to work more effectively with
stakeholders.
ADPC continues to work on crosscutting themes such as
institutional capacity building and training, information sharing,
networking and knowledge management and providing technical
advice. Common tools including risk assessment, mapping and
community-based approaches are employed. ADPC continues
to address multiple hazards under this new thematic approach
and has identified new areas of importance to disaster risk
management that include chemical, biological and radio-nuclear
risks, conservation of culture and heritage, and the role of
domestic capital markets in financing improvements in the
built environment to create a safer, more disaster-resilient
world.
THE ASIAN DISASTER PREPAREDNESS CENTRE
2015 is the target date for achieving the Millennium
Development Goals which coincides with the silver jubilee of
the start of the International Decade for Natural Disaster
78 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Reduction and the end of the Kobe Plan of Action. This paper
outlines ADPC's activities that support and advance the efforts
of these international programs and challenges and its intent
to lead in mainstreaming disaster risk management concepts
and practices into development processes. ADPC's Look Ahead
Towards 2015 will also provide an overview of how ADPC is
responding to evolving issues in disaster risk management and
focusing on key themes including urban, health, community
and climate.
The paper will show how ADPC will continue to emphasize
the priority areas of informing and involving communities,
support the application of expertise and investment to improve
the built environment and the development of institutions which
will promote, guide and implement DRM. ADPC will also present
its intent to address emerging risk issues including chemical,
biological and radio-nuclear risks and conservation of historic
areas through domestic capital markets in financing the
improvements in the built environment. ADPC places
importance on building capacities and raising awareness
amongst stakeholders including all levels of government, private
sector entities, donors and communities. This paper explains
how ADPC is apllying these new skills to make real changes
in institutional capacity and the built environment through
stakeholder skills development and action. Private entities,
public institutions and community groups trained to create a
more resilient built environment will be our key achievement.
ADPC FOCUS
ADPC Disaster Risk Management Timeline
In the 1970s, disasters were viewed as one-off events.
Governments and relief agencies ususally responded without
taking into account the social and economic implications nor
the causes. With advancements in our understanding of the
processes that underlie hazardous events, a more technocratic
paradigm came into existence. This paradigm was based on a
belief that the only way to deal with disasters was through the
application of public policy and geophysical and engineering
knowledge. There was an emphasis on preparedness measures,
Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 79
as well as stockpiling relief goods, preparedness plans and a
growing role for humanitarian and relief agencies. This
contingency planning approach improved the efficiency of relief
agencies and resulted in a significant drop in the number of
deaths, but it left a lot to be desired in terms of appropriate
and effective long-term rehabilitation, reconstruction and
sustainable development. As the knowledge base grew, disaster
response and risk managers began to realize that it was not
enough to manage disaster events alone but that the underlying
risks needed to be addressed as well. By reducing vulnerability
to hazards, building capacity and improving people's 'resilience',
disaster risks could be reduced.
The terms "risk management," "risk reduction,"
"vulnerability reduction," "capacity building" and "mitigation"
began replacing the term "disaster management," thus making
pro-active disaster risk management in Asia part of the
development agenda that must deal with the growing variety
and intensity of hazards. It was a shift from short-term, reactive,
charity-driven responses to long-term, proactive, developmental
initiatives.
From its inception in 1986, ADPC has recognized the
importance of learning from grassroots organizations and
focusing on communities as key stakeholders. Community-Based
Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) has assumed the
importance it deserves and ADPC will continue to advocate for
a dual-track approach of bottom-up and top-down policy and
practice.
ADPC was an early advocate of Urban Disaster Risk
Management (UDRM). An understanding of sustainable
development issues led ADPC to conclude that urbanization is
a phenomenon not to be denied. With USAID/Office of Foreign
Disaster Assistance (OFDA) support over the past decade, ADPC
launched an on-going program to address urban disaster risk
management in Asia.
ADPC identified Climate Variability and Change as a
disaster risk management issue almost a decade ago. As science
improved our ability to predict extreme events and devise more
80 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
reliable early warning systems, the need for links between
disaster risk managers, NGOs, vulnerable communities and
the scientific community became an agenda item for ADPC
action. ADPC sits on the cutting edge of these initiatives to
engage the scientific community first on floods, and now to
include cloudbursts, tsunami and landslides for useful early
warning information in disaster mitigation initiatives and
sustainable agricultural policy, planning and implementation.
Requirements for Public Health in Emergencies have focused
international agencies on the effects of disaster response and
preparedness that had been lost in a growing array of issues.
The World Health Organization has engaged with ADPC to
create structural and non-structural scenarios to address mass
casualty events through 'resilient facilities' and staff trained in
psycho-social issues of responders and medical and trauma
victims. WHO, with ADPC support, has identified the need to
deliver this training and the first WHO/ADPC/UNDP Disasters
and Development event has been successfully initiated.
ADPC CONTRIBUTIONS TO INTERNATIONAL DECADE
FOR NATURAL DISASTER
Reduction (IDNDR) and International Strategy for
Disaster Reduction (UN ISDR)
In the late 1980s, ADPC lent a regional voice to the global
advocacy of the scientific community for a decade for disaster
reduction. ADPC was involved as a key regional partner
throughout IDNDR, especially after Yokohama. Milestones
include the collaboration between the IDNDR Radius Project
and our Asian Urban Disaster Mitigation Program; co-organizing
with UNESCAP and the IDNDR Secretariat the February 1999
Asia meeting in Bangkok, the Bangkok Declaration, and the
release of the ADPC-IDNDR publication "Managing Disasters
in Asia and the Pacific: A Review of Lessons Learned During
the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction" at
the Geneva Forum in July 1999. At the closing of IDNDR,
ADPC was invited to be a member of the 22 member UN Inter-
Agency Force on Disaster Reduction. ADPC founded the ISDR
Asia Partnership.
Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 81
Partnerships
Partnerships are a key element for sustaining institutions
and activities. ADPC recognized from the start the need for
working with partners to increase opportunities for training
and technical assistance. Partnerships are a potent tool in
decision-making on institutional roles and responsibilities in
disaster situations. Knowing the partners, their resources,
strengths and weaknesses helps to ensure that key issues,
skills and requirements are not omitted. Assistance to ADPC
has been generously provided by Australian AID (AusAID),
USAID and its Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA),
United Nations agencies, especially WHO, UNDP, UNICEF,
ESCAP, FAO, WMO, ISDR, the European Union (DIPECHO)
and bi-lateral organizations such as DANIDA, GTZ, NORAD,
and SIDA. The World Bank, on whose PROVENTION Steering
Committee ADPC sits, and the Asian Development Bank have
been active partners of ADPC.
Promoting Regional Cooperation
An essential element for disaster reduction and safer living
environments is building networks between key partners. With
an established network of people from all sectors a common
vision of disaster reduction and sustainable development can
be achieved. Past experience has proven such partnerships to
be an effective mechanism for promoting awareness, developing
and implementing strategies, policies and plans, joint-programs
and initiatives in disaster reduction. ADPC has enjoyed a long-
standing relationship with National Disaster Management
Offices in Asia. In 2000, ADPC established a mechanism to
identify the disaster-related needs and priorities of Asian
countries, to develop action strategies and to promote cooperative
programs on a regional and sub-regional basis through the
Regional Consultative Committee on Disaster Management
(RCC).
The RCC is made up of 30 members who work in senior
government positions and are heads of the National Disaster
Management Offices in 25 countries in Asia. To date, four RCC
meetings have been held. These meetings have been
82 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
instrumental in providing an increasingly visible platform for
disaster risk management and demonstrate the support and
commitment of political leaders of member countries as was
evident in the inauguration of the 3 rd and 4 th RCC meetings
by the Deputy Prime Minister of India and the President of the
People's Republic of Bangladesh in Delhi, October 2002 and in
Dhaka, March, 2004.
ADPC has been actively involved in providing technical
support to a number of existing regional and sub-regional bodies
including ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment (ASOEN)
on transboundary, pollution and environmental disasters, the
ASEAN Committee on Disaster Management (ACDM) on the
development of the ASEAN Regional Program on Disaster
Management (ARPDM), the Mekong River Commission on the
implementation of their Flood Management and Mitigation
Program (FMMP), as well as close collaboration with the South
Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), the
International Center for Integrated Mountain Development
(ICIMOD) in Nepal, the South Pacific Applied Geosciences
Commission (SOPAC), and Emergency Management Australia
(EMA). ADPC will continue to be proactive in its support to
strengthen, enhance and sustain these partnerships.
Lessons Learned
ADPC's experience in disaster management and disaster
risk reduction has resulted in a number of important lessons
learned:
o A common understanding of terminology is essential for
progress in disaster risk management (DRM).
o Top-down and bottom-up DRM strategies should be
implemented simultaneously.
o Simulation tools and demonstration projects illustrate
the translation of theory to practice, offer important
insights and should be used more extensively to develop
and update DRM systems and arrangements.
o The process of evaluation and review and the subsequent
process of adjustment and improvement are integral to
the implementation of DRM strategies.
Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 83
o The links between DRM and governance, poverty,
education, livelihoods and health must be better
recognized and addressed in training and capacity
building.
o Investment in mitigation is an essential component of
sustainable development.
o The role of local government is critical to safer, more
resilient built environments.
o Technical expertise needs to incorporate disaster risk
mitigation in professional training.
o The role of the community must continue to evolve from
that of victim and beneficiary to partner in program
design and implementation.
Regional Consultative Committee
As a key mechanism to systematically encourage and
facilitate regional cooperation in disaster reduction, the Regional
Consultative Committee for disaster management (RCC) was
conceived in mid-1999. Supported by the Government of
Australia since 2000, the RCC provides an annual forum for
member governments to share information on national, sub-
national and regional priorities and needs, as well as lessons
learnt and best practices. The RCC is comprised of heads of
National Disaster Management Offices (NDMOs); to date
representing 25 countries in Asia. Annual meetings are convened
by ADPC and co-organised by Government of a host country
which have been held in 2000 and 2001 in Thailand, 2002 in
India and 2004 in Bangladesh. The 5th RCC meeting will be
held in Vietnam in May 2005. The inauguration of the 3rd and
4th RCC meetings by the Deputy Prime Minister of India and
the President of the People's Republic of Bangladesh
demonstrate the commitment of political leaders of member
countries to disaster risk management.
An RCC Program on Advocacy and Capacity Building for
Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Management in Development
Practice (MDRM) in member countries, supported by AusAID,
was launched in March 2004.
84 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
PRIORITY ACTIVITIES
Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Management into
Development Policy, Planning, and Implementation
Asia suffers more disasters than any other region of the
world and disasters set back years of development gains.
Conversely, development activities can reduce disaster risks or
induce new risks if disaster risk considerations do not figure
into project design. Development activity and disaster risk
reduction are two sides of the same coin and have to be dealt
with in unison. It is still necessary to convince entities and
individuals to consider their activities in the light of "risks." In
short, create a "culture of risk awareness."
Mainstreaming disaster risk management into development
practice requires all institutions at all levels and from all sectors
to clarify their roles and responsibilities. Mainstreaming should
result in better anticipation of short-and long-term impacts and
help people prepare for events that require trained personnel
and safe, resilient 'lifeline infrastructure' for disaster victims.
Mainstreaming promotes the preparation and application of
information, assessments, guidelines and awareness of disaster
risk.
Government, financial, national and local implementing
agencies must factor into their programs the measures needed
to reduce disaster risks. Are critical facilities located on land
that is landslide prone? Resources to run these systems,
especially investment capital, will need to come from domestic
capital markets and national finance systems.
Recently, ADPC embarked on a project for Advocacy and
Capacity Building for Mainstreaming Disaster Risk
Management in Development Practice.
The project is a direct outcome of the 4 th Annual Regional
Consultative Committee (RCC) meeting held in Dhaka,
Bangladesh. With core funding from AusAID, the project seeks
to promote and encourage the mainstreaming of disaster risk
management (MDRM) into sustainable development policies
and practices throughout Asia. ADPC hopes to create a critical
Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 85
mass of advocates and champions for MDRM, a greater
willingness to include MDRM in regional and national
development agendas and the widespread adoption of MDRM
training and curricula materials.
Community-based Approaches to Disaster Risk
Management
Community-based Disaster Management (CBDM) emerged
as an alternative during the 1980s and 1990s. Over the last two
decades it has become apparent that top-down approaches fail
to address the needs of vulnerable communities, often ignoring
local capacities and resources. A top-down approach can increase
vulnerability and undermine project improvements in quality
of life, security and resilience. The CBDM approach (now
CBDRM) emphasizes the active involvement of communities in
all phases of disaster risk management. The aim is to reduce
vulnerabilities and to increase the capacities of vulnerable
groups to prevent or minimize loss and damage to life, property,
livelihoods and the environment, and to minimize human
suffering and hasten recovery.
The ADPC approach to Community-based Disaster Risk
Management concentrates on:
(1) capacity building through training,
(2) sharing experiences amongst practitioners and decision-
makers, especially regional exchanges or South-South
learning, and
(3) initiating links among national and local government
departments, NGOs and communities through local,
national and regional platforms and associations.
In 1997, ADPC in collaboration with the Duryog Nivaran,
a network of disaster mitigation NGOs in South Asia, initiated
the first international course on CBDRM. Today CBDRM
training has become one of the flagship courses offered by
ADPC. So far, twelve international CBDRM courses and several
national courses have been organized. Training in CBDRM has
been effective in promoting the importance of community
involvement and has become a national priority in Bangladesh,
86 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Cambodia, India, Lao PDR, the Philippines and Sri Lanka.
ADPC partner organizations offer the course at the national
level in these countries on a regular basis and ADPC continues
to play a support role in quality control and updating course
material.
ADPC employs CBDRM across its thematic areas. The
Urban Disaster Risk Management (UDRM) team is
implementing CBDRM successfully in Nepal, Cambodia and
the Philippines. These activities have resulted in a greater
participation of urban communities in developing action plans,
improving standards of living and creating a more resilient
built environment. Between 2001-2004, ADPC implemented a
regional program, Partnerships for Disaster Reduction for
Southeast Asia (PDRSEA) in six countries. The project was
implemented with core funding from ECHO under the Second
and Third DIPECHO Action Plans for Southeast Asia. The
emphasis of the PDRSEA project focuses on developing new
tools and methodologies, capacity building and training to
integrate community-based disaster risk management into
national disaster risk management programs and supporting
initiatives by community groups to address the risks they face.
An important product of PDRSEA2 was the first edition of the
CBDRM Field Practitioners' Handbook.
In May 2004 under the PDRSEA2 Project and in
collaboration with UNESCAP and the International Federation
of Red Crosses (IFRC), ADPC held the Third Disaster
Management Practitioners' Workshop. The four-day workshop
provided opportunities for practitioners to discuss how CBDRM
is presently being practiced in the region and how it can be
integrated into government policies, planning and program
budgets.
Institutionalizing CBDRM in Government Policy,
Planning and Budgets
Institutionalizing CBDRM is a multi-sector, multi-level and
participatory process based on agreed values leading to
permanence, regularization, and sustainability through
integration into the socio-economic development processes.
Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 87
From the perspective of community groups and
organizations, 'institutionalization' is a state in which their role
is recognized by the government, their efforts are supported
and the roles and functions of various stakeholders are defined.
In different organizational and cultural contexts the process
is referred to by different names. These include: institutionalize,
mainstream, scale-up, normalize, legitimize, integrate, adopt,
replicate or sustain.
Institutionalization of CBDRM is required to:
o Achieve the vision of disaster-resilient communities.
o Scale-up the impact (more people, more communities,
more risks addressed).
o Enhance learning (more stakeholders, more cases, more
lessons).
o Sustain the gains (more structural, more permanent
improvements).
o Recognize that strategic success lies in the hands of
people in communities.
o Position CBDRM as a viable approach to sustainable
development.
o Mobilize partner resources for disaster risk management.
The workshop concluded with consensus that:
o A bottom-up approach (CBDRM) is an essential part of
Disaster Risk Management.
o CBDRM works best when there is a high level of
coordination and cooperation amongst stakeholders.
o CBDRM works best when it addresses both structural
and non-structural program planning and
implementation.
o CBDRM is multi-faceted and thus cross-sectoral in scope.
o CBDRM is most effective when it is adapted to match
the social, political and cultural environment of a
community.
88 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
o There is a need to maintain efforts to enhance
inclusiveness, decentralization and empowerment.
o There is a need for continued innovation through review
of the form and content of training materials and
activities.
ADPC maintains CBDRM as a priority for the Asian region.
Next steps for ADPC are to institutionalize CBDRM and organize
national and regional forums with government officials, NGOs
and community representatives. A PDRSEA follow-on program
supported by the EU will extend the reach of CBDRM to
Cambodia, East Timor, Indonesia, Lao PDR and Vietnam and
ADPC will work towards similar initiatives in other sub-regions
of Asia.
DISASTER RISK COMMUNICATION
Disaster Risk Communication (DRC) helps ensure that at-
risk communities become more aware of the threats they face
and the protective actions they can take.
ADPC is partnering with organizations to develop a variety
of risk communication tools in local languages. These programs
emphasize the variety of formats that awareness campaigns
can take and help partners prepare and implement programs.
ADPC's Urban DRM team has trained partner institutions to
implement disaster risk communication campaigns in
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Thailand, Lao PDR and
Indonesia.
In Nepal, an Earthquake Safety Day has been established.
Every year programs and activities are organized around the
theme of earthquake safety to promote greater awareness of
earthquake risk.
In Bangladesh, parades, dramas and campaigns are
organized annually to remind people of the dangers they face
and of the safety measures that can be taken to minimize risk.
In Sri Lanka, there have been several public awareness efforts
carried out as part of an overall DRM program. One example
is a soap opera on landslide hazard that was televised nation-
wide.
Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 89
Through Asian Development Bank-funded Technical
Assistance Projects in the two Indian states of Uttar Anchal
and Uttar Pradesh, similar campaigns were conducted to raise
public awareness of earthquakes and floods.
From 2001 to 2003, ADPC implemented a program called
the Disaster Reduction Program for Cambodia, Lao PDR and
Vietnam (DRP-CLV), with core funding from DANIDA. The
eighteen-month project focused on capacity building, pilot
implementation and program development. Disaster risk
communication and public awareness activities supported
behavioral change in institutions and communities, and ADPC
tested an innovative approach to social marketing for disaster
mitigation. This involved identifying target groups, assessing
their levels of needs and understanding and tailoring programs
that prepared and tested communication products and messages
with the identified stakeholder community. The participatory
approach proved to be very successful. Tools developed included
posters, leaflets, educational material for primary school
children, songs and street-plays.
Disaster risk communication continues to be a key area of
focus for ADPC. It will remain a priority activity in disaster
risk reduction as there will be a constant need to educate
officials that rotate in and out of critical decision making
positions and community leadership of the different threats
they will be facing. There will be newer threats and the people
at large will need to be alerted, warned and educated about
them. ADPC will engage with the mass media in Asia to
encourage it to report on disaster prevention, mitigation and
response constructively and pro-actively.
Investing in Mitigation
Applying disaster risk management tools and technologies
to the built environment has been a neglected aspect of disaster
risk management, yet it is the key link to sustainable
development. Capital investment projects need to incorporate
disaster mitigation technologies and construction methods for
community facilities, infrastructure and shelter construction
and retrofit programs. Capital investment in the built
90 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
environment needs to be added to the disaster risk management
agenda. Shelter and community service construction and retrofit
programs can safeguard lives, support conservation of the
natural and built environment-including historic urban areas
and community structures-and contribute to local economic
development.
These programs can be financed domestically. It is neither
necessary nor desirable to have mitigation projects funded by
donors alone. Rather, it is important to mainstream the concepts
of mitigation improvement into the existing lending activities
of national and community-based financial institutions. Existing
mortgage lending and home improvement credit can be
expanded to include mitigation technologies for new construction
and existing structures.
Improvements can be based on the well-researched
construction guidelines and methods documented in how-to
manuals and handbooks, construction worker training in the
application of improved construction techniques becomes useful
when combined with the financing to carry out the recommended
changes.
The estimated five to seven per cent increase in construction
costs is an investment in security and much less than the
replacement cost of structures damaged and destroyed by
disasters. Municipal finance programs in Asia have generally
been limited to water supply and sewerage projects and solid
waste collection and disposal. This definition of infrastructure
needs to be expanded to include 'mitigation furniture' (raised
walkways, dikes, flood control devices). Urban infrastructure
also includes community facilities that require upgrading to
make them safer, more disaster-resilient structures.
The domestic bond market can supply the funds for
infrastructure development agencies, thrift societies and housing
finance companies. What is needed is a capital investment
program based on affordability criteria to create commercially
viable programs that offer affordable improvement packages to
low-income families. Such programs would include raising
awareness of the cultural value of historic urban areas and the
Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 91
technical inputs needed for more resilient design and
technologies as well as trained labor, appropriate materials
and capital.
Good Governance for Disaster Risk Management
Successful disaster reduction initiatives need political will
and effective governance. Because governments play such an
important role, ADPC engages with disaster management
authorities at the national, provincial and district levels to help
them strengthen capacities to develop and enforce disaster
mitigation policies, regulations, operations and action plans
and building codes. Successful instances of support provided to
key government agencies include:
o ADPC-UNDP Technical Support Projects in Cambodia
and Sri Lanka helped build up an integrated institutional
framework for disaster management.
o The development and delivery of a series of training
courses to the National Disaster Management Office
(NDMO) of East Timor and various organizations
engaged in disaster management work in East Timor.
o In Thailand, the Royal Thai Government established
the Department of Disaster Mitigation and Prevention,
whose core personnel participated in ADPC's DMC and
CBDRM training courses.
o In Cambodia and India, implementation of hazard-
specific capacity building activities for flood risk
management.
o Pre-disaster preparedness and mitigation orientation
for the new Ministry and Disaster Management and
Mitigation Center in Uttar Anchal in India-the first in
the country.
o A Commissionerate of Disaster Management in Uttar
Pradesh plus the development of district level disaster
management plans with a multi-hazard focus.
o In Sri Lanka a National Act was passed to establish a
national physical planning department with its own
92 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
disaster mitigation unit to help integrate disaster
mitigation into the national land use planning policy (as
a direct result of the Asian Urban Disaster Management
Program).
o The Royal Government of Nepal established a national
day to observe the importance of earthquake mitigation
and a national committee to organize the event.
o In Indonesia, the government agreed to include urban
disaster mitigation in its national development policy.
o In Sri Lanka, the government is considering an ADPC-
AUDMP study as the basis for policy and institutional
change.
o In Lao PDR a new fire code is being drafted based on
the experience gained from the AUDMP demonstration
project.
o Naga City, Philippines developed a disaster mitigation
implementation plan for the city that is still being
implemented.
o Ward 34 of the Municipality of Kathmandu, Nepal
developed an earthquake preparedness plan.
o The city of Bandung, Indonesia is implementing a flood
and earthquake mitigation plan.
o Flood mitigation plans have been developed and
implemented for the Bangladesh municipalities of
Gaibandha and Tongi.
o Nawalapitiya and Ratnapura in Sri Lanka are
implementing multi-hazard mitigation plans. ADPC is
now developing partnerships with Afghanistan and
China to advise and assist their governments in
promoting mitigation and disaster reduction.
Capacity Building for Disaster Risk Management
ADPC supports disaster-related management activities
within an overall decision-making framework, which we call
disaster risk management. An overall decision-making
framework for DRM should be based on a clear national policy
Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 93
on risk management and it should achieve results through
interlocking, accountable coordinating committees and
implementing agencies at national, intermediate and local levels.
A number of actions are needed to establish such a
framework, including concept development, advocacy, capacity
building, independent monitoring and evaluation, strategic
planning and change management, and increasingly, capital
improvement project development that channels investment
funds into making the built environment more resilient. ADPC
recognizes the critical role of training in achieving this. Training
as a capacity building tool has been a core activity of ADPC
since its inception and capacity building initiatives are part of
most ADPC projects and programs.
Courses include:
o disaster risk management
o disaster risk communication
o community-based disaster risk management
o urban disaster mitigation (UDM)
o hazard-specific courses on flood disaster risk
management, earthquake vulnerability risk reduction,
fire disaster risk management and flood preparedness
planning
o tailored country-based training courses
o public health and disasters
o disasters and development
Initiatives are under way to further the development of
disaster risk management structures, including the introduction
of new courses on:
o skills for effective training and training-of-trainers
o exercise and simulation management
o management of health risks arising from deliberate use
of chemical, biological and radio-nuclear materials (in
partnership with WHO)
94 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
o coordination center management
o crisis and consequence management
o land-use management
o Information Technology applications in disaster
management
To achieve effective results from training, ADPC links
training to action programs. ADPC then follows-up through the
network of course participants to inquire into the changes that
may have occurred by applying skills gained during the training
experience. Training efforts are directed towards program
outcomes identified to increase capacity of an agency or system
in analysis, monitoring and evaluation; gain new insights into
causes of disasters and increasingly, the links across sectors.
The role of exercises and simulations is similarly important, as
these tools can be uniquely effective in achieving significant
change in behavior and encouraging development of appropriate
disaster risk management structures and arrangements.
Managing Public Health Risks
The relationship between public health issues and
emergency management has continued to gain considerable
attention. Public health is a prime human development indicator.
With increased awareness of linkages between disasters,
development and poverty reduction, public health issues have
emerged as a key focus area for disaster managers and
development workers alike. The relationship between health
and the built environment, land management, climate and
urbanization are now being incorporated into health discourses
that were once dominated solely by purely medical issues.
With recent political developments and rising concerns about
terrorism and human-made disasters, attention has shifted to
preparing health-related agencies for crises and agency
coordination in emergencies. There is a growing need to improve
rapid response capacity to emergencies, which can only be
achieved through well-organized, well-trained and coordinated
emergency workers. This may involve communities as first
responders. There is also an urgency to build capacities of
Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 95
public health professionals to deal with large-scale public health
consequences in times of disasters, emergencies and conflict
situations. To prepare a cadre of professionals, who can respond
to emergencies, it is necessary to build capacities of health
workers, volunteers and responders and the management skills
to develop and maintain facilities to which disaster victims
would be sent. Training is seen as a tool to bring awareness
and skills to emergency workers, disaster planners and medical
personnel.
Most courses offered by other institutions focus on 'response',
and training individuals from UN agencies and international
NGOs involved in charity and humanitarian assistance, or deal
with issues related to the care of refugees in complex emergency
situations. These courses put less emphasis on mass casualty
management in the context of emergencies and public health
issues like SARS and HIV/AIDS or on the linkage with
development issues. To address this gap, ADPC has developed
expertise in health and medical aspects of response as well as
prevention and mitigation of crises. ADPC training courses on
health emergencies are being presented in collaboration with
UN agencies such as WHO and UNDP and donor agencies such
as the Royal Government of Norway, JICA, Ministries of Health,
public health colleges in universities, and international NGOs.
New programs and projects are being developed and are
attracting an audience outside in South Africa and the Eastern
Mediterranean among others. ADPC training includes:
o Public Health and Emergency Management in Asia &
the Pacific (PHEMAP) delivered in collaboration with
the Regional Offices of WHO for South East Asia
(SEARO) and the Western Pacific (WPRO). This is a
comprehensive training program designed for Ministries
of Health as the institutions responsible for providing
a comprehensive and coherent health response to an
emergency. PHEMAP courses can be adapted to all
levels of a Ministry and cover the problems that
Ministries actually face in natural disasters and mass
casualty situations. The 5 th regional course is in the
offing. In conjunction with the regional courses conducted
96 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 97

in Bangkok, national courses are being organized and The whole concept of public health is being revisited but
implemented at the country level in Papua New Guinea, programs cannot be developed or implemented as stand-
Vietnam and The Philippines. alone activities or undertaken by any single agency.
o Public Health in Complex Emergencies (PHCE) is Therefore, there is a call for integration of health sector
organized in collaboration with the Mailman School of concerns with other sectors in a participatory manner.
Public Health of Columbia University, World Education Urban Disaster Risk Management
Inc. (WEI) and the International Rescue Committee
Asia is one of the fastest urbanizing regions in the world.
(IRC). The training program in Asia addresses the unique
In 2000, 37 per cent of Asia's population lived in cities. This
public health needs of refugees and internally displaced
proportion is projected to rise to more than 50 per cent within
persons. Areas covered are critical public health issues
the next twenty-five years. An estimated 50 per cent of the
faced by governments and NGO/PVO personnel working
world's cities are situated along major earthquake belts, river
in complex emergencies. Topics include epidemiology,
flood plains, landslide prone mountain slopes or on tropical
communicable diseases, environmental health, nutrition,
cyclone tracks. In Asia, most cities are located in hazard prone
reproductive health, weapons, violence and trauma,
areas. The spread of health hazards such as HIV/AIDS and
protection and security, psychosocial issues and
SARS are among the most recent examples of regional,
coordination.
transboundry health hazards that spread easily in urban
o Hospital Emergency Preparedness & Response Course populations.
(HEPR) is designed to assist health service providers,
Terrorism, fatal accidents and chemical and biological risks
both administrative and medical, to plan responses to
are new threats that Asia's urban centers and towns must learn
emergencies that involve large numbers of casualties.
to manage. Vulnerable communities need a collective vision to
o Disasters and Development (D&D) has recently been determine a strategic framework with identified action areas
launched jointly by ADPC, the Southeast Asia Regional to make cities competitive, manageable, sustainable, and safer
Office (SEARO) of WHO, and the United Nations places to live.
Development Program (UNDP). The course promotes a
Cities have often grown around historic urban areas, which
more effective public health risk/emergency management
in the past were also seats of administration, culture, economy
approach as a contribution to sustainable development
and learning. These historic areas mean much more than their
in a comprehensive and integrated manner. ADPC is
physical presence, as imposing and beautiful as they may be,
also addressing a critical issue gaining widespread
and convey a sense of identity, strength, beauty, know-how,
concern and attention-public safety and security. Public
technical skills, social structure and economic prowess among
safety, like public health, is a fundamental need. Only
others. Historic urban areas are an ignored socio-cultural and
in a safe physical and social environment will people
economic resource and are increasingly vulnerable to natural
prosper. A safe environment includes safe air, soil, food,
and human-made hazards. Disasters such as the recent
water, public transport, appliances, practices, protection
earthquakes in Gujarat, India and Bam, Iran are tragedies that
from violence and prevention of accidents. Safety is also
need not have happened.
a collective psychology-public perception of "being safe"
is an important element of individual and communal ADPC has identified key issues of the increasing
well-being. A high level of public awareness is needed, vulnerability of cities and towns through its work in urban
maintained by informed debate and public education. areas over the past decade and the that include:
98 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
o The lack of human settlement land planning and new
shelter development policies and programs to settle
urban populations in safer areas.
o Increasing socio-economic vulnerability of rural
communities caused by over-population and
environmental concerns such as the availability of water,
water quality, land degradation and plot fracturing.
o Large in-migration to urban areas that concentrate what
was once dispersed rural poverty.
o Failure of urban governments to anticipate shelter
demands leading to the growth of slums or to create
credit facilities for shelter and retrofit programs.
o Failure to consider risk reduction in urban planning.
o Limited application of technical information related to
hazard environment, social, economic and physical
vulnerabilities and assessment tools for ascertaining
potential risk.
o Lack of information on hazard scenarios, absence of
early warning mechanisms and lack of historical
information on destructive events that limit the capacity
of municipalities to assess the vulnerability of the built
environment.
o Poor enforcement of building codes.
o Traditional urban boundaries that are breaking up and
disturbing delicate ecological relationships and that are
exposing historic urban areas to increasing risks.
Since 1995, ADPC has successfully been implementing the
Asian Urban Disaster Mitigation Program (AUDMP). AUDMP,
funded by USAID/OFDA, identified specific models that reduce
vulnerability to disasters and documented those models for
replication. The program was implemented with partner
organizations in nine countries; Bangladesh, Cambodia, India,
Indonesia, Lao PDR, Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka and
Thailand. It established strong networks of municipalities,
development agencies and regional and national disaster
Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 99
mitigation professionals and experts who continue to support
and replicate disaster mitigation models unique to the Asian
context throughout the region. Through AUDMP, ADPC is
making a significant contribution to establishing disaster
mitigation as an integral part of the urban development process,
paying attention to the unique cultural, social and local context
of each country. A set of innovative strategies for urban risk
management includes:
o Employing a participatory approach to city-level action
planning for risk reduction.
o Creating capacity at the local level to carry out risk
assessment and avoid arbitrary decision-making and
establish priority interventions.
o Engaging with the private sector for financial support
and commercial and industrial hazard risk identification
and mitigation.
o Building resilience in vulnerable communities by
activating and motivating poor communities to improve
their built environment and emergency response skills
and resources.
o Promoting a community-based approach to convert
victimized communities into a resource for their own
protection.
o Developing and applying new skills to design and
implement demonstration projects and their scaling-up
to safer shelter programs in order to reduce losses.
o Institutionalizing risk communication in local
government, the media and NGOs to create a safety
conscious public.
o Building the capacity of stakeholders to monitor,
evaluate and revise their policies and programs to keep
information current, procedures updated and response
and preparedness materials in working order.
Long-term institutional support provided by USAID/OFDA
has had a significant impact on attitudes, knowledge and skills
in the countries where the Asian Urban Disaster Mitigation
100 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Program has been implemented. A number of general 'disaster
axioms' were reconfirmed through program implemention:
demonstration projects help create a safer built environment;
information and awareness programs, training courses and
policy change activities need to be kept current; and capital
investment in mitigation in cities is the next priority.
National governments are organized along sectoral lines
and can provide broad guidelines and oversight to critical issues.
Local governments are of necessity cross-sectoral. Local
government units have proved to be the most responsive unit
of government for effective implementation of mitigation
initiatives within a decentralized system of administration. It
is the unit where land use practices can be regulated and safer
construction methodologies can be promoted and enforced. The
following lessons were gleaned from ADPC experience:
o Government partnership and cooperation is essential in
achieving safer, more resilient cities.
o Decentralization, devolution and transparency enhance
disaster mitigation because they facilitate access.
o Disaster mitigation is not a sector but a core function
of the public and private sectors and civil society and
is unique to the national, cultural, social, economic and
local context.
o All hazards become disasters when people are adversely
affected and are a direct result of development patterns.
o Specific mitigation measures are hazard and context
dependent.
o Resources can be generated for mitigation improvements
as responsibility is decentralized and expertise and
political will are strengthened through training and
capacity building.
o Small, enthusiastic, field-oriented groups are effective
institutional partners.
o Cross-sector, multi-disciplinary partnerships and
approaches are essential to success.
Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 101
o Mitigation is most effective when fully integrated into
the development process.
o Mitigation anticipates the impact of present hazards on
future development.
The next step for ADPC envisions safer urban communities
by preventing, minimizing and mitigating the suffering of city
inhabitants and reducing their economic and material losses
while preserving the gains and benefits of urbanization. Some
of the key strategies to be employed are:
o Planning and building safer cities through investment
in mitigation derived from domestic capital and finance
institutions that build on successful ADPC pilot projects
in landslide-prone Sri Lanka; structural retrofit of
schools in earthquake-prone Nepal; and safe havens in
flood-prone Bangladesh.
o Policy development and technical support for disaster
mitigation programs and emergency management and
response planning at the local government and
community level that integrates scientific data and
information into decision-making.
o Development and implementation of public awareness
and risk communication strategies that involves the
media as an important stakeholder in risk reduction
initiatives.
o Information and knowledge management initiatives to
help train a new generation of professional and political
leaders who are more aware of the measures needed to
create a safer built environment.
MANAGING CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CHANGE
The impact of hydro-meteorological hazards on socio-
economic systems is becoming more intense. Droughts, floods
and storms can have long-lasting effects that disrupt livelihood,
contribute to increased vulnerability and threaten the food
security of rural producers. Climate change compounds the
problem, as it is expected to alter the frequency, severity and
102 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
complexity of climate-related hazards. Livelihood systems that
do not have built-in buffering mechanisms are especially
vulnerable. In recent years there has been dramatic progress
in our understanding of climate systems and the ability to
monitor and forecast weather events on the scale of seasons
and beyond.
In recent years, there has been dramatic progress in the
understanding of climate systems and the ability to monitor
and forecast weather events on the scale of seasons and beyond.
The advent of more reliable forecasts goes hand-in-hand with
emerging trends in disaster management when predominantly
reactive strategies are gradually replaced with more proactive
and forward looking approaches.
These developments provide a unique opportunity for
developing countries to reduce their vulnerability to adverse
weather and climate phenomena and to take better advantage
of benign weather spells. Widespread concern about the likely
impact of emerging climate risks due to human induced actions
on the climate system provides opportunities to translate climate
change adaptation concepts into locally actionable practices.
Potential opportunities also exist to understand and make use
of the patterns of climate variability through skillful use of
past-observed climate data sourced in different countries.
However, there are formidable challenges in making use
of climate information for societal benefit. The major barriers
are:
o Most climate information products and tools developed
by scientists for resource management are not fully
used, partly because scientists too often lack an
understanding of institutional, economic and cultural
decision-making environments.
o Decision-makers frequently do not seek new sources of
information or initiate contacts with experts who could
be helpful.
o While the capacity to generate climate information
products rests largely with advanced global climate
Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 103
research centers, the need for these products lies with
local at-risk communities in developing countries.
o The uncertainties associated with climate change make
it difficult to mainstream climate change adaptation
options into development planning processes.
ADPC is in a unique position to address these challenges
to promote more comprehensive and proactive use of climate
information for risk management in the region. Like all
knowledge intensive processes, the use of climate information
requires national and local institutions to develop a capacity
to interpret and have well-functioning procedures for
information dissemination. Also required are climate
information products to match end-users' needs by earning
their trust and motivation.
ADPC addresses this gap by assisting countries in the
region to create this institutional environment through capacity
building efforts in climate data interpretation and information
product development. ADPC bridges the knowledge gap between
knowledge providers and interested governments by setting up
partnerships between international science communities,
regional, national and local experts and governments. Since
1998, ADPC has been implementing climate programs with
support from USAID/OFDA and has made several inroads in
applying climate information for disaster mitigation in the
Asian region such as:
o Identification of regions, seasons and sectors sensitive
to the El Niño Southern Oscillation.
o Setting up institutional mechanisms for climate forecast
applications.
o Pilot delivery of locally relevant climate information.
o Developing a three-tiered (short-medium-long range)
overlapping forecast system.
o Establishing Climate Risk Communication Schools
through continuous engagement of climate information
providers and users.
104 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
o Integrating climate information in development
planning.
ADPC in collaboration with the International Institute for
Climate Prediction (IRI) and with assistance from the National
Oceanic Atmospheric Administration and its Office of Global
programs (NOAA) will implement a climate change adaptation
pilot project in South East Asia. In Bangladesh, FAO selected
ADPC to translate climate change adaptation concepts into
locally actionable practice through pilot demonstration projects.
Policy makers in developing countries do appreciate the
desirability of addressing risks associated with known and
observed climate variability. It is possible to convince policy
makers to undertake strategies to address these risks. The
wealth of experience available within ADPC enables us to
develop strategies for mainstreaming climate change adaptation
options into ongoing policy and development planning processes.
These strategies need to focus on:
o Development of institutional systems to provide localized
climate information with lead times of 3-5 days (weather
forecast), 5-10 days (medium-range forecast), 20-25 days
(sub-seasonal forecast), and 1 month and beyond
(seasonal forecast).
o Development and local demonstrations that use climate
change model outputs (future climate), climate forecast
information (very near future climate and near real-
time data) and climate analog products (past climate)
for enhancing adaptive capacity to climate change.
o Training intermediary user institutions to translate
probabilistic forecasts into location-specific impact
outlooks for use in preparing contingency plans for end
users.
o Interactive climate risk management field schools that
enhance end user knowledge of climate-society
interactions, help end users interpret and apply climate
information, ensure the incorporation of end user
experience and wisdom on climate risk management
into decision-making processes and promote a continuous
Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 105
dialogue among climate information providers. o Provide
an institutional forum for connecting global centers of
excellence on climate research applications with high-
risk communities and governments.
ADPC LOOKSAHEAD TO 2015
The effort to raise the profile of disaster risk management
at the international level has begun. Governments and donor
agencies have been generously supporting disaster risk reduction
initiatives, especially in developing countries. The scientific
community is improving forecasting and early warning tools for
floods, storms, typhoons and cyclones and eventually for
earthquakes and landslides. NGOs are making significant
contributions to awareness, making real improvements in built
environments, and helping to increase the preparedness of
communities for emergency response and disaster risk reduction.
Despite these inroads, the loss of lives and property is still
immense and shocking. It is clear that we have a long way
to go.
Making the right development choices requires coordinated
efforts by committed leaders who have the political will and
determination to include risk reduction measures in their policies
and plans; a corporate sector that will prioritize risk issues and
include them into their business plans; scientists who will
provide the knowledge and understanding of current and new
areas of risk reduction; committed non-government agencies
that advocate for risk reduction; educators who are responsible
for shaping the awareness of future generations; a mass media
that has the power to influence and change behavior; and
informed citizens who make choices about the risks in their
lives.
ADPC will concentrate its efforts on developing each of the
following:
Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Management
Disaster risk management is not a stand-alone sector but
an essential concern that operates across sectors. Mainstreaming
brings disaster risk management issues and techniques into
106 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
the processes of development and implementation of sustainable
programs. It is a key issue in the design and delivery of good
governance systems and institutional capacity building.
Mainstreaming is an important agenda item for creating
platforms of exchange and policy development as well as for
providing a channel of communication for communities usually
isolated from development practice and disaster risk
management. The scientific community and domestic finance
entities are two important communities that should be included
in this process. For ADPC, mainstreaming promotes a raised
level of awareness and the technical, human, and financial
resources to act. Mainstreaming is best carried out through a
comprehensive and consultative dialogue between stakeholders
in disaster risk management which includes: all relevant sectors
of government, community groups and civil societies, the
scientific community, NGOs, donor/funding agencies and
foundations.
Informing and Involving Communities
This key area contributes significantly to ADPC's goal of
making the community much more than just the "beneficiary"
of disaster response and mitigation programs. ADPC will apply
its efforts to consolidate policy and practice in which the
community is seen as a resource and partner with government
in disaster risk management.
A common understanding of the vocabulary of disaster risk
management and of key concepts and popular associated terms
used in discussions about disaster risk management is essential
if risks are to be appropriately addressed by communities and
government alike. ADPC's information and knowledge
management activities will constitute an important role in
developing useful guidance, clarifying terms and reviewing
literature to provoke both awareness and action.
ADPC will develop outreach mechanisms to identify
information needs to inform and update the awareness of current
conditions and actions being taken in disaster risk management.
Monitoring will support a willingness to seek adjustments and
improvements to base line information and its applications,
Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 107
and increase the likelihood of the process being sustained. The
initiatives should be further repeated and emphasized through
the engagement of other stakeholders such as the mass media
and school information services, and can be consolidated through
the use of related simulation activities.
ADPC will continue to refine and deliver community-based
disaster risk management training to engage, guide, monitor
and evaluate community members as they proceed to deal with
the various risks that they face.
Improving the Built Environment
ADPC will promote capital investment projects and credit
programs that integrate improved skills and resources with
credit to improve existing and new dwellings, community
facilities, hospitals and business structures, all working to create
a more resilient built environment. Improvement projects will
put to use appropriate technology manuals, improved
technologies and construction skills as required by new
construction and retrofit programs. ADPC will demonstrate
how integrating health, culture, finance and planning
considerations can work together to produce more effective
building regulations, historic area conservation programs and
shelter, land and infrastructure development projects. Local
and national financial institutions play a key role as does the
domestic capital market in initiating and/or scaling up pilot
and demonstration projects initiated with donor assistance.
Supporting DRM Development
ADPC will address institutional development requirements
through its network of regional, national and local entities
through capacity building and structuring an agenda that
incorporates disaster risk management. Development activities
should also aim to establish efficient structures which build on
the complimentary strengths of each its members. Institutional
development will clarify roles and relationships and the ways
in which each entity interfaces with society. Further analysis
is required to determine who should be responsible for what;
whether it is necessary to create new entities; and the extent
108 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
to which and the amounts of human and financial resources
necessary for key agencies to accomplish their mandate. ADPC
will initiate Training-of-Trainers courses to introduce new and
apply existing skills to disaster risk management.
Building Capacity and Raising Awareness
ADPC's emphasis on and experience with training as a risk
management tool will continue through core courses and project
training to provide appropriate skills and approaches for disaster
risk management. ADPC will work with interested entities to
develop national versions of ADPC's regional training programs.
ADPC will focus on the need for professional development
through long-term academic endeavour and short-term training
that reflects disaster risk management as a necessary part of
the technical background of engineers, planners and architects.
Disaster risk management and awareness-raising activities
must be conducted cross-sectorally and promote access to
scientific tools and processes for end-users engaged in disaster
risk management activities. New areas of importance on the
ADPC agenda include chemical and biological risks, psycho-
social issues of violence and trauma and terrorism, cultural
conservation, mass disease outbreaks and multi-hazard events.
Urban Risk
The inevitability of urban migration is upon us as one of
the most important social phenomenon the world faces today.
Cities and towns are concentrating what was once dispersed
rural poverty into communities which are increasingly
vulnerable to floods, landslides, earthquakes, typhoons,
industrial disasters, cyclones and storms. Urban expansion is
not something to be wished away. Urbanization can also
favourably impact the quality of life in rural communities.
Disaster risk management in urban areas is essential to
safeguard the resources available there as a necessary
component of national development.
Resources include historic urban areas, industrial parks
and new town, high density development. ADPC will continue
to consolidate and update the information base for urban areas
Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 109
on which policies, plans and projects for disaster risk
management can take place. ADPC will expand the application
of tools for hazard assessment and will ensure its tool kit for
urban risk assessment includes more links to the science of
earthquakes and landslides, and more opportunities to apply
microzonation in its work.
Public Health in Emergencies
This key area addresses the capacity to respond to and
preparedness for a disaster. First responder skills are key to
the approach ADPC has adopted including collapsed structure
search and rescue, mass trauma management skills and first
aid. However, ADPC recognizes that it is difficult to get
communities ready with the skills and equipment available to
them, especially in resource scarce environments, for national
and trans-boundary medical epidemics and emergencies as
well as disaster occurrences such as earthquakes. The provision
of clear and transparent information and training is a major
advantage in these circumstances. Urbanization and climate
variability further impacts public health issues and actions.
The associated need for increased numbers of lifelines and safe
haven facilities is often overlooked in public health budgets. It
is for these reasons that ADPC training activities feature cross
sector relationships and emphasize the budgetary implications
for government officials, medical personnel and INGOs among
others.
Climate Change
For almost a decade ADPC has been promoting the concept
of applying meteorological data to the development of prediction
capability and early warning systems for agricultural
communities. ADPC provides key links with the scientific
community and recognizes the demand for more useful data
and interpretations to ensure that field activities continue to
be fed by the advances of science. ADPC looks structurally at
the need for climate information by addressing institutional
systems, including interactive field schools, and by developing
local applications for improving adaptive capacities for dealing
with climate change.
110 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
A ROLE FOR ADPC
ADPC, as a regional resource center, is well positioned to
respond to the emerging threats in disaster risk management.
It's focus is to mainstream disaster risk management in different
sectors of development. ADPC will continue to build coalitions
and partnerships, advocating and promoting disaster risk
reduction measures, building capacities and creating a cadre
of skilled personnel who are equipped to take appropriate risk
reduction actions. Mainstreaming disaster risk management
through the key areas of community-based disaster risk
management, urban disaster risk reduction, public health and
emergencies, and climate variability and change will be the
direction ADPC will take to advance disaster risk management
in the Asia region.
ADPC will continue to be an advocate for a safer, more
disaster resilient built environment. New players will need to
be brought into the work of National Disaster Management
Organizations, NGOs and national, state and local response
and mitigation entities.
This new array of institutions and entities will include
housing developers and local government officials charged with
building code enforcement. It should also include insurance
companies offering reduced rates as incentives on policies for
housing construction that incorporate disaster resistant
technologies, and financial sector institutions that offer targeted
credit programs for retrofit and new shelter construction as
well as community infrastructure programs.
ADPC will demonstrate the importance of the domestic
capital market as a resource waiting to respond to new areas
of financial activity. Mitigation is an excellent opportunity to
attract investment. ADPC therefore looks to the future with a
high level of confidence tempered with a healthy respect for the
extent of the changes which are required.
The necessary partnerships, knowledge, capabilities,
commitment and political will exists to ensure that the next
decade will be a period of unprecedented progress in disaster
risk management.
Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 111
Vision
Safer communities and sustainable development through
disaster reduction.
Mission
To reduce the impact of disasters on communities and
countries in Asia and the Pacific by raising awareness,
establishing and strengthening sustainable institutional
mechanisms, enhancing knowledge and skills and facilitating
exchange of information, experience and expertise.
Strategic Plan
Promoting disaster reduction
o To promote increased awareness, knowledge and
adoption of disaster reduction practices as an integral
part of the development process at community, national,
sub-regional, regional and international levels.
o To serve as an international knowledge clearinghouse
and information exchange center on disaster-related
issues.
o To collaborate with international agencies to incorporate
a disaster reduction focus in their strategies for
development assistance.
o To increase the dialogue between the scientific
community and policy-makers and decision-makers to
enhance the application of scientific knowledge for
disaster reduction.
o To promote disaster prevention, mitigation and
preparedness concepts and practices in strategic areas
of development in Asia as a way to reduce disasters.
o To have an established mechanism to assess the needs
of the disaster management sector in Asia and to identify
strategic areas of intervention including participation
in post-disaster assessments.
o To develop and demonstrate the validity and
effectiveness of methods and tools that address disaster
reduction strategies.
112 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
o To sensitize policy-makers, decision-makers and
administrators to bring about changes in policies and
legislative institutional mechanisms for disaster
management in their countries.
Building Capacity
o To help strengthen the capacity of countries,
organisations, communities and individuals to reduce
the impact of disasters.
o To regularly assess the needs of the region for capacity
building to reduce disaster impact.
o To develop and deliver specific capacity-building products
and services.
o To build specific institutional capacities to undertake
systematic, cross-sector planning processes for disaster
reduction and for replication of ADPC-developed
products and services.
o To assess the effectiveness and relevance of ADPC
products and services and continually modify them to
meet the needs of the region.
Facilitating Partnerships
o To facilitate and promote partnerships and networks
among and across communities and institutions and
exchange information, experiences, practices and lessons
learned.
o To develop and maintain an information database of
individuals, organisations and governments, as well as
their activities and initiatives on different aspects of
disaster reduction at regional and national levels.
o To explore and forge areas of institutional cooperation.
o To develop and sustain partnerships and networks in
the region.
Recognition as a Proactive and Responsive Regional
Resource
o To be a proactive and responsive regional resource with
international status promoting disaster reduction,
Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 113
supported by countries of the region, while also accessing
and integrating international best practices and
resources to achieve ADPC goals.
o To create innovative products and services which
anticipate regional needs.
o To secure ongoing support for ADPC activities from
governments and institutions in the region and
internationally.
o To be recognised as a technical resource by regional
cooperation mechanisms (AEGDM, ASEAN, ARF, APEC,
BIMSTEC, SAARC, MRC), and by national, provincial
and community level organisations.
o To promote South-South and South-North exchange of
information, experiences and lessons learned. o To
achieve inter-governmental organisation status.
Achievement of Quality Service through a Team Approach
o To maintain and improve ADPC as a diverse, multi-
cultural, international team backed by efficient,
supportive management systems focused on achieving
the highest quality of service to the region.
o To develop administrative and personnel policies and
procedures that encourage a diverse inter-disciplinary,
international and team-oriented staff structure.
o To maintain a reliable, efficient and multi-purpose
management information system.
o To maintain an internal monitoring, evaluation and
auditing system.
o To build ADPC's technical and organisational capacity
to meet identified and emerging needs.
o To follow ADPC's Guiding Principles and culture.
114 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
5 the vulnerable population increases with each fresh disaster.
STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK FOR DISASTER
RISK MANAGEMENT AFTER THE GUJARAT
E ARTHQUAKE
THE IMPACT OF THE DISASTER
Gujarat lies on the west coast of India. In addition to its
coastline on the Arabian Sea, it has common borders with
Pakistan and the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra. The state consists of 25 districts and has a total
population of around 41 million. Although 2/3 of the population
lives in rural areas, Gujarat is India's most highly industrialised
state.
The severe earthquake that struck Gujarat on 26 January
2001 flattened much of the state. Out of the 21 affected districts,
those most severely hit were Kutch-Bhuj, Ahmedabad,
Jamnagar and Rajkot. Within these districts more than 37.8
million people have been affected. According to official figures
released by the central Government as of 6 February, the
earthaquake killed 16,459 people and injured 68,478. The death
toll continues to rise and is currently estimated to be between
20,000 and 50,000.
The Natural Disaster Management Control Room located
at the Ministry of Agriculture in Delhi reported on 6 February
2001 that 12,250 cattle had died, 228,906 houses/huts were
destroyed and 397,615 houses/huts were damaged. According
to preliminary assessments, the damage to buildings and
infrastructure amounts close to 1.2 billion USD.
Strategic Framework for Disaster Risk Management... 115
The overall situation is considered as a multiple disaster,
since the earthaquake is the third natural disaster striking
Gujarat in four years. The state still suffers from the effects
of a cyclone in 1998 and drought, which started in 1999 and
is expected to continue through 2001. The persistent impact on
Even prior to the earthquake, most of these districts are known
to be highly food insecure, have a higher percentage of population
who live below the poverty line and the majority of the districts
are prone to disasters.
THE GOVERNMENT'S RESPONSE
The response of the state and national government to the
Gujarat earthquake was considered by the national and
international communities as aggressive and effective in its
organisation and delivery of emergency supplies, purchased
with its own resources, given the magnitude of the disaster.
The central Government immediately launched a massive rescue
and relief operation by mobilising available resources and
personnel to mitigate the suffering of the victims.
The initial relief effort is centrally coordinated by the Natural
Disaster Management Control Room, which works closely
together with the State Government of Gujarat. The central
Government provided financial assistance of USD 1 billion,
food assistance and other relief items.
Several states including neighbouring Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh and Maharashtra provided supplies, personnel and a
broad variety of relief items.
The Relief Commissioner of Bhuj established an NGO
coordination centre. Subcentres were to be established after a
more thorough assessment of the overall situation and
requirements. Over 300 NGOs were reported as involved with
relief operation.
THE PROJECT
The present project builds on the overall UN/UNDMT
experience during the emergency/relief stages of the Gujarat
116 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
earthquake, as well as from the most significant recent disasters,
i.e. Orissa Super Cyclone and Latur earthquake.
It will benefit from the Coordination Cells established in
the framework of project IND/01/… "Support Unit for the
transition from Relief to Sustainable Recovery", utilising their
capacity to identify local stakeholders and capacity building
needs that can be addressed even in the midst of the recovery
programme.
The project also seeks to strengthen the state and national
organisations in managing the multiple risks that the state of
Gujarat faces, ensuring that the recovery and reconstruction
fully take into account such risks in order to reduce the
vulnerability of the most precarious groups in the reconstruction
efforts.
The overall objective of the project is to reduce the disaster
risks faced by the vulnerable populations, primarily in the
State of Gujarat, and ultimately in the most disaster-prone
States of India, by improving risk management, disaster
preparedness and emergency response capacities at the state
and central levels in the country.
In doing so, the key objectives are to strengthen the state
and national risk/disaster management structures and to
support and facilitate local level disaster management through
building capacities of local stakeholders.
STRATEGY FOR THE USE OF UNDP RESOURCES
In coordination with projects IND/01/… "Support Unit for
the Transition from Relief to Sustainable Development",
IND/01/… "Shelter and Housing Reconstruction Strategy after
the Gujarat Earthquake" and IND/01/… "Integrated Livelihood
Restoration", the project will initiate activities with the support
of the UNDMT/UNDP Coordination Cells will benefit from the
GO and NGO partnerships already concreted for the emergency-
rehabilitation activities.
Of particular relevance for the purposes of this project is
the joint endeavour with the Disaster Mitigation Institute of
Strategic Framework for Disaster Risk Management... 117
Ahmedabad to launch an information and awareness campaign
to inform citizens and communities on the ongoing relief effort
and increase their awareness on the dos and don'ts during the
first period after the disaster.
This cooperation framework will be expanded to cover a
more comprehensive risk-reduction and disaster preparedness
early warning and general awareness programme. The outputs
identified for funding under this project can be summarized as
follows:
1. Revised nationl/state risk/disaster management systems
as per the lessons learned in Gujarat and relevant
institutions capacitated in undertaking their
responsibilities Workshops will be organised with the
main actors in the disaster management community, at
the central, departmental and local levels, to revise the
existing risk and disaster management systems in the
light of the lessons learned from Gujarat, Orissa and
Latur, and the systems put in place such as the Disaster
Management Ministry of Uttaranchal.
2. Comprehensive Training Programme From the above
exercise, a full-fledged training programme will be
developed to increase the institutional capacity to
undertake the necessary actions to reduce vulnerability
to natural disasters in the most prone areas. A set of
procedures, manuals and guidelines to facilitate
operations will also be produced.
3. Capacities of local stakeholders increased for disaster
risk management.
In partnership with the Disaster Mitigation Institute of
Ahmedabad and other NGOs in the State of Gujarat, and with
reliable partners (NGOs, research and academic institutions)
to be identified in the other States, awareness and training
programmes will be conducted to increase vulnerably
communities' awareness on their risks and how to protect their
lives and properties from future disasters.
118 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Community preparedness plans will be produced and piloted,
and key community actors trained in their application and
permanent updating and testing. User-friendly training
materials will be developed to support this activity.
IMMEDIATE OBJECTIVES, OUTPUTS, INDICATORS
AND ACTIVITIES
Immediate Objective 1
Strengthen the national and state disaster management
system and capacitate the relevant institutions in undertaking
their responsibilities within this framework.
Output 1
Revised national/state risk/disaster management systems
Activities
o Gujarat and previous disasters' lessons-learnt workshops
and exercises
o Roles and responsibilities of relevant organisations and
stakeholders agreed
o Skill-building activities in administrative, management
and operational aspects of the plan
o Database on hazards, vulnerabilities and risks in Gujarat
established and/or updated and maintained
o Inventory of available national and state and local
resources and capacities to cope with potential risks
o Compendium of procedures, manuals and guidelines to
facilitate operations at the different levels
Output 2
Comprehensive Training Programme to increase
institutional capacities to reduce vulnerability to natural
disasters in the most prone areas
Activities
o Design an initial training programme for key decision-
making level officials at the central and state government
level
Strategic Framework for Disaster Risk Management... 119
o Design a programme for the exchange of experiences
with Latur and Gujarat at the state and community
level
o Production of training materials
o Conduction of at least 10 workshops
o Review and evaluation of the programme
o Production of guidelines,
Immediate Objective 2
To increase the capacity of local governments, community
organisations and other local level stakeholders for disaster
risk management
Output 3
Local level disaster risks and resources-capacities assessed
and increased, with community participation.
Activities
o Awareness campaign focusing on risk reduction
o Database and inventory of risks and programmes
o Community preparedness plans
o Training of local key stakeholders in risk reduction and
disaster preparedness techniques
o Development of user-friendly community awareness and
training materials
o Mechanism for feedback to the state and central levels
of risks and disasters established
Monitoring
The project will be nationally executed, with the "DEA" as
the Central Government's focal point. UNDP will assign a full-
time project officer to oversee the operations, including field
visits, spot-checking and auditing. All GOs and NGOs involved
will sign subcontracts in which quarterly financial and narrative/
progress reports will be established as compulsory.
120 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Strategic Framework for Disaster Risk Management... 121

Inputs Budget
The total funding requirement in support of the above Budget Line Item US$
mentioned activities is US$1,000,000.
17.51 National consultants 200,000
Risks 21.01 Subcontracts-databases and inventories 150,000
No major risks are foreseen in the execution of this project, 21.02 Subcontracts-Awareness campaigns 150,000
other than a shift of priorities from the key stakeholders once 21.03 Subcontracts-Development of materials 60,000
the impact of the Gujarat earthquake is forgotten in the daily 31.01 Workshops-central level 50,000
news.
31.02 Workshops-state and community level 250,000
Management 41.01 Equipment-central/state level 120,000
The project will be executed under a National Execution 52.01 Publications 20,000
arrangement with the "DEA", which will act as the focal
GRAND TOTAL 1,000,000
government institution, ensuring the participation of the
involved institutions in the States of Gujarat, Uttaranchal, To be properly spelled-out and/or defined by UNDP/CO in
Orissa and Maharashtra. consultation with respective authorities
UNDP will designate the Emergency Officer to be recruited
for Delhi as per the Coordination umbrella project, to oversee
the overall operations of the project and will report to the
UNDP Resident Representative on progress, achievements and
constraints.

Monitoring and Evaluation

The following monitoring mechanisms will be used to
monitor and evaluate the project:
o A work-plan for the implementation of the different
objectives
o Quarterly narrative progress report and financial
statements
o Periodic field visits, spot-checks and auditing by the
UNDP Emergency Officerr to assess progress
o One mid-term and one final evaluations and reports
o Documentation of best practices
o Project and budget revisions as appropriate
122 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
6 by natural disasters in Asia and the Pacific has exceeded 200,000.
WATER HAZARDS, RESOURCES AND
MANAGEMENT FOR DISASTER PREVENTION
INTRODUCTION
The Asian and Pacific region extends over a total area of
about 35 million square kilometres, or 26 per cent of the world's
land area. With nearly 60 per cent of the world's population
and over 60 per cent of the total irrigated land, the region is
more densely populated and more intensely cultivated than
elsewhere.
Natural disasters are estimated to have claimed about 3
million lives around the world in the past two decades, as well
as severely affecting the livelihood of about 1 billion people.
The damage caused to property has been assessed at well over
US$ 400 billion. In 1990 The UN General Assembly declared
the 1990s to be the International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction, in which the international community, under the
auspices of the United Nations, would pay special attention to
fostering international cooperation in the field of natural disaster
reduction.
At the beginning of the International Decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction, worldwide bilateral and multilateral donor
investment in development was estimated to be about US$ 50
billion. In the same year it was estimated that losses caused
by disasters totalled US$ 47 billion, leaving a net balance of
US$ 3 billion. Since then, the situation has not improved as
natural disasters continue to exact their toll and hamper
development efforts. Asia and the Pacific has been one of the
Water Hazards, Resources and Management... 123
worst hit regions of the world. It is estimated that more than
50 per cent of the world's major disasters occur in Asia and the
Pacific.
Since the International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction began in 1990, the total number of deaths caused
The estimated total damage to property was already about US$
50 billion until the Kobe earthquake in 1995 and very heavy
flooding in China in 1995 and 1998. In the 1991 cyclone and
storm surge event in Bangladesh, 140,000 people perished,
whilst the flood of 1998 affected the lives of 25 million people.
The total damage by the 1995 flood in Bangladesh was
estimated at US$ 2 billion, the equivalent of 10 per cent of the
gross domestic product (GDP) of that country. In that year,
various provinces of China were affected by extensive floods
during the month of July, affecting 220 million persons, taking
2,300 lives and causing a total loss of US$ 12.5 billion, equivalent
to 4.5 per cent of the GDP of that country.
The flood in 1998 in China was the most severe one in the
past 44 years. According to governmental estimates, 223 million
people-one fifth of China's population were affected, 3,004 people
died and 15 million were made homeless. About 15 million
farmers lost their crops. The floods caused severe damage to
critical facilities such as health clinics, schools, water supply,
and other infrastructure such as roads, bridges and irrigation
systems as well as industrial facilities. At the end of August,
direct economic damage was estimated at over US$ 20 billion.
The total damages caused by floods in 1998 in the Region were
estimated to be over US$23 billion.
Through such events, the national economies of developing
countries in Asia are significantly affected by the loss of scarce
resources that could otherwise have been used for social and
economic development. In many cases the development process
has been set back years or decades. The frequency and intensity
of adverse natural phenomena and the extensiveness and
severity of the damage they cause seem to be increasing over
time.
124 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Water Hazards, Resources and Management... 125

Because of the continuing rapid population growth in the
countries of Asia and the Pacific, people, mostly the poor, are
being forced to settle at squatter areas in large cities, usually
inhabiting low-lying flood-prone areas, unstable hillsides or
other disaster-prone marginal areas owing to the high cost of
suitable alternative locations and the extremely high cost of
new infrastructure and services. In consequence, the number
of persons vulnerable to natural hazards is increasing rapidly.
The principal reasons for the continuing increase in the
loss levels caused by natural disasters include:
(i) the continuing growth of the population,
(ii) the increase in building density by the growing
concentration of people and the economic assets in urban
areas, and
of vulnerability, the bulk of farmland and pastures are the
main areas threatened by natural hazards. In the event of a
disaster, therefore, peasants and herdsmen are affected the
most, and in case of a destructive disaster, thousands upon
thousands of households may be adversely affected. However,
in terms of total losses, those resulting from disasters in urban
areas will usually be much heavier.
The effect of natural hazards on the loss of human lives is
directly related to the poverty levels in a given country. National
and regional efforts for natural disaster reduction should
therefore be closely linked with poverty alleviation and economic
and social development activities.
Table : Relative Intensity of Water-based Hazards
faced by Some Countries in Asia

(iii) a constant migration of people to coastal areas that are COUNTRY Cyclone Flood Drought Landslide Tsunami
generally more highly exposed to natural disasters.
Australia S S S
For example, in Bangladesh over a million people are living Bangladesh S S S L L
on islands formed by silt deposits and along the vulnerable
China M S S L L
flood plains and coastal areas. Over 85 per cent of the population
of China live on alluvial plains or along river basins concentrated India M S S L
in one third of the total area of the country. The situation is Indonesia L M M L L
quite similar in Viet Nam, where the dykes along rivers Lao PDR M L
providing protection are sometimes breached by flood waters Malaysia M S* S L M
causing extensive inundation. The development of industry in Myanmar M M M
regions that are subject to natural hazards, without appropriate Nepal M L* M L
protective measures being taken, is another reason for the
Pakistan M M* M L M
growing increase in the loss levels caused by natural disasters.
Philippines S S L S S
Natural hazards cause a high number of lives to be lost, Sri Lanka M S S L
but relatively small property losses, in the least developed and
Thailand M S* S L
developing countries. In the relatively developed countries, on
Viet Nam M S L S S
the other hand, where disaster prevention and mitigation
measures are adequately established, the loss of lives is relatively * coastal flooding Source: Asian Disaster Preparedness Center; DHA/
small but the damage to property can be high. Losses may of South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme/Emergency
course vary considerably within a given country. Management Australia. Legend: S = severe; M = moderate; L = low

China's structure of land use dictates the disaster Another factor that exacerbates the effects of natural
composition of the country. In terms of the geographical extent hazards is the environmental degradation taking place in many
126 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
countries of the region. The damage caused by natural hazards
is higher in countries where environmental degradation is
rampant. Deforestation, erosion, overgrazing, overcultivation
and incorrect agricultural practices and the degradation of
natural buffers amplify the effects of natural hazards. Table
shows the relative intensity of hazards faced by some countries
in Asia and the Pacific.
All in all, therefore, the potential for the occurrence of
devastating natural disasters is much greater in the countries
of Asia and requires particular attention if the severe toll of
these events on life and property is to be significantly reduced.
It is the purpose of this report to examine the extent of these
disasters in further detail, to report upon the progress that has
been made during the Decade to cope with the problems they
bring, and to suggest improved ways and means of doing so.
ACTIONS REQUIRED TO MITIGATE FUTURE
DISASTERS
Risk Management
The countries of the ESCAP region are exposed to a high
proportion of water-related disasters, brought about by cyclones,
storm surges, floods, landslides and droughts. The effectiveness
of disaster reduction measures will be dependent upon a
quantification of the nature and occurrence of these hazards.
A description and analysis of natural hazards and the consequent
risks associated with them are an essential step in assessing
the strategies required to mitigate their effects. This process
is usually termed "risk management".
In essence, disaster risk management involves an analysis
of the exposure to risk of the disaster prone community, i.e. a
disaster risk analysis followed by the identification and
implementation of appropriate measures in order to manage
existing, future and residual disaster risks and to reduce their
effects to acceptable levels. The modern risk management
approach involves recognition of:
o the need to investigate the entire range of the particular
disaster up to the maximum probable event;
Water Hazards, Resources and Management... 127
o the importance of public consultation to encourage
ownership of the resulting mitigation plan;
o the risk relating to developments in the disaster prone
area; and
o the need to implement a comprehensive public education
and awareness programme.
All the elements that contribute risk to the situation must
be carefully identified and the order of their importance
established. The elements can also evaluated with respect to
their potential to cause damage to the existing development.
Once the major hazards are identified, the risk analyses will
aim to determine their magnitude and frequency.
This general risk management process can be applied to all
types of risk and to the organizations exposed to these risks.
The detailed process consists of the following steps:
o identify the stakeholders exposed to or affecting the
risk of the disaster;
o identify public and private property, social systems and
environmental elements at risk;
o estimate the disaster risk, i.e. the likelihood and
consequences of the disaster;
o assess the acceptability of the disaster risk;
o define disaster risk treatment strategies;
o monitor and review disaster risks and the effectiveness
of risk treatment, and
o communication between the community and risk
management agencies.
Hazard and Vulnerability
Disaster risk management involves the assessment of hazard
and vulnerability.
Hazard assessment is concerned with defining the properties
of the hazard and its direct effect. The first step in hazard
assessment is data collection and recording. Tropical cyclones
pose three threats, namely, wind, flood and storm surge. The
128 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
intensity of a tropical cyclone is measured by its wind
characteristics which are described by velocity and direction.
Evaluation of the hazard associated with cyclones therefore
involves the measurement of wind direction, velocity and
frequency at a number of meteorological stations.
The assessment of the flood hazard involves the
identification of:
o flood behaviour;
o topography, and
o population at risk.
When combined, these elements define the nature and
extent of the flood hazard at a particular locality. Generally,
this information is presented in map form showing the areas
which are likely to be inundated to a given depth with a
specified frequency.
For hazard evaluation of storm surge, it is necessary to
determine the frequency of intense winds, the topography of
the continental shelf and adjacent coastline and the normal
tidal behaviour.
In evaluating the relationship of hazards to the elements
at risk, it is important that the analysis is applied to the entire
disaster episode, encompassing onset, response, aftermath and
recovery phases. Different sets of 'elements at risk' will emerge
in the different phases of the disaster episode. For example, the
threat to life and limb of the disaster prone residents is an issue
during the response phase, while the rapid return of the water
supply, sewerage and communication systems to serviceability
is an issue during the recovery phase.
On the other hand vulnerability is a measure of the level
of exposure of people and property to the various water-related
hazards. Vulnerability can be measured as:
o physical vulnerability, which relates to buildings,
infrastructure and agriculture;
o social vulnerability which relates to the impact the
hazard will have on various social groups,
Water Hazards, Resources and Management... 129
o economic vulnerability, which is a measure of hazards
causing losses to economic assets and processes.
These three items, taken collectively and combined with
damage information, measure the probable damage for a given
frequency of hazard. When the potential damage for a given
disaster has been assessed, the disaster risk can be determined
by the product of the damage and the probability of occurrence
of the disaster. It is usually only possible to express physical
vulnerability in monetary terms.
Vulnerability is a measure of the degree of susceptibility
and resilience of a disaster prone community. Vulnerability
determines how well a community can cope with a disaster.
This in turn depends upon the magnitude of the disaster, the
disaster awareness of the community and the topographic,
infrastructure, social and economic factors which determine
the social and economic disruption caused by the hazard.
Risk Evaluation
By evaluating the risk of various hazards to which the
country is liable or potentially liable, it becomes practicable to
formulate strategies to mitigate the impact of hazards in a cost-
effective way. If a community is especially vulnerable to a
particular type of disaster severe risk treatment measures may
be required to reduce the disaster risk to acceptable levels.
More recently, the definition of risk management has been
expanded to include the notion of uncertainty. "Risk" is defined
as the possibility that an expected outcome is not achieved or
replaced by another, or that an unforeseen event occurs. This
is a broad view of risk that includes both uncertainty due to
future events and the consequences of limited knowledge,
information and experience. "Uncertainty" describes the lack
of sureness about something and can be represented by a
probability distribution of error.
Disaster mitigation projects, as currently undertaken, are
formulated to provide economical protection to disaster prone
areas. Projects are determined by analyzing disaster potential,
together with damage performance and cost, for a range of
130 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
project sizes and configurations. The disaster mitigation plan
selected is based on maximizing net economic benefits consistent
with acceptable risk and functional performance. This approach
treats the input variables as deterministic functions.
The trend is now towards the use of a combined risk model
which incorporates "uncertainty" into the input variables as a
probability density function representing possible statistical
error in each of the input variable relationships. This risk
management approach acknowledges that there is not a specific,
unequivocal performance level.
Initially, the evaluation of risk, or the evaluation of disaster
potential, is based on the analysis of available meteorological
and hydrological records of the individual country, augmented
by data available from other countries in the region, depending
on the nature of the disaster.
Meteorological data for hazard assessment need to be based
on a comprehensive, nation-wide system of meteorological
recording stations. It is also highly desirable that this system
is closely associated with, and compatible with, the national
meteorological recording systems operated by neighbouring
countries. The main categories of meteorological data needed
for effective water-based natural disaster identification are:
o precipitation data;
o wind and atmospheric pressure;
o synoptic observations of relevant weather elements.
Hydrological data for hazard assessment should also be
based on a comprehensive, nation-wide system of stream gauging
stations. There are three major components of hydrological
data required for hazard assessment, namely, flood discharges,
water levels and flow velocities. Long-term streamflow data are
also required to predict and quantify drought behaviour. Where
rivers cross international boundaries, the free exchange of data
is vital for flood forecasting activities.
Over the past decade, remote sensing techniques have
become an essential feature of data collection systems for
monitoring watershed conditions. These techniques are
Water Hazards, Resources and Management... 131
invaluable for the rapid collection of data and for the study of
extensive areas, particularly in developing countries for which
conventional resource mapping sources are limited. Under
favourable conditions, they are well suited for reconnaissance
studies of water-related disasters affecting large areas, such as
flooding.
Normal aerial photography has proved to be a useful
technique for watershed monitoring, because of the high degree
of resolution obtainable and the ability of this technique to
show the spatial distribution of ground characteristics.
By comparison with conventional aerial photography,
satellite imagery has the major advantage of low cost, enabling
a much larger area to be covered by a smaller number of prints.
However, the ground resolution capability of this form of imagery
is much lower than that achievable with aerial photography,
which generally limits the scope of its application to
reconnaissance level mapping.
Over the past twenty years, the enormously increased
amount of resource evaluation and assessment data available
from the various types of remote sensing systems, much of it
available directly in computer accessible format, and increasingly
widespread availability of low-cost computer equipment, has
greatly encouraged the development of techniques for the
archiving, analysis, mapping and presentation of such data,
using GIS methodology. These techniques are supported by a
wide-range of commercial software packages and systems which
allow the ready manipulation of vast amounts of data. Available
computer models have been developed to predict the flood
behaviour of river flow, such as rates of rise and fall, duration,
frequency and magnitude of floods and periods of low flow.
INTEGRATION OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT
MEASURES
In the light of the many major disasters experienced
throughout the Region during the past decade, it would be
desirable to review the disaster management practices of the
member countries. The experiences gained should be used as
132 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
a basis to assist further evolution of disaster management
practices, especially in those areas where implementation
practices could be improved.
Wholesale changes do not appear warranted but
adjustments to the existing approach would achieve:
o further mitigation of disaster damage to existing
development;
o control over the future growth of potential disaster losses.
To achieve these objectives, there appears to be a case for
the adoption of a system which could be effectively implemented
as part of the member's disaster strategies.
After examining the available information on the status of
disaster management in the ESCAP region, it is apparent that
many of the member countries are yet to adopt an integrated
approach for disaster management. The preferred disaster
management system should integrate the following elements:
o the individual management measures;
o the roles and responsibilities of all stakeholders;
o the disaster management plan and the disaster
emergency plan;
o the resource management considerations and
programmes;
o where applicable, the concept of comprehensive land-
use planning based on total watershed management
principles.
The objectives of the overall management system should
ensure that:
o disaster management matters are dealt with having
regard to community safety, health and welfare
requirements;
o public information is freely available on the likely extent
and nature of possible future hazards;
o all reasonable measures are taken to alleviate the hazard
and damage potential to existing properties at risk, and
Water Hazards, Resources and Management... 133
there is no significant growth in future hazard and
damage potential resulting from new developments;
o appropriate forecasting and warning systems exist, and
emergency services and government assistance are
available in the event of future disasters;
o the disaster management system is managed having
regard to social and economic costs and benefits to
individuals as well as the community at large.
An integrated approach is required to bring together these
diverse issues, which are usually fragmented over a number
of different authorities. This can be achieved through greater
cooperation amongst the agencies, authorities and individuals
involved in all aspects of disaster prevention and preparedness.
The extent to which the integrated approach can be achieved
relies on a number of factors, including the management of
natural resources and the strength of existing legislation. As
a general principle however, the overall coordination of disaster
management plans should be vested in a single organization,
preferably operating at the national level, which assumes
responsibility for legal, administrative and financial matters
relating to the management of natural disasters.
The ultimate goals of integrated disaster management
should be to limit the hazards and damages to socially acceptable
levels, to promote environmental enhancement and to provide
disaster warning, response, evacuation and recovery from the
onset to the aftermath of the disaster.
EDUCATION, TRAINING AND INFORMATION SHARING
The adoption of such a system could however pose a problem
for some countries, which may lack the specialist technical
skills needed to develop a comprehensive management plan
and the capacity to implement the resulting prevention and
preparedness measures. These problems could be addressed by
the provision of specialist professional support and training for
their agencies and institutions and financial subsidies from
national governments and donor countries.
134 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
The disaster management process requires an ongoing
commitment to the education and training of disaster managers
by the various tiers of government and professional bodies. The
exchange of information regarding difficulties, problems and
solutions and the results of research is essential for improved
disaster management. This can be fostered by the free flow of
information at the local and international levels through formal
agreement, workshops and conferences.
There is a number of significant advantages to be gained
by adopting a national and international approach to water-
related disaster management. This approach would lead to a
better and more efficient use of the resources of each nation
and the region. Disaster management principles have developed
to a different degree and in different ways in the various
ESCAP countries. Considerable cost savings and efficiencies
could be achieved through the sharing of information and
experiences in the coordination of disaster management research
activities among the various countries. This form of cooperation
would promote a consistent approach to disaster management
policies and techniques, leading to better disaster management
practices, and would help to reduce each country's exposure to
the risk of future disasters. Moreover, wider cooperation amongst
neighbouring countries would facilitate the development of a
regional data base of disaster related information throughout
the region. This information should promote a better and more
efficient allocation of resources to disaster management both
within individual countries and across the region.
CURRENT STATE OF DISASTER PREPAREDNESS IN
THE ESCAP REGION
Mitigation Strategies
To date, the principal thrust of the water-related disaster
mitigation strategies employed in the ESCAP Region has
concentrated on disaster preparedness, rather than on disaster
prevention. Whilst this approach has in many countries been
successful in reducing the overall death toll associated with
these hazards, the amount of physical damage has continued
to mount.
Water Hazards, Resources and Management... 135
The prevention measures which can be directed towards
the reduction of the effects of the hazard prior to its occurrence
and the preparedness measures which may be implemented
during and after the disaster.
In summary, these mitigation measures attempt to lessen
the impact of the hazard by adopting both structural and non-
structural approaches. The objective of the structural approach
is to control the effects of the hazard by using specific engineering
works as the best means of protecting life and property. On the
other hand, the objective of the non-structural approach is to
modify susceptibility to the hazard through a range of controls
and other non-engineering devices.
The most successful preventive measures employed to curb
the destructive and injurious effects of tropical cyclones are
building design and construction standards, established to assist
buildings and other structures to resist wind and water damage.
The range of measures available for protection against the
effects of flooding is much wider than that available to reduce
the impact of tropical cyclones. It includes civil engineering-
oriented structural measures, such as channel modifications,
flood storages and levees, as well as non-structural measures
such as planning controls and flood proofing of buildings. These
measures are designed and implemented in order to reduce the
incidence or extent of flooding and storm surges and/or to
minimize their effects.
The selection of the best mix of measures for application
at a given location to prevent the occurrence of future water-
related disasters should be based on a consideration of all the
available structural and non-structural options. The optimal
mix of measures should be based on risk analysis and the
economic performance of the overall scheme. Consideration of
social and environmental factors in addition to the legislative
and legal constraints should form part of the planning process.
Disaster preparedness covers those actions that are taken
when a potentially hazardous event threatens to become a
disaster. Preparedness activities are designed to reduce social
disruption and losses to existing property and are an essential
136 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
component of overall disaster planning. Although these activities
can serve, in the absence of more permanent mitigation
measures, to reduce the threat to loss of life and property, they
are more effective when employed as a component of a
comprehensive, overall disaster management plan.
SUCCESS STORY
China
Because China is frequently struck by the full range of
water-related hazards, it experiences massive disasters in terms
both of human suffering and of economic losses, often over wide
areas. Accordingly, the Chinese Government attaches great
importance to its efforts to reduce the effects of these disasters.
Its approach to mitigating these catastrophes involves the
principle of comprehensive disaster management, which
combines economic development with disaster reduction and
includes such measures as disaster prevention, fighting, relief
and rehabilitation in promoting social stability and protecting
life and property.
Over the last two decades, and with increased vigour during
the IDNDR, China has made a concerted effort to improve the
management functions required to ensure a fully integrated
and efficient natural disaster reduction system, which is tailored
to meet China's own special needs. This has involved the
promulgation and enforcement of a suite of appropriate laws
and regulations; the vertical and horizontal integration of
relevant government departments according to their respective
fields of competence; the application of engineering and non-
engineering measures; the raising of public awareness; improved
hazard monitoring and early warning systems; the formulation
of disaster control plans based on risk assessment; the
application of science and technology in mitigating disasters;
increased education and training in natural disaster reduction;
and the fostering of the growth of disaster reduction NGOs.
Because China experiences meteorological disasters in the
form of tropical cyclones, floods and droughts, which can affect
huge populations and vast areas, its disaster mitigation efforts
Water Hazards, Resources and Management... 137
have concentrated largely on the management of these three
hazards.
Meteorological Disasters
China is exposed to severe and frequent tropical cyclones,
torrential rains and drought. The Chinese Government is
concentrating its efforts to combat these disasters and improved
levels of prediction and warning are constantly being
implemented in an attempt to contain the destruction and
economic loss associated with such disasters.
Floods
The 1998 flood in the Yangtze River was as great as those
of 1931 and 1954, but the resulting flood damage was much less
than that experienced during the earlier floods. For example,
the area inundated by floodwater during the 1998 flood was
insignificant compared to the extent of flooding in the 1931
flood, which covered most of the middle and lower Yangtze
region, and the 1954 flood, which inundated about 3.2 million
hectares. In the 1931 flood 145,000 people died; some 33,000
people died in the 1954 flood; but only 1562 people were killed
in the 1998 flood, most by debris flows in mountain regions.
It is obvious from the achievements in disaster mitigation
by the Chinese Government that the reduction in flood-related
deaths and damages can be directly attributable to the flood
control systems which have been implemented in both rural
and urban areas. Although the main thrust of China's flood
management has been directed towards structural measures,
including levees, reservoirs, flood diversion basins, and river
training and dredging, non-structural measures such as
catchment management and rehabilitation techniques are
progressively being employed as a significant component of an
integrated flood management system.
Disaster preparedness is designed to minimize loss of life
and property damage and to organize and facilitate timely and
effective rescue and relief in the case of a disaster. It must be
supported by legislation which can ensue readiness to cope
with disaster situations when they cannot be avoided. It also
138 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
includes forecasting and warning, the education and training
of the population, and organization for and the management
of disaster situations, including the preparation of operational
plans, training of relief groups, stockpiling of supplies and
provision of necessary funds. Furthermore, it should include
flood fighting and evacuation, relief and rehabilitation. To be
effective, such disaster preparedness measures, including those
which are taken when the occurrence of a tropical cyclone, flood
or storm surge imposes the threat of a disaster, must be planned
in advance.
The most important of these measures for helping to mitigate
the effects of tropical cyclones and floods is the development
and implementation of effective forecasting and warning
systems. These can be particularly effective in reducing the
potential damage by increasing the time between the prediction
and onset of an event. To be effective they must include not
only the latest techniques for the formulation of accurate
forecasts, but also related communications systems designed to
disseminate timely and accurate advice to the general public.
Programme Development
Overview
As part of its contribution to the mid-term review of the
IDNDR Programme, the Water Resources Section Secretariat
of ESCAP prepared an overview of the status of the natural
disaster mitigation efforts of its members. It found that there
has been a growing recognition in the region of the significant
benefits of disaster prevention and mitigation, rather than ad
hoc relief reduction activities. Some countries had a long-
established framework for responding to the disaster mitigation
requirements of the country. Others had either strengthened
their institutional mechanisms or were in the process of
overhauling them.
Substantial progress had been achieved in meteorological
forecasting and warning of tropical cyclones, and the capability
to forecast floods had improved considerably through the
individual efforts of various countries, with assistance from the
support given by ESCAP, the World Meteorological Organization
Water Hazards, Resources and Management... 139
(WMO), UNDP and other organizations. Useful programmes
and the capability to forecast tropical cyclones and floods had
improved considerably through the establishment of the
Typhoon Committee and the Panel on Tropical Cyclones. These
two bodies had cooperated in the forecasting and warning of
cyclones, information exchange, provision of training and other
forms of activity relating to the reduction of the impact of
water-related natural disasters.
The development and use of radar for forecasting and
measuring rainfall events and the increased number of
telemetric rainfall stations in some countries had increased
their capability for the rapid collection and processing of
precipitation data and the forecasting of floods. There was still
considerable variation among countries of the region with regard
to the availability and reliability of equipment needed for
effective cyclone and flood forecasting and warning. Prediction
of drought had also become more reliable by taking into account
such factors as the El Niño phenomenon and the undertaking
of appropriate mitigation and preparedness measures.
It was determined that each country needed to improve the
quality of forecasts and warnings in relation to water-related
natural hazards and to increase the lead time of warnings, to
enable areas likely to be affected to make adequate advance
preparations. The need for emphasis to be given to the
improvement of communication links for the transmission of
basic data and providing related warning information about
natural hazards was seen to be a priority issue.
Risk assessment and mapping had not been undertaken by
most of the countries of the region. There was a need for
comprehensive vulnerability analysis to be undertaken for
disaster-prone areas, incorporating information about past
disaster events, the socio-economic conditions of the population
living in the affected area, and inventories of major structures
liable to damage. Risk assessment and hazard mapping would
then be used to delineate areas vulnerable to natural hazards
and determine the frequency, intensity, impact, return period
and other data in relation to each category of hazard.
140 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Almost all countries in the Asian and Pacific region
experienced severe flood problems at comparatively frequent
intervals. Their traditional approach to the reduction of flood
losses relied upon the use of structural flood mitigation measures
such as the construction of dams, levees and channel
improvements. Most of the earlier flood mitigation programmes
adopted by individual countries had been specific to a city or
to a discrete agricultural area and had employed a narrow
range of engineering works to provide solutions to the flooding
problem.
Although some projects were successful, some of them have
actually exacerbated flood damage. In recent years, most
countries have recognized the inadequacy of programmes based
solely on structural measures. Numerous attempts had been
made to employ non-structural flood loss prevention measures
to assist in minimizing losses, principally through exercising
control over development in flood-prone areas. These measures
were usually associated with a mix of structural measures and,
in some circumstances, provided a comprehensive means of
coping with a flood problem. In many cases, however, attempts
to formulate programmes which included some non-structural
measures had met with limited success, particularly those
involving planning controls, acquisition of land and the
relocation of people.
Bangladesh
Bangladesh is predominantly a rural country, relying heavily
upon agricultural production for its existence. Unfortunately,
its topographic and climatic systems make it one of the most
water-related disaster prone countries in the Asian region. It
is frequently struck by destructive cyclones, devastating floods
and crippling droughts. These hazards cause severe agricultural
losses and place great strains on country's economy and its
ability to achieve sustainable development.
Cyclones frequently sweep out of the Bay of Bengal and
impact on the coastline with devastating effects. These cyclones
generate dangerous floods, which are exacerbated by storm
tides and wreak havoc along the entire coastal belt. Further
Water Hazards, Resources and Management... 141
upstream, in the delta formed by the three great rivers, the
Padma, the Jamuna and the Meghna, frequent major flooding
can inundate up to 70 percent of the entire country. The effects
of these floods in terms of loss of life and property, ecological
damage and lost production have crippled the country's economy
and set back development programmes by years. In addition
to the loss of production caused by cyclones and floods,
Bangladesh has also experienced severe drought conditions
which have resulted in disastrous crop failures. The loss of
agricultural production caused by droughts has also imposed
significant strains on the socio-economic structure of the country.
In order to combat the many major disasters which have
afflicted Bangladesh in recent years, the government has
pursued a vigorous programme of disaster management. This
programme gave the initial priority to improvement in the
forecasting and early warning systems for cyclones and floods,
along with emphasis on emergency response and relief.
Subsequent initiatives have involved prevention and
preparedness measures with a bias towards infrastructure
development, such as the construction of coastal dykes and
river embankments. More recently, multi-level initiatives are
being pursued which include: awareness and education
programmes; decentralized planning and community
participation in disaster mitigation and response; involvement
of NGOs in disaster mitigation and response; and incorporation
of disaster management and reduction component in
development projects.
Up to the present time, the disaster management
programme has been successful in mitigating the effects of
water-related natural disasters. For example, the severe 1991
cyclone resulted in the death of 140,000 people and property
losses of US$ 2.0 billion. A cyclone of similar intensity to the
1991 event occurred in 1993 and resulted in the loss of only
126 lives. The reduction in the death toll was directly attributable
to the improved forecasting and warning services and the
provision of cyclone shelters. Although the 1998 flood was the
worst in living memory and inundated more than 70 percent
of the entire country, the limited number of casualties compared
142 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
to earlier floods was also attributable to the effectiveness of the
disaster management measures implemented over time.
Bangladesh is aware that although the comprehensive
control of water-related natural hazards is not entirely possible
and the population will have to continue to live with the
associated disasters which they bring, continuing effort is
required in the development of a national disaster management
plan to ameliorate their future impact.
Adequately constructed and equipped cyclone shelters had
considerably reduced the number of lives lost to typhoons and
tropical cyclones. As a preventive measure, cyclone-resistant
designs for dwellings had helped reduce the number of casualties
and reduce serious damage to buildings.
Progress had been achieved in developing mitigation
measures to improve the safety of non-engineered structures
such as ordinary dwellings and simple public buildings
constructed with local materials in the traditional manner. In
some countries of the region there was a need for preparation
or review of cyclone resistant design codes for buildings and
other engineering structures and for their enforcement, as well
as the undertaking of proper arrangements for the infrastructure
to be able to deal with natural hazards.
Republic of Korea
The Republic of Korea frequently suffers disasters resulting
from tropical cyclones, storms and floods. Over the last 20
years, these hazards have caused considerable loss of life,
disruption to the economy and massive property damage.
Occasional droughts also affect the agricultural and industrial
sectors and impact upon rural communities.
A review of the available damage statistics discloses that
the Government's efforts in natural disaster reduction has
resulted in a dramatic reduction in the death toll. During
the IDNDR the average annual loss of life has been
reduced from 280 to less than 80. However, the average annual
damages have remained substantially constant over the same
period.
Water Hazards, Resources and Management... 143
These achievements can be attributed to improved disaster
management planning and the initiatives associated with the
plan. The most significant initiatives have involved the following:
a strengthening of the institutional framework for natural
disaster prevention and preparedness by concentrating the
overall responsibility for the task into a single agency; a
comprehensive revision of the Natural Disaster
Countermeasures Act to incorporate comprehensive disaster
prevention measures, provision of adequate funding for
operational aspects and the encouragement of private
participation in disaster mitigation; the placing of greater
emphasis on scientific research in the field of disaster prevention;
and the formulation of a 5-year Disaster Prevention Plan
directed towards the implementation of measures covering
afforestation, flood control, disaster prevention and technology
development.
To cope with the fact that disasters are becoming more
varied and larger in scale, the Korean Government is continuing
its efforts in the field of disaster reduction by concentrating on
such aspects as: streamlining land development regulations;
availability of flood insurance; greater investment in flood
control; systematic scientific research for disaster prevention;
development of a national disaster management system; and
active international cooperation.
Most countries of the region had enacted legislation to
provide for the controls and responsibilities necessary to cope
with disaster situations. This legislation has permitted the
relevant authorities to govern the long-term requirements of
disaster prevention and the short-term needs of disaster
preparedness. Although statutory controls were available to
govern the relevant aspects of community planning and
development, including zoning, subdivision controls and
environmental issues pertaining to disaster prevention, many
Governments were reluctant to invoke them. Many
Governments had appointed a central organization to coordinate
the disaster mitigation activities of the various government
bodies and other interested groups, so that a comprehensive
approach was adopted. In certain countries, some of these
144 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
organizations were established on an ad hoc basis only when
a natural disaster had occurred or was expected to happen. It
was only the more developed countries of the region that had
cohesive institutional arrangements in place.
Most countries had upgraded their civil defence capability
for the rescue of people from endangered areas, through the
mobilization of armed forces or the organization of the local
community in response to threats of disaster through cooperative
activities involving volunteers. A number of countries had
introduced programmes to provide information and educate
the public on hazard situations, particularly floods.
The Typhoon Committee
The Typhoon Committee was established by the
participating countries under the auspices of ESCAP and WMO
and has been functioning and holding annual sessions since
1968. The Typhoon Committee covered a wide range of activities
on typhoon-related disaster reduction for which several
important initiatives were launched under its framework,
particularly those aiming at improving typhoon and flood
forecasts.
Among the initiatives undertaken, the two most important
ones were the Typhoon Operational Experiment (TOPEX)
programme and the SPECTRUM (Special Experiment
Concerning Typhoon Recurvature and Unusual Movement)
which laid down important infrastructure and established
human resources and facilities for subsequent contribution to
disaster prevention and preparedness.
It may be noted that the objective of TOPEX was to carry
out, through international co-operation in the prompt and
reliable collection and exchange of observational data, an
operational test of the functioning of the various systems used
for typhoon analysis, forecasting and warning. TOPEX consisted
of three components the meteorological hydrological and
warning dissemination and information exchange components.
TOPEX was an exercise that tested the effectiveness of the
totality of the system built up over more than a decade for flood
warnings, typhoon warnings and dissemination of information
Water Hazards, Resources and Management... 145
to the public. For flood loss prevention, the Committee had
carried out the following activities:
i. evaluation of the established system for forecasting and
warning of the hydrological effects of floods and/or storm
surges by comparison of their outputs with actual
observed data in the fields;
i. identification of simple deterministic forecasting models
used by, or available to services in the typhoon area,
selection of specific models for application to each
designated area and comparison of the models' results
in real-time forecasting operational mode;
i. evaluation of separate and/or combined hydrological
effects of typhoons, particularly river and storm surge
flooding, and thereby determination of associated flood
risk.
In parallel, other regular activities have been in operation
include:
i. operation, maintenance and improvement of existing
flood forecasting and warning systems;
ii. establishment of flood forecasting and warning systems
in other river basins;
iii. establishment of pilot areas for comprehensive flood
loss prevention and management which included
investigation, survey and study of the pilot areas,
preparation of comprehensive plans for flood loss
prevention and management within the context of overall
water resources development of the pilot areas and
implementation of selected aspects of the comprehensive
plans by stages, if necessary.
In terms of activities for disaster preparedness, the
Committee provided assistance in establishment of appropriate
national organizations at all levels, and in formulation of plans;
improvement of facilities and services for emergency
communications; improvement of effectiveness of warnings and
community reaction; training in disaster preparedness;
improvement of techniques for assessment and reporting of
146 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
damage and consequent needs; preparation and implementation
of pilot projects for pre-disaster planning, including analysis of
hazards and resources at all levels, and case studies on such
plans and their effectiveness in practice; and development of
measures to reduce damage associated with storm surge.
The advent of IDNDR has strengthened the cooperation
among the Committee members and also helped enhance
awareness on the importance of natural disaster reduction. The
membership of the Committee continued to increase from 7 to
lately 15, consisting of the Governments of Cambodia, China,
Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Indonesia, Japan, Lao
People's Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Macau, Philippines,
Republic of Korea, Singapore, Thailand, United States, Viet
Nam and Hong Kong, China.
Example of the WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones
In parallel with the operations of the Typhoon Committee,
the Panel on Tropical Cyclones was also established under the
auspices of WMO and ESCAP to promote measures to improve
tropical cyclone warning systems in the Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea. The Panel aims to direct their common endeavours
towards successful implementation of a comprehensive cyclone
operational plan to facilitate the most effective tropical cyclone
warning system for the region with existing facilities.
As part of the common endeavour, the Panel adopted a
comprehensive cyclone operational plan for this subregion. The
basic purpose of the operational plan was to facilitate the most
effective tropical cyclone warning system for the region with
existing facilities.
In doing so the plan defined the sharing of responsibilities
among Panel countries for the various segments of the system
and records the co-ordination and co-operation achieved. The
plan recorded the agreed arrangements for standardization of
operational procedures, efficient exchange of various data related
to tropical cyclone warnings, issue of cyclone advisories from
a central location having the required facilities for this purpose,
archival of data and issue of a tropical weather outlook for the
benefit of the region.
Water Hazards, Resources and Management... 147
The operational plan contains an explicit formulation of the
procedures adopted in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea
region for the preparation, distribution and exchange of
information and warnings pertaining to tropical cyclones.
Experience has shown that it is of great advantage to have an
explicit statement of the regional procedures to be followed in
the event of a cyclone, and this document is designed to serve
as a valuable source of information always available for reference
by the forecaster and other users, particularly under operational
conditions.
A technical plan aiming at the development and
improvement of the cyclone warning system of the region has
been drawn up by the Panel. Implementation of some items
under the technical plan would lead to a strengthening of the
operational plan. The operational plan is evolutionary in nature.
It is intended that the text of the plan be updated or revised
from time to time by the Panel and that each item of information
given in the annexes to the plan be kept up to date by the
member country concerned. The plan included a hydrological
programme comprising two main components:
i. hydrological network and flood forecasting systems, and
ii. storm surge project.
Cooperation among the members continues to be
strengthened with the implementation of these components in
addition to work on meteorology. An important point to note
in this respect is that through the implementation of the plan,
the exchange of hydrological data among the member countries
for flood warnings has been greatly improved.
Community Awareness
In many countries of the region it was recognized that the
initial and most vital response to a disaster must be at the local
level and that the community must be well informed about
disaster-preparedness measures and be alert in the time of
disaster. It was considered essential that the building of disaster
awareness in the general population, starting with the
individual, was essential in reducing casualties. In order to
148 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
promote community involvement in disaster prevention and
preparedness, community awareness programmes and
educational programmes relating to warning systems and other
aspects of disaster preparedness were developed and
implemented, and committees that included representatives of
non-governmental organizations and the public were established
at the local level to monitor and guide disaster-relief operations.
India
The main water-related disasters affecting India are tropical
cyclones, floods and droughts. Although the incidence of cyclone
strikes in the coastal belt is not high, India is regarded as one
of the most flood prone countries in the region, with 40 million
hectares, or 12 percent of the whole country, being affected.
India is also often subject to drought when the monsoon rains
fail to occur.
India is a union of 25 States and 7 Union Territories. The
Union Territories are subject to the direct rule-making powers
of the National Parliament and the administrative control of
the Central Government. The States are fully autonomous in
relation to their activities under the Constitution. The
responsibility for natural disaster management is spread over
the various tiers of Government, with State Governments
assuming a primary role in disaster rescue and relief measures.
The Central Government supplements the States' activities by
providing substantial financial support and other forms of
assistance.
In recent times many advances have been made in disaster
mitigation, response and preparedness. Major advances have
been achieved in the field of disaster response at both the
Central and State Government level through closer collaboration
among the various agencies. Overall coordination has been
assumed by the Ministry of Agriculture with support from
other relevant ministries. Streamlining the disbursement of
relief funds following a disaster has substantially improved the
relief operations and reduced hardship.
Improvement in cyclone forecasting and warning has been
made possible by the use of remote sensing systems, including
Water Hazards, Resources and Management... 149
satellite and weather radars. Timely warnings and quick
response has permitted the early evacuation of threatened
populations. As a consequence, the number of cyclone related
deaths has been reduced by a factor of 10.
Flood modification strategies include both structural and
non-structural measures. The construction of numerous dams,
drainage channels and protective embankments along rivers
has helped to mitigate the intensity of floods and reduce damage
in many areas. The non-structural measures include risk
mapping, flood plain zoning and forecasting and warning. The
flood forecasting and warning functions are the responsibility
of the Central Government, which has established a
comprehensive network throughout the country. Watershed
management has been elevated in importance to further reduce
run-off and promote sustainable development.
Drought monitoring and alleviation is also afforded a high
priority in disaster management. The construction of water
storages, monitoring of crop situations and the implementation
of drought management strategies has helped to ameliorate the
effect of drought and to reduce the amount of associated damage.
In an effort to further its achievements in water-related
disaster reduction, India is directing its efforts towards the
linking of disaster mitigation with development planning, the
establishment of more effective communication systems, the
use of the latest information technology, the introduction of
disaster insurance, the employment of extensive public
awareness and education campaigns, particularly in rural areas,
the greater involvement of the private sector, and the
strengthening of institutional mechanisms and international
cooperation.
SUMMARY OF DISASTERS EXPERIENCED DURING
THE DECADE
General
Following a decision made by the Typhoon Committee in
cooperation with United Nations agencies and the League of
Red Crescent Societies, ESCAP compiles every year region-
150 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
wide statistics and reports on the damage caused by tropical
cyclones, floods, droughts and other severe weather events.
The data and accompanying report serve a vital function in
providing current indicators of the extent of damage suffered
by countries of the region as a result of these types of natural
disaster. On-going regional and global programmes also need
such information to support the efforts of member countries to
reduce losses of life and damage to property from meteorological
disasters.
To compile such data, ESCAP each year sends a
questionnaire on damages caused by natural disasters to its
members and associate members. The type of information
nominated for collection and compilation includes direct
damages caused to human resources, agricultural products and
facilities, public utilities and private property. The evaluation
of indirect damages to economic and social activities has also
been recommended for inclusion in the programme. The
categories for damage assessment are those adopted in the
ESCAP Water Resources Journal for the presentation of such
statistics.
Data and information which relate to annual damage
sustained as a result of tropical cyclones and floods in the
region are compiled and presented in the June issues of the
Journal. Information considered includes loss of life, injuries,
population affected, damage to buildings, agricultural areas
affected and areas of cropland damaged.
Not all countries providing information on damage caused
by tropical cyclones or floods include a monetary assessment
of damages. Information gleaned from other sources indicates
that the costs of damage attributable to these two phenomena
are increasing at a rate of over 4 percent annually. However,
as these damage costs relate only to direct damage, they
significantly underestimate the actual damage. If the value of
the additional and significant indirect losses were included, the
total monetary value would increase substantially.
Not all countries report on a regular basis or provide a
complete set of statistics. As a result there are gaps in the
Water Hazards, Resources and Management... 151
chronology of damages presented for the countries concerned.
Although questions have been raised as to the reliability of the
data, the information does serve as a general indicator of the
disruption caused by the damage inflicted by tropical cyclones,
floods and droughts on the individual countries. An indication
of the severity and frequency of disasters which accompany
these events may be obtained from the tabulations.
In 1996, the Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, United
Nations Environment Programme summarized the root causes
of environmental problems for the Asia and Pacific region in
terms of social, economic, institutional and environmental
factors. This summary also included detailed descriptions of
the water-related hazards and accompanying disasters in the
ESCAP region from the beginning of the International Decade
for Natural Disaster Reduction in 1990. This information is
presented in the following sections.
As we have seen, the developing countries in this region
are situated in the world's worst water-related hazard belts of
floods, droughts, cyclones, tidal waves, and landslides. The
major natural disasters faced periodically are largely due to
climatic factors. The region has been one of the worst hit in
terms of natural disasters, suffering 50 per cent of the world's
major emergencies. Since the International Decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction began in 1990, the total number of deaths
in the region due to these causes has exceeded 200,000, with
the damage to property over this period estimated at US$100
billion. Vulnerability has increased due to growing urban
populations, environmental degradation, and a lack of planning
and preparedness.
Disasters are the result of meteorological phenomena such
as typhoons, hurricanes, sheet flooding, of coastal and river-
based floods. These is turn appear to be related to climatic
phenomenon such as the El Niño Southern Oscillation that
results in a lower mean sea surface temperature in the east,
failure of the monsoon rains in India, and drought in Indonesia
and Australia. Vulnerability to natural hazards has been
increased in many coastal areas as a consequence of the loss
of habitat such as mangroves and coral reefs that formerly
152 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
provided natural protection against coastal flooding. Tropical
cyclones, or typhoons, which are common in the ESCAP region,
occur most frequently over the north-west Pacific during June
and November just east of the Philippines, with an average of
30 typhoons per year.
In the Bay of Bengal, tropical cyclones usually form over
the southern end during April-December and then move to the
east coast of India and Bangladesh, causing severe flooding
and, often, devastating tidal surges. The cyclones generated in
the South Pacific Ocean frequently cause devastation in small
island countries such as Fiji, Tonga, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands,
and Samoa. Overall, the Philippines, Bangladesh, and Vietnam
appear to suffer most frequently from these large events.
Floods, which are the most common climate-related disasters
in the region, include seasonal flooding, flash flooding, urban
flooding due to inadequate drainage facilities, and floods
associated with tidal events induced by typhoons in coastal
areas.
In Bangladesh, one of the most flood-prone countries in the
region, as many as 80 million people are vulnerable to flooding
each year. Another example is India, where 40 million hectares
are at risk from flooding each year, and the average annual
direct damage has been estimated at US$240 million, although
this can exceed US$1.5 billion when flooding is severe.
It has been observed that the impact of droughts differs
widely between industrial and developing countries because of
such factors as water supply efficiency and behavioural patterns
such as water use efficiency. Most of the estimated 500 million
rural poor in this region are subsistence farmers occupying
mainly rainfed land.
The drought-prone countries in this region are Afghanistan,
Iran, Myanmar, Pakistan, Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, and parts
of Bangladesh. In India about 33 per cent of the arable land,
representing 14 per cent of the total land area of the country,
is considered to be drought-prone, whilst a further 35 per cent
can also be affected by drought when rainfall is exceptionally
low for extended periods. Nepal has experienced severe droughts
Water Hazards, Resources and Management... 153
in the past, along with the Philippines, Thailand, Australia,
and the Pacific islands of Fiji, Vanuatu, and Samoa.
Landslides, which are very common in the hills and
mountainous parts of the region, occur frequently in India,
China, Nepal, Thailand, and the Philippines. In addition to the
primary cause-the topography-landslides are aggravated by
human activities, such as deforestation, cultivation, and
construction, which destabilize the already fragile slopes. For
instance, as a result of combined actions of natural (mostly
heavy rainfall) and human factors, as many as 12,000 landslides
occur in Nepal each year.
Environmental degradation and disasters are very closely
linked in this region. The countries that suffer most from
disasters are the same ones in which environmental degradation
is proceeding most rapidly. Similarly, poverty and vulnerability
to disasters are closely linked. There is an average of some
3,000 deaths per event in low-income countries, compared
with less than 400 per event in middle and high-income
countries.
Encroachment onto disaster-prone lands under the pressure
of rapid population growth is accelerating the regional
vulnerability to disasters. It has been estimated that annual
flood losses in some countries are 40 times more today than
what they were in the 1950s. According to the Indian
Government, one out of every 20 people in the nation is
vulnerable to flooding. Similarly, in China more than 85 per
cent of the population is concentrated on alluvial plains or
basins along river courses that constitute one third of its total
land area.
A summary of major water-related disasters experienced
in the Region is presented in Appendix 1 for the years 1994,
1995, 1996 and 1997. This information has been extracted from
the July issues of ESCAP's Water Resources Journal. The
magnitude of each disaster is expressed in terms of:
o country or area affected;
o type of disaster;
154 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
o period of occurrence and name of regions/areas seriously
affected;
o human damages (persons killed, injured, etc.);
o material damages (property, agriculture, etc.);
o total estimated damage cost.
A perusal of this damage information will verify that these
disasters continue to wreak havoc throughout the region. The
toll inflicted on its populations, in terms of human lives,
individual suffering and hardship, is staggering in magnitude.
Losses of private possessions and livelihoods, coupled with
disruption to the normal pattern of life and local economies,
can be spread over large areas and have a debilitating effect
on the nation's economy as a whole.
From the end of June,1998, persistent rains, which were
attributed to the La Niña phenomenon, caused some of the
most devastating floods of the Decade and took a heavy toll on
human life and property in several countries in the ESCAP
region.
Although China and Bangladesh were the worst affected,
the Republic of Korea, Viet Nam, India and Nepal also suffered
significant loss of life and related damage. It was estimated
that over 250 million people were affected by the floods with
many being rendered homeless. A brief summary of the excessive
rains and major floods in China, Bangladesh, Korea and Viet
Nam are presented in the following sections.
1998 DISASTERS
China
Flooding along some major rivers in China during
August,1998 was described as the worst in decades. The worst
affected areas were in central and north-eastern China.
Commencing in June, heavy protracted rain fell over large
areas of China and culminated in severe flooding on many
major waterways, particularly the Yangtze River. It was
estimated that the August peak was the second highest in more
Water Hazards, Resources and Management... 155
than 130 years, only being eclipsed by the record flood of 1954
when 33,000 people were drowned. In other parts of the country
floods, landslides and mudflows affected some 240,000 people.
Over 3000 people lost their lives, with landslides and
mudflows causing many of the deaths. Some 15 million people
were rendered homeless, 5 million houses were destroyed and
22 million hectares were inundated and 1.8 million hectares of
crops totally destroyed. The total damage bill was estimated
to exceed $ US 20 billion.
Several major dykes were breached during the flood,
affecting large sections of the local population. Many dykes
were deliberately cut to ease the pressure on downstream
areas. More than 500,000 people were evacuated from the flood
diversion zone at Jingjiang on the Yangtze River so that the
major dykes could be cut to protect the industrial city of Wuhan
and other areas downstream.
It was necessary to mobilize more than 1.7 million Chinese
soldiers and civilians to undertake essential maintenance work
on the levees, which had to be undertaken to avoid failure as
flood peaks threatened to overwhelm them. In some cases, the
decision was made to abandon or breach some levees so that
other more important areas could be protected. Essential services
and relief efforts were taxed to the limit as essential services
failed completely and medical services were placed under
extreme pressure to cope with a situation of mounting disease
outbreaks.
Bangladesh
Heavy monsoon rain which commenced to fall in mid-July
1998 caused extensive flooding in 37 of the 64 administrative
districts, inundating about two thirds of the country. Major
flooding was recorded in most rivers throughout these districts.
The torrential rain which fell in the Himalayas caused rivers
to break their banks, resulting in the longest-lasting floods in
memory.
The floods resulted in the death of over 600 people who
were drowned or killed by collapsing houses. Some 25 million
156 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Water Hazards, Resources and Management... 157

people were affected by the floods and hundreds of thousands November,1998 caused extensive flooding and damage. Flooding
were left homeless. Over 6600 head of cattle were lost. A total which accompanied the heavy rainfall resulted in flash flooding
of 760,000 hectares of farmland were inundated by floodwater throughout the region and was reported to be the most
with 425,000 hectares of crops being completely destroyed. The devastating since the historical record flood of 1964.
loss of crops was estimated at about US$ 150 million. Some 2.4 million people were directly affected by the
The Government launched a full-scale rescue and relief disaster, 267 people being killed and more than 110 people
operation by mobilizing the army for emergency rescue being injured or reported missing. Almost 500,000 buildings
operations and the distribution of food supplies to the flood were damaged by floodwater, some 10,000 of them being
victims. Many of the flood-affected communities suffered an completely destroyed. Almost 115,000 ha of crops were inundated
outbreak of water-borne diseases resulting from contaminated by floodwater and suffered significant damage. The total damage
drinking water. to crops, infrastructure and private property was estimated at
US$ 93 million.
Republic of Korea
The devastation was exacerbated by the fact that most of
During early August,1998 the City of Seoul experienced the the provinces had experienced serious drought conditions for
worst flood disaster since the 1987 floods which claimed 381 9 months prior to the onset of flooding.
lives, injured 428 and affected 151,000 people.
On the 5th and 6th of August. a storm deluged the
metropolitan area of Seoul with 620 millimetres of rain, making
it one of the heaviest downpours on record. The resulting floods
and mudslides killed 131 people, left 61 missing and caused
damage estimated at US$ 323 million.
Several days earlier, the same storm caused flash floods
which killed 95 people, left 20,000 homeless and inundated
55,000 hectares of farmland. These floods were also accompanied
by mudslides which engulfed buildings, damaged infrastructure
and triggered an outbreak of disease.
Earlier in the year the northern parts of the country were
ravaged by floodwaters. the heavy rains which started towards
the end of July culminated in serious flooding, affecting a wide
area. Some 270 people were killed, more than 150,000 people
were evacuated and damage to property exceeded US$ 689
million. Over 47,000 hectares of farmland were swamped and
large areas of the rice crop completely destroyed.
Viet Nam
Typhoon Dawn and other tropical storms which struck 15
central provinces of central Viet Nam from 11th to 26th
158 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
7 of operational plans, training of relief groups, the stockpiling
DISASTER PREVENTION AND
PREPAREDNESS OPTIONS FOR THE ESCAP
R EGION
PREVENTION AND PREPAREDNESS APPROACHES
The key to effective reduction in the loss of life and damage
to property resulting from tropical cyclones, storm surges, floods
and other forms of water-based disaster lies in the development
and adoption of improved disaster prevention and preparedness
measures.
Disaster prevention may be described as the application of
measures that seek to prevent natural phenomena from
occurring or to limit the scope and intensity of their effects. It
is concerned with the formulation and implementation of long
range programmes and policies which are aimed at elimination
of the occurrence of disasters or the reduction of their adverse
effects on the basis of a careful assessment of vulnerability and
risk. It must be emphasized that major natural disaster
phenomena such as tropical cyclones and widespread floods
cannot be prevented from occurring, but the probability and
extent of serious damaging effects can be minimized. These
measures may include both structural and non-structural
approaches, including legislative and regulatory measures.
Disaster preparedness may be described as the application
of measures which are designed to minimize loss of life and
property damage and to organize and facilitate timely and
effective rescue, relief and rehabilitation when disastrous
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 159
disaster events do occur. Again, the assessment of these risks
must be undertaken in terms of risk and vulnerability.
Preparedness measures may include forecasting and warning
systems, community education, and organization and
management of disaster situations including the preparation
of supplies and the provision of the necessary funds. It is must
be supported by appropriate emergency legislation which comes
into force in disaster situations or similar emergencies which
cannot be avoided.
Prevention and preparedness measures are not isolated
activities since both can be undertaken together or one can be
a continuation of the other. This is because not all disasters
can be prevented, and preventative measures may fail to achieve
their objectives. Thus, to limit or mitigate the effects of disasters
which cannot be prevented, certain measures have to be
undertaken to return the community to normality as soon as
possible after the event.
A variety of prevention and preparedness measures has
been applied in the countries of the ESCAP Region, albeit with
varying degrees of success and often in an uncoordinated fashion.
As previously stated, disaster prevention and preparedness
consist of a wide range of measures, some long term and others
short-term, aimed at saving lives and minimizing the amount
of damage that might otherwise be caused. Prevention covers
the long-term aspects and is concerned with policies and
programmes to prevent or eliminate the occurrence of disasters.
Preparedness covers the short-term measures which are
designed to cover the action necessary during the approach of
a possible disaster, during the existence of a disaster situation
and in the ensuing period devoted to relief and rehabilitation.
Disaster prevention and preparedness is usually accomplished
using two fundamental approaches. Firstly, it may be achieved
using permanent controls, structural or non-structural, designed
and developed in advance of the disaster. Secondly, it may be
achieved by using temporary measures, planned in advance
but only put into effect during the emergency.
160 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 161

DISASTER PREVENTION The selection of the best mix of measures to prevent the
occurrence of future flood or storm surge disasters will be based
The destructive power of tropical cyclones is manifested by
on the consideration of all the available structural and non-
strong winds, flooding and storm surges. Any disaster prevention
structural options. The optimal mix of measures will be based
and preparedness system must include warnings and protective
on risk analysis and the economic performance of the overall
measures against each of these effects. Winds are a fundamental
scheme. Consideration of social and environmental factors in
property of tropical cyclones, whilst flooding and storm surges
addition to the legislative and legal constrictions should be
may be a consequence of tropical cyclones but also of other
included in the planning process.
natural events.
The principal preventive measures employed to mitigate DISASTER PREPAREDNESS
the destructive and injurious effects of tropical cyclones involve
Disaster preparedness is seen as that action taken when
the introduction of building design and construction standards
the occurrence of a tropical cyclone. flood or storm surge
aimed at improved resistance to the damaging effects of wind
threatens to become a disaster. Preparedness activities are
and water.
designed to reduce social disruption and losses to existing
Disaster prevention measures attempt to lessen the impact property and are an essential component of overall disaster
of flooding or storm surge on the social and economic conditions planning. They can serve in the absence of more permanent
of human settlements in floodplains or low lying coastal areas. measures to reduce the threat to loss of life and property.
The range of preventative controls adopted to protect
The main types of disaster preparedness include:
development on floodplains includes both structural measures
such as channel modifications, flood detention storages and o forecasting and warning systems;
levees which arc designed to reduce the incidence or extent of o evacuation from affected areas;
flooding, and non-structural measures such as flood insurance,
o flood fighting;
flood zoning restrictions, land-use management, economic
incentives, public information and community education. Non- o flood relief;
structural measures are intended to modify flood susceptibility o cyclone shelters.
and flood impact. The range of measures available to protect
Depending on the size of the drainage basin, the length of
against the effects of flooding is much wider than that available
river and the time of concentration of floodwater in the main
to reduce the impact of tropical cyclones.
channel, flood forecasts and warnings may be issued well in
Preventative measures to protect low-lying coastal areas advance of the arrival of the flood crest on large rivers. Flash
against damage from tidal inundation also include structural floods originating on small catchments present special problems
and non-structural measures. The principal structural measure and usually require some form of forecasting based on rainfall
involve the construction of embankments capable of estimates.
withstanding the anticipated storm surge heights and forces.
Although the forecasts for cyclones and floods may be
Non-structural measures employ land-use zoning and controls
accurate and timely they may have little or no effects on the
over occupation in high hazard areas. Building controls are also
intended recipients if the warning system for dissemination of
imposed to restrict building on vulnerable areas. These controls
the forecast is inadequate. Each agency responsible for
require that flood heights are set a safe elevation above a given
emergency operations should receive prompt forecasts and
datum.
warnings of the changing circumstances so that action needed
162 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
to meet the emergency can be achieved. Dissemination of
forecasts requires an effective communications system based
on radio broadcasts, television, newspapers, telephone and
special warning systems. The evacuation of people from a
potential or actual disaster area is one of the most important
elements of disaster mitigation. Careful planning is necessary
for the efficient evacuation and relief of flood victims. To be
effective the plan should define hazardous areas and potential
dangers. However, the difficulty in evacuating victims and
property can be increased if escape routes cannot cope with the
traffic volume, if evacuation services cannot be contacted or
suitable evacuation equipment such as trucks, boats and
helicopters are not available.
Flood fighting can be defined as the taking of precautionary
measures against disaster at times of flood or storm-surge.
These measures should aim to prevent damage or to minimize
its extent to protect life and property and in general, to ensure
the safety of the population. Successful flood fighting depends
upon good organization, thorough advance planning, well-
trained personnel and the effective coordination of operations
at local, provincial and national levels. The planning should
cover all those who will be involved, from the flood-fighting
corps, municipality, town or village officers, and the general
public, to the regional and central government. It involves the
construction of temporary controls to exclude floodwater from
protected areas or the strengthening of existing structures to
ensure protection.
The main aim of relief is to provide immediate assistance
to overcome personal hardship and distress, including essential
repairs to houses and the repair and replacement of essential
items of furniture and personal effects. Relief should include
the reception and care of evacuated victims, the provision of
medical services and similar activities.
STRUCTURAL MEASURES FOR DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
A variety of both structural and non-structural measures
is available for coping with water-based disasters. These
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 163
measures are discussed in further detail below. As we have
already indicated, most or all of these methods have been used
in the countries of the ESCAP Region as part of their disaster
mitigation programs.
Cyclone Management
Winds are a fundamental property of tropical cyclones,
whilst flooding and storm surges may be a consequence of
tropical cyclones but also of other natural events. A variety of
structural measures has be taken to protect lives and property
against these effects.
Tropical cyclones may produce wind velocities of 200 km
per hour or more. Under these conditions, buildings are subject
to air pressure variations which can produce strong outwards
forces on roofs, ceilings and walls, leading to explosive lifting,
bursting or collapse. High winds may also induce falling debris
and airborne wreckage to be carried from adjacent buildings,
and these can impact with such force as to penetrate or severely
damage conventional wall and roof materials.
Structural precautions which have been or could be taken
to minimize the damage caused by these effects include:
o siting or re-siting of buildings in locations with minimal
exposure to high-velocity winds;
o use of special cyclone-resistant building materials;
o special forms of roof and wall construction designed to
withstand extremely high wind velocities;
o construction of cyclone shelters within or adjacent to
buildings.
In selecting a location with reduced exposure to hazardous
wind velocities, it needs to be remembered that cyclones are
generally associated with intense rainfall and possibly heavy
flooding. Clearly, buildings should not be located in positions
posing increased flood hazard.
Cyclone are also often associated with storm surges, leading
to potential flooding of coastal areas. Where possible, buildings
should not be located in surge prone locations. Alternatively,
164 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
buildings may be raised above expected flood levels. This is also
a possibility for locations which are likely to be subject to
cyclone-induced flooding.
Many countries in the region have Government or University
laboratories which conduct research into the structural effects
of tropical cyclone damage and have developed structural and
building designs and special materials to suit such conditions.
Many countries have also now developed improved structural
design guidelines and standards governing building construction
in cyclone-prone areas and these should be identified,
emphasized in building regulations or by-laws and widely
publicized amongst engineers, architects, builders and the
general public.
Cyclone shelters are specially strengthened and equipped
rooms or chambers constructed inside or adjacent to individual
buildings. For short-term emergency shelters, a floor space
area of about 0.5 m2 per person is adequate. For longer duration
cyclones, which might last for 12 hours or more, a floor space
of about 1m2 per occupant is desirable.
According to the building design and layout, shelters might
be constructed inside the building, in the basement, under a
garage or other concrete floor, or as an extension on one side
of the building. Shelters should have concrete walls and a
strengthened roof, with a single door which is missile-impact
resistant. They require of course to be adequately ventilated,
with a system which is not reliant on electrical supply in case
of power failure. Shelters design for longer-duration occupancy
require a water supply and toilet and all shelters should be
provided with a kit of emergency equipment, including torch
and lamp, first-aid kit, portable radio, water and food containers,
portable cooking gear and spare clothing.
Flood Management
(i) Levees and Flood Walls
The principal purpose of levees and floodwalls is to confine
floodwaters to the stream channel and a selected portion of the
floodplain. These barriers protect only the land area immediately
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 165
behind them, and are effective only against flood depths up to
the chosen level for which they were designed. However, they
may create a false sense of security about the degree of protection
provided. Floods exceeding the levels for which the levees and
floodwalls are designed can cause disastrous losses of life and
property.
The requirements for the design and construction of levees
and floodwalls are governed by degree of hazard to life and
property within the protected area and by site conditions. Levees
are normally constructed of earth and require significant space
to accommodate the required base width. Floodwalls are usually
constructed of concrete or steel and take up far less room. They
are more suitable for use in congested areas.
Because levees and floodwalls can fail by overtopping,
undermining, slumping and excessive seepage, the design of
these structures should attempt to reduce the possibility of
failure from these causes. Ample freeboard, which takes into
account the settlement of levees, wave action, sedimentation
of the river channel and inaccuracies in estimation of flood
levels, reduces the possibility of overtopping of levees or
floodwalls. Undermining is minimized by locating levees or
floodwalls far enough away from channels to eliminate exposure
to high velocity or scour. Proper side slopes and construction
methods minimize slumping of earth levees. Excessive seepage
can be reduced by the provision of seepage protection works.
Damage can also be caused by termites and burrowing animals.
Regular inspections are necessary to locate and remedy the
damage in an early stage of development.
Levees and floodwalls complicate the drainage of land they
protect and provision must be made for the discharge of internal
drainage water unless adequate storage is available. Discharge
through levees or floodwalls can be achieved by gravity flow
through pipes equipped with gates. When prolonged flood stages
prevent gravity outflow, the internal drainage water must be
stored temporarily, removed by pumping or disposed of using
a combination of these methods.
To be effective, levees require proper maintenance. Such
166 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
maintenance should include regular inspections as well as
periodical patrols during and immediately after severe floods.
Vegetation, grazing and traffic on earth levees should be
controlled. Proper attention to any defects will help ensure
against levee failure.
(ii) Channel Modification
Normal natural watercourses have a river channel of limited
capacity, which may be exceeded annually, with excess
floodwater overflowing onto the floodplain. Hydraulic
improvements to the watercourse or to the floodplain, and/or
flood channels constructed within the floodplain, enable flood
waters to be passed at a lower level than would occur naturally.
In urban areas, such works also permit the optimization of land
use through improved residual drainage.
The various types of channel modification include:
o straightening, deepening or widening of the channel;
o removing vegetation or debris;
o lining the channel;
o raising or enlarging bridges and culverts which restrict
flow;
o removing barriers which interfere with flow;
o installing river training works.
Channel modifications are similar to levees and floodwalls
in that they can be used to protect a specific site or region. They
can also provide the community with other positive benefits,
such as improved navigation and recreation.
Channel modifications are likely to be most effective on
steeper, smaller streams with overgrown banks and narrow
floodplains. Channel modifications are unlikely to have any
significant effect in flooding situations where there are extensive
areas of overbank flooding, or where flooding effects are
dominated by tide levels.
River training works are structural measures of various
kinds which are undertaken in order to provide a more effective
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 167
channel for the passage of flood flows and sediment loads. Such
works may be designed either to retard flow rates along a river
bank, in order to reduce erosive velocities and increase the
deposition of sediments, or to provide protection for the bank
against erosion or scouring.
Permeable groynes and revetments, constructed of piling,
rock, concrete, fencing materials, vegetation or other materials,
are generally used for these purposes. Groynes protrude into
the channel and are designed to divert flow away from the
bank, whilst at the same time causing an accumulation of
sediment along the toe of the bank and on the downstream side
of the groyne structure. Revetments, on the other hand, are
constructed along or parallel to the bank, where they serve to
reduce the velocity of flow along the bank, thus reducing bank
erosion and allowing the river bank to stabilize.
Which of these devices should be used in a given situation
depends upon characteristics of the stream channel and the
extent and nature of the existing erosion damage. Whichever
kind of device is employed, its satisfactory long-term
performance will be very much dependent upon its continuing
maintenance.
Disadvantages which are related to the use of channel
modifications include the costs of proper maintenance, the
destruction of riverine habitat for fish and wildlife, and the
potential for the aggravation of channel scouring and bank
erosion if the structures are not intelligently designed, well
constructed and carefully maintained.
(iii) By-pass Floodways
These structures serve two functions in flood mitigation.
Firstly they create large, shallow reservoirs which store a portion
of the flood water and hence decrease the flow in the main
channel below the diversion. Secondly, they provide an
additional outlet for water from upstream, improving flow
characteristics and decreasing water levels for some distance
below the diversion. Opportunities for the construction of
floodways are limited by the topography of the area and the
availability of low-value land which can be used for the floodway.
168 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
There are two types of by-pass floodways, natural and
constructed. A natural floodway follows the course of an existing
cross-country depression and carries floodwaters that can no
longer be carried within the river channel. The land in the
floodway is generally not different from other farmland, except
that it may be low-lying. Some floodways have control banks
constructed across them, or may be bordered by levees, in order
to control the spread of floodwater. Restrictions are usually
placed on land development in floodways to ensure that future
loss and damage from major floods is reduced to a minimum
and to ensure that the floodway functions as designed.
When required, controls in the form of spillways and gates
are provided at the entrance to a floodway. Spillways take the
form of a lowered and protected section of levee which is designed
to control the amount of floodwater diverted into the floodway
from the river. As spillways can be overtopped for long periods
by high velocity floodwater, they have to be specially designed
to avoid failure. Protection can be provided by rock gabions or,
where appropriate, by building the spillway with gentle
backslopes which are well grassed.
If the floodway possesses comparatively steep bed-slopes,
control banks may be built perpendicular to the direction of
flow at intervals along the length of the floodway. These banks
are similar in design to the entrance spillway, and form a series
of basins which reduce the water velocity by dropping the
floodwater in progressive steps down the floodway alignment.
Diversions are works constructed to intercept flood flows
upstream of a damage-prone area and route them around the
area through an artificial channel. Diversions may either
completely re-rout a stream or collect and transport only those
flows that would cause damage.
Diversions are particularly well suited for protecting
developed areas, because they do not usually require land
acquisition or construction within the protected area. However,
opportunities for diversions are often limited by the nature of
local land formations and soil conditions. There must also be
a receiving water body or stream channel with sufficient capacity
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 169
to carry the flow bypassed through the diversion without causing
flooding.
(iv) Retarding Basins and Flood Storage Areas
Flood storage and retardation involves the deliberate,
controlled flooding of designated areas in order to minimize
overall flood losses. It permits floods exceeding a specified
magnitude to spread over low-lying lands situated behind
embankments in a controlled fashion, accomplished by the
operation of gated structures or spillway sections incorporated
in the embankments. The diversion of floodwater, when carefully
controlled, will reduce the flood peak at downstream locations
and confine flooding to within the flood control system.
Areas selected for flood storage and retardation are
traditionally low-lying locations which have a history of flooding.
By the formulation of proper controls it is possible to utilize
these areas for habitation and agricultural purposes, on the
understanding that they will be flooded periodically. This calls
for the preparation of a comprehensive programme of flood
operation, a knowledge of the depth and extent of area
inundated, the imposition of controls to ensure predictable
flood behaviour and the implementation of a reliable flood
forecasting and warning system to ensure timely and safe
evacuation. Special provisions are also required for the protection
of emergency services and for flood refuge areas.
To reduce the damages associated with controlled flooding,
it is necessary to provide drainage works capable of emptying
the flood storage area as quickly as possible after the cessation
of main river flooding.
Retarding basins reduce downstream flood flows in both
mainstream and urban drainage situations. They allow small
flows to pass unimpeded but trap a portion of larger flows. In
urban areas, retarding basins are most suitable for small streams
which respond quickly to rainfall and/or stormwater flooding.
However, they introduce a number of inherent problems, which
should be carefully evaluated for each particular situation.
These may include the following:
170 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
o basins may require a substantial area to achieve the
necessary storage;
o long duration or multi-peak storms (when the basin is
filled from a previous peak) can increase the risk of
overtopping or breaching;
o the impact on floods larger than those for which they
are designed is limited.
Sites for retarding basins in developed urban areas are
generally limited in number and extent. Available sites are
usually restricted to established recreational areas, such as
parks, playing fields and parking lots. In new urban
developments or re-developments, the incorporation of a system
of retarding basins at the planning stage can result in effective
flood protection for those areas.
Retarding basins are sometimes constructed by building an
earth embankment across the watercourse and providing outlet
facilities to control releases appropriate for the capacity of the
downstream channel. The outlet facility usually takes the form
of a box or pipe culvert. If earthworks are used for the
construction of the basin embankment, the provision of adequate
spillway capacity is essential to protect the basin from failure
by overtopping if flows exceed the design flood.
Land along the river and natural depressions on the
floodplain can be utilized for the off-river storage of floodwaters.
Flood flows are diverted into them in order to reduce flood
peaks downstream. The efficiency of operation of such storages
can usually be improved by providing them with suitable intake
structures for controlled filling and outlet structures arranged
to permit controlled releases when downstream conditions allow.
(v) Flood Mitigation Reservoirs
In appropriate circumstances dams can be constructed to
create reservoirs which control major flood flows by temporarily
storing flood waters and releasing them at a safe flow rate.
Such devices may be used to control floods arising from existing
catchment conditions or to offset the impact of proposed land
use changes. The amount of storage required depends upon the
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 171
degree of protection needed and the downstream channel
capacity.
The degree of mitigation provided by a flood control reservoir
depends on the combination of dam storage, spillway capacity
and the pattern of flood inflows. The effect of storage is to
decrease the flood peak without reducing the total volume of
floodwater. The reduction of the flood peak is achieved at the
expense of an increased duration of dam releases at lower
rates. For dams equipped with gates or valves, the way in
which these controls are operated will determine the rate of
release and the degree of downstream mitigation.
The protection afforded by a surface reservoir is greatest
in the area immediately downstream of the dam. Protection
further downstream is reduced by tributary flows and by run-
off from land adjacent to the river. Protection may also decrease
over time if the reservoir capacity is diminished by siltation.
Surface reservoirs have the greatest potential to mitigate floods
when they are empty.
Flood mitigation reservoirs are mostly used on small and
moderate-sized streams. The large areas of land required to
store the flood flows of major rivers are generally no longer
available, especially where they involve the flooding of valuable
agricultural lands. Many sites that are geologically and
topographically suitable may require very considerable and
expensive land acquisition and the displacement of large
populations. The cost of large reservoirs can generally only be
justified where they protect heavily developed urban areas and
are the only practical means for significantly reducing flood
damages. It is usual practice to reserve a component of the
available storage capacity in multi-purpose dams for flood
mitigation purposes. In such cases, careful coordination is
necessary to permit flood mitigation reservoirs to serve also for
water supply or irrigation purposes.
A major disadvantage of flood mitigation reservoirs is that
downstream residents often do not appreciate that they can
only control floods up to the peak rate for which they were
designed. Complementary land use controls need therefore to
172 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
be enforced to prevent unsafe development and encroachment
on the downstream floodplain.
(vi) Drainage Evacuation Systems
Drainage water produced by storm runoff from within the
protected area behind levees or floodwalls may be disposed of
by various means, which include:
o gravity release through pipes fitted with gates during
periods of low river flow;
o temporary accumulation of drainage flow in storage
areas;
o pumping of interior drainage water during periods when
gravity drainage outflow is restricted by backwater.
Pumping is usually required for the disposal of interior
drainage water whenever sufficient discharge by gravity flow
cannot be achieved, which may be because of limited outlet
capacity, insufficient storage capacity or the effects of backwater
caused by flooding. The design of drainage works for the removal
of flood waters accumulating within the low-lying areas behind
levees or floodwalls requires consideration of the entire drainage
network servicing the protected area. Coordinated use of storage
areas, channels, pipe systems and gravity outlets is needed so
that the pump capacity, size and period of operation can be
optimized. The efficient planning and design of pumping plants
will involve careful selection of the required water removal
rate, the auxiliary drainage facilities needed to minimize the
pumping requirements and the location of the pumping plant
to provide an effective outlet to the entire drainage system.
The period of pumping may be reduced by increasing the
amount of available storage. This may be achieved by excavation.
Where this is not practical, adequate pumping capacity must
be installed to safely discharge any drainage inflow volume in
excess of the available storage capacity.
Water-induced Land Instability
There is a variety of structural or mechanical measures
which can be applied to reduce the potential for land instability
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 173
in areas where occupation cannot be prohibited. These measures
might include the following:
o preventing or diverting runoff flows around critical sites;
o de-watering sites using drainage systems;
o planting trees or shrubs which remove sub-surface water
by transpiration;
o planting deep-rooted vegetation to bind sub-soil material;
o underpinning foundations to stable rock;
o battering slopes to stable grades;
o constructing retaining walls along the toes of critical
slopes.
Drought Management
There is a variety of structural measures which can be
taken to mitigate the effects of severe drought. These essentially
revolve around the careful management and conservation of
surface and groundwater water resources. They can be
considered in two categories-large-scale measures and small
scale or on-farm measures.
Large-scale surface-water conservation measures revolve
around the provision of large water storage reservoirs for the
regulation of natural streamflow and the delivery of this water
to critical areas, sometimes over considerable distances, through
irrigation, stock or domestic water supply systems.
The availability of suitable and economical sites for large
dams is limited and new sites need to be chosen with care.
Unfortunate experiences with very large storages in many
developing countries, particularly in tropical regions, have shown
that they can have serious adverse environmental, social and
economic consequences and they need to be planned and
designed with very considerable care.
Efficient utilization of available damsites and economic
considerations suggest that where possible, large water storages
should be designed and operated as multi-purpose structures,
incorporating where possible and appropriate irrigation, flood
174 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
mitigation, power generation and recreational functions. These
may not be mutually consistent, so that multi-purpose design
requires a comprise solution based on the best overall net
benefits to all potential users.
Irrigation, stock and domestic water supply delivery and
distribution systems also need care in their design and location.
Increasingly, environmental considerations may impose special
restraints where proposed channel or pipeline routes may
traverse areas of natural significance, wildlife habitat or
historical or cultural value.
Unfortunate experience in many countries, where large-
scale irrigation districts have been developed on semi-arid lands
on the flood plains of major rivers, has been the development
of salinity and water-logging in irrigated soils. In some cases,
this has led to the total devastation of irrigated land and made
it unsuitable for any form of agricultural activity. Within the
ESCAP Region, it has occurred extensively in Australia, China,
India, Pakistan and Thailand.
To avoid the possibility of future degradation from this
cause, new irrigation areas need to be carefully sited and
selected on the basis of the soil type, the nature of the underlying
strata, the quality of the irrigation water to be use, and the
ability to provide an adequate drainage and disposal system.
The build up of salts in the soil, and the potential for water-
logging, can be substantially reduced or eliminated through the
provision of an appropriate drainage infrastructure and this
must be considered an essential component of any irrigation
system. Drainage water may be too high in salinity for safe
disposal into a major watercourse, in which case an effective
disposal process, such as transpiration from an irrigated salt-
tolerant woodland or evaporation from an evaporation basin,
could provide an effective solution.
In the ESCAP Region, groundwater is used extensively for
irrigation, domestic and stock water supply purposes.
Groundwater required careful management if it is to be available
in adequate quantity and quality on a long-term basis, and
particularly through prolonged drought conditions. There are
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 175
some structural devices that can be used to improve the
availability of groundwater supplies.
On the larger scale, groundwater distribution systems need
special construction measures to control losses and optimize
delivery efficiency. Artesian bores should always be capped and
provided with adequate control valves, whilst all bores should
be fitted with flow meters. Substantial seepage and evaporation
losses may be experienced when groundwater supplies are
delivered over considerable distances through unlined earthen
channel systems, and pipeline delivery is much to be preferred.
At the delivery end, temporary storage in tanks and the
installation of well-designed domestic, irrigation delivery or
stockwater troughing systems is highly desirable.
Where possible, groundwater supplies should be managed
in conjunction with surface water supplies on an integrated,
conjunctive use basis. Where appropriate, groundwater
resources might be able to be replenished using surface water,
particularly when excess water flows are available during flood
periods. Detention storages designed to hold back floodwaters
for a sufficient period of time to enable infiltration into an
underlying aquifer are generally used for this purpose. These
recharge storages need to be carefully sited over foundations
which are permeable and facilitate the infiltration process, by
contrast with more normal dam construction where a site
offering low seepage losses is desirable.
On the small of farm-level scale, a variety of solutions is
also available. In arid areas with intermittent rainfall, or on
higher rainfall areas with marked seasonal rainfall patterns,
the construction of appropriately designed and sited surface
reservoirs is a common practice. These are principally
constructed by excavation and/or by building an earth
embankment. If they are to be used for irrigation, they need
to be as large as possible and located on sites which provide
a maximum of storage capacity per unit of excavation required
for their construction. For stock and domestic use, particularly
in arid areas, they need to be as deep as possible, with minimal
surface area, to reduce long-term evaporation losses.
176 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Where farm storages are filled by surface runoff, they should
be equipped with an emergency spillway of adequate capacity.
Where runoff is low and intermittent, the catchment or
watershed area needs to be as large as possible and might need
to be extended by the construction of diversion and collection
devices such as catch drains. Under extremely arid conditions,
the use of sealed catchment areas, with paved or rolled earth
surfaces, might be necessary where the high cost of doing so
is not an important factor.
Where groundwater or intermittent streamflow is available,
above-ground reservoirs may be constructed and filled by
pumping. Large offstream storages, called ring tanks, filled by
pumping from a sump adjacent to a watercourse during flood
flow periods, are commonly used in inland Australia for
irrigation purposes. Elsewhere, smaller circular reservoirs called
turkey's nest tanks, constructed by pushing soil from the outside
around their perimeter and filled by windmills from an
underlying aquifer, are widely used for stock water purposes.
Non-structural Measures
The vulnerability of land and property to water-related
natural disasters can be reduced by structural works. The
potential impact of these events can be further reduced by the
imposition of land use controls, designed to manage land
degradation and minimize exposure to the risk of disasters
which cannot be avoided. To achieve this objective, legislative
controls which empower the relevant government authorities
to direct land use planning policies and practices related to
watershed management need to be adopted and implemented.
Whilst most of these measures have been introduced by
individual countries within the ESCAP Region, they have not
always be adopted along with a comprehensive range of
structural measures in an integrated and coordinated fashion.
Such controls should strive to ensure that an effective and
comprehensive legal and administrative system is adopted which
addresses the problems of land degradation, environmental
protection, and disaster mitigation in an coordinated fashion
and is consistent with the principles of sustainable resource
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 177
development. Such a system requires an integrated approach
to the management and protection of natural resources,
including land, water, vegetation and human activity,
undertaken on the basis of a "total watershed" approach. This
approach recognized that changes to the natural environment
in the upper watershed will influence conditions in downstream
areas, and significantly increase their potential for damage by
flooding and drought.
Legalization should establish national standards for
watershed management and downstream land occupancy which
relate to the use, development and protection of land in a way
which will minimize the risk to populations during the
occurrence of water related natural disasters, particularly when
they are brought about by the degradation of natural resources.
Activities within a watershed should be controlled and protected
through a comprehensive watershed management plan which
places restrictions on those activities which can increase the
risk of damage. Under this type of legislation, consent would
be required for:
o large-scale land clearing;
o rural land development and use;
o forestry, mining and extractive industries;
o rezoning of land for urban use;
o occupation of flood plain land, steep slopes and other
hazardous areas.
Where it is economically and socially acceptable, and
population pressures and the demand for additional productive
land allow it, land use zoning may provide the most effective
and least costly solution to the problems of disaster management.
This requires the prohibition or restriction of agricultural
development or urban settlement in locations which are
particularly susceptible to flooding, cyclonic damage or land
instability. Where this is not feasible, land use controls might
still be employed to restrict the use of the land to activities
which are compatible with potential instability or result in
minimal damage and loss of life should disaster events occur.
178 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
This might include such means as the prohibition or restriction
of clearing or logging of watersheds or the prohibition of urban
settlement from land areas at hazard.
The various categories of non-structural controls available
for disaster management and mitigation comprise the following:
o Legislative and regulatory measures for controlling land
occupancy, structural standards and emergency policies
and services;
o and-use zoning;
o warning systems;
o emergency agencies, facilities and equipment;
o evacuation and flood relief services;
o community education.
All of these activities must be provided for in an integrated
and coordinated fashion and supported by appropriate legislative
requirements and administrative arrangements if they are to
be successful.
Of these devices, all are essential but perhaps the most
likely to contribute most to overall regional and local disaster
protection and preparedness is the technique of land use control,
effected through land zoning plans and regulations.
Carefully prepared zoning plans are the basis for effective
land use control. A variety of modern techniques, including
remote sensing, satellite imagery, global positioning equipment
and geographical information systems (GIS) provide effective
tools for the preparation of basic topographical and geographical
information.
Geographical information systems utilize geographical data
and information with respect to three components: spatial data,
which pertain to the locational aspects of geographical features,
along with their spatial dimensions; attribute data, which
pertain to the description, measurement and classification of
geographical features; and time, which is particularly important
in natural hazard assessment because of the rapidity with
which geographical features may alter during the occurrence
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 179
of disaster events. The collection of such data has been greatly
facilitated by the availability of various kinds of remote sensing
systems. Its incorporation into a computer-compatible format,
and its ability to be manipulated within the computer for rapid
data analysis, classification and presentation, has been further
facilitated by the ready availability of digital mapping devices
and software programmes, which allow the ready transformation
of analogue data from maps or remote sensing images into
computer-usable format.
A GIS has four functional components, which comprise:
o a data input subsystem, which collects and processes
spatial data from sources such as existing maps and
remote-sensing imagery;
o a data storage and retrieval sub-system, which organizes
data in a structured form and allows it to be retrieved
in various forms for subsequent manipulation, analysis
or display;
o a data manipulation and analysis sub-system allowing
the modification or reorganization of data according to
given rules and providing a basis for the preparation
and manipulation of models of the geographic area; and
o a data-reporting sub-system capable of displaying all or
selected parts of the data base in chosen tabular or
cartographic formats.
A key advantage of the GIS approach is that it permits the
integration of a wide range of categories of data and the merging
or overlaying of various groupings of data, which greatly
facilitates the use of the data for design, planning or policy-
implementation purposes.
By way of example, plans of urban and industrial
development can be superimposed on topographic maps and
plans of communication systems and the whole overlain by
maps of major flood level contours to provide a basis for
floodplain zoning rules. A further key advantage is that the
GIS system permits the aggregation of spatial and attribute
data into models of the land or resource system under study
180 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
and provides a basis for the simulated operation of such models
according to a variety of scenarios as a basis for planning and
design problem-solving. In integrated catchment management,
as well as disaster management, the model-forming capabilities
of GIS packages are of very substantial potential value for
management purposes, particularly as a basis for optimizing
models, decision support systems and expert systems.
There is also a number of non-structural techniques
available for drought mitigation. These include a variety of
farming and stock management measures, as well as a variety
of government policy, legislative, administrative and fiscal
measures.
At the farm level, effective drought management procedures
may include the following:
o conservation farming practices designed to improve the
infiltration and retention of soil moisture;
o pasture improvement;
o the application of fodder conservation techniques;
o the management of stocking rates to avoid overgrazing
and fodder shortage;
o the introduction of more drought-resistant plant and
livestock varieties.
At the government level, effect drought management
practices may include the following;
o the provision of drought-relief funding;
o the use of taxation relief and other fiscal measures
including long-term, low-interest rate loans to encourage
conservation farming, good stock management practices
and water conservation;
o the organization and coordination of government
agencies for the provision of drought relief and assistance
in drought management;
o the development and implementation of advisory and
extension services to educate and assist the farming
community;
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 181
o the development, in association with other nations when
appropriate, for research into the factors causing drought
conditions, the forecasting of drought events and the
operation of drought warning systems.
Where relevant, these measures need to be backed by
appropriate legislation, policy promulgation and agency
response.
WATER-RELATED HAZARDS IN THE ESCAP REGION
As has been indicated above, water-related natural disasters
in the form of tropical cyclones, floods, landslides and mud
flows are periodical occurrences in the majority of the countries
of the ESCAP Region. In many places land degradation, the
consequence of poor land management, has served to aggravate
the seriousness of such disasters.
The available data indicate that whilst not all the ESCAP
countries are affected by tropical cyclones, very few of them are
free from damaging flood events. These data also indicate that
whilst tropical cyclones and associated storm surges are likely
to cause the highest numbers of fatalities, floods are the most
frequently occurring disaster events and the ones which cause
the greatest total amount of damage.
Tsunamis are also the cause of substantial destruction in
coastal regions. Elsewhere, landslides and mud flows following
very heavy rainfalls may cause considerable damage in both
urban and rural communities.
Droughts are a frequently occurring natural disaster in
many countries, impacting particularly upon rural communities.
Land degradation may exacerbate and prolong the adverse
consequences of such events.
The Country Experience
Water-related natural disasters are of common occurrence
in the Philippines, where they may produce massive devastation.
They include cyclones, floods, mass movement and drought.
The severity of the impact from such disasters varies from
region to region according to geographical location and
182 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
topographical features. This country lies within the tropical
cyclone belt and is affected by cyclones associated with the
south-west monsoon during May-September and the north-
east monsoon during November-February.
Flooding is the most commonly occurring form of natural
disaster and includes both riverine flooding and coastal flooding.
Coastal areas are particularly susceptible to flooding from
tsunamis, which may be aggravated at high tide periods. Floods
often cause tremendous damage to prime agricultural lands
and to government infrastructure such as roads, bridges,
irrigation dykes and flood-control structures. Landslides are
the most commonly-occurring form of mass movement disaster
in the Philippines, and may affect pristine, disturbed or
developed land areas.
Climatic conditions in Indonesia are dominated by the
tropical monsoon which extends from December to May each
year. Flooding is the most frequently occurring natural disaster
phenomenon, but tidal waves, landslide and droughts may
have severe effects on local populations. The occurrence and
severity of such events varies widely across the many island
regions of which Indonesia is composed.
Generally speaking, the upper watersheds of most large
rivers are characterized by very steep slopes which are
occasionally subject to very high intensity rainfall. Under such
conditions, flash flooding and landslides are common
occurrences. On the coastal plains, extensive and protracted
flooding occurs from time to time.
On the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, and along the
coastline of Sabah and Sarawak, flooding is commonly associated
with the north-east monsoon during the months of November
to February. Intense, localized and short-duration
thunderstorms are often the cause of flash flooding on the small
but steep watersheds along the West Coast of Peninsular
Malaysia.
In urban areas of Malaysia, intensive convective
thunderstorms during the monsoon season are often the cause
of flash flooding, particularly in Kuala Lumpur. Landslips or
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 183
mudflows are an occasional consequence of heavy localized
rainfall. Generally speaking, however, Malaysia is relatively
free from massive flooding caused by severe tropical cyclones.
The Republic of Korea is located in the temperate monsoon
region. About two-thirds of the annual rainfall is received during
the monsoon period from June to August. During these months,
tropical cyclones and intense depressions bring heavy rainfall
which often results in major flooding. Prior to the monsoon
season, occasional droughts affect the agricultural and industrial
sectors and impact upon rural communities. Tsunamis and
landslides produce less frequent and less harmful natural
disaster events.
Tropical cyclones can occur along the entire Chinese coast
and the inland areas adjacent to it. The eastern and southern
coastal regions are particularly vulnerable but all inland areas,
with the exception of the north-western region, are within the
range of cyclone damage. Most of the tropical cyclones affecting
China approach from the China Sea. They may cause heavy
damage along both large and small rivers, as well as along the
coastline. Flooding may also be caused by heavy rainstorms,
ice jams or landslides.
Apart from these effects, landslides and mud flows can be
problems across substantial areas of China. Many areas are
also affected by droughts, often occurring sequentially, which
result in severe impacts upon agricultural production and the
overall national economy.
In Cambodia, major flooding can be caused by the Mekong
River, as a consequence of heavy monsoon rainfalls over its
upper catchment. Flash flooding is also common on smaller
high-level watersheds across the country. Landslides caused by
heavy rainfalls are also a common occurrence on upland
watersheds.
Along the coast of Myanmar, widespread damage can result
when tropical cyclones coincide with storm surge conditions.
Cyclones occur during the months of June to December. Severe
tropical storms are also experienced during April, May, October
and December.
184 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Flooding during the south-west monsoon may severely affect
the lower reaches of the Ayeyawaddy River. Flash flooding is
also experienced over upstream tributaries and smaller
watersheds as a consequence of heavy rainfall. Damages from
landslides, mudflows or droughts are essentially negligible by
comparison with the severe damages that results from cyclone
and flood events.
India has a long coastline which is exposed to tropical
cyclones originating in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.
These cyclones are usually associated with high winds, torrential
rains, flooding and storm surges.
Elsewhere in India, flooding occurs during the monsoon
season and is a consequence of heavy rainfalls associated with
cyclone events, the monsoons, or intense tropical storms. Flash
flooding is a problem on steep watersheds.
Landslides are also a common and frequent form of natural
disaster in India, a consequence of heavy rainfalls and land and
soil degradation resulting from inappropriate human activities
on steep country. The highest incidence of landslide disasters
is to be found in the Himalayan Region.
Many parts of India are also subject to severe drought
events, a consequence of the erratic occurrence and behaviour
of local rainfall conditions. It is estimated that 70 percent of
the agrarian districts of India are drought-prone.
Pakistan does not suffer from the damaging effects of tropical
cyclones, but is subject to devastating floods originating from
monsoon rainfalls and snowmelt. The most widespread flooding
occurs on the floodplains of the larger river systems, but
upstream flooding resulting from landslides or the blocking of
tributaries by glacial dams is also a common problem.
Drought is a common feature of climatic conditions in the
arid regions of Southern Pakistan and may have severe adverse
effects, not only in economic and social terms but also in its
land degradation consequences.
Cyclones, floods and drought are the worst forms of natural
disaster to affect Bangladesh, although droughts occur only
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 185
comparatively rarely. Tropical cyclones originating in the Bay
of Bengal are usually associated with heavy rainfalls, strong
winds and storm surges. Tidal waves often accompany cyclonic
storm events. Tidal wave and storm surge conditions have from
time to time been responsible for very heavy loss of life and
extensive property damage.
Severe flooding occurs along the main rivers in Bangladesh
and smaller tributary streams may also experience serious
flooding as a result of intense local rainstorms. Because
Bangladesh has only a small area of hilly country, flash flooding
or mass movement are not significant problems.
In Vietnam, the northern and central regions are often
affected by tropical cyclones during the rainy season, which
occurs between July and October. Storm surges may also be
a problem along the coastline. Flash flooding occurs on the
many small, steep watersheds in the central region, whilst
extensive and protracted flooding can be experienced in the
Red River Delta region to the north. Although tropical cyclone
damage is rare in southern Vietnam, the Mekong Delta region
commonly experiences major flooding as a result of heavy rainfall
on the upper catchment.
The major forms of water-based natural disaster to affect
the Lao People's Democratic Republic are droughts and floods.
Whilst tropical cyclones are not a direct threat, they can produce
very heavy rainfalls leading to devastating flooding on the
many smaller tributaries throughout the country. Flooding
along the Mekong River results from heavy monsoon rainfalls
during the period of August to September. Droughts may be
experienced between May and July, before the arrival of the
monsoon season.
In Thailand, major natural disasters are mainly the
consequence of flooding caused by heavy rainfalls associated
with tropical cyclones. Landslides may also cause severe
problems, whilst droughts are a common occurrence in the
months preceding the rainy season.
Tropical cyclones and deep tropical depressions may extend
across Thailand between May and October. These are associated
186 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
with very heavy rainfalls which can produce major and
protracted flooding along the larger rivers and their flood plains.
Destructive flash flooding is also a common occurrence on the
smaller watersheds scattered through the country.
The climate of Nepal is largely controlled by the monsoon
cycle. The principal flood season coincides with the period of
maximum monsoonal rainfall, which usually occurs in August.
High altitude watersheds are subject to major flooding from
snowmelt. Flash flooding may also occur in the higher
watersheds as a result of heavy rainfall. Glacial outburst floods
may occur as a result of the sudden release of ponded glacial
lakes and landsliding is also a common occurrence in high
watersheds.
Sri Lanka may be subject to a variety of natural disaster
events, which include tropical cyclones, floods, oughts, landslides
and coastal erosion. Heavy rainfalls occur during both the
south-west monsoon period, from October to February, and the
south-east monsoon period, from May to September. Tropical
cyclones occur only rarely, but they can cause severe destruction
and heavy loss of life. Floods are a common occurrence and they
are often associated with landslips. Flash flooding is experienced
on the high watersheds of the central mountain range and its
slopes. Drought is also a common occurrence in the northern
and eastern districts.
CATEGORIES OF WATER-RELATED NATURAL
DISASTERS
As has already been indicated, the occurrence of water
related natural disasters is common in the ESCAP Region and
their impact is becoming more devastating. Increasing
populations and the denser occupation of hazardous areas
contribute to the growing costs of damage and disruption
resulting from such disasters. Unwise land-use is a significant
factor in these escalating costs.
A collation and description of the major categories of water-
related natural disasters which afflict the Region is presented
in the following sections.
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 187
Tropical Cyclones
Tropical cyclones are intense low-pressure rotating wind
systems, which develop over warm oceans in low-latitudes and
move onto adjacent land masses, where they may have
tremendous destructive potential. In the ESCAP region, such
phenomena are called "typhoons" in the north-west Pacific and
the South China Sea, or "tropical cyclones" in the Indian Ocean,
the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, the northern coasts of
Australia and the South Pacific. In North and Central America
and the Caribbean they are called "hurricanes". All these terms
are taken to be synonymous in this document.
A major tropical cyclone may affect an extensive area for
a period from a few days to a week or more. Its passage is
associated with extremely heavy rainfalls and extremely high
velocity winds which can lead to major and extensive flooding,
enormous property damage, human injury and heavy loss of
life. During its life it may vary in intensity and destructive
power and move along a variable path, affecting a number of
countries.
The tropical cyclone cell is a circulatory wind system having
an intense low pressure core. Wind circulation around the cell
is clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere and anti-clockwise in
the Northern Hemisphere. The diameter of a mature tropical
cyclone varies from as little as 100-200 km to as much as 1000
km in a large system. Wind velocities around its centre may
exceed 200 km/h.
A tropical cyclone forms over the open sea where the surface
temperature is 26.5o C or more and the latitude about 5o to
20o. Its movement is generally along a curved westerly and
polewards track. Once over land its power dissipates as a
consequence of the lack of moisture supply and the friction due
to the land's roughness, and it eventually deteriorates into a
tropical rain depression. The time from its detection to its
disappearance is commonly around 5-6 days.
Tropical cyclones occur more frequently in Asia, and
particularly in the Northwest Pacific, than in any other part
of the world. In the ESCAP region, the most frequent source
188 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
for the formation of tropical cyclones is just east of the
Philippines, where the main tropical cyclone season extends
from July to October and the frequency of occurrence in those
months is about five cyclones per month.
Tropical cyclones spawned in this region generally track
westward and may later turn north-west, first affecting the
Philippines and then moving on to the Asia mainland or
recurving north-eastward towards Japan.
Those tropical cyclones which move westward across
Indochina tend to lose their intensity after crossing the coastline.
They may redevelop, however, over the Bay of Bengal and
continue to move westwards over India or recurve northwards
towards Bangladesh or Myanmar.
In the Bay of Bengal, in addition to those cyclones originating
in the Northwest Pacific, tropical cyclones commonly develop
over the southern section of the Bay and move in either a
westerly or northerly direction to affect India, Bangladesh or
Myanmar. These cyclones are more likely to occur before April/
May or after October/November and may be accompanied by
storm surges.
Some tropical disturbances track across India or develop
over the Arabian Sea and more towards Pakistan, Eastern Iran
or the Sultanate of Oman. The occurrence of damaging tropical
cyclones which affect these countries is infrequent.
Tropical cyclones originating within the Southern
Hemisphere zone of the ESCAP Region have an extensive
spawning area which includes the Indian Ocean, the Timor
Sea, the Arafura Sea, the Gulf of Carpentaria, the Coral Sea
and the South Pacific.
Within this region, the frequency of occurrence of tropical
cyclones is about half that which is experienced to the north
of the Equator and the tropical cyclone season is restricted to
the period December to April. These Southern Hemisphere
disturbances tend to have more erratic tracks and slower travel
speeds that those formed in the Northern Hemisphere, although
their destructive effects may be just as severe.
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 189
Floods
The Nature of Flooding
A flood can be defined as an excess flowing or overflowing
of water, especially over land which is not normally submerged.
The source of the flow of water which produces disastrous
flooding can have various origins, which include intense and
prolonged rainfall, snowmelt, the downstream blocking of river
channels by landslides or avalanches, the upstream failure of
dams or river blockages, storm surges, abnormally high tides,
and tidal waves.
Within the ESCAP region, the extent and cost of disastrous
flooding has been intensifying as a consequence of increasing
populations, denser occupancy of floodplains and other flood-
prone areas, and the expansion of adverse forms of watershed
land use. Within this region, floods are the most frequently
occurring and the most destructive of all the forms of natural
disaster which affect the area, although tropical cyclones have
caused heavier loss of life. The most serious flooding experienced
in the region comes from intense rainstorms associated with
tropical cyclones or widespread and prolonged heavy rainfall
associated with monsoonal depressions. Cyclonic storms may
occasionally produce more than 1000 mm of rainfall per day
and monsoonal flood rains may persist for many days. The
resulting floods may produce inundation over periods lasting
from a few hours to three weeks or more, depending upon the
size of the catchment and the characteristics of the river channel
and its floodplain.
Flooding is a natural phenomenon which occurs inevitably
from time to time in a river or drainage basin and cannot be
prevented. The problems associated with disastrous flooding
arise because of man's deliberate occupancy of flood-prone areas,
undertaken for a variety of good reasons. These include the
suitability of flood plains and river banks for agriculture and
other forms of primary production, for convenience for transport
and navigation, for appropriate topography for towns and cities,
and for proximity to domestic, industrial and irrigation water
supply. The very existence of the flood plain is, however, clear
190 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
evidence that floods will occur and flooding cannot be avoided.
There can be no such thing as flood prevention: the best that
can be expected is flood damage mitigation, which can be
achieved only to the extent that the community is prepared to
meet the costs incurred.
The important characteristics of floods, which determine
the magnitude and cost of their disastrous effects, comprise the
following:
o the peak depth of inundation, which determines the
extent and cost of damage to buildings and crops and
the cost and feasibility of mitigation measures;
o the areal extent of inundation, which determines similar
factors;
o the duration of flooding, which is an important factor
in determining the degree of damage and inconvenience
caused;
o the rate of rise of the flood event, which determines the
effectiveness of flood warning and evacuation procedures;
o the velocity of flood flow, which determines the cost of
flood damage and the feasibility and design of levees
and floodproofing structures;
o the frequency of flooding, which expresses the statistical
characteristics of flood events of a given magnitude and
determines the long-term average costs and benefits of
flooding and flood mitigation;
o the seasonability of flooding, which determines the cost
of flood damages, particularly when agricultural areas
are inundated.
To understand the nature of flooding, and to provide a basis
for assessing the likely effects of different forms of land use on
flood behaviour, it is necessary to consider briefly the mechanics
of the runoff process. This is a complex hydrological process in
which many variable factors and influences may be at work.
Its complexity increases with the size of the catchment under
consideration, so that the flood behaviour of a small upland
watershed may be entirely different from that of a large river
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 191
basin of which it is a part, even though they are both subject
to the same flood-producing storm rainfall conditions.
When heavy storm rainfall occurs, the precipitation will
initially be intercepted on vegetation or infiltrated into the soil,
where it will build up soil moisture levels and reduce infiltration
capacity. When this capacity is exceeded, overland flow will
commence and a build-up of surface runoff, flowing towards the
nearest watercourse, will commence. Once this runoff reaches
a watercourse, the rate of streamflow will commence to increase
and, if the supply of runoff continues, to cause the stream to
rise and perhaps overflow its banks. At the same time,
precipitation which has infiltrated into the soil may move
laterally as interflow or, at a deeper level, as groundwater flow,
and eventually enter the watercourse and supplement the flood
streamflow.
In a large valley, this process will be repeated on many sub-
catchments, all of which may contribute surface and
groundwater runoff to channel flow. A combined flood wave of
increasing magnitude will move downstream through tributaries
to the main river channel, where it may eventually exceed the
capacity of the river channel and overflow its banks to inundate
the flood plain.
A significant and fundamental aspect of this process is that
at every stage and in every component of it, there are various
forms of temporary storage through which the water must pass
as it moves through the catchment. Examples of such storage
include interception storage, soil moisture storage, groundwater
and interflow storage, surface depression and detention storage,
channel storage and floodplain storage. As it fills and
subsequently empties, the effect of each component of the
catchment storage is to delay and attenuate the flow of flood
water, so that the peak of the flood hydrograph occurs some
time after the peak rate of the storm rainfall which produced
the flood flow. On very small watersheds, this delay may be
a matter of minutes or at worst a few hours; on large river
basins it may be several weeks and in extreme examples, as
on very long, low-gradient inland rivers in some parts of the
Region, several months.
192 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
As a flood moves down a large valley, storage effects in the
river channel system become increasingly dominant in the
determination of the magnitude and time distribution of the
flood wave. As the contributing catchment area increases, the
peak rate of flow may be expected to increase but the rate of
runoff per unit of contributing catchment area can be expected
to decrease.
The shape of the flood hydrograph will become increasingly
attenuated as the flood wave moves down-catchment and the
effects of variations in such contributing factors as the intensity
and time-distribution of the storm rainfall, the nature of the
vegetative cover and land use on the upper catchment, or the
extent and effectiveness of upstream flood control measures
such as soil conservation works or small detention reservoirs
will become increasingly less significant. This is primarily
because the channel storage effects become increasingly more
significant and eventually, as the catchment size and the storage
capacity of the channel system increase, become totally dominant
in determining the shape of the flood hydrograph.
The importance of the relative storage effects to the
mechanics of the runoff process is such that it is possible to
classify catchments according to the level of their significance.
Small watersheds are highly sensitive to changes in rainfall
intensity and duration, the effects of changes in land use and
the effects of other factors which determine overland flow
characteristics. As the size of the watershed increases, the
effects of channel flow and basin storage become increasingly
dominant and sensitivities to variations in rainfall, interception
or infiltration become increasingly suppressed.
Thus it is possible to classify an "hydrologically small"
watershed as one so small that its sensitivities to short-term
variations in rainfall intensity and changes in land use are not
suppressed by its channel storage characteristics. An
"hydrologically large" watershed can be classified as one in
which the channel storage effects are dominant in determining
flood behaviour and the sensitivities to rainfall and land use
are largely suppressed. In terms of actual area, the upper limit
for an "hydrologically small" watershed may vary considerably
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 193
according to a variety of catchment characteristics, but is likely
to be in the range of hundreds of hectares to a hundred or more
square kilometres.
If the runoff behaviour of a watershed is such as to bring
it within the hydrologically small category as defined above,
the application of appropriate forms of land use can be expected
to be a particularly effective method of flood mitigation. On the
other hand, if a catchment falls clearly into the hydrologically
large category, there will be substantial limitations upon the
effectiveness of such measures for major flood disaster reduction,
at least over the lower reaches of the river basin and particularly
on the flood plain.
This is not to suggest, however, that land use management
on the upper watershed should not be undertaken. First of all,
such management is of substantial value for direct flood
mitigation in upper watershed locations.
Further downstream, whilst it might not substantially
reduce major flood peaks, it may be of significant value in
reducing catchment and streambank erosion and reducing the
transport of sediment downstream. Watershed management on
the upper catchment may be seen to have a range of other
advantages, which include maintaining the integrity and
productivity of the catchment soils, maintaining the productivity
and sustainability of forestry and agriculture, preserving the
integrity of natural vegetation and wildlife habitat, maintaining
the quality of the catchment ecosystem and the catchment
environment, and improving the quality of life of the catchment
community. Furthermore, upper watershed land use control
and management may have very significant effects in terms of
the maintenance or improvement of water quality throughout
the entire river system, and may be desirable for this purpose
alone.
Riverine Flooding
Riverine flooding occurs when the flow in a river channel
exceeds its bankfull capacity, overflowing the normal banks
and inundating the adjacent floodplain. It is a phenomenon
associated with hydrologically large catchments and its most
194 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
significant effect is the widespread, comparatively shallow
inundation of large expanses of flat terrain.
The most important factors determining the magnitude
and severity of riverine flooding are the total depth of the
excess rainfall producing the flood in question, the total area
of the contributing catchment, and the lag or delay time between
the occurrence of the storm peak and the passage of the flood
hydrograph peak. The factors will particularly affect the depth
and areal extent of flooding, matters which will also be
determined by the topography of the inundated areas and
particularly the lateral slope and width of the floodplain. The
duration of the flood-producing rainfall, as well as the catchment
lag characteristics, will also affect the duration and time
distribution of the flood event.
Within the ESCAP region, riverine flooding is a common
occurrence which involves substantial average annual flood
damage costs. In this region, a very high proportion of the
community in many countries occupies floodplain sites which
experience frequent and devastating flooding. The most common
cause of disastrous riverine flooding is prolonged intense rainfall,
although is some parts of the region, in the Himalayas or at
higher latitudes, snowmelt may be a contributing factor.
The most severe flooding experienced in the region is caused
by very intense rainfall associated with major tropical cyclones,
particularly where the influence of the cyclone extends over a
considerable area. Intense long-duration rainfall associated with
monsoonal depressions is also an important cause of serious
riverine flooding.
In the large river basins of the region, such as the Ganges,
the Mekong and the Yangtze, flooding is usually seasonal and
may last for many weeks. These basins are subject to continual
rainfall during the wet season and exhibit a long high water
period, with a comparatively slow rise and fall, during this
season. Major flooding can result if intense storm rainfall occurs
during such conditions. On smaller drainage basins, on rivers
such as those of north China, Japan and the Republic of Korea
which are subject to occasional tropical cyclones and intense
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 195
convective storm activity, basin lag times are shorter and marked
fluctuations of river level can occur during wet season conditions.
There is a variety of techniques which can be used to
mitigate the damage caused by riverine flooding. Because this
kind of flooding is a feature of river basins which are
hydrologically large, there are limitations upon the extent to
which the use of land use practices and land use control measures
on the upper watershed can reduce the magnitude of disastrous
riverine flooding. Within the floodplain areas subject to
inundation, however, land use management practices, and
specifically land use control by zoning, may be an important
aspect of flood mitigation and a key component of the overall
integrated watershed management programme for the river
basin concerned.
Flash Flooding
Flash flooding is a phenomenon principally associated with
watersheds which are hydrologically small. It is commonly
caused by intense convective storms of comparatively short
duration but producing highly intense rates of rainfall. The
severity of flooding is increased if the watershed is steep and
its surface has low infiltration capacity. The duration of the
flooding is short but the depth of flooding can be considerable
and very extensive damage may result. Because they occur
very rapidly and with little warning, flash floods can cause
substantial injury and loss of life.
In the ESCAP region, flash flooding can be experienced
wherever high intensity thunderstorms are common during the
summer months or wherever intense thunderstorm activity
associated with the passage of strong monsoonal depressions
can be expected. It is most damaging in mountainous areas on
small, steeply sloping catchments which have been cleared of
protective vegetation. This type of flooding appears to be
becoming more prevalent and more costly in terms of life and
property because of increasing population density in districts
subject to deforestation.
Because flash flooding is a phenomenon which is principally
associated with watersheds which are hydrologically small,
196 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
changes in land use practices and the use of land use controls
can be effective means of flood mitigation. Such land use
practices as forest revegetation or the use of farming techniques
such as terracing or strip cropping can substantially reduce
flood damage and corresponding land degradation.
Land use controls, such as the zoning of flash flood prone
lands to prohibit village occupancy, can also be most effective.
Urban Flooding
Urban flooding can be experienced in watersheds of all
sizes, wherever the community has occupied locations which
are susceptible to inundation by floodwater. In watersheds
which are hydrologically small, it results from cyclonic or storm
rainfalls falling on local areas, within or adjacent to urban
settlements, where the process of urban development itself has
dramatically altered the runoff-producing characteristics of the
catchment. In watersheds which are hydrologically large, it is
essentially an aspect of riverine flooding, which occurs because
of overbank flow from major rivers onto floodplains which have
been intensely developed for urban settlement.
When a catchment becomes wholly or partially occupied by
urban development, this development can increase the volumes
and rates of runoff from storm rainfall dramatically, partly
because of the extent to which it decreases surface infiltration
capacity and partly because of the extent to which it reduces
times of concentration. In a dense urban environment, as
compared with a natural rural environment, the enormous
increase in impervious roofing surfaces and sealed pavement
surfaces such as roads and parking areas results in much
reduced infiltration of rainwater and a much greater volume
of runoff.
The increase in paved ground surfaces, together with the
installation of a more efficient drainage system, greatly reduces
surface depression and detention storage, reduces the time of
concentration and delivers runoff to the nearest watercourse
in a fraction of the time that this would have taken prior to
urbanization. The result is a much sharper rise in the rate of
flood runoff, which greatly increases the peak discharge rate
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 197
from the catchment and substantially increases the subsequent
depth and severity of flooding. For these reasons, urbanization
can significantly increase the peak discharges in smaller,
comparatively frequent storms. Even in larger, rarer storms
the peak discharges can be double those of an equivalent rural
catchment.
For urban development on upland areas away from the
floodplain, where the urbanized catchment behaves as an
hydrologically small watershed, the extent to which land-use
planning and management can be utilized to assist in flood
mitigation is limited. Zoning of the urban area to provide
adequate flood disposal waterways, to provide flood runoff
detention storage sites and to prohibit residential development
in highly flood-prone areas are some of the measures commonly
adopted.
For intensely developed urban areas on floodplains, where
there is a high risk of disastrous flooding, land use planning
and control measures have an important role to play in any
flood mitigation strategy. In particular, land use zoning to
restrict or prevent housing development in areas subject to
deep or high-velocity flooding is a widely-used technique under
such conditions.
Coastal Flooding
Coastal flooding can be caused by a number of factors. In
the ESCAP region, the most serious forms of coastal flooding
may be due to storm surge, storm tides or tidal waves (tsunami).
Storm surge flooding occurs when a tropical cyclone
approaches a coastline. The low atmospheric pressure at the
centre of a tropical depression causes the water surface below
it to become elevated above the level of the surrounding ocean.
As the cyclone approaches the coast, strong winds may pile up
the already high sea waters against the shoreline, thus
aggravating the rise in water level. The combined effect can
produce serious flooding in low-level coastal areas.
A storm surge can be expected to be accompanied by high
winds, wave action, intense rainfall and major flooding. Although
198 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
its effects are restricted to a relatively narrow strip of coastline,
it has the potential to cause substantial loss of life and property
damage, particularly in coastal regions which are heavily
populated.
When the landfall of a tropical cyclone coincides with a high
tide, the depth of the storm surge is augmented by the tidal
rise and the rise in sea level may exceed several metres above
normal. The combined effect is termed a "storm tide". This
phenomenon can be particularly devastating.
A tsunami is a different form of coastal flooding, generated
by a submarine earthquake which causes a travelling ocean
wave. As this wave approaches the coast its height increases
rapidly and it can become very destructive as it inundates the
shoreline zone.
Within the ESCAP region, many of the most severe disasters
associated with tropical cyclones have involved storm surges.
These phenomena are most severe in coastal regions within the
tropical cyclone belt, although coastal flooding can also occur
in extra-tropical and temperate regions. Countries/areas which
are particularly susceptible to storm surge disaster include
Australia, Bangladesh, China, the Philippines, the Republic of
Korea, Thailand, the Pacific Island countries, Hong Kong, China.
The northern sector of the Bay of Bengal, where the coast
geometry exacerbates the phenomenon, is reported to be
particularly at risk.
Because the disasters resulting from coastal flooding are
location-specific, land use planning and management offers
significant potential mitigation potential. In particular, zoning
to limit or prohibit high-risk development in areas highly
susceptible to storm surge flooding, if acceptable, is a highly
effective mechanism.
Land Instability
The term "land instability" is used here to apply to those
kinds of disaster which involve the sudden movement of masses
of earth and rock material down slopes and hillsides, principally
as a consequence of heavy and prolonged rainfall. Such disasters
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 199
include landslides, earth slips, mud flows, talus slides and
detritus flows and they are assumed to be associated with
abnormal meteorological phenomena such as tropical cyclones,
heavy thunderstorms, or intense and prolonged storm rainfall
events associated with monsoonal fronts and extra-tropical
cyclones. Land instability can also be initiated by earthquake
action, which in some cases may aggravate the effects of rainfall
saturation and gravity sliding.
The stability of a hillside or a man-made slope depends
upon the weight of the overlying material, the steepness of the
slope and the strength of the underlying layer or foundation.
If the gravitational forces tending to cause sliding exceed the
shearing strength of the underlying material along any potential
failure surface, failure by slipping or sliding will occur.
When such instability does occur, the soil or rock material
moves downwards and outwards-the upper part of the slide
area, or root, subsides and the lower part, or tongue, bulges
and extends outwards from the foot of the slope. In some types
of slide, where the moving material is very soft and unstable
or temporarily in a liquefied condition, the tongue may move
outwards for some hundreds of metres from the toe of the slope
and completely block the valley floor.
The area encompassed by an individual landslide is usually
comparatively small and self-contained, although it may extend
across many hectares. Even on relatively uniform slopes of
great length and approximately uniform height, all subject to
the same extreme weather conditions, slides usually occur only
at a comparatively small number of isolated places, separated
by considerable distances.
If the land surface overlying the slide area, or the land in
the locality below the tongue of the slide, has been developed
for forestry or agriculture or more seriously, is occupied by
domestic or industrial development, the result of a major
land instability event may be disastrous, causing serious loss
of production and land productivity, dramatic damage to
buildings and property, and potentially extensive injury and
loss of life.
200 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Disastrous land instability is generally a consequence of
the presence of excess water in the sliding material and the
underlying foundation. The source of this water may be
infiltration, interflow or shallow groundwater consequent upon
heavy or prolonged rainfall, and the condition is aggravated by
poor drainage. The presence of excess water greatly reduces
the stability of the slope for several reasons: it increases the
weight of the overlying material; it increases the pore pressure
in the underlying material; it lubricates the underlying failure
surface; and it seriously reduces the shear strength of the
material along the failure surface. In extreme cases, the presence
of water may cause the complete liquefaction of the material
on the slope, leading to the phenomena known as mud slides
or flow slides.
The susceptibility of a given hillside or mountainside to
sliding is dependent upon the nature of the overlying material
and the geology of the underlying strata. The most common
types of troublesome material include layers of weathered schists
or shales, very loose water-bearing sands, homogeneous soft
clay, stiff fissured clay, clay with sand or silt partings, and
bodies of cohesive soil containing pockets or layers of water-
bearing sand or silt.
An underlying geological structure with slip or fissure planes
lying approximately parallel to the slope offers particular
problems. On natural slopes, the propensity to sliding may be
aggravated by poor drainage conditions, works or land treatment
measures which encourage the infiltration of surface water into
the unstable material or its foundation, or the removal of
vegetation, particularly large tree species which have extensive
root systems capable of providing resistance to sliding forces.
In developed regions, the existence of large engineering works
such as quarries or road and railway cuttings is particularly
likely to increase the risk of disastrous land instability unless
appropriate and adequate engineering precautions are taken.
The term "landslide" is generally applied to the sudden
movement of a large mass of soil and/or rock material down
a steep slope, with the damage extending over a comparatively
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 201
large area. "Landslip" are much smaller phenomena, although
in country susceptible to landslip failure a great many individual
slips may occur over a significant area in a short period of time.
"Landcreep" failures, on the other hand, occur very slowly,
allowing time for the taking of ameliorative or corrective
measures.
"Mud flows" and "flow slides" occur when the overlying
material is thoroughly saturated and, as a consequence of
various initiating forces, becomes suddenly liquefied. Failure
occurs rapidly and the moving material travels a considerable
distance outwards from the toe of the slope, causing extensive
damage and devastation.
"River blockages" are a consequence of land instability,
occurring when the outwards movement of material from the
toe of a large landslide or flow slide completely blocks a river
valley, forming a high dam behind which flood water
accumulates to form a large reservoir. Such a dam is naturally
unstable and extremely likely to fail suddenly, either by
overtopping or by slumping, allowing the sudden release of a
large volume of water and causing a flood wave to surge
downstream. This may result in substantial injury and loss of
life, serious property damage, damage to the river channel
because of severe bank erosion and the destruction of any
infrastructure, such as bridges, roads, or railways, which lies
in the path of the wave.
In the ESCAP region, water-based disasters due to land
instability are of widespread occurrence and periodically lead
to significant damage and loss of life. They are particularly
prevalent within the tropical cyclone belt, on steep hillside and
mountain country which has been cleared of native vegetation
and developed intensively for agriculture or rural village
settlement. In more temperate regions, land instability can
also be a serious problem in mountainous areas where intense
and prolonged rainfall events can occur. For example, landslides
are a common occurrence in the Himalayas, whilst extensive
land slip disasters are occasionally experienced in other
countries, such as Thailand.
202 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Because the susceptibility of specific localities to land
instability can usually be predicted and is generally well-known,
land use planning and management tools and techniques offer
considerable potential for disaster mitigation. Where it is
feasible, land use zoning can be employed to prohibit or restrict
human settlement or agricultural development in high-risk
areas. Where the occupation of such areas is unavoidable, there
is a variety of land use control techniques, such as the restriction
of logging or overgrazing or the application of precautionary
land management practices, which can be utilized to assist in
disaster prevention or mitigation.
Drought
Drought is a quite different form of water-based natural
disaster from those previously described, because it is consequent
upon a severe deficiency of water, not an excess of it. It can,
however, be equally devastating in its effect, bringing severe
economic and social consequences and resulting in serious loss
of rural productivity and wide-spread and long-lasting
degradation of land and other natural resources.
Drought might be briefly defined as a serious water shortage.
This implies some specification of the amount of water required
and the purpose for which it is to be used, both of which will
determine whether a drought condition exists. What constitutes
a drought for a given use in a given location may not be
considered a drought elsewhere. By way of example, in Bali a
drought is defined as a period of six days without rain, whereas
in Central Australia an annual rainfall total of less than 200
mm might be considered normal and a severe drought may
have a duration of several years.
It is generally accepted that there are at least three types
of drought:
o A "meteorological drought", which can be defined as a
significant decrease in the normally expected seasonal
rainfall, extending over a substantial area-the
parameters used to measure and express its effect are
the total rainfall depth and the duration of the drought
period.
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 203
o An "agricultural drought", which can be defined as a
period during which the amount of rainfall and soil
moisture content are inadequate for crop and pasture
growth and animal production-the parameters used to
express its severity are rainfall depth and soil moisture
content.
o An "hydrological drought", which can be defined as a
period of below average water content in rivers,
reservoirs, lakes, groundwater aquifers and soils-the
parameters used to indicate its magnitude are given in
terms of water storage volumes and available flow rates.
The adverse consequences of drought may be both short-
term and long-term. Droughts produce immediate and relatively
short-term disastrous effects upon a wide range of economic
activities from crop and livestock production to water navigation
and hydro-electric power production. In the longer term,
droughts may result in significant loss in agricultural
productivity, a forced move to less economic forms of land use,
progressive land degradation or desertification, land
abandonment, depopulation and the failure of communications.
A further consequence of prolonged drought, not normally
expected, can be the severe increases in flooding and soil erosion
which may occur if heavy storm rainfall occurs at the end of
a drought, when protective vegetative cover has been lost and
runoff rates may be substantially increased.
Because the nature and severity of a drought event is
determined by weather conditions, it is difficult to predict its
onset, its intensity or its likely duration. In the ESCAP region,
this is particularly the case in higher latitude, continental
regions which are outside the Tropics and away from monsoonal,
trade wind or other seasonal rain pattern influences. There is
increasing evidence, however, that in those parts of the region
lying around the western Pacific rim, the occurrence of severe
drought is associated with the El Niño phenomenon.
Drought is an intermittent problem in all the countries of
the ESCAP region, even including the Philippines, Indonesia
and the islands of the South Pacific. Major drought disasters
204 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
are experienced from time to time in Australia, India and
Northern China, where the consequences of a drought event
may be of very considerable significance to the national economy
over a long period.
Heavy loss of livestock, human disease and starvation, loss
of wildlife and natural vegetation, and extensive and long-
lasting land degradation, are all likely outcomes of drought
disaster.
Land use planning and management can provide a range
of tools and techniques to assist in the mitigation of drought
disaster. These include a wide range of special agricultural
practices aimed both at improving preparedness for drought
and managing drought conditions more effectively.
Conservation farming practices are designed to increase
the intake and storage of soil moisture, to reduce the rate of
usage of soil moisture, and to mitigate the in-drought and post-
drought effects of wind and water erosion.
The conservation and storage of food, fodder and water and
a variety of livestock management techniques are also employed
both as drought survival tools and as safeguards against
drought-induced land degradation.
Water conservation and the careful management of surface
and underground water resources are key elements in any
drought mitigation strategy.
In drought-prone areas, the provision of adequate water
storage and distribution systems and facilities for water supply
and irrigation is essential, along with the careful and
conservative development and husbandry of groundwater
resources. Watershed management practices aimed at increasing
and stabilizing the long-term supply of surface and groundwater
and recharging groundwater aquifers have an important part
to play in drought management practice.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
Each year, natural disasters can result in serious loss of
life and extensive property damage throughout the ESCAP
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 205
Region. During the period under review, losses caused by natural
disaster events were particularly damaging, depriving countries
of resources which could have otherwise been used for economic
and social development.
The toll from such disasters was most severe in the
developing countries of the region, which may have had their
development goals set back years and even decades as a
consequence of major disaster impacts. Water-based disasters
include tropical cyclones or typhoons, floods, droughts, coastal
surges, tsunami, mud slides and water-induced landslips. More
than 50 percent of the world's disasters from these causes
occurred within the ESCAP Region.
In recognition of the severity and serious consequences of
natural disasters, the United Nations in 1989 declared the last
decade of the millennium to be the International Decade for
Natural Disaster Reduction. Since the inception of the Decade,
the countries of the Region have taken considerable individual
and cooperative action to put its objectives into effect.
At the regional level, ESCAP has taken the lead in fostering
actions and activities connected with the Decade within the
Asian and Pacific region. This report has reviewed their progress
in the context of water-based natural disaster prevention and
preparedness at the regional and national levels.
Summary of Findings at the Regional Level
For many years, ESCAP has collected and processed annual
reports prepared by each of the member countries. These annual
reports have given information regarding the types and locations
of the disasters they have experienced, together with information
about the extent of the damage in terms of loss of life, injury,
damage to property and total cost.
Participation of the ESCAP members in these annual
activities has become increasingly more active, particularly
after the United Nations declared the IDNDR. Copies of these
reports can be provided to those participants interested in
them. An examination of these reports together with the results
of the regional survey conducted jointly be ESCAP and IDNDR
206 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
showed that disasters continue to wreak serious damage across
the Region. Indeed, the total costs of damages associated with
tropical cyclones and floods together appear to be increasing
at a rate of about 4 percent per annum.
It should be emphasized that the cost of damages is
significantly underestimated in the reports, since the reporting
countries only list the costs of direct damages that can be
measured in monetary terms, and not the indirect damages
resulting from social impacts and losses. During the Decade,
1998 appeared to be the most critical year in terms of water-
related disasters in the Region.
The severity of such events was emphasized in 1998, when
persistent and very heavy rains, which appeared to be related
to the La Niña phenomenon, fell across a number of countries
in the Region and caused devastating floods, with serious loss
of life and substantial property damage.
In China, flooding along major rivers in the central and
north-eastern part of the country was described as the worst
in many decades and the second-worst in more than 130 years.
3000 lives were lost, some 14 million people were rendered
homeless and some 5 million houses were destroyed. The total
cost was estimated at more than $US 20 billion.
In Bangladesh, heavy monsoon rains over the same period
caused extensive flooding which inundated two-thirds of the
country, producing the highest flood levels ever recorded. More
than 600 people were killed and 25 million people were
significantly affected. There was also substantial loss of livestock
and crops. An initial estimate of total damage was about US$
1 billion.
The Republic of Korea was subject to very heavy rainfall
which flooded large areas of farmland, destroyed most of the
rice crop, resulted in the deaths of a total of nearly 800 people
and caused losses having an estimated total cost of more than
a billion $US.
Late in the year, Typhoon Dawn struck Vietnam with
vengeance, causing flooding which affected more than 2.4 million
people. Loss of life exceeded 270 and 10,000 buildings were
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 207
completely destroyed. The total cost of this disaster was of the
order of $US 90 million.
The regional experience of the Decade can be summarized
as follows.
• The four water-related hazards i.e., cyclones, storm
surges, floods and land instability frequently result in
major disasters in the ESCAP region.
i. All countries are affected to a greater or lesser
extent by one or more of these hazards.
ii. The death toll resulting from these disasters can be
extremely high and the damage inflicted on
individual countries can cripple their fragile
economies.
iii. The vital role of risk assessment has been largely
overlooked. Unless this task is accelerated, the
absence of information will impact adversely on
future disaster mitigation plans.
iv. Disaster management in the region is biased towards
disaster preparedness, particularly response and
relief. Many Governments find it more acceptable
to seek financial assistance from international donors
to overcome disaster situations in preference to
implementing comprehensive disaster prevention
programmes utilizing their own resources.
v. There cannot be any significant improvement in
disaster management until the emphasis is switched
from disaster preparedness to disaster prevention.
For this to happen there needs to be a change in
philosophy by the individual countries and the
international organizations and donors in their
support of disaster prevention activities.
Findings at the National Level
At the national level, it becomes evident from the careful
study of all information available in this review that all countries
in the Region have made significant advances in their attempts
208 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
to develop appropriate disaster prevention and preparedness
measures.
There would appear to have been a focus more upon
preparedness than on prevention, evident in the fact that the
loss of life has been reduced in many countries but that the
amount of physical damage appears to be continuing to increase.
It may be noted that disaster prevention is concerned with the
introduction of procedures and techniques which serve to reduce
the impact of disasters by structural and non-structural means.
It is undertaken before the onset of disaster events and has
a permanent effect. Disaster preparedness is concerned with
the introduction of methods for reducing social impact and
property loss when a disaster event becomes imminent, and
may be effective only for the duration of a given disaster event.
Most countries in the Region have recognized the value of
establishing a permanent framework for disaster response,
rather than continuing to adopt an ad hoc approach each time
disaster appears imminent, and their institutional mechanisms
have been strengthened accordingly.
Substantial progress appears to have been made in
meteorological forecasting and the development of warning
systems for tropical cyclones and major floods. This has been
strengthened through the cooperation and assistance of
international organizations such as ESCAP, WMO, UNDP and
other organizations and the formation of the Typhoon Committee
and the Panel on Tropical Cyclones. Such activities have also
been assisted in many countries through the intensified use of
radar and weather satellites for forecasting and the extension
of telemetric weather and flood recording systems.
On the other hand, few countries have achieved very much
in the undertaking of risk assessment and hazard mapping
procedures, and this kind of activity clearly needs to be extended
and accelerated.
In the area of disaster prevention, most countries appear
to have relied heavily upon traditional structural approaches,
generally aimed at the protection only of specific and restricted
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options... 209
locations. Whilst there have been many attempts to implement
non-structural solutions, many of these have met with limited
success and this area of activity needs much further special
attention, perhaps with significant international assistance.
Most countries in the Region have enacted special legislation
to provide for disaster control and established organizations
and agencies for their development and implementation.
Although statutory controls are now available for the control
of development in disaster-prone areas, improved building
construction and so on, many Governments appear to have
been reluctant to invoke them.
The needs to create central organizations for the
coordination of disaster management, to upgraded civil defence
capabilities and to develop effective community education and
involvement have been well recognized and acted upon.
The national experience of the Decade can be summarized
as follows.
i. Only the more advanced countries of the region have
implemented non-structural measures such as land-use
controls, building controls and the siting of essential
services to provide protection against the water-related
hazards.
ii. Those countries which have a long history of flood and
storm surge disasters have progressively implemented
mitigation programmes based on structural measures.
Lack of funds, increasing populations and the
encroachment of further development into vulnerable
areas all tend to negate the effects of these programmes.
iii. Impediments to the solution of disaster problems are
largely political, social and economic. Governments find
it socially unacceptable to relocate populations away
from vulnerable areas when sufficient funds are not
available to provide substitute facilities. Land tenure,
local customs, etc. also act as impediments to the
implementation of many of the available mitigation
measures.
210 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
iv. Disaster preparedness measures, especially response
and relief, are more acceptable to Governments of the
region as a means of handling disasters. The principal
reason for this is that support, both technical and
financial, is more forthcoming from the international
agencies and donor countries when a disaster strikes.
It is a difficult task for developing countries to marshal
the massive funds required to implement structural
measures to combat future disasters from their own
resources or from overseas aid.
All in all, the Governments of the Region have responded
positively to the objectives of the International Decade for
Natural Disaster Reduction and made significant advances in
their abilities to cope with such disasters, particularly in the
area of disaster preparedness. They have also confirmed the
need to continue strengthening existing frameworks, to upgrade
activities in some priority areas, and above all, to focus upon
a fully integrated approach to disaster management issues and
to involve the entire community. They have also confirmed the
need to continue fostering national and international cooperation
for advancement of disaster management in the Region by way
of technology transfer and the encouragement of financial
support from the more developed countries.
Regional Cooperation on Disaster Management... 211
8
REGIONAL COOPERATION ON DISASTER
MANAGEMENT AND PREPAREDNESS
RISK PROFILE OF CENTRAL ASIA
The Central Asian region is prone to a variety of natural
disasters that occur frequently and on a very large scale, with
potential to affect or kill large numbers of people. Earthquakes,
landslides, and floods characterize much of the region, but
drought, sandstorms, hailstorms, and snowstorms also cause
periodic damage. While progress is being made, inadequate
dam safety still creates risks from flooding, including the risk
of hazardous mine tailings entering downstream water bodies.
Appendix 1 describes some of the recent disasters in the region.
A quantitative risk assessment undertaken in 2003 by the
World Bank confirms that natural disasters can have a
significant consequence for the economic performance of Central
Asian countries. More than 90% of the loss potential is from
earthquakes, floods, and landslides. A quarter of the total
expected loss is caused by events that are predicted to occur
on average once every 20 years.
Another 38% originate from events that have a return
period of 20-25 years. Catastrophic events with an annual
probability of occurrence of 0.5% (events expected to occur once
in every 200 years) would have a major impact on already
vulnerable economies. Expected economic losses from such
events exceed 20% of GDP in Armenia, Azerbaijan, and
Tajikistan; 10% of GDP in the Kyrgyz Republic; and 5% of GDP
in Kazakhstan.
212 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Evidence shows that the social and economic costs of natural
disasters are increasing. From the 1970s to the 1990s, the
number of people affected globally tripled while the decadal
economic cost increased by a factor of $5 billion to more than
$600 billion. More recently, global climate change has become
recognized as an additional risk incubator. Increases in
frequency and intensity of climatic hazard impacts could
exacerbate trends in many vulnerable locations.
DISASTER PREPAREDNESS AND MANAGEMENT
National Preparedness
The Central Asian countries have ministries for emergency
situations, which deal with policy aspects, provide training,
manage state disaster reserve resources, and provide
coordination among different levels of government in developing
and implementing emergency plans. The People's Republic of
China (PRC) has, since January 2005, a State Disaster Reduction
Commission.
o Legal Framework. Each country has each own decrees,
acts, and laws that serve as legal basis for disaster
management.
o Hazard/Risk Mapping. Most countries have risk maps.
Those in the Central Asian countries were prepared
during the Soviet era, but their scale is not suitable for
risk management activities. Most of these maps are
outdated.
o Disaster Preparedness Plans. Countries in the region
have made different levels of progress in developing
disaster preparedness plans. The PRC has a capacity-
building program and is making safe storage sites for
waste products from metal processing.
o Structural Measures. In the Central Asian countries,
many protective structures remain from the Soviet era-
such as dams, dikes for flood protection, and sediment
control devices. These structures lack maintenance,
which not only decreases their protective value but also
can amplify a disaster when they collapse.
Regional Cooperation on Disaster Management... 213
o Community Involvement. General awareness for natural
disasters, preparedness, and mitigation is very low. In
the PRC, a community-based disaster reduction outreach
campaign has been launched.
Regional and International Cooperation
The emergency policies of the five Central Asian countries
currently include a regional mechanism through the relevant
ministries. In 1993, an Interstate Council for Emergency
Situations Regarding Natural and Man-made Disasters was
established to coordinate disaster management policies.
Central Asian countries also cooperate with each other
through a number of regional and bilateral agreements,
including
o 1996 agreement between Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic,
and Uzbekistan on joint collaboration for the
rehabilitation of tailing sites that have a transboundary
impact.
o 1998 agreement between Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic,
Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan on the joint use of
transboundary rivers, water bodies, and hydraulic
infrastructure.
o 1999 joint program of action to rehabilitate tailing sites
in the countries of the Central Asian Economic
Community.
Most Central Asian countries participated in the Subregional
Initiative for Disaster Risk Management organized by the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 2003 in Iran, to
consider DRM initiatives in Central Asia and neighboring
countries, including two related subsequent meetings. The PRC
is a signing party to the Shanghai Cooperation Organization
Agreement on Intergovernmental Mutual Assistance for
Disaster Relief and sponsored the Asian Conference on Disaster
Reduction, the first ministerial meeting of its kind in Asia.
Central Asian countries are parties to many international
declarations and summit agreements that stipulate increased
214 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
preparedness for natural disasters on a national and regional
bases. For example, all Central Asian countries, except
Turkmenistan, sent a delegation to the World Conference on
Disaster Reduction held in January 2005 in Kobe, Japan, and
became parties to the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015
(HFA) to pursue "substantial reduction" of disaster losses during
that period and which calls for increased international and
regional cooperation.
Two good examples of regional cooperative arrangements
are the Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), a nonprofit
organization based in Bangkok, set up in part by ADB in 1986;
and the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR).
ADPC's main role is to enhance the national and regional
disaster management capacities. It undertakes this through a
variety of modes, including training programs, promoting and
supporting the mainstreaming of DRM in development
processes, identifying national and regional DRM issues, and
assisting development of strategic solutions. The ISDR is the
successor to the United Nations's international Decade of
Natural Disaster Reduction 1990-1999. The decade was
dedicated to promoting solutions to reducing risk from natural
hazards. ISDR was created to move this momentum forward
by fostering greater awareness, public commitment, knowledge,
and partnerships to implement risk reduction measures of all
kinds, at all levels, in all countries.
On the donor side, many agencies give assistance for
preventive as well as humanitarian emergency actions. The
Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation has a regional
proactive strategy in operation, while the European has a
general humanitarian plan of action. Other agencies are
providing country-specific assistance. All the multilateral
development banks have policies for disaster assistance.
ADB has also been active in providing disaster assistance.
For ADB, responding to disaster impacts in unprepared
developing member countries (DMCs) means diverting badly
needed development funds to replace social and economic
infrastructure that has been lost or dislocated. Carefully
Regional Cooperation on Disaster Management... 215
prepared country strategies and plans can be destroyed literally
overnight, resulting in a huge loss in effort and time. In 2004,
ADB adopted a proactive Disaster and Emergency Assistance
Policy (DEAP), which aims to integrate DRM into the
development process of DMCs, build DMC disaster and hazard
risk management capacity, and take disaster risk into account
in preparing ADB country strategies and plans and projects.
A key element of DEAP is institutionalizing DRM by identifying
risks during ADB's country programming schedules and building
risk reduction strategies into the project plan. Regarding
postimpact recovery, the policy emphasizes (i) rehabilitating
critical physical and social infrastructure; (ii) revitalizing basic
services; and (iii) jump-starting economic productivity, all in a
DRM framework. The principles underpinning DEAP and the
action plans stemming from it are similar to the HFA to which
ADB, like most nations in this region, is a signatory. ADB is,
therefore, assisting DMCs meet their HFA goals.
In spite of these efforts, disaster preparedness remains
inadequate in much of the region. At the national level, there
are needs to update (and in some cases, initiate) disaster
legislation, enhance (and in some cases, establish) the national
focal agency, and strengthen interinstitutional and
intergovernmental (national-regional-local) coordination. In
addition, there are needs to improve risk mapping, preparedness
planning, improve protective infrastructure, and increase
awareness and preparedness in communities. The need for
capacity building underlies effective future actions in these
areas. Regional cooperation in many of these areas is also
necessary, and while some measures are underway, the present
situation indicates that more intense cooperation is desirable.
STRATEGY AND APPROACH TO MORE EFFECTIVE
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
An analysis of what transforms a natural event into a
human and economic disaster reveals that the fundamental
problems of development in Central Asia are the very same
problems that contribute to the region's vulnerability to the
catastrophic effects of natural hazards.
216 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
The principal causes of vulnerability in Central Asia include:
(i) the persistence of widespread urban and rural poverty,
(ii) degradation of the region's environment from
mismanagement of natural resources,
(iii) inefficient public policies, and
(iv) lagging and misguided investments in infrastructure.
Development and disaster-related policies have largely
focused on emergency response, leaving a serious
underinvestment in natural hazard prevention and mitigation.
It follows that the most effective way to reduce losses from
natural disasters is to integrate disaster risk into overall
economic and development processes, i.e., mainstreaming DRM.
To mainstream DRM at the national level, the following
points comprise a useful general course of action:
(i) The first overarching issue is to improve governance for
DRM. Most countries in this region still deal with disaster
risk through response-focused civil defense-type
structures. Risk considerations have to be factored in
into all aspects and levels of government and society.
(ii) Disaster risk analysis should be undertaken for all new
developments. This not only means ensuring that new
development is located and built in such a way as to be
more secure but also ensure that new development does
not generate new risk.
(iii) Post-disaster recovery, if not undertaken correctly, too
often rebuilds risk and creates the conditions for further
and worse disasters in the future. The post-disaster
period is, therefore, a unique opportunity to factor risk
considerations into development.
(iv) Treating hazards as dynamic is important: hazard
characteristics change, and with it so do the risks. For
example, climate change is already altering the
frequency, severity, and intensity of hydrometeorological
hazards.
To give an example of the benefits of mainstreaming a
Regional Cooperation on Disaster Management... 217
DRM approach, the World Bank recently estimated that, on
average, countries can save $7 in disaster recovery costs for
every $1 spent on risk reduction measures.
Infrastructure Investment
Infrastructure is a key issue because infrastructure is basic
not only for economic growth but also to bring the benefits of
a higher economic performance to people living in rural and
isolated areas as well as to enable them participate in
mainstream economic activities. Moreover, damage to
infrastructure can slow down response and recovery operations.
Nevertheless, critical infrastructure-the systems, facilities, and
networks that support health, safety, and well-being of citizens
(e.g., utilities, transport, and health services)-is destroyed or
incapacitated during disasters. Infrastructure damage is
estimated to make up two thirds of all flood losses. About 70%
of all damage from the December 2004 tsunami disaster was
to infrastructure.
Clearly, critical infrastructure needs to be protected from
potential natural disasters. At the national level, mainstreaming
DRM implies careful land-use planning of such critical facilities
as power plants and major roads with consideration to possible
occurrence of natural disasters that would help minimize
damage. Attention is also needed to building code regulations
and enforcement.
FUTURE REGIONAL COOPERATION
Since many disasters transcend national borders, mitigation
would clearly benefit from regional cooperation by sharing
resources, experience, and expertise. However, the effectiveness
of the existing national and regional mechanisms for natural
disaster preparedness in Central Asia is limited due to
inadequate funding and capacity, while international
development partners, though quick to provide assistance in
the event of disaster, have paid little attention to supporting
prevention and disaster preparedness.
Similar to the Asia and Pacific region as a whole, disaster
management in Central Asia has been badly neglected. ADB
218 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
estimates that 1% (about $40 billion) of the entire Asia and the
Pacific region's gross national income of $4 trillion is needed
to put the needed disaster management infrastructure in place.
While developing and mainstreaming national DRM systems
are essential, regional initiatives are important. In a region
subject to sudden-onset disasters that have wide geographical
coverage (earthquakes are the classic example), and where
much of the region's transport and communications
infrastructure crosses several borders, the need for regional-
level services is obvious. Conversely, failure to implement DRM
in any one country can affect such infrastructure and, thus, the
region as a whole.
Regional cooperation for DRM, including infrastructure
development, is essential not only to cope with the impacts of
disasters but also to help ensure that the region sustains
economic growth. Regional cooperation in DRM in the 21 st
century is expected to respond to development needs in a more
flexible manner than the past. Future regional cooperation is
expected to focus on emerging natural hazards of increasing
intensity or to be incorporated into the DRM process of regional
and national development programs.
From an international development partner perspective,
enhanced regional cooperation in DRM offers attractive
opportunities to provide resources. Some partners (including
ADB) have separate funds for regional versus individual country
allocation. Thus, assistance in regional cooperation serves to
enhance, not detract from, country assistance. International
partners can assist countries in the region to meet their domestic
needs and international obligations (e.g., HFA) through technical
assistance and loan support for regional cooperation in such
areas as the following:
(i) Building Capacity, Training, and Public Support for
Disaster Management and Mitigation. To be successful,
regional cooperation needs to build on a strong national
institutional base.
(ii) Assistance in Development of National Disaster
Management Plans. Harmonization of such plans across
Regional Cooperation on Disaster Management... 219
the region would greatly enhance mutual understanding
and sharing of resources during emergencies. This must
be supported by enabling disaster management
legislation.
(iii) Development of National Disaster Information Systems.
Monitoring and reporting on all data related to disasters
is essential, not only of occurrences but also types of
hazards, potential risks, and available resources and
institutions.
These also form the basis of public awareness campaigns and
community involvement in disaster preparedness and
mitigation.
(iv) Improving Legislative and Institutional Arrangements
and Enhancing Political Will. A cooperative approach
to disaster management and mitigation among countries
of the region would result in harmonized legislation,
enabling cross-border or region-wide actions to proceed
rapidly in the event of disaster.
(v) Integration of Disaster Risk Reduction into National
Development Processes. As noted, only by such
integration can disaster risk management considerations
influence decisions of the planning bodies and be
supported by adequate investment and expertise in a
sustainable manner.
(vi) Scientific and Technical Inputs for Disaster Management
(including early warning). There is great scope not only
for new research in disaster management in the region,
but also for collation, interpretation, adaptation, and
application of existing knowledge. Clearly, this would
be most effective at the regional level and through
regional institutions.
Establishment of a task force to develop a regional strategy
and determine priorities from among the many DRM needs
would be a most useful first step. A partnership of national
stakeholders and international development partners would
provide a firm basis for future assistance. In this way, bilateral
donors, international agencies, and multilateral development
220 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
banks would be able to coordinate and complement each other's
activities toward the goal of optimizing DRM in the region.
Natural Disasters in the Central Asian Region
In the Central Asian countries, during 1991-2001, around
2,500 people were killed and 5.5 million (10% of the total
population) were affected by natural disasters in Tajikistan,
Kyrgyz Republic, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan.
Tajikistan is the most affected Central Asian country in
terms of disasters, level of damage and loss of life. Tajikistan
each year experiences 50,000 landslides, 5,000 tremors and
earthquakes, and hundreds of avalanches and debris flows.
According to CRED Database, during 1991-2001 over 66,000
people were made homeless due to natural disasters. The 2003
United Nations Consolidated Appeal for Tajikistan identified
disaster response as a priority area because during the first 9
months of 2002, 65 small-and medium-scale natural disasters
affected 200,000 people. The most common were floods,
earthquakes, mudslides, and landslides. The floods in southern
Tajikistan in 1992 that killed 1,300 persons and resulted in
90% loss of gross domestic product that year are indicative of
the extent of destruction of life, property, and natural resources
that individual disasters in that country can cause.
The Kyrgyz Republic is characterized by frequent small-or
mid-scale disasters, low levels of awareness and preparedness,
and inadequate response capacity. In 2001-2002, the Ministry
of Emergencies and Ecology recorded 784 floods, 91 landslides,
37 avalanches, 18 earthquakes, and nearly 10,000 earth tremors.
Seepage from more than 20 nuclear waste storage sites in
Mailuu-Suu District in Jalalabad is a permanent and large-
scale threat. More than 1,200 natural disasters were registered
during 1992-1999, killing more than 400 people and damaging
more than 50,000 houses, 222 schools, and 127 health care
facilities, as well as roads, electricity transmission lines, water
facilities, and others.
Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan are the least vulnerable to
natural disasters and best able to respond without external
assistance.
Regional Cooperation on Disaster Management... 221
The Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region in the People's
Republic of China is subject to frequent natural disasters. In
2003 alone, there were 12 earthquakes measuring five or above
on the Richter scale, killing 289 people with over 2 billion yuan
(about US$240 million) in economic loss. In the same year,
spring sandstorms led to a drop in farm yields, with almost no
harvest in some places. Storms and hail in the summer months
affected 1.8 million people with a loss of 36 lives. As well, there
were many floods and landslides. Mongolia had several years
of drought and mass deaths of livestock beginning in 1999.
Other sources of disaster in recent years include blizzards and
heavy snowfalls, dust storms, floods, earthquakes, and forest
and steppe fires. The United Nations Development Programme
has been assisting the Government strengthen its disaster
management system; change the focus from a military civil-
defense approach to a civilian-led mitigation and management
approach; and create partnerships between government, donors,
nongovernment organizations for cooperation, coordination, and
allocation of resources for disaster mitigation.
ADB ASSISTANCE IN DISASTER MITIGATION AND
RECOVERY
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) adopted a policy on
disaster rehabilitation assistance in 1987 for small developing
member countries (DMCs) and broadened and extended this to
all DMCs in 1989. The rationale for assistance was to provide
timely interventions that would enable an affected DMC
maintain its development momentum. The policy was reviewed
in 2002. Analyses showed that three main factors are crucial
for project effectiveness:
o good project design;
o effective operation and maintenance of mitigation
structures; and
o strong institutional development to support structural
and preventive measures, e.g., increased disaster
awareness, community preparedness, early warning
systems, effective land-use planning, and sound and
enforceable building codes.
222 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Regional Cooperation on Disaster Management... 223

Such measures should be part of the core design of natural region, similar to the vulnerability atlas of India and
disaster mitigation projects and should be integrated into the hazard atlas of the People's Republic of China.
country strategies and programs. o Scientific and technical cooperation in disaster
A new policy-the Disaster and Emergency Assistance Policy- management, which would bring existing information
was adopted in 2004, which takes a more proactive stance as on scientific and technical issues into the public domain
described in the text. ADB assistance for emergency through dialogue with those national and regional
rehabilitation and disaster mitigation, including conflict and institutions that have hazard, risk, and disaster
epidemic situations as well as natural disasters, totaled some management information.
$3.9 billion during 1987-2005.
Capacity Building of National Systems
This amount comprised 22 project preparatory assistance
To be successful, regional cooperation needs to build on a
for a total of $15 million; 55 advisory and operational technical
strong national institutional base. Disaster management
assistance, including 14 regional technical assistance (RETAs),
training and capacity building may be needed to strengthen
for a total of $48 million; 26 grants for a total of $954 million;
and 52 loans, mostly in the category of "multisector," totaling (i) national disaster management agencies/committees,
$2,903 million. which should be established and/or strengthened in
every country by developing human resources and
APPROACHES FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION IN enacting necessary enabling national disaster
DISASTER PREPAREDNESS AND MANAGEMENT management legislation;
Initiatives Fostering Regional Cooperation (ii) development of disaster management plans, which are
the cornerstone of a national disaster management
o Periodic information dissemination in the region,
system and must be backed up by national legislation
whereby a regional information documentation and
and prepared at different levels: national, state, and
dissemination center would disseminate information to
district levels;
improve information exchange.
(iii) national disaster management information systems to
o Ministerial meetings on disaster management, which
routinely monitor and report on all data related to
would involve organizing a high-level Central Asian
hazards and vulnerabilities, resources, and
Ministerial Meeting on Disaster Management to secure
organizations;
political support for disaster management.
(iv) public awareness and media campaigns, which are
o Multistakeholder conferences, which would be large
needed to create a greater constituency for disaster
meetings at the Central Asian level with cross-sectoral
preparedness and mitigation; and
participation from government, United Nations agencies,
nongovernment organizations, scientific and technical (v) integration of disaster mitigation in national planning.
organizations, donors, and regional institutions. The integration of disaster management planning and
mitigation into national development processes is
o Preparation of Central Asian and national disaster
necessary to influence decisions of the planning bodies
management reports.
at the national and subnational levels (e.g., settlement
o Vulnerability Atlas for Central Asia, which would map planning and housing are important subsectors for
hazards, vulnerabilities, and risks in countries of the enforcing disaster prevention and mitigation measures).
224 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Some Recommendations
Examples from elsewhere in the world show that risks can
be substantially reduced through proper preparedness and early
warning systems; through insurance mechanisms that not only
help respond financially after a disaster strikes, but also provide
effective incentives for better construction standards and location
decisions; and through coordinated regional responses.
Community and civil society involvement is critical.
For regional organizations:
o Make disaster preparedness and response programs high
priorities, and clarify the mandates of regional
organizations.
o Develop regional risk assessment and planning
capacities, early warning systems (especially for natural
disaster "hot spots"), and systematic links among
relevant national and regional agencies.
o Strengthen information collection and sharing systems
at the regional level for disaster management. Regional
organizations can provide an opportunity to foster debate
on alternatives and bring in experiences from the rest
of the world on disaster prevention and preparedness.
For the international community:
o Focus more donor attention on regional natural disaster
preparedness and prevention.
o Better regional coordination among donors would
enhance their effectiveness.
o Donor funding for research, training, and information
management involving regional experts and institutions
is critical.
Satellite Technology for Disaster Management 225
9
SATELLITE TECHNOLOGY FOR DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
INTEGRAL VIEW OF SPACE TECHNOLOGIES
India has been traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters
like cyclone, drought, floods, earthquakes, forest fires, landslides
on account its unique geographical position, climate and
geological setting, Each year disasters account for loss of millions
of rupees in terms of social and community assets besides
economic losses that are both immediate as well as long term
in nature. Disaster management is a typically multi-disciplinary
endeavour, requiring many types of data with spatial and
temporal attributes that should be made available to key players
in the right format for decision-making In recent years, the
focus of disaster management community is increasingly moving
on to more effective utilization of emerging technologies such
as remote sensing, Geographic Information System, and Satellite
Communication, enabling to prepare for and mitigate potential
impacts. Several critical inputs are required in order to take
preventive measures through vulnerability analysis, hazard
zonation and prior risk assessment at regional and local levels.
The volume of information needed for natural disasters far
exceeds the capacity to deal with them manually.
Information derived from GIS and Remote Sensed satellite
imagery plays an important role in disaster management and
crisis prevention. Their effective application depends not solely
on technical specifications, but is influenced by factors such as
data collection, processing and distribution, capacity building,
226 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
institutional development and information sharing. In this
context contemporary technology such as GIS, GPS, database,
Internet etc will play an important role. Indian space
infrastructure consisting of Indian Remote sensing satellites &
INSAT system, is uniquely placed to provide services related
to Disaster watch, Warning dissemination, Data collection,
Monitoring and damage assessment, Vulnerability mapping,
Communication support etc The recent tsunami disaster in the
Indian Ocean demonstrated the extent that space technologies
can contribute to emergency response and disaster reduction.
The use of such technologies has been proven useful in the
risk assessment, mitigation and preparedness phases of disaster
management. It is imperative that recent technological advances
be fully harnessed to aid the disaster managers towards reducing
loss of life and property. Disaster information involves more
than just data and several interconnecting steps are typically
required to generate the type of action-oriented products that
are needed by the disaster management community.
The exact steps taken depend on the disaster phase and
how time critical the need is. Technology support required for
disaster management fall in the category of observations, data
collection, networking, communication, warning dissemination,
service delivery mechanisms, GIS databases, expert analysis
systems, information resources etc. However, there are several
technological challenges constraining their effective utilization
down the line at community level.
This paper highlights the potential of these technologies for
disaster management and state of art of application of these
technologies at Decision Support Centre, (DSC), which is
established at National Remote Sensing Agency under Disaster
Management Support Programme, Department of Space, Govt.
of India. The use of satellite remote sensing data for generation
of information on the six natural disasters Flood, cyclone,
Drought, Forest fires, Landslides and Earthquakes are
addressed here and the dissemination of the value added
information to the end users through the network connectivity
is discussed.
Satellite Technology for Disaster Management 227
MAXIMIZING USE OF SPACE-BASED OBSERVING
PLATFORMS FOR CRITICAL APPLICATIONS
As an integrated observing strategy, the concept of sensor
web for Earth observations is appealing in many aspects. For
instance, by increasing the spatial and temporal coverage of
observations from space and other vantage points, one can
eventually aid in increasing the accuracy of the atmospheric
models which are precursor to hurricane track prediction,
volcanic eruption forecast, and trajectory path of
transcontinental transport of dust, harmful nuclear and chemical
plumes.
In reality, there is little analysis available in terms of
benefits, costs and optimized set of sensors needed to make
these necessary observations. This is a complex problem that
must be carefully studied and balanced over many boundaries
such as science, defense, early warning, security, and
surveillance.
Simplistically, the sensor web concept from the technological
point of view alone has a great appeal in the defense, early
warning and security applications.
In fact, it can be relatively less expensive in per unit cost
as opposed to building and deploying it for the scientific use.
However, overall observing approach should not be singled out
and aligned somewhat orthogonally to serve a particular need.
On the other hand, the sensor web should be designed and
deployed to serve multiple subject areas and customers
simultaneously; and can behave as directed measuring systems
for both science and operational entities. Sensor web can be
designed to act as expert systems, and/or also provide a dedicated
integrated surveillance network.
Today, there is no system in the world that is fully integrated
in terms of reporting timely multiple hazards warnings,
computing the loss of life and property damage estimates, and
is also designed to cater to everyone's needs.
It is not an easier problem to undertake and more so is not
practically solvable. At this time due to some recent events in
228 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Satellite Technology for Disaster Management 229

the world, the scientific community, social scientists, and DEVELOPMENT OF A HIGH RESOLUTION
operational agencies are more cognizant and getting together POPULATION DYNAMICS MODEL FOR DISASTER
to address such colossal problems. Increasing our knowledge MANAGEMENT
of the home planet, via amplified set of observations, is certainly
The unanticipated occurrences of most natural and
a right step in a right direction. Furthermore, this is a pre-
technological disasters put a large number of people at risk.
requisite in understanding multiple hazard phenomena's. This
The lack of efficient advanced warning systems compels
paper examines various sensor web options and observing
emergency responders to quickly assess the extent of the inflicted
architectures that can be useful specifically in addressing some
destruction and the magnitude of impacts on human population.
of these complex issues. The ultimate goal is to serve the
Disaster preparedness aims at assessing population at risk
society by providing potential natural hazards information to
based upon scenario driven modeling and simulation of disasters.
the decision makers in the most expeditious manner so they
Geospatial information has been clearly recognized as the
can prepare themselves to mitigate potential risks to human
common element in all preparedness, response, and recovery
life, livestock and property.
activities as it enhances situational awareness and analysis
MAINSTREAMING EARTH DECISION SUPPORT FOR leading to improved information communication, sharing, and
DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN MESOAMERICA decision making.
THROUGH THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE High resolution population distribution data is nucleus to
REGIONAL VISUALIZATION AND MONITORING the essential geospatial information for disaster management.
SYSTEM (SERVIR) Commonly available data from Census has traditionally been
the exclusive source for population information. However, typical
The Regional Visualization and Monitoring System for
Census data is constrained both in space and time and fails to
Mesoamerica (SERVIR, in Spanish) has been established at the
capture the obvious dynamic behavior of population as functions
Water Center for the Humid Tropics for Latin America and the
of space and time. This imposes a significant negative
Caribbean (CATHALAC). SERVIR utilizes NASA data,
consequence on the fidelity of event based simulation models
technologies, and products to collect, archive, process, model
with sensitive space-time resolution. Given the spatial (where)
and distribute raster and vector data. SERVIR implements
and temporal (when) uncertainty of disasters, the static nature
decisions support tools fpr climate change, disaster management,
of Census data is largely a paralyzing factor in disaster impact
land planning, terrestrial carbon stocks, forest fires monitoring,
assessment approaches.
water resources and coastal zone management.
From a spatial perspective, Census data is limited by Census
This presentation will discuss SERVIR program efforts to
accounting units (such as blocks), there often is great uncertainty
enhance the capacity of the Mesoamerican disaster management
about spatial distribution of residents within those accounting
community. Topics will include the implementation of a text
units. This is particularly appropriate in suburban and rural
message fire alert system, distribution of weather and climate
areas, where the population is dispersed to a greater degree
prediction models, advanced visualization of real-time weather
than urban areas. From a temporal perspective, Census counts
data, and the development of a Natural Disasters Atlas under
represent "residential" or "nighttime" population and its usage
the auspices of the Plan Puebla Panama Initiative. Discussion
in a daytime event simulation is illogical. Because of this
will focus on existing data and analysis gaps in the region, the
uncertainty, there is significant potential to misclassify people
consequences this has for the disaster management community,
with respect to their location from, for example pollution sources,
and how the SERVIR program will address these.
and consequently it becomes challenging to determine if certain
230 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
sub-populations are actually more likely than others to get
differential environmental exposure.
For example, in the US, the source for population data is
the US Census Bureau, which reports population counts by
census blocks (smallest polygonal unit), block groups (aggregated
blocks), and tracts (aggregated block groups). At the highest
resolution (block level), a uniform population distribution is
assumed and the population values are typically an attribute
of the block (polygon) centroids.
Similarly, population values for block groups and tracts are
reported at the centroids of the block group and tract polygons.
In geospatial analyses, these points are used to represent the
population of a census polygon.
For example, calculation of travel time to health care
providers considers these centroids as the starting points for
travel. For exposure and risk analyses, these centroids often
serve as "receptor" points for calculating exposure or dosage
from any dispersed agent.
In common practice, census data are intersected with buffers
of influence (such as polygons representing disaster impact
zones) using two primary to quantify population at risk:
a. count the entire population (if the centroid is inside the
buffer) or zero population (if the centroid is outside the
buffer)
b. an area weighted population accounting approach (based
on the ratio of the areas of the polygon included in and
excluded from the buffer).
These limitations, to a large degree, can be overcome by
developing population data with a finer resolution in both
space and time at sub-Census levels. Geodemographic data at
such scales will represent a more realistic non-uniform
distribution of population.
Using an innovative approach with Geographic Information
System and Remote Sensing, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
(ORNL) has made significant progress towards solving this
problem (Bhaduri et al., 2002; Dobson et al., 2000). ORNL, as
Satellite Technology for Disaster Management 231
part of its LandScan global population project, has developed
a high resolution population distribution model (LandScan
Global) for the entire world.
At its finest resolution, the global model is spatially resolved
at 30 arc seconds per cell. LandScan is the finest global
population data ever produced and is 2400 times more spatially
refined than the previous standard. As an expansion to global
LandScan, ORNL is currently developing a very high-resolution
(90m cell) population distribution data (LandScan USA) for the
US. At this resolution population distribution data includes
nighttime (residential) as well as daytime distributions.
The LandScan population distribution model is a multi-
layered dasymetric spatial modeling approach, which is also
referred to as smart interpolation technique. It collects best
available census counts (usually at sub-province level) for each
country, calculates a "likelihood" coefficient for each cell, and
applies the coefficients to the census counts which are employed
as control totals for appropriate areas.
For LandScan USA, census blocks serve as the polygonal
unit control population. Census blocks are divided into finer
grid cells (90m) and then each is evaluated for the likelihood
of being populated based on a number of relevant spatial
characteristics (including land cover, slope, proximity to roads,
and nighttime lights).
Criticality of such spatial indicators from remotely sensed
data has been well recognized (Elvidge et al., 1997; Sutton et
al., 1997). The total population for that block is then allocated
to each cell weighted to the calculated likelihood (population
coefficient) of being populated.
Large volumes of satellite derived spatial data including
land cover and nighttime lights are used in developing LandScan
databases and verification and validation (V&V) of the
population model. Locating daytime populations requires not
only census data, but also other socio-economic data including
places of work, journey to work, and other mobility factors such
as daytime business and cultural attractions/populated places
datasets. The combination of both residential and daytime
232 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
populations will provide significant enhancements to geospatial
applications ranging from homeland security to socio-
environmental studies.
This discussion will describe ongoing development of the
computational framework for spatial data integration and
modeling framework for LandScan. A large number of disparate
and misaligned spatial data sets are spatio-temporally correlated
and integrated in the modeling framework to understand, model,
validate, and visualize dynamics of population.
Discussions will cover development of algorithms to utilize
population infrastructure datasets (such as residences, business
locations, academic institutions, correctional facilities, and public
offices) along with behavioral or mobility datasets for
representing temporal dynamics of population.
In addition, we will discuss development and integration
of transportation, physical and behavioral science computational
algorithms; the integration of these models that address different
scales and different time frames; and the development of
dynamic optimization routines to take advantage of real-time
data from sensor networks.
We will also demonstrate utilization of such high resolution
population distribution data within an integrated modeling
and simulation framework of a transportation network creation
model, a demographic model generator, and a traffic simulation
model to enhance the fidelity of an evacuation model.
Satellite Data Acquisition Planner for Disaster
Management
In this paper, we present a semi-automated tool that enables
optimum utilization of satellite resources for disaster
management. Satellite data plays an important role in disaster
management due to it's synoptic coverage and coverage by
overhead imaging of those areas which are inaccessible during
disasters.
Data is also used in different phases of disaster management
like monitoring, analysis and rescue operations. A number of
satellites/sensors varying in resolution and revisit capabilities
Satellite Technology for Disaster Management 233
and operating in different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum
are available for managing different types of disasters. This
gives rise to multiple observation opportunities of a given area
by various satellites differing in resolution, extent of area covered
and date of coverage. In order to use satellite imagery for
disaster management, the first step is to obtain best possible
and most suitable data.
Space agencies provide highest priority for covering disaster
affected areas. Satellite data users can decide their data
requirements using satellite reference charts and other software
utilities. Currently, to determine imaging opportunities of
multiple satellites, different packages and methods have to be
used. Each agency comes with it's own user interface and
output formats. The sequence of steps to be followed can also
vary greatly. A number of satellites are available to the disaster
manager for analysis.
Many packages are specific to a set of satellites. SPA,
provided by Radarsat International (RSI) is specific to
RADARSAT. DESCW provided by Eurimage caters to a set of
satellites and allows one to know whether the area is covered
on a specific date. A software like IDRS provided by ISRO can
be used to decide coverage of the area of interest by Indian
Remote Sensing satellites.
Satellite coverage charts along with path calendars help
deciding dates of coverage. This interactive process varies across
packages and the whole sequence has to be followed each time
(like entering area of interests, time period etc.). In a time
critical application like disaster management, this step of
determining suitable data to order is currently time consuming.
To know available options, it requires technical expertise in the
use of different packages which may or may not be available.
The outputs from different packages have to then be
compared and a decision has to be made about which data to
acquire. This is again manual and may change from person to
person. All this can now be done by any person without the
technical expertise of the packages in a matter of a few minutes
by the Data Acquisition Planner application. With its easy to
234 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
use Graphical User Interface(GUI), it can be used by anyone.
This application determines which data is available for a disaster
based on it's location, extent and time. It then identifies which
data is most appropriate among the available data for a
particular disaster at that time.
Suitability is calculated based on a number of factors
including disaster type, type of data required, resolution and
other parameters like date and extent of coverage. Different
properties desired in the satellite imagery that make it suitable
for different disasters are given by experts in their respective
domains. These include type of data, resolution and viewing
angles. In addition, weights are given to different properties
of the imaging opportunity like date of coverage, resolution,
viewing angle and extent of coverage. These weights are also
decided by experts.
User inputs geographical location, extent, type of disaster
and the time period for which data is to be acquired. Imaging
opportunities are determined for multiple satellites. Based on
the properties of the imaging opportunity and weights given
to each of the factors, percentage of suitability is calculated for
each opportunity. Opportunities are then displayed in order of
suitability. At this stage, the user can choose the most suitable
or override it for a particular scenario.
Outputs can be stored in a convenient format. Filling the
appropriate order forms and sending can also be automated.
Data ordered can be stored in a database for future retrieval.
The map output can be exported and used to generate reports.
Orbit prediction is based on orbital information in Two Line
Element Sets (TLE) format.
This tool has the following advantages. The user can
determine most suitable data without having proficiency in the
use of multiple packages. All imaging opportunities are available
on a common platform. Their spatial extent can also be visualized
on a common background map. Also, the technical expertise of
a few experts is made available to more people. This tool gives
the most suitable data to be acquired and does it in a few
minutes. This in turn leads to better analysis and will be more
Satellite Technology for Disaster Management 235
beneficial for the management of the disaster. In case of multiple
disasters, optimization techniques are used to decide which
satellite data is more suitable for each disaster location. This
is a light-weight application with a very user-friendly graphical
user interface. It is developed using Visual Basic and a GIS
library. It can be used on any windows platform.
THE UNIQUE PROTOTYPE REMOTE SENSING DATA
INTEGRATION SYSTEM CEOP FOR THE
ATMOSPHERIC STUDIES
Monitoring the earth and atmosphere from space is an
important task. Remote sensing from space satellites enables
uniform and periodic monitoring. The unique international
programme Coordinated Enhanced Observation Period (CEOP)
is having the capability of providing the key elements for energy
and water cycle observing system studies. An integrated energy
and water cycle observational system brought together the
capabilities of both satellites based and ground based (remote
and in-situ) observing systems for the period 2001 to 2004.
These observing systems would support research activities
dealing with the role of the atmospheric energy and water cycle
in climate, and prediction systems through the specifications
of initial and boundary conditions.
This study explains the capability of following different
types observations namely:
(1) sub-surface-soil profiles
(2) surface-stand meteorological radiation parameters
(3) near surface-flux tower
(4) atmospheric profiles-rawinsonde, profiles etc.
These CEOP data components are necessary to integrate
observations based on coordination among field science groups,
space agencies, and numerical weather prediction centers in
the local, regional and global scales. This CEOP data set is a
unique tool, which is accessible through web, collective,
coordinated information, as readily available, comparable with
other sources. The accomplishments of CEOP-I called (a) global
236 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
versus regional products, (b) desired assimilation output,
(c) interval and length of free-running forecasts, (d) operational
versus reanalysis data are also explained. Few atmospheric
disasters have been presented in this study for the Asian region.
These studies present the following spaces-based future
plan. The importance of 10-year implementation plan for Earth
Observation adopted at the third earth observation summit to
archive the Global Earth Observation System of Systems
(GEOSS), International efforts to comprehensive monitor the
Earth by integrating various satellites, in-situ measurements,
and models are gaining importance. As a contribution to GEOSS,
the Global Change Observation Mission (GCOM) to perform
climate change observations succeeding the observations of
Midori-II and Aqua. GCOM will consist of two different types
of satellites over three consecutive generations and will establish
a continuous long-term data record. The GCOM mission will
complement the worldwide operational Earth observation
missions, including NPOESS from United States, and the
European mission METOP also explained. The promising
microwave radiometer constellation for the Global Precipitation
Measurement (GPM) is presented.
Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy 237
10
GUJARAT STATE DISASTER MANAGEMENT
P OLICY
NEED FOR A POLICY
The state of Gujarat ('the state') has been prone to disasters.
Over the years, these disasters have caused extensive damage
to life and property and have adversely impacted economic
development.
The Government of Gujarat ('GoG') recognises the need to
have a proactive, comprehensive, and sustained approach to
disaster management to reduce the detrimental effects of
disasters on overall socio-economic development of the state.
GoG believes that there is a need for a policy that articulates
its vision and strategy for disaster management in the state.
In this context the Gujarat State Disaster Management
Authority (GSDMA) provides guidelines to various entities
involved in disaster management in the state to discharge their
responsibilities more effectively. With this in view, the GSDMA
has formulated the Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy
('GSDMP'or 'the Policy').
AIM
The aim of the Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy
is establishing necessary systems, structures, programs,
resources, capabilities and guiding principles for reducing
disaster risks and preparing for and responding to disasters
and threats of disasters in the state of Gujarat in order to save
lives and property, avoid disruption of economic activity and
238 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
damage to environment and to ensure the continuity and
sustainability of development.
OBJECTIVES
To assess the risks and vulnerabilities associated with
various disasters;
To develop appropriate disaster prevention and mitigation
strategies;
To provide clarity on roles and responsibilities for all
stakeholders concerned with disaster management so that
disasters can be managed more effectively;
To develop and maintain arrangements for accessing
resources, equipment, supplies and funding in preparation for
disasters that might occur;
To ensure that arrangements are in place to mobilize the
resources and capability for relief, rehabilitation, reconstruction
and recovery from disasters;
To create awareness and preparedness and provide advice
and training to the agencies involved in disaster management
and to the community;
To strengthen the capacities of the community and establish
and maintain effective systems for responding to disasters;
To ensure co-ordination with agencies related to disaster
management in other Indian states and those at the national
and international level;
To ensure relief/assistance to the affected without any
discrimination of caste, creed, community or sex.
To establish and maintain a proactive programme of risk
reduction, this programme being implemented through existing
sectoral and inter-sectoral development programmes and being
part of the overall development process in the state;
To develop and implement programmes for risk sharing
and risk transfer for all types of disasters. To address gender
issues in disaster management with special thrust on
empowerment of women towards long term disaster mitigation.
Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy 239
To develop disaster management as a distinct management
discipline and creation of a systematic and streamlined disaster
management cadre.
KEY ELEMENTS OF THE GUJARAT STATE DISASTER
MANAGEMENT POLICY
GoG will have the prerogative to define the occurrence of
a disaster and define the boundaries of the disaster-affected
site by issuing a "disaster declaration". The declaration can be
made on the recommendation of SRC or DC.
GoG views disaster management as a long-term process
that involves the creation of disaster management and
mitigation capacity in the state, in addition to developing systems
and processes designed to provide relief and rehabilitation.
The establishment of the Gujarat State Disaster
Management Authority ('GSDMA'or 'the Authority') as a nodal
agency is an important element in the overall framework for
disaster management in the state. GSDMA will facilitate, co-
ordinate and monitor work for mitigation and preparedness for
disasters. It will also coordinate and monitor emergency relief
measures, relief, reconstruction and rehabilitation. The
Authority would be provided with statutory powers in its role,
as per the proposed Gujarat State Disaster Management Act,
2002.
The Revenue Department, through the offices of the State
Relief Commissioner and the District Collectors along with
relevant Government departments will be responsible for
implementing emergency relief measures and relief after a
disaster. GSDMA will facilitate, co-ordinate and monitor the
activities related to disaster management of the Revenue
Department and other relevant Government Departments,
where necessary.
State Relief Commissioner and District Collectors will be
provided special powers to deal with emergency situations
created by disasters. When a disaster impacts an area covering
several towns and cities within a district, the Government
personnel and their facilities shall be placed under the
240 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
operational control of the respective District Collector for the
duration of the emergency. Government departments will
simplify procedures to mobilize resources in these emergency
situations.
Development planning will incorporate disaster
management principles as an integral part of the overall
planning process.
GoG will look at all aspects of risk sharing and risk transfer
to ensure that the costs associated with managing disasters are
distributed across a wider population. Links will be established
between the nodal agency (GSDMA), Government departments,
local authorities, NGOs, research agencies, public sector, private
sector, community groups and other stakeholders to share
knowledge, establish coordination mechanisms and augment
capacity of all the stakeholders.
A mechanism of continuous feedback shall be instituted so
that learnings can be translated into more effective relief,
rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts and the process of
capacity creation and relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction
feed into each other.
Self-reliance shall be developed by promoting and
encouraging the spirit of self-help and mutual assistance among
local authorities and constituents.
All administrative subdivisions of the state will develop
and maintain documented plans of their disaster management
functions and activities.
To ensure that all responsible agencies, their staff and the
public are familiar with policy, plans and procedures related
to disaster management, periodic exercises and drills shall be
conducted at all levels, with specific emphasis at the district
and local levels.
KEY RESPONSIBILITIES
Responsibility for the declaration of a disaster at any level
in the state rests with State Government. The declaration can
be made on the recommendation of the State Relief
Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy 241
Commissioner ('SRC') or a District Collector ('DC').
Responsibility for initiation and execution of emergency relief
measures and relief in times of disasters rests with state Revenue
Department, in conjunction with other relevant Government
departments. The state Revenue Department shall act through
its functionaries at the state level (the State Relief
Commissioner) and the district level (the District Collector).
Responsibility for facilitation, coordination and monitoring
of the development and implementation of reconstruction and
rehabilitation activity following disasters rests with GSDMA,
utilizing the resources and expertise of relevant Government
departments, district administration, local authorities, non-
governmental organizations ('NGOs'), the public sector, the
private sector, international development agencies, donors and
the community.
Responsibility for coordinating the development,
implementation, review and maintenance of disaster
management plans and programmes rests with GSDMA,
utilising the resources and expertise of relevant Government
departments, district administration, local authorities, NGOs,
the public sector, the private sector, international development
agencies, donors and the community.
Responsibility for coordination and monitoring of the
programmes of risk reduction rests with GSDMA. Responsibility
for initiation and implementation of the risk reduction
programme rests with the relevant Government departments,
NGOs, the private sector and the community.
INTRODUCTION
The state of Gujarat has been prone to disasters. These
disasters have caused extensive damage to life and property
and have adversely impacted economic development. Examples
include the persistent droughts in the state and the devastating
earthquake that hit Gujarat on January 26, 2001. In response
to this, the Government of Gujarat has decided to formulate
a policy that addresses various aspects of management of these
disasters in a systematic and sustained manner.
242 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
The Government of Gujarat has envisaged the development
of a holistic approach designed to manage disasters on a more
proactive basis. The approach involves formulating a
comprehensive policy on all phases of disaster management,
and addresses the entire gamut of disasters arising from natural
(droughts, floods, earthquakes, cyclones etc.) and manmade (oil
spills, forest fires, chemical catastrophes etc.) causes. This policy
takes full cognizance of other related policies and initiatives at
both the national and state level. In particular, this policy is
intended to be consistent with the disaster management policy
at the national level.
In order to achieve its objective of institutionalising a
disaster management ('DM') framework in the state, the GoG
has established a nodal agency, namely the Gujarat State
Disaster Management Authority, to facilitate, coordinate and
monitor disaster management activities and promote good
disaster management and mitigation practices in the state. The
establishment of the GSDMA is a key element in the overall
disaster management policy of the State Government. The GoG
also proposes to introduce legislation in the form of a Gujarat
State Disaster Management Act to provide a legal framework
for disaster management in the state.
GoG acknowledges its responsibility to proactively manage
disasters. Hence, this policy document articulates GoG's vision
and strategy for managing disasters proactively, systematically
and in a sustainable manner. The document also provides
guidelines to various entities involved in disaster management
in the state for discharging their responsibilities more effectively.
PRINCIPLES FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Principles of Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy
('GSDMP')
Disaster management is not a separate sector or discipline
but an approach to solving problems relating to disasters
impacting any sector-agricultural, industrial, environmental,
social etc. Ultimately, disaster management is the responsibility
of all sectors, all organisations and all agencies that may be
Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy 243
potentially affected by a disaster. Utilising existing resources
ensures efficiency in resource utilisation and lower costs. With
this background in mind, GoG has outlined a set of key principles
that will guide the development and implementation of the DM
policy in Gujarat. These principles are designed to provide
guidance during all phases of disaster management and are
consistent with internationally accepted best practices.
Integrating Disaster Management into Development
Planning
The objectives of the DM policy or any sectoral policy should
sub-serve the overall goals of the state relating to economic and
social development. Hence, policies on sustainable development
should seek to reduce possible losses from disasters, as a matter
of course. In other words, disaster prevention and preparedness
should be an integral part of every development policy.
Therefore, the state's development strategy shall explicitly
address disaster management as an integral part of medium
and long-term planning, especially for disaster prone districts
in the state.
Multi-hazard Approach to Disasters
The GoG recognises that disasters can either be man-made,
natural or even arising out of technological causes. Although
the preparedness for long-gestation disasters such as droughts
is fairly adequate in the state, the existing DM framework
needs to be augmented to meet the needs in the aftermath of
unexpected and large-scale disasters such as cyclone and
earthquake. A robust DM policy must therefore provide, plan
and prepare for all types of hazards and disasters that may be
reasonably expected to occur in a region.
Sustainable and Continuous Approach
One of the objectives of sustainable development is to
increase the inherent strength of all agencies, including the
community to deal with disaster situations. Achieving this
objective requires sustained initiatives encompassing social,
economic and infrastructure issues. Further, once capacity is
built, it must be sustained and this would be an ongoing and
244 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
continuous activity. The Government of Gujarat aims to improve
on a continuous and sustainable basis, the infrastructure and
processes for relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction and
institutionalise capacity building at all levels within the state
in order to be able to mitigate the impact of disasters.
Leverage Existing Government Machinery
The GoG shall strive to ensure that the long-term approach
to disaster management utilises the existing administrative
machinery of the State Government at all levels within the
state in order to undertake communication, capacity creation,
relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction, information collection
and dissemination and sharing of disaster management best
practices. All Government departments, bureaus, corporations,
authorities and agencies are encouraged to utilise all available
resources within their respective areas for disaster management
before seeking assistance from entities in other areas or higher
authorities. New institutions may be established where the
existing mechanisms are found inadequate.
Effective Inter-agency Co-operation and Co-ordination
Successful disaster response requires a quick and organised
response. The active participation of affected communities,
NGOs, private sector and various Government departments
like Fire Brigade, Police, Health etc. is thus critical to any
response activity. Therefore, the DM policy in Gujarat shall
focus on establishing response mechanisms that are quick, co-
ordinated and participative.
Capacity Building
Managing disasters using only a handful of stakeholders
would be inefficient. The Government of Gujarat therefore
recognises that the DM policy will need to strengthen the
resilience and capacity of NGOs, private sector and the local
community to cope with disasters while simultaneously building
the capacity of the Government machinery to manage disasters.
Effective disaster management requires that the community
especially vulnerable groups like women, landless labour etc.
be fully aware of the extent of their vulnerability to disasters
to reduce its impact, prior to its actual occurrence. Further,
Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy 245
NGOs, private sector and the community must understand and
be familiar with DM principles and practices, what their own
responsibilities are, how they can help prevent disasters, how
they must react during a disaster and what they can do to
support themselves and relief workers, when necessary. Training
is an integral component of capacity building. Development of
Disaster Management as a distinct managerial discipline will
be taken up to create a systematic and streamlined disaster
management cadre. Gender issues in disaster management
will be addressed and the empowerment of women towards
long term disaster mitigation will be focused upon.
Autonomy and Equity
Disasters are catastrophic events whose impact is felt across
socio-economic boundaries. Consequently, any DM effort should
be neutral and non-discriminatory. To that extent, it is necessary
that the DM institutions possess the autonomy to make decisions
in a fair, scientific and systematic manner. Disaster assistance
and relief must also be provided in an equitable and consistent
manner without regard to economic or social status of
beneficiaries. Relief / assistance must be provided without any
discrimination of caste, creed, religion, community or sex.
Legal Sanction
The institutions/ individuals responsible for implementing
disaster-management activities must have the necessary legal
sanction and validity with requisite powers for managing
emergency situations. This is necessary to ensure that they are
recognised by all stakeholders as the legitimate policy making
and/or implementation authorities. The GoG aims to create a
legal framework that incorporates the roles of all relevant
institutions responsible for managing disasters through the
proposed Gujarat State Disaster Management Act, 2002.
Accommodating Aspirations of People
The objective of any effort relating to disaster management
is to benefit the community. People are central to the decision-
making process for disaster management and their priorities
should be reflected in the programmes undertaken.
246 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Accommodating Local Conditions
Disaster management efforts should be sensitive to local
customs, beliefs, and practices and be adapted to local conditions.
In addition, changes in the community and evolving social and
economic relationships must be borne in mind to avoid
confrontation and bottlenecks. This will ensure participation of
the local community and foster a culture of joint responsibility
for disaster management at all levels.
Financial Sustainability
GoG is committed to allocating funds in the long term to
ensure the sustainability of disaster management effort. One
of the key elements in ensuring the long-term sustenance and
permanency of the organisation is the manner in which funds
would be generated and deployed on an ongoing basis. This is
necessary in view of GoG's focus on disaster mitigation.
Cost Sharing and Cost Recovery
The GoG encourages citizens and Government agencies to
proactively enhance their capacity to deal with disasters. It is
not possible for the GoG to bear all the costs of disasters on
a sustainable basis, or provide rehabilitation on a long-term
basis. The long-term approach is to move towards spreading
the risks through various risk transfer mechanisms and
incentivising individuals and other entities to protect their
interests through insurance. However, in doing so, GoG would
seek to protect the interests of poorer sections of the society
through appropriate mechanisms.
Develop, Share and Disseminate Knowledge
No single organisation can claim to possess all the
capabilities required to provide effective disaster management.
The disaster management entities within Gujarat will typically
network with a number of other entities to augment their
capabilities. In addition, an institute dedicated to conducting
research, development and training activities related to disaster
management, shall be set up in the state. This institute would
aid in the sharing and dissemination of specialised knowledge
related to disaster management among various implementation
Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy 247
agencies, NGOs, private sector and the community in the state.
Also, basic concepts related to disaster management and the
role of the community therein shall be included in the curriculum
of schools. This shall serve to sensitise people to the participative
approach needed for effective disaster management. Information
and knowledge embracing all facets of disaster-from mitigation
to amelioration-shall be infused in schools, colleges and teacher's
training syllabi.
APPROACH AND STRATEGY
The Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy considers
the understanding of hazards and disasters, their behavior,
and the risks they pose to the community as fundamental to
achieving successful disaster management. Thus, the strategy
for implementing the GSDMP emphasises an integrated
approach to disaster management, covering the following phases
of managing disasters as essential components of any disaster
management program:
• Pre-disaster Phase
• Disaster/ Impact Phase
• Post-disaster Phase
In order to carry out the prescribed activities contained
within this policy, the GoG has defined a framework of operation
for a set of agencies that play a key role in disaster management.
The GSDMP envisages a DM framework where the following
entities play significant roles:
• Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority;
• State Relief Commissioner;
• Government Departments;
• District Administration, headed by the District Collector;
• Local Authorities, including Municipal Corporations,
District, Talukas, Gram
• Panchayats etc.;
• Voluntary agencies, including NGOs;
248 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
• Public sector,
• Private sector;
Community
The implementation framework is based on the premise
that disaster management is not a separate sector or discipline
but an approach to solving problems that facilitates disaster
management, harnessing the skills and resources across
stakeholders. Therefore, a key element of the policy framework
is to leverage the resources and capability of existing entities
and build new capabilities, wherever necessary. While for most
activities, the implementation agencies remain the local
authorities and Government functionaries, at the state level,
GSDMA provides the overall direction and guidance that keeps
the focus of various entities on disaster management.
Approach and Strategy for Implementation
Pre-Disaster Phase-Prevention, Mitigation & management requires the formulation of clear guidelines and
Preparedness
The pre-disaster phase includes prevention, mitigation, and
preparedness activities. These activities involve extensive data
collection, maintaining directories of resources, developing action
plans, capacity building, training and community awareness
activities, among others.
Government departments, district administration, local
authorities and other relevant agencies will develop plans for
prevention and mitigation of disasters and will build capacity
and ensure preparedness in the event of a disaster actually
taking place. The private sector, NGOs and the community
would actively co-operate with the relevant agencies and would
participate in training and other activities, conducted to augment
their disaster management capabilities.
In this context, GSDMA will act as the nodal agency for
mitigation, preparedness and capacity creation and would
facilitate and monitor the same. GSDMA will develop linkages
with other stakeholders such as lending agencies, Government
departments, local authorities, NGOs, private sector and
community groups, national and international agencies in order
Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy 249
to share knowledge and augment capacity on a holistic basis.
The capabilities developed in this phase will play a critical role
in all subsequent phases.
Key Activities in Pre-Disaster Phase
The following are the primary activities that will be carried
out in this phase:
Planned development: There is a significant relationship in
the way disasters and development affect each other. A long-
term disaster management approach requires that planning
activities for development should include robust mitigation
practices. GoG would ensure that the planning activities of the
state administration and local authorities take into account
disaster risks and provide for suitable preventive and mitigation
measures.
Development of policies and guidelines: Effective disaster
subsequent compliance by all Government authorities, private
sector entities and the public at large. GoG would develop
appropriate guidelines that would include:
Civil/ architectural/ structural/ land use planning
specifications; Other guidelines specific to disaster type, like
quarantine (epidemic), cropping patterns (flood), evacuation
(flood/ cyclone) etc.; Development of laws/ by laws that assist
the implementation of a framework for disaster management.
Establishing a proper chain of command: It is imperative
that a clear chain of command is established for effectively
managing activities that immediately follow a disaster. The
GoG will establish a clear chain of command with GSDMA as
the nodal agency for all disaster management activities and
coordination mechanisms across all entities responsible for
implementation in the state.
Risk assessment: Before commencing preventive and
preparedness activities, it is important to identify and assess
different types of risks for the state or parts of the state.
Relevant departments would co-ordinate with GSDMA for a
thorough assessment of:
250 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Hazards: Classification of the region into zones based on
hazard potential; and Vulnerability: Assessment of degree of
vulnerability of any given structure/ people / region to the
impact of the hazard.
The assessment will be used for developing detailed
contingency plans and mitigation measures.
Develop disaster management plans: Detailed disaster
management plans that are tailored to local needs would enable
the relevant authorities and the community to respond
systematically and effectively to disasters. The guidelines for
such plans will be prepared by stakeholders like Government
departments, district administration, local authorities and
expert agencies etc., in consultation with GSDMA. The relevant
authorities will prepare plans using these guidelines and ensure
that these are constantly reviewed and updated. Existing
procedure manuals viz. Relief Manuals and Flood Memorandum
etc. would be reviewed and updated by the relevant Government
department, under the overall guidance of the Authority. In
addition, GSDMA and the relevant Government departments
will prepare, and constantly update, a master contingency plan
for the state based on the local plans. All District Collectors
shall, in advance, designate evacuation areas for use in
emergencies and define plans for providing essential services
to those areas, when in use.
Develop repositories of information: It is critical that the
relevant authorities should be in a position to quickly establish
contact with people and resources in the aftermath of a disaster.
GSDMA and the relevant Government departments will ensure
that a comprehensive repository of information such as names,
contact details, etc. is created, maintained and made easily
accessible to the relevant authorities at all times.
Establish communication and technology networks: A robust
state-wide information network is critical not only for managing
disasters but also for effective functioning of the state
government. Hence, the GoG will ensure that a comprehensive
information network is available. This network must enable
timely collection of hazard-related information and rapid
Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy 251
dissemination of relevant information and warnings. GoG, in
conjunction with GSDMA, will ensure that appropriate levels
of redundancies are built into the network from a disaster
perspective.
Developing early warning mechanisms: Early warning
mechanisms help the relevant authorities in taking timely
preventive measures and thereby, reduce the damage caused
by disasters. Wherever possible, the relevant authorities, in
conjunction with Government departments, shall set up early
warning mechanisms to give advance warning for hazards like
cyclones, floods etc. This shall include the setting up of Regional
Response Centres, if necessary, for providing key early warning
information and preparing for a response, in the event of
occurrence of disaster. GSDMA shall ensure that these
mechanisms are aligned with the overall disaster management
plan for the state.
Establish flexible procedures: Emergency situations may
warrant simplified procedures for decisions relating to
evacuation, procurement of essentials, deployment of resources
and such other activities. The relevant Government departments
shall accordingly define flexible procedures for emergency
situations. Building capabilities & expertise: It is necessary to
build strong capabilities and expertise for handling various
aspects of disasters. GSDMA shall network with a number of
entities such as disaster management agencies, research
institutions, disaster management specialists, NGOs,
community groups, line departments, local Government
authorities and other stakeholders to augment the capabilities
of all relevant entities.
In addition, GoG would set up an institute dedicated to
conducting research, development and training activities related
to disaster management in the state. This institute would aid
in the sharing and dissemination of specialised knowledge
related to disaster management among various implementation
agencies, NGOs, private sector and the community in the state.
This institute will develop disaster management as a distinct
management discipline for streamlined disaster management
cadre.
252 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Capacity Building: The capacity of a community to
withstand disasters is a function of :
• awareness of the risks associated with disasters;
• understanding of appropriate responses to disasters;
• possessing the capacity to respond (training, research,
availability of resources, skilled cadres);
• setting up emergency response mechanisms that mobilise
and deploy these trained resources in a quick, efficient
and systematic manner.
Hence, GSDMA and the relevant authorities shall ensure
that the required awareness, resources and training are provided
to the community. The community will also be urged to develop
self-reliance by promoting and encouraging the spirit of self-
help and mutual assistance. GSDMA shall support these
initiatives by providing necessary resources and expertise from
time to time. Also, basic concepts related to disaster management
and the role of the community therein shall be included in the
curriculum of schools.
This shall serve to sensitise people to the participative
approach needed for effective disaster management. GSDMA
and the relevant Government departments shall ensure that
personnel in specialised areas (medical care, rescue etc.) are
adequately trained and available for deployment in emergency
situations. Disaster management capacity building will have
special thrust on empowering women towards long-term disaster
mitigation
Health and medical care: Health and medical care is one
of the most critical and immediate response component in any
disaster response situation. The capacity for providing medical
assistance in disaster situation including the emergency
response quality will be developed through trained personnel
and appropriate infrastructure. Knowledge management: The
experience from previous disaster situations can provide
valuable insights in managing disasters.
It is vital that these learnings be captured in a systematic
manner and utilised through knowledge management systems,
Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy 253
feedback mechanisms etc. GSDMA and relevant authorities
shall develop systems and processes that enable knowledge
management by capturing, storing and effectively utilising
information related to previous experience in disaster
management.
Information and knowledge embracing all facets of disasters
from prevention to amelioration shall be disseminated in schools
and colleges.
Funds generation: Disasters can cause extensive strain on
financial resources because of relief, reconstruction and
rehabilitation activities.
In addition, activities relating to mitigation of and
preparedness for disaster situations require funds. GoG intends
to have a budgetary allocation for disaster management.
Further, funds would be made available through the Calamity
Relief Fund. In addition, GSDMA, as nodal agency, would also
identify alternative sources of funds for activities related to
disaster management in the state.
Identifying avenues for risk sharing and transfer: Risk
sharing or risk transfer is a means of transferring a part of the
disaster risk to a third party, which is willing to indemnify the
beneficiary against the disaster for a specified premium. GoG
would explore innovative means of sharing the costs associated
with disasters through risk sharing, risk transfer and other
measures since this would alleviate the burden on the state
exchequer.
This could be done through tax surcharge levies, imposition
of local taxes, beneficiary funding, disaster insurance, micro
finance and loans, bonds, tax saving schemes linked to disaster
relief investments etc.
Pre-disaster Phase-Roles of Relevant Agencies
The Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority :
The Authority, in close co-ordination and with assistance of
relevant Government departments would:
• Develop, maintain and update the Gujarat State Disaster
Management Policy;
254 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
• Develop risk assessment programme and emergency
plans that focus on disaster preparedness and mitigation;
• Establish an effective disaster management structure
that can compile, implement and monitor plans, as per
the state policy;
• Incorporate disaster reduction, prevention and
mitigation in socio-economic development planning;
• Give recognition to and ensure that district
administration and local authorities are able to enforce
safety standards and rules, and strengthen their
institutional capacity to deal with disasters and
implement disaster management plans;
• Streamline the development, implementation and
maintenance of contingency plans, and ensure that
lifeline support systems are in place or enhanced;
• Enhance the existing capacity to limit damage by
improving surveillance and early warning systems;
• Facilitate in establishment of an enabling legislative
and financial framework for disaster management, with
due attention to the role of the different tiers of
Government, the private sector and individuals;
• Develop and implement educational and information
programmes to raise public awareness with special
emphasis on risk reduction and preparation;
• Stimulate the active involvement of the community,
local groups, women, and disabled people in disaster
management programmes with a view to facilitating
the capacity of the community to deal with disasters;
• Promote and support research, development of new
technologies and the use of local knowledge in measures
that are aimed at supporting risk reduction and relate
to disaster management activities;
• Ensure that regional and international experience,
knowledge and resources are made available to support
efforts in risk reduction and disaster management in
the state.
Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy 255
Government Departments
Government departments must ensure adequate assistance
to GSDMA, the district administration and local authorities for
activities in this phase. These departments should ensure their
active co-operation in setting up communication centers, drawing
up contingency plans, assisting in capacity building, developing
plans, gathering data, and identifying and training appropriate
personnel, under the overall direction of GSDMA.
District Collectors
The DC plays a co-ordinating role at the district level to
ensure that the various Government functionaries in the district
effectively carry out the DM activities in this phase. Working
in close co-operation with Government departments and local
bodies, the roles of DCs in this phase include:
• Ensuring that prevention, mitigation and preparedness
activities are carried out in accordance with the
appropriate guidelines;
• Providing inputs to GSDMA relating to various aspects
of disaster management, including early warnings, status
of preparedness etc.
• Ensuring that relevant officials in the district possess
the knowledge to deal with disaster management issues;
• Developing an appropriate relief implementation
strategy for the district, taking into account the unique
circumstances of the district and prevailing gaps in
institutional capacity and resources of the district;
• Facilitating and co-ordinating with local Government
bodies to ensure that pre-disaster DM activities in the
district are carried out optimally;
• Facilitating community training, awareness programmes
and the installation of emergency facilities with the
support of local administration, NGOs, and the private
sector;
• Establishing adequate inter-department coordination
on issues related to disaster management;
256 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
• Reviewing emergency plans and guidelines;
• Involving the community in the planning and
development process;
• Ensuring that local authorities, including Municipal
Corporations, Gram Panchayats etc. in the district, are
involved in developing their own mitigation strategies;
• Ensuring appropriate linkage between DM activities
and planning activities;
• Revisiting/ reassessing contingency plans related to
disaster management;
• Ensuring that proper communications systems are in
place, and contingency plans maximize the involvement
of local agencies;
• Ensuring that DM related equipment, especially fire-
fighting equipment are well-maintained and ready to
use.
Local Authorities
Local authorities should work in close co-ordination with
and provide all assistance to relevant Government departments,
under the overall guidance of DC or GSDMA. They should
ensure that staff is adequately trained and all necessary
resources are in a ready-to-use state. They would also be
responsible for ensuring compliance to all specifications, as
may be stipulated by Government departments or GSDMA, for
structures under their jurisdiction.
Private Sector
The private sector should ensure their active participation
in the pre-disaster activities in alignment with the overall plan
developed by the GSDMA or the DC. They should also adhere
to the relevant building codes and other specifications, as may
be stipulated by relevant local authorities.
Community Groups and Voluntary Agencies: Local
community groups and voluntary agencies including NGOs
should actively assist in prevention and mitigation activities
Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy 257
under the overall direction and supervision of the GSDMA or
the DC. They should actively participate in all training activities
as may be organised and should familiarise themselves with
their role in disaster management.
Impact Phase-Emergency Relief Measures and Relief
This phase includes all measures that are taken immediately
in the aftermath of a disaster. The speed and efficiency of the
response in this phase will crucially determine the loss to life
and property. The ability of the state to respond to a disaster
will be developed during the pre-disaster phase and the
capabilities and institutions developed therein will be brought
into play in this phase. Equally important will be the deployment
of trained personnel, proper flow of information and speed of
decision making.
The Revenue Department, in conjunction with other relevant
Government departments would carry out activities in this
phase. GSDMA will facilitate, co-ordinate and monitor the
activities in this phase, wherever required. In case GSDMA
believes that adequate relief is not being provided, it will be
entitled to direct the SRC or the DC in taking requisite measures.
The district administration headed by the DC, in conjunction
with local authorities, shall be responsible for carrying out
relief activities when the impact of a disaster is restricted
within the geographical boundaries of a district. The SRC shall
coordinate and support relief activities of district
administrations, where a disaster has affected more than one
district. Recognizing the importance of a clear chain of command
in emergencies, the GoG will provide the SRC and DCs special
powers to coordinate the activities of all Government authorities
within their jurisdiction.
Key Activities in Impact Phase
The following are the primary activities that need to be
carried out as part of emergency relief measures and in the
relief phase to implement the policy guidelines:
Search & Rescue: The first priority in the aftermath of
a disaster is to minimise loss of lives by undertaking rescue
258 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
efforts for the affected people and providing medical treatment.
People who are trapped under destroyed buildings or are isolated
due to floods or cyclones need immediate assistance. The District
Collector, in conjunction with local authorities will be responsible
for the search and rescue operations in an affected region. In
doing so, the DC will be guided by relevant disaster management
plans and will be supported by Government departments and
local authorities.
Subsistence, shelter, health and sanitation: Disasters can
disrupt food supply, water supply and sanitation mechanisms.
They may also force people to abandon their houses, either
temporarily or permanently. Such situations typically result in
an immediate need for shelter and protection against an
incidence of epidemic. The relevant Government departments
and local authorities would provide temporary shelter, health
and sanitation services to rescued victims in order to prevent
an outbreak of disease.
Infrastructure and Essential Services: Disasters can
cripple the infrastructure of the state in terms of roads, public
buildings, airfields, ports, communication network etc. An
immediate priority after a disaster is to bring the basic
infrastructure into operating condition and deal with fires and
other hazardous conditions that may exist in the aftermath of
the disaster. The local authorities would work in close co-
ordination with relevant Government departments like R&B,
Police etc. to restore infrastructure to normal operating
condition.
Security: Usually, in a disaster situation, the police and
security personnel are preoccupied with conducting search and
rescue missions.
Some people could take advantage of the situation and
resort to looting and other anti-social activities. Consequently,
it is necessary that security agencies functioning under the
administrative control of the district authorities be geared to
prevent this and provide a sense of security to citizens. SRC
and DCs may invoke special powers vested in him/ her by GoG,
if existing powers regarding the same are inadequate.
Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy 259
Communication: The SRC, the district administration
and local authorities would communicate to the larger
community the impact of the disaster and specific activities
that are being or need to be undertaken to minimize the impact.
Some of these activities could include:
Media Management/ PR: To ensure precise
communication of the impact of disaster and relief measures
being taken and generate goodwill among community and other
stakeholders;
Community Management: This includes communicating
to the affected communities with a view to preventing panic
reactions, while providing relevant information and handling
welfare enquiries;
Feedback Mechanisms: Using various mechanisms,
including the communication network to get feedback on relief
measures and urgent needs of various agencies involved in
emergency relief measures and relief.
Preliminary Damage Assessment: In the aftermath of
a disaster, the district administration and local authorities
receive simultaneous requests for assistance from scores of
people and the resources at the disposal of the local
administration are over-stretched. Hence, it is necessary to
utilize and deploy the resources in the most efficient manner.
Such deployment is not possible without undertaking a
preliminary damage assessment. Once a disaster strikes, the
Government departments and the local authorities shall carry
out a preliminary 'need and loss assessment'and the district
administration shall mobilize resources accordingly.
Funds Generation: The GoG allocates funds in the state
Budget for relief activities. In addition, funds may be available
through the Calamity Relief Fund. However, these funds may
not be adequate to meet disaster management requirements in
the aftermath of large-scale disasters like the January 2001
earthquake in the state. In such circumstances, the GoG shall
explore additional sources of funding through aid, grants, loans
etc., as identified in the pre-disaster phase.
260 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Finalizing Relief Payouts and Packages: Relief
packages shall be customized, if required, to the specifics of the
disaster by the GoG. Relief packages would include details
relating to collection, allocation and disbursal of funds to the
affected people. Relief would be provided all the affected families
without any discrimination of caste, creed, religion, community
or sex whatsoever.
Post-relief Assessment: GSDMA, with assistance from
Government departments, district administration and local
authorities will document learning from the relief experience,
which can be inputs into further mitigation, relief or
rehabilitation and reconstruction plans.
Impact Phase-Roles of Relevant Agencies
Emergency relief measures and relief in the immediate
aftermath of a disaster is primarily carried out under the
supervision of the Revenue Department. As far as possible, the
relevant Government departments and district administration
shall carry out their functions in accordance with the appropriate
action plan developed under the guidance of GSDMA.
The Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority
The Authority shall develop policies and principles that
guide and govern the emergency relief measures and relief in
this phase. The Authority would also facilitate, co-ordinate
and monitor emergency relief measures and relief being carried
out by relevant agencies, if required, in this phase, GSDMA
would:
• Recommend provision of additional powers to the
implementation agencies to co-ordinate and handle
emergency relief measures and relief, if existing powers
are inadequate;
• Facilitate, co-ordinate and monitor emergency relief
measures and relief efforts of implementation agencies;
• Co-ordinate with agencies of other states and other
national and international agencies, if necessary, to
augment the relief being provided;
Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy 261
• Ensure effective implementation of policy guidelines by
providing guidance to implementing agencies from time
to time.
The State Relief Commissioner
The SRC plays a direct and active role in relief. For a
disaster that impacts more than one district in the state, the
SRC leads the relief efforts using the appropriate action plan.
The SRC, either directly or through the respective District
Collectors, co-ordinates and monitors the relief efforts using all
the resources available with the State Government. In this
phase, the SRC would:
• Recommend to the State Government when disaster
needs to be declared;
• Supervise and undertake relief, if necessary, where
disaster is declared;
• Support the DC in carrying out emergency relief
measures in respective districts.
Government Departments
Functionaries of various Government departments will carry
out relief operations as per disaster management plans
developed, under the overall supervision of the SRC and the
DCs. The respective district heads from the various Government
departments shall report to the District Collector for the
activities in this phase.
District Collectors
In this phase, the DC is responsible for all activities related
to disaster management for his/ her district, including the
following:
• Recommend to the State Government, declaration of
disaster;
• Undertake and supervise emergency relief measures
and relief operations in the district, with assistance of
other relevant Government departments, local
authorities, voluntary agencies, community groups etc.;
262 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
• Assess need for additional resources and coordinate
with the SRC and GSDMA for accessing statewide
resources, if required.
Local Authorities
Local Authorities, including Municipal Corporations,
Municipalities, District, Taluka, and Gram Panchayats etc.
would follow appropriate guidelines and procedures in
undertaking emergency relief measures and relief activities,
under the overall supervision and direction of the SRC or the
DC.
Private Sector
The private sector would participate in the emergency relief
measures and relief activities under the overall supervision
and direction of the SRC or the DC. Based on the training and
other capacity-building inputs received from GSDMA and other
authorities, they should be able to mobilise resources
immediately and commence emergency relief measures and
relief at the earliest, if required. They should also actively
provide relevant information regarding magnitude of effect of
disaster, need for additional resources etc. They should also co-
operate with relevant authorities in the conduct of a preliminary
damage assessment etc.
Community Groups and Voluntary Agencies
Local community and voluntary agencies including NGOs
are usually the first-responders in the aftermath of a disaster.
The community and voluntary agencies should undertake rescue
and relief measures immediately, to the extent possible on
their own, before the district or the state administration steps-
in. After the intervention of the district or state administration
they should continue the works of rescue and relief under the
overall direction and supervision of the SRC or the DC. They
should work in close coordination with DC/SRC to avoid
duplication and ensure equity. They should take a pro-active
role in assisting the victims of disaster and should provide
inputs to relevant authorities as to the magnitude of effect of
disaster, need for additional resources etc. They should also co-
Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy 263
operate with relevant authorities in the conduct of a preliminary
damage assessment etc.
Post-Disaster Phase-Reconstruction & Rehabilitation
The thrust of Government policy in this phase will be to
ensure a speedy return to normalcy and mitigation of long-term
consequences of the disaster. The policy objective of the
Government in this phase will be to focus on economic and
social consequences of the disaster and directing efforts to
improve the same. The policy objectives will be carried out
through the machinery of the state as well as with the aid of
other stakeholders with whom long-term relationships have
been developed in the pre-disaster phase.
Key Activities in Post-Disaster Phase
The following activities would be carried out in this phase to
achieve policy objectives:
• Detailed Damage Assessment: While a preliminary
damage assessment is carried out during the impact
phase, a detailed assessment must be conducted before
commencing reconstruction and rehabilitation activities.
The relevant Government departments and local
authorities shall initiate detailed assessment at their
respective level for damages sustained in housing,
industry/ services, infrastructure, agriculture, health/
education assets in the affected regions.
• Assistance to Restore Houses and Dwelling Units: GoG
may, if needed, will formulate a policy of assistance to
help the affected to restore damaged houses and
dwellings. This should neither be treated as
compensation for damage nor as an automatic
entitlement.
• Relocation (need based): The GoG believes that need-
based considerations and not extraneous factors drive
relocation of people. The local authorities, in consultation
with the people affected and under the guidance of
GSDMA, shall determine relocation needs taking into
account criteria relevant to the nature of the calamity
264 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
and the extent of damage. Relocation efforts will include
activities like:
• Gaining consent of the affected population;
• Land acquisition;
• Urban/ rural land use planning;
• Customizing relocation packages;
• Obtaining due legal clearances for relocation;
• Getting the necessary authorization for rehabilitation;
• Livelihood rehabilitation measures for relocated
communities, wherever necessary.
Finalizing Reconstruction & Rehabilitation Plan: The
effectiveness of any reconstruction and rehabilitation is based
on detailed planning and careful monitoring of the relevant
projects. GSDMA will oversee reconstruction and rehabilitation
work and ensure that it takes into account the overall
development plans for the state.
GSDMA will approve reconstruction and rehabilitation
projects based on:
• Identification of suitable projects by relevant
departments;
• Project detailing and approval by the relevant technical
authority.
Funds generation: Reconstruction & rehabilitation projects
are fairly resource intensive. These projects have been financed
in the past primarily through the state exchequer. In the recent
past, funds have also been raised from international agencies.
GoG shall finalise the fund generation mechanism, including
the covenants and measures that govern fund inflow and
disbursement and usage. This includes:
• Estimation of funds required based on detailed damage
assessment reports and consolidation of the same under
sectoral and regional heads;
• Contracting with funding agencies and evolving detailed
Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy 265
operating procedures for fund flow and corresponding
covenants.
Funds disbursement and audit: The funds raised from
funding agencies are usually accompanied by stringent
disbursement and usage restrictions. It is therefore important
to monitor the disbursement of such funds to ensure that none
of the covenants are breached. GSDMA, in conjunction with
relevant agencies, shall monitor disbursal of funds by:
• Prioritizing resource allocation across approved projects;
• Establishing mechanisms (like a chain of banks,
collection centres, nature of accounts, spread etc) for
collection of funds;
• Ongoing monitoring and control of fund usage
throughout actual project implementation.
Project Management: Since rehabilitation and
reconstruction effort typically involves the co-ordinated efforts
of several entities, the GoG shall encourage the respective
entities to strengthen program management capabilities to
ensure that synergies across and within entities are managed
efficiently. In addition, it is also necessary to constantly monitor
the activity to ensure that the project is executed on time, in
accordance with the technical specifications and to the
satisfaction of the beneficiaries. GSDMA, in conjunction with
relevant Government departments, will monitor the
reconstruction activity that is carried out by various
implementation agencies. Typical implementation activities
would include:
• Disaster proofing and retrofitting of houses;
• Creation/ Retrofitting of structures-including roads,
bridges, dams, canals etc that may have been destroyed/
damaged due to the disaster;
• Restoration of basic infrastructure facilities, for example,
ports, airports, power stations etc.;
• Creation of health centres, first aid centres, hospitals,
groups of doctors and surgeons etc.;
266 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
• Restoration of the industrial viability of the affected
area.;
• Restoration of livelihood.
Communication: Communication activities are necessary
to convey to the larger community the scope and nature of the
proposed reconstruction and rehabilitation effort so as to
increase the stakeholder awareness and buy-in for the ongoing
activities. Hence, GSDMA and relevant Government
departments, district administration and local authorities shall
undertake:
Ongoing Media Management/ Public Relations: To
ensure accurate communication of the reconstruction and
rehabilitation measures being taken to various stakeholders;
Community Management: This includes communicating
to the affected communities with a view to appraising them of
efforts being made for their relocation/ rehabilitation/
reconstruction;
Feedback Mechanisms: Using the communication
network to get feedback on reconstruction and rehabilitation
measures.
Dispute Resolution Mechanisms: GSDMA, in
conjunction with relevant agencies, shall institutionalize
mechanisms to address beneficiary grievances at various levels,
as well as explore innovative ways of dispute minimisation like
involving the community in reconstruction initiatives.
Appropriate mechanism with penalties for dealing with false
claims will be evolved to prevent misuse of assistance.
Implementing Initiatives for Recovery of
Reconstruction Costs: The GoG shall finalise and implement
select recovery measures such as:
• Imposing tax surcharge levies (central);
• Imposing local taxes;
• Facilitation of funding responsibility sharing by
beneficiaries etc.
Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy 267
Post-Disaster Phase-Roles of Relevant Agencies
The post-disaster phase will mainly comprise reconstruction
and rehabilitation activities. Currently, the activities in this
phase are primarily carried out by the local bodies (Gram
Panchayats, District, Taluka, Municipal Corporations,
Municipalities etc.) and various Government departments and
boards. However, their activities in this phase shall be in
accordance with the reconstruction and rehabilitation plans
framed by GSDMA, in conjunction with implementing
authorities.
The Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority
The Authority shall through the line departments / local
bodies conduct a detailed assessment of damage, formulate
estimates of financial support required and raising the required
funds from various Governments, national and international
funding agencies etc. The Authority would be responsible for
the deployment of funds, as per identified priorities. The
Authority would facilitate, co-ordinate and monitor
reconstruction and rehabilitation efforts of various Government
departments and other implementation agencies in terms of
project timelines, processes, funds deployment and benefits
accruing to the affected community. As part of the same, the
Authority would also be responsible for meeting the guidelines
and providing feedback on various parameters related to the
progress and outcome of the reconstruction and rehabilitation
efforts to the various funding agencies and other stakeholders.
Government departments and Local Authorities
Government departments and local authorities will conduct
detailed damage assessment and will carry out the
reconstruction and rehabilitation activities, in accordance with
the policies and guidelines specified by the Authority. They
would also be responsible for reporting various parameters, as
may be required by GSDMA, related to the progress and outcome
of the various projects undertaken by them.
District Collectors
The DC plays a co-ordinating role at the district level to
268 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
ensure that the various Government departments effectively
carry out the rehabilitation and reconstruction activities in this
phase. The primary responsibilities of the DC in this phase are:
Coordinating the reconstruction and rehabilitation efforts
in the district or a part of the district;
Assisting GSDMA in monitoring the progress and outcome
of reconstruction and rehabilitation efforts on the basis of the
mechanisms established by GSDMA.
Private Sector
The private sector should provide fair estimates of damage
assessment to relevant authorities and provide feedback in
terms of their priorities and concerns for work related to
rehabilitation and reconstruction. They should participate in
the post-disaster activities, in co-ordination with GSDMA or
the DC and in alignment with the overall policies and guidelines
developed by the Authority. They should co-operate in providing
feedback regarding progress and outcome of rehabilitation and
reconstruction projects undertaken in their vicinity.
Community Groups and Voluntary Agencies
Community groups and voluntary agencies, including NGOs
should provide fair estimates of damage assessment to relevant
authorities and provide feedback in terms of their priorities
and concerns for work related to rehabilitation and
reconstruction. They should participate in the post-disaster
activities, in co-ordination with GSDMA or the DC and in
alignment with the overall policies and guidelines developed
by the Authority. They should co-operate in providing feedback
regarding progress and outcome of rehabilitation and
reconstruction projects undertaken in their vicinity.
Norton School of Family and Consumer Sciences 269
11
NORTON SCHOOL OF FAMILY AND
CONSUMER SCIENCES
Good family communication is necessary to effective-ly work
together to prevent or respond to crises. This fact sheet offers
ways of developing communication skills that help families not
only to survive crises, but also to improve their daily lives. It
provides helpful ways to think about communication, explains
why family communication is sometimes difficult, and shows
how family members of all ages can increase their well-being
through family meetings by applying simple rules for good
communication.
We talk and write to friends, co-workers and fam-ily
members all the time. But special attention needs to be paid
to communication during times of family change or community
disaster. If it's easier to com-municate respectfully and clearly
with people you hardly know than with your own family
members, or if communicating under stress feels overwhelming,
or even if you feel your family communicates well already, this
fact sheet may be of interest.
It can indeed be hard to communicate calmly with the
people who share our roof and responsibilities and in whom we
have invested a great deal of ourselves. Adding to the difficulties
of family communication are the strong emotions that relying
on each other brings. Even within the same family, the definition
of good or clear communication may differ for family members
of different generations, cultures, ages, or gender. Furthermore,
in a crisis or disaster we may not feel sure of ourselves and
how or if we should share our feelings (e.g., fear, anger, sorrow)
270 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
and thoughts (e.g. of blame, hope, problem-solving). This fact
sheet can help you improve your existing communication skills
and gain new ones to weather normal family changes and
crises.
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Both listening and speaking are necessary to success-fully
communicate. Listening gives you valuable in-formation about
your family. The information your loved ones share should not
be ignored, even if you dislike what or how it is said. At times,
a family mem-ber in crisis may pull away from you. Part of good
communication is the ability to accept temporary withdrawal
or silence, as even this silence can be in-formative to you and
helpful to your family member. Likewise, speaking up and
clearly stating what you feel and think is an important part
of coping with your family's immediate needs in daily life and
in a crisis. Communication also keeps us connected to family
and community. Being connected helps ground us in reality
and reduces the stress we feel due to crises and daily hassles.
ENCOURAGING FAMILY COMMUNICATION AFTER A
DISASTER
Crisis Planning and Prevention Require Communication
Crises come in all shapes and sizes. Communication skills,
planning, and practice in dealing with smaller crises can help
families cope with larger problems. The following are examples
of crises and the commu-nication issues they may raise:
• War and terrorism may require rapid and planned
emergency responses. They may also result in difficult
discussions with children or family disagreement on
political issues.
• Major illness is often unexpected, but requires
substantial ongoing planning, and the sharing of
emotions and concerns after the initial shock of the
illness or disability.
• The impact of job loss can be prepared for through
education and savings, but these preparations may bring
Norton School of Family and Consumer Sciences 271
on their own family crises about how to handle family
duties and income.
• Natural disasters may bring neighbors and community
resources to us, but these supports may leave before we
have experienced a full recovery from our loss.
• Family changes (separation, death, adoption or its
disruption, loss of a pregnancy) may or may not bring
friends closer to us. In such cases, families may choose
to be more private than usual in their communications.
These events put as much or more stress on a family
than events such as hurricanes, which are seen as beyond
any human's fault or control.
• The developmental transitions of both children and
adults can be disruptive.
For example, adjustment is required when children enter
adolescence or when adults enter retirement age. These
normal changes are also often seen as family crises due
to the conflicts they may create.
While all families experience these changes, we may
feel alone as we go through them. Such changes demand
our best communication skills. Often these "normal"
crises bring critical comments from well-meaning friends,
relatives and even from ourselves. Clear and open
communication helps teens, elders and adults weather
the normal changes that shape and reshape families.
• Family violence and substance abuse can disrupt any
family. Frank discussion, willingness to seek help, and
speaking up and listening to others without judging
them are essential to responding to these common
problems. Communication without judging allows others
to be open and seek our help. Don't wait until a crisis
before learning and sharing what communication styles
and tools work for you and your family. In preparing
families for change or crisis, it is best to practice
communication skills. One way to develop skills for
good communication is to have regular family meetings.
272 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
FAMILY MEETINGS
Family meetings are a simple but very useful way to help
families deal with their concerns. In these meet-ings work on
goals and problems alike, but begin with issues you know will
go smoothly as you work out the how-to's of your communication
(e.g. time and place; show respect even when you disagree). By
meeting regularly, you will get used to sharing feel-ings, reaching
out for support, writing down plans, and coming to consensus
(waiting to act until every-body agrees). Most experts and
families agree that practicing communication takes time and
may even feel a little awkward or "fake" at first, but it will feel
more natural and the time will feel well spent as your skills
improve. Simple planning and ground-rules make family
meetings a success:
o Begin your first family meetings with items dealing
with fun or praise. First make them fun; then deal with
business. Organize the meeting so that it is not too long.
Lengthy meetings may get boring. Let everyone speak.
Take turns playing the roles of focus-keeper, note-taker
and time-watcher.
o Family meetings during or after a crisis work best if
they have been a family routine. Develop a tradition
that starts and ends the meeting-traditions anchor us
in storms of crisis.
o Use consensus-base a final decision on what everyone
has agreed to or can live with.
o Make sure every family member feels welcome to attend
the meetings but does not feel forced to attend.
o Use "I"-sentences (speak from your own heart) and avoid
placing blame; take a break when tempers flare.
o Keep to one topic at a time. Summarize the discussion.
o End each meeting with something fun or affectionate.
Skills developed in family meetings will help your family
cope with disaster and normal family changes. In daily life,
family meetings are a great place to set new family rules and
Norton School of Family and Consumer Sciences 273
share feelings and concerns. In a crisis, skills developed in
regular family meetings will help us feel connected to each
other and to real-ity, and will help us communicate.
COMMUNICATION IN A CRISIS
When we are in a crisis, we are bound to feel stressed. The
following strategies have been shown to help in-dividuals
communicate more effectively when they are under stress:
o Learn your stress signals and those of your family
members. Stress signals are the warning lights of anger
and "shut down". They include such non-verbal cues as
feeling hot, looking away, etc.
o Be honest, but say what you need to with care, tact, and
courtesy while remaining focused on the issue at hand.
o Think through your problem before you speak; get all
the facts.
o Listen, take turns, lead when necessary, and hear
without interrupting or criticizing.
o Check your interpretations of what others are telling
you. Don't assume anything. Using these tips will help
each person in your family to communicate what help
he or she needs and can offer to others.
Children
Crises may affect each member of a family differ-ently.
Each person's resources (e.g., communication skills, knowledge,
money, experience, friends, faith) and roles (parent, child, elder,
spouse, partner) play a part in how they will respond and
communicate to others in the family and community. Children
often make good problem solvers and rise to the occasion,
although they need to be kept informed and support-ed with
clear and caring communication. These tips have been found
to be especially helpful to children (and work with most adults
as well):
o Involve children in family meetings based on their age
and ability to understand.
274 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
o Discuss the family's needs and the child's role in helping
to meet those needs.
o Provide simple, honest answers to questions. o Listen
without judging or criticizing the child's worries.
o Make clear statements of confidence in the family's
ability to survive the crisis.
SUMMARY
In a crisis, you will want to understand others and have
them understand you. You will want to know if your partner's
or child's silence means agreement, fear or something else.
Becoming aware of commu-nication roadblocks (blocking out
information, ignor-ing warning signs, placing blame or losing
control of your temper) and effective communication styles help
families in times of crisis. Tips for keeping com-munication
clear include:
o Have regular family meetings before, during, and after
crises.
o Help family members share what makes for good
communication for them.
o Be sure to listen, as advice is not always appropriate-
sometimes a good listener is all we need. Use "I"
statements, and encourage others to do the same. Work
towards consensus. Be honest but polite.
o Learn your stress signals. Clearly state both what you
need and what you can do to help.
o Check to see if you were understood-don't leave room
for guessing and bad feelings based on
misunderstanding. Remember, every person, even a
child, has something important to contribute.
o Keep breathing and do not sit too long; we were made
to go forward.
Crises come and go, but when we communicate clearly and
respectfully with those we love, when we reach out to give and
get help, we are better able to deal with present and future
crises. Developing our family communication skills can even
help us to en-joy family life more.
Disaster Response 275
12
D ISASTER RESPONSE
COMMUNICATIONS
Effective communication is critical to delivering services to
Missourians, and is the single most important element to
effectively responding to a man-made or natural disaster.
Effective communication is required both vertically and laterally,
and becomes more necessary and more difficult prior to, during,
and after a natural or man-made disaster. Effective
communication is not eloquent speech or flowing prose, but
rather is the ability to convey information clearly and concisely
in a manner that is easily understood. Answering the 6 W's
(who, what, when, where, why, and how) is always a solid
communication foundation upon which to build.
Internal Communication
Disastrous events occur with and without warning and
during business and non-business hours. Regardless of the
disaster, effective communication is critical to ensure that the
department is able to respond quickly, efficiently, and effectively.
Additionally, personnel accountability throughout all phases of
the disaster is of utmost concern, especially if the emergency
occurs without warning during office hours. Each office will
maintain an up-to-date listing of after hours contact information
and will periodically test its ability to contact individuals after
hours. These tests will also include the ability to communicate
with division management.
Each office shall have a plan in place for the rapid notification
of personnel in the event of a sudden and unexpected disaster.
276 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
This plan should include methodology for communicating
throughout the chain of command in your office, but also up
the chain of command to division management.
The safety of personnel, if the disaster occurs unexpectedly
during working hours, is the primary focus and concern.
However, this effort should be followed very closely by, or be
conducted concurrently with, establishing communication
internally and with division management.
Traditional means of communication (telephone, cell phone,
and e-mail) should be used subsequent to a disaster if they are
available. While both man-made and natural disasters may
prohibit one or more of these communications mediums,
oftentimes (as proven with Hurricane Katrina) at least one
remains viable. The EER spill-line (573-634-2436) is manned
24 hours a day and can always be utilized to communicate.
Depending upon the magnitude of the disaster, establishing
communication may be more difficult and require creativity. In
these cases, non-traditional communication methods such as
satellite phones and hand-held radios should be used. Beyond
these assets, individual creativity must be brought to bear in
order to establish communication, but efforts in this regard
must not cease until communication is established.
Offices should designate specific individuals with the
responsibility for communicating up and down the chain of
command during and after a disaster. Managing communication
in this manner better ensures a common and accurate message.
Because of the inherent stress associated with a catastrophe,
disaster communication within the department should always:
(1) Present information in sequence.
(2) Omit unnecessary details.
(3) Word the message precisely, making every word count.
External Communication
Effective disaster communication with parties outside the
agency is facilitated through pre-disaster communication
Disaster Response 277
planning and post-disaster implementation. This communication
may be with citizens, interest groups, private industries, local
officials, state and federal agencies, local news agencies or
national news agencies.
Division and department public information assets should
be utilized and consulted to the fullest extent possible, but
these assets cannot be relied upon to handle all of the external
communication requests during and subsequent to a disaster.
Local resources must be able to handle questions and
inquiries on their own. Each region/program will have a pre-
disaster communication plan to ensure adequate and appropriate
communication with external entities.
These plans will include:
(1) Designating a primary and alternate Public Information
Officer (PIO) in each Region or Program.
(2) Pre-selecting disaster/crisis communication teams,
designating who will talk with the media, who will
answer phone calls, and who will make decisions about
what to say.
(3) Providing all PIOs with communications-related training
opportunities.
The pre-disaster communication plan will enable the office,
and therefore the department, to communicate more effectively
with external entities during or immediately following a disaster.
PIOs or other employees responsible for external
communications should:
(1) Be accessible or designate someone to be accessible to
the media at all times.
(2) Be active, not reactive.
(3) Word messages precisely, making every word count.
(4) Centralize information.
(5) Speak in sync with other related authorities.
(6) Avoid jargon, codes, and acronyms; use common names
for all personnel and facilities.
278 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Disaster Response 279

CONDUCTING POST-DISASTER ENVIRONMENTAL Expertise in drinking water, wastewater, and solid waste (debris
ASSESSMENTS management) should reside in each team, with additional areas
of expertise represented in teams as resources allow.
Subsequent to any significant man-made or natural disaster,
Establishing teams ahead of time facilitates effective training
the department will be called upon to conduct environmental
and allows for more efficient deployment. Offices should also
assessments. The nature of the disaster will dictate the type
be prepared to designate individuals to be part of SEMA/FEMA
of assessment, but public drinking water, wastewater, and
strike teams deployed to specific locations for specific purposes
debris assessments are likely in almost any instance. The more
(such as debris assessments).
catastrophic the disaster, the greater the number of assessments
(in various media) that will be required. Regardless of the Required Training for Assessment Team Members
incident, the following information needs to be gathered as o ICS 700
soon as possible:
o ICS 100
1. Communities without, or in danger of being without,
drinking water. Equipment
2. Significant wastewater releases. Carried within each team:
3. Type and amount of debris associated with the incident. o digital camera
4. Hazardous waste releases. o GPS unit
5. Number and type of threats to air quality. o food and water
Internal Assessments o first aid kit

Offices should conduct internal assessments of buildings, Carried by each individual:

equipment, vehicles, and workspaces subsequent to a local o hard hat
disaster. Internal assessments will most likely be required
o reflective vest
following localized severe weather, but man-made disasters
could also prompt assessments. o means of communication (radio, cell-phone, PDA,
satellite phone)
Internal assessments can be conducted by any employee,
but should be routed up the chain of command within the o department identification
program/regional office for validation and prioritization. Noted o additional personal protective gear (brush pants, steel-
damages, and their impact on the ability of the office to conduct toed boots, latex gloves, rubber boots, chest/hip waders,
operations, as well as any photographs or amplifying rain gear, seasonal clothing, etc)
descriptions, should be communicated to division management
Responsibilities:
as soon as possible.
Regional Director:
External Environmental Assessments
a. Ensure environmental assessment teams are formed
Each office shall be prepared to conduct environmental
and appropriately staffed.
assessments within its region. Each office will establish multi-
disciplinary assessment teams prior to an event. Teams should b. Ensure the preparation and proper training of
range in size from 3-4, including the designated team leader. environmental assessment teams.
280 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
c. Deploy environmental assessment teams based on
expertise and external needs.
d. Ensure teams work with a community throughout
recovery (for continuity).
e. Organize information and communicate regularly with
division management (department management, SEMA
as needed). Copy the EER Duty Officer in the Incident
Command Center on all reports.
f. Coordinate with other state/relief agencies to determine
if assessment teams can assist their efforts, such as
carrying food and water to a distribution point.
g. Assign employees to SEMA/FEMA strike teams as
requested.
h. Ensure that all teams receive a safety briefing prior to
initial deployment.
i. Contact all communities in the affected area(s) as soon
as possible after the event.
Environmental Assessment Team Leader
a. Ensure the preparation and proper training of all team
members.
b. Ensure the safety of each team member during
assessments.
c. Establish contact and check in with the Incident
Command Post upon deployment to an affected area.
(Assessment team members are not assigned work by
the Incident Command Post.)
d. Represent the department in the affected community.
e. Coordinate and communicate on site with local, SEMA,
and FEMA officials.
f. Communicate regularly with the Regional Director,
articulating accomplishments, needed resources,
community needs and difficulties encountered.
g. Provide technical assistance, as needed, to affected
entities.
Disaster Response 281
h. Provide guidance, direction and oversight to team
members.
i. Conduct a safety briefing daily prior to beginning
assessment work.
Environmental Assessment Team Member
a. Represent the department in the affected community.
b. Apply environmental expertise to identify both problems
and solutions.
c. Communicate continually with the Team Leader.
d. Ensure the safety of each team member during
assessments.
e. Provide technical assistance, as needed, to affected
entities.
f. Be prepared to assume the role of team leader, should
circumstances warrant.
g. Be prepared to assist in distributing food and water to
citizens.
Employee Safety When Conducting Assessments
Employee safety supersedes all other concerns when
conducting environmental assessments, and personal safety is
the responsibility of both the individual and other members of
the assessment team. An environment that demands
environmental assessments is inherently dangerous, requiring
all team members to look after themselves and those around
them.
All team members should have up-to-date tetanus
vaccinations. Appropriate team members should have hepatitis
vaccinations(water, waste water, solid waste).
Team Leaders are responsible for ensuring that all team
members possess appropriate personal protective gear prior to
deployment.
Team members should be trained on how to deal with the
numerous hazards they are likely to face when conducting
environmental assessments. These may include:
282 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Hazard Suggested Response
Unknown or Hazardous Substances
Avoid the substance. If possible, safely determine and note
the source. Document location (with GPS if possible). Take
pictures of substance and source. Communicate location and
other details to the Regional Office so that they can bring in
additional resources such as EER or local HazMat Teams.
Animals
Likely to be displaced, hungry, and irritable domestic dogs.
Depending on the circumstances, team members need to be
prepared for wild animals that have been drawn to food or
shelter from damaged homes or facilities. Team members should
avoid contact with both domestic and wild animals. If animals
prevent assessment, and if the animals are unwilling to leave
simply because of human presence, temporarily bypass and
convey location and type of animal on to the Regional Office
for coordination with local animal control or MDC.
Snakes
Snakes are a likely hazard, particularly in a flooding
scenario. Team members should be cautious in moving debris
by hand or when moving on or amongst debris piles. Additionally,
within a structure that has been damaged by a storm
accompanied by significant rain or by floodwaters, any dry or
warm location should be thoroughly examined before reaching
into or entering it.
Ceilings and rafters should also be examined to ensure that
no snakes are at or above eye level. If possible, snake boots or
snakeproof chaps should be worn if feedback or observations
indicate the prevalence of snakes in a particular area. When
encountered, snakes should be given a safe berth, bypassed,
and the assessment should continue.
Downed Electrical Lines
Very common hazard associated with storms. Downed lines
should be avoided. Note location of lines. Provide description
and location to the Regional Office or to the local utility company.
Disaster Response 283
If downed lines prevent assessment, bypass the location until
the line has been repaired or until assurance is received that
no current is flowing through it.
Debris
Debris should be expected in the wake of almost every
disaster. Team members who encounter roads blocked by debris
should not attempt to clear the blockage, as debris can shift
easily and is often heavier than it appears. Note location and
relay message back through the Regional Office to coordinate
with MoDOT, the county, or the city. Team members must also
be continually on the alert for falling or unstable debris, and
should wear hard hats at all times when assessing debris or
advising on-site about disposal methods and options.
Citizens
Team members need to be prepared for desperate citizens
that desire only the food, water, clothing, or gas that team
members have. Teams should carry extra food and water at all
times, and should share with citizens as appropriate. If team
members encounter hostile citizens, they should bypass the
location, relay details back to the Regional Office and allow the
Regional Office to work to arrange an escort by MHP, the
Sheriff's Office, or the municipal police.
PROVIDING ASSISTANCE TO COMMUNITIES
Closely allied with conducting damage assessments is
providing assistance to communities on a variety of
environmental topics subsequent to a disaster. Local elected
officials and private citizens will seek guidance on a variety of
topics, and offices need to be prepared to provide guidance on
open burning, public drinking water quality sampling and
assessments, and assistance to waste-water facilities in
evaluating functionality.
Disasters of significant magnitude may result in an
emergency declaration wherein the Governor allows the
Department Director to suspend some environmental
regulations in order to facilitate cleanup and recovery. These
regulation waivers will be promulgated from the Department
284 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Coping with Disasters through Effective... 285

Director to the local communities via the Regional Offices. Past

disasters have revealed that once waivers are granted, it is
expedient for Regional Directors to send a fax to each County
Commissioner offering assistance, containing a copy of the
waiver signed by the Department Director and any or all
department publications listed below. In addition to the County
Commissioners, Regional Directors should also consider sending
13
guidance to mayors and city administrators.
COPING WITH DISASTERS THROUGH
Each office should maintain, and periodically update, contact
lists (mailing address, phone, and fax) for County EFFECTIVE INTER-ORGANIZATIONAL
Commissioners, mayors and city administrators within their N ETWORKS
region.

With very low advanced readiness on the part of civil

administration, the disaster of January 26, 2001 was a moment
of reckoning for administration, civil society and international
community.
If we appear to be critical of ourselves in this narrative, it
is only to dispense with niceties and sharpen the lessons that
we could learn from this experience. We would also like to
highlight some of the positive steps taken by various actors,
which could be incorporated, in the future strategies. But the
overall tone is likely to be very critical and this should not
retract us from the admirable and extremely enthusiastic
response from various actors in coping with the disaster. We
do regret that we have not learnt many lessons even now.
In part one of the chapter we describe the insights from
the coping strategies adopted by various administrative agencies
and the issues arising therefrom. The issues for the research
are identified in part two.
Insights from the Coping Strategies
While army and air force rose to the occasion immediately,
the civil administration took time. Irony can be imagined from
the fact that Swiss rescue team was here at the airport with
sniffer dogs and other relief equipments within 24 hours but
our authorities could not clear the baggage for many more
286 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
hours. There is no justification for not having a drill in each
crucial infrastructural office to devise immediate course of
action with sole purpose of saving lives, ensuring communication,
security of vital installations and coordination of the support
systems. Such a drill had apparently never taken place. We did
not have even a list of cranes or other equipments with clear
arrangements to move them at short notice to deal with huge
concrete slabs, which had fallen from the damaged buildings.
Even the hand tools including hammers were not around.
People were trying to rescue the buried injured people manually
to begin with, before fire brigade department could cope with
so many calls from so many directions.
The control room set up by the municipal corporation slowly
started coordinating with army and air force once the scale of
disaster in Kutchh became apparent. The VIP visits were a
great nuisance because most leaders in our country have not
learnt to be humble, practical and professional at such moments.
They somehow could not insist on doing away with protocol and
providing support rather than withdrawing it from more
deserving segments of society. Even the telephone numbers of
crucial relief organs were not available at one place.
There were some very responsible young officers who realize
the enormity of the problem, developed immediate rapport
with the defense officials and started cutting the red tape
taking far more responsibility than their rank permitted. These
people were saving the day. There was not a single mobile
operation theatre though army relief camp at Anjar and a few
other places was activated immediately.
The transportation was another source of major concern
with one bridge to Kutchh damaged and the other under heavy
strain without any discipline about the priority for vehicles
carrying life saving drugs or equipments. Every vehicle was in
the same queue. The helicopters that manage traffic flow during
the Republic Day Parade could have been moved to manage the
transportation along the life line road to Kutchhh. Vehicles
were stranded for four-five hours and sometime more. The
disaster tourists made the matter worse.
Coping with Disasters through Effective... 287
The railways tried to move heavy equipments but for some
reason, the flow of wagons to and from the source points to the
destination was not as expeditious as was necessary. Perhaps
the civic administration did not give them the requisite
information.
a. Communication : Soon after the earthquake, there was
a shock and immediate eruption of civil society initiatives
to do whatever they could do. Some groups started
collecting information to find out what was the scale of
damage so that they could identify the role for
themselves. The media took note of the crisis and flashed
it around the world. However, the authorities were
informed after a lag of few hours because of snag in the
lines of communication between he IMD Chief and Prime
Minister who was at the Republic Day Parade. These
were crucial two hours, which could have helped in
shaping the quality and quantity of immediate relief. As
we will notice later, the communication bottlenecks were
the most crucial in preventing many more lives being
saved.
b. Telecommunication: The lines of communication were
disturbed in Kutchh causing tremendous stress on the
relief agencies. We tried to mobilize ham radio operators
from around the country and learnt later that they were
at least 500 such operators within Gujarat. The list of
these people is available today at www.sristi.org/
dmis.html, a disaster management information system
site put together by SRISTI(Society for Research and
Initiatives for Sustainable Technologies and Institutions)
as a voluntary contribution. But, on that day, such
information was not available. Some volunteers had
immediately set up the facility at Gandhinagar and
later in Kutchh to improve communications. The Telecom
department tried to activate the telephone service fast
including some of the cellular service operators but this
remained a major bottleneck for the first week or so.
c. Transport: The transportation arrangements for Kutchh
were in disarray and the large number of vehicles coming
288 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
with relief materials from different states did not know
where to go and who to contact. As mentioned earlier,
the regulation of traffic, prioritization of movement,
stoppage of unnecessary private vehicles (even if well-
intentioned) and ensuring close monitoring were
necessary. We are not sure that such a thing would
happen if disaster of that scale were to occur again. We
do not need to give evidence of lack of preparedness
even today.
Railways: Lot of relief material and people were coming
through railways who were providing help to the extent
possible. However, special warehouses, information
booth to guide volunteers and direct materials were
missing. Similarly, movement of heavy machinery as
well as concrete cutters and other such equipments was
hampered in the first few days. We do not have adequate
information and therefore are unable to appreciate fully
the constraints under which they had to work. However,
a system is needed to immediately organize the
movement of materials needed for urgent relief in
coordination with the civic administration.
d. GIS based Communication Network : For routing various
supplies to the critical locations and ensuring that no
discrimination takes place, no needy village or location
is left out and prioritization is need based rather than
influence based, GIS linked inventory and logistics
support system should be in place. We should know
what alternative routes exist to go to any major
coordination center in case the main routes are damaged.
It should also be possible to track supplies to various
locations and get feedback from the users on the same.
In Kutchh, perhaps because of security concerns, despite
our best efforts, we could not get the GIS maps linked
with supply chain software that our students and faculty
developed for Relief Commissioner in Bhuj.
e. Logistics (transportation, warehouse, supply chain
management software and hardware, inventory
management systems, sourcing database) : January end
Coping with Disasters through Effective... 289
is a cold period and tents and woolens were needed
urgently. The contact information of different tent
suppliers was not easily available. The supplier at
Kumbha Mela when contacted was not willing to help
because of some pending bills of past. International
supplies of course were coming. Despite the fact that air
force station in Bhuj had suffered heavy causalities,
they were on the job day and night. But, the need of
their families were not attended to as promptly as should
have been the case, given the fact that the officers and
soldiers were giving priority to their service to the society
rather than the need of their families. Our worry is that
even after year and a half of the recent disaster, our
preparedness has not improved a great deal in this
regard as well.
f. Warehouses: One of the major problems that many
voluntary organizations as well as government faced
was proper warehousing facilities for rescue and relief
materials. Medicines were lying under sun in open in
Bhuj. We had converted a big hall in our campus to
provide support to citizen's initiative-a conglomerate of
about 200 NGOs. However, we also did not have facilities
for proper storage of medicines.
g. Monitoring of Supplies: After several days, two check
posts were set up on the two main routes to Kutchh to
help direct the supplies coming from unknown places.
However, these check posts did not receive indents from
various locations so as to guide the trucks to right
destinations. The result was that too much was reaching
at some locations while nothing much was reached at
other locations.
h. Medical Help: The doctors from Ahmedabad and other
locations had moved immediately to set up camps in the
affected regions but sourcing of supplies were becoming
a constraint. In the absence of sterilized conditions, in
many places first aid was provided by doctors not trained
in orthopedic assistance. We recall a moment when
oxygen cylinders were required and by the time we
290 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
could locate and arrange them, it was too late. The
ability of civil society network as well as public
institutions to pool their inventories was very limited.
There were some NGOs who were very keen to maintain
their own control over distribution of resources, even if
it meant inefficiency in ensuring right medical help to
the needy people. Large number of companies
manufacturing drugs were very much willing to provide
medicine at short notice besides the devises required for
fractures, bandages, etc. Christian Medical College,
Ludhiana and their associates were very helpful to bring
mobile medical units to provide high quality service.
Temporary x-ray facilities were limited in the first few
days. The nurses were particularly in short supply
though doctors were abundantly available.
i. Disaster Management Information Database: The details
of the online DMIS developed by SRISTI and IIMACORE
are available in annexure one and two. It may suffice
to state here that on 26 January 2002, around the time
when it was launched, we felt that a great deal had not
still been learnt. This workshop would go a long way
if it could bring in a sense of urgency in giving a wake
up call to our unusually lethargic bureaucratic system.
The basic information on communication, health,
transport, warehouse, machinery, sanitation, drinking
water, electrical systems, roads and bridges, etc., with
clearly identified nodal points responsible for emergency
relief must be available all over the country on the web
as well as in printed form in public libraries.
We should also have a list of volunteers who would be
willing to move at a short notice within their locality, district,
state or country to provide help in various regard. The offer
of help in terms of infrastructure such as warehouse,
transportation, medical equipments, cranes, concrete cutters,
etc., can also be registered in such databases. Every six months,
a confirmation letter/mail ought to go to everybody who has
volunteered to revalidate their offer and also enable them to
modify their offer. The support from the civil society is most
Coping with Disasters through Effective... 291
invaluable. At this moment, such a database has not been built
anywhere in the country except for a small initiative at SRISTI.
The advertisements will have to be issued and public media
will have to be mobilized for seeking volunteers for DMIS. Our
goal should be to reduce level of deaths in such emergencies
from 20000 to may be two or three. This is what the current
level is in many disaster prone developed countries. The DMIS
had focused on developing database, logistic support, identifying
technological needs, self-reliance at community level,
communication infrastructure, emergency preparedness and
forecasting (see Annexure two).
LESSONS LEARNT AND ISSUES FOR FURTHER
RESEARCH
a. The first lessons that we have to learn with great regret
is that we don't seem to learn easily. The experience of
Latur had not taught us much. The problem is not with
the intention of policy makers and administrative leaders
but with the total lack of concern for institutionalizing
learning pedagogies. For instance, we requested GSDMA
(Gujarat State Disaster Management Agency) and UNDP
to record the experience of NGO workers and officials
about the problems they faced in first few days. But, it
could not be done. Not only that, most of the experience
notes prepared afterwards dealt more with what had
been done rather than with what could not be done. It
is useful to learn from best practices, on the ground
innovations, and sporadic initiatives that people took to
solve the problems. In one case, there was a serious
situation because of the way concrete slabs had fallen.
A person well-connected politically had his mother
trapped inside, but nobody had the courage to go in and
rescue the lady because of the precarious nature of the
building. Despite lot of throwing around of weight,
nothing was happening. Finally, a young officer offered
to go in to locate the lady's condition and assess the
strategy to bring her out. Only after that other people
would venture to help. Such events are not unusual but
292 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
a mechanism to record such initiatives and explore better
technologies to assess the strength of the structures
might reduce the reliance on individual valor. CSIR
under the leadership of Dr.R.A.Mashelkar had offered
immediate help of all his labs for whatever assistance
we needed.
Within 24 hours, structural engineers were mobilized
from all over the country to assist local authorities in
assessing which buildings to completely pull down and
which ones to be left for repairs. Likewise, many other
labs helped by sending ready to eat food mixtures and
providing assistance in other matters. How to mobilize
such help in disasters should be institutionalized and
a database of such experts whether from institutions or
from civil society, as suggested in DMIS would come
handy on such occasions.
b. The role of NGOs such as Kutch Nav Nirman Abhiyan,
Citizen's Initiative, Gantar, Gram Swarajya Sangh, etc.,
was very praiseworthy. It is useful to incorporate such
organizations in the disaster management preparedness
drill. The transaction costs of such organizations are
much lesser and the response time is much faster. A
network of such organizations should be part of the
National Disaster Management Network.
c. Even today we are not prepared much better to deal
with disasters than we were year and a half ago. The
DMIS may be operationalized to include equipments
and all other resources from private, public and NGO
sectors with the contact information for emergency use.
d. Mobile operation theatres, x-ray machines and other
such facilities should be available in a manner that
these can be readily mobilized at the site of disaster.
e. The communication infrastructure, particularly ham
radio operators, satellite phones, and internet
connections are very weak in many rural areas. The
building of ham radio network (mobile as well as
stationery) should be a priority. The database of existing
Coping with Disasters through Effective... 293
ham radio operators can also be enriched at DMIS
platform or any other such platforms. The use of radio
and television (more of the former) could be very effective.
Despite our suggestions, even the instructions for
constructing earthquake proof houses were not broadcast
adequately so long and the results are obvious.
f. The transportation bottlenecks are to be expected. Need
for air regulation of surface transport could not be
organized despite our appeals. It is surprising that such
a simple thing should be so difficult to organize.
g. The army and the air force played pivotal role in saving
lives, rescue injured, provide medical assistance, organize
logistics, and boost the morale of society in distress. It
should be possible to build similar motivational levels
among the members of civil society trained for the
purpose. May be a National Disaster Management Corps
could be developed or be evolved through NCC /Home
Guard Network. The coordination between defense and
civil administration was also sometimes strained because
of weak administrative preparedness. Line of command
in such matters could be made more precise and
functional.
h. There is no substitute to communities being prepared
to deal with disasters on their own through self-defense
mechanisms. WE need to develop manuals, FAQs and
other self help material for the purpose. Sristi.org/
DMIS.html does provide some links to such information
available internationally but we need to develop such
material for our own cultural contexts.
i. State administration has to be geared to deal with such
disasters all over the country. They have the authority
and also the information such as revenue maps, transport
networks, communication infrastructure and above all
the authority to make things happen. Given the scale
of disaster, unlike the movement of defense forces, state
administration faced difficulties in putting revenue
machinery in place in the affected region quickly. We
294 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
have to increase the capacity of state administration as
well.
There are several more lessons for building inter-
organisational networks to cope with disasters that have not
been mentioned here. Suffice to state that a learning network
requires periodic exchanges and willingness to recognize one's
own limits and appreciate strength of others. This also requires
a collaborative attitude. Thanks to the positive outlook in
Gujarat, cooperation was much easy to organize. I remember
a remark of a student of NID from Orissa. She asked as to why
when there was a super cyclone in her state, the response of
Central Government, civil society and international community
was not that good or efficient. Perhaps the web of commercial
network Gujarat has spawned all over the country and the
world contributed to a much wider response. The inefficiency
in relief and rehabilitation to the extent still existing thus
becomes less excusable.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM
What is DMIS?
Natural disasters impart lessons at a very high cost of life
and property. But if those lessons do not lead to learning and
knowledge generation then it is a very heavy cost to bear. This
lack of learning from the past hurts most at the recurrence of
disasters. The earthquake in Gujarat (26th January 2001, an
earthquake of 7.9 magnitude on Richter scale struck Gujarat,
India, with its epicentre in Kutch, causing destruction of three
towns and death of more than 20,000 people) and the subsequent
chaos was an indicator of how crucial disaster planning is to
manage relief and rehabilitation during disasters.
SRISTI participated in the relief and rehabilitation work
in Kutch. But the relief work suffered immensely due to lack
of information and proper planning. When we tried to get
answers to important questions that were cropping up-for
instance, whether there exists a database on the distribution
of available resources and expertise with individuals, institutions
and corporations-all we got in response was a blank. This
Coping with Disasters through Effective... 295
pointed to the urgent necessity of building a system for disaster
mitigation and for documenting experiences of individuals and
organisations, which might act as a knowledge resource and
help in better coordination in case of future disasters.
The Disaster Management Information System
Thus, SRISTI initiated an effort to build a "Disaster
Management Information System". Through this initiative we
are trying to develop a database-driven information system for
Disaster Management Authorities (DMA) in various states,
NGOs and other organisations. We appealed to NGOs, relief
workers, DMAs and individuals to share their experiences and
volunteer services and resources to the online database
maintained at our website. The database currently contains
more than a thousand volunteers who have offered to volunteer
their services and resources in time of emergency. About 700
organisations and institutions are also listed on the site, besides
other resources and web links.
The DMIS is a wholly voluntary activity run with
contributions in terms of time and services by SRISTI volunteers,
NGOs and above all civil society institutions across the world.
All the information shared with us is accessible to all, except
where the volunteer has chosen to limit accessibility only to the
relevant authorities.
SRISTI focused on developing a template for disaster
management comprising:
(a) Database: on various resources, skills, and services
required for relief at times of emergencies on short
notice. This database would have information on
resources such as safety equipment, oxygen cylinders,
transport, medicines, earthmovers and various other
equipment, their location, quantity, owner organisation
etc, and communication information of experts, doctors,
engineers and other people required to deal with
emergencies.
(b) Logistics: creating systems for logistics, inventory control
mechanisms, network support, information access with
296 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
appropriate usage of technology. These systems could
be integrated with GIS (Geographical Information
System) and could be made accessible on Kiosks, Wide
Area Networks as well as on the Internet. GIS maps
would also help better routing of supplies and relief
material right up to a village.
(c) Technological Needs: Equipment and accessories
required, and the know-how for it, should be accessible
during an emergency. Technical needs could be anything
from fire fighting, debris removal, rescue, maintaining
communications etc. While developing an effective
disaster mitigation strategy, a whole range of technical
questions, regarding buildings, cutting concrete slabs,
fire fighting, rescue and relief, have to be answered.
Technical know-how, equipment and expertise
requirement need to be identified and the logistics of
making it accessible need to developed.
(d) Self Reliance: Communities should prepare their own
disaster mitigation plan and warning systems. Drills
need to be organised to keep communities prepared for
dealing with emergency situations. Each individual
asking oneself how prepared he or she is in the event
of a disaster is a step towards getting ready to meet
eventualities, at the individual, family and community
levels. Lesser damage has taken place in situations
where communities came together to help each other.
Therefore the lessons that communities can impart about
self-help need to be put together. Communities need to
themselves identify people who could coordinate relief.
In short, self-reliance is the key.
(e) Communication Infrastructure: Coordination is crucial
for effective relief. An effective communication
infrastructure, which has layered communication
systems, such that not everything collapses
simultaneously, needs to be in place. Communication
failures may lead to severe problems in coordinating
relief activities while effective communication could save
many lives. When the conventional communication
Coping with Disasters through Effective... 297
infrastructure fails, wireless communication systems
such as ham radios may be helpful in setting up helplines.
Hence it is necessary while evolving an effective
communication strategy to put in place systems and
support networks which would continue to work if and
when the principal network goes down. We would also
have to create an information dissemination system
and develop mechanisms for capacity building in the
community to maintain such systems, which could have
more of human interface than technology, such as
community notice boards.
(f) Emergency Preparedness: Information for emergency
preparedness and cautions should be accessible to the
local community. Manuals related to emergency
preparedness of possible disasters identified for a region
need to be prepared and made available to the local
community. Drills need to be organised to keep society
prepared for dealing with emergencies. Such drills are
also required for DMAs (Disaster Management
Authorities) and emergency response units of hospitals,
medical institutions, the Police, the Army, public
transport units etc.
(g) Forecasting: Accurate forecasting of natural disasters is
not possible but identification and awareness of calamity-
prone areas is. Wherever possible, disasters, which can
be anticipated over time or space, need to be looked into.
National forecasting and Early Warning Systems (EWS)
should be developed and information on disasters should
be accessible to people on public/ mass communication
media from time to time. Channels need to be built to
make this information available to remotely located
communities as well.
The Solution
The DMIS is trying to build resources and create an
information and knowledge bank for individuals, professionals,
researchers, organisations, Disaster Management Authorities,
institutions throughout the world. Some of the listed resources
and services are:
298 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Coping with Disasters through Effective... 299

• Volunteers databank (Services & Resources) • Disaster mitigation and emergency preparedness in the
• Search Databases event of disasters (earthquakes, cyclones, floods, drought,
fires, volcanoes, landslides). What to do and tips for
• Volunteering services & resources online trauma management
• Experiences databank, experiences shared by individuals • Disaster management tool kit, to face emergencies
and organisations on disaster mitigation, relief and
• Disaster forecasting and warning (earthquakes, cyclones,
rehabilitation
floods, drought, others)
• Read Experiences of disaster relief & rehabilitation
DISASTER RECOVERY AND BUSINESS CONTINUITY
• Share your experiences online
AUDITING
• Resources:
Disaster recovery and business continuity refers to an
• Databases (Earthquake, Cyclone, Floods, Drought) organization's ability to recover from a disaster and/or
• Web Links (Education, training, projects, health, unexpected event and resume or continue operations.
software) Organizations should have a plan in place (usually referred to
as a "Disaster Recovery Plan", or "Business Continuity Plan")
• Disaster Management Authorities in India
that outlines how this will be accomplished.
• Organisations for Disaster Management in the world
The key to successful disaster recovery is to have a plan
• International Networking of Relief Support (emergency plan, disaster recovery plan, continuity plan) well
Organisations before disaster ever strikes.
• United Nations Organisations When conducting an audit of a disaster recovery plan several
• International Donor Organisations for disaster relief & factors should be considered. These are described below.
rehabilitation Written Disaster Recovery Plan with Continual Updating
• Asian & Regional Organisations To be effective the plan must be written, must be
• National Organisations of countries for disaster relief understandable, and must be accessible to those who need it
& rehabilitation when they need it. Because of the constant changes that occur
• Organisations involved in disaster relief & rehabilitation in the modern business environment, a plan should be updated
in Gujarat frequently to deal with new and existing threats as they develop.
The auditor needs to determine if procedures stated in the plan
• Papers & Publications (Papers, Journals, Books, Reports, to achieve these ends are actually used in practice.
other articles)
This can be accomplished through:
• Events & News on Disasters Mitigation and Emergency
• Direct observation of procedures
Preparedness (News, Workshops, Conferences, Meetings,
Seminars) • Examination of the disaster recovery plan
• DMIS mailing list • Inquiries of personnel
• DMIS discussion forum • Testing of processes for reasonableness and validity
300 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Designated Hot Site or Cold Site
A hot/cold site is a location that an organization can move
to after a disaster if the current facility is unusable. The
difference between the two is that a hot site is fully equipped
to resume operations while a cold site does not have that
capability. There is also what is referred to as a warm site
which has the capability to resume some, but not all operations.
The decision a company makes when determining what type
of site to establish depends on a cost-benefit analysis and the
needs of the individual organization. The plan should also spell
out how relocation to a new facility is to be conducted. A
company should have occasional tests and conduct trials to
verify the viability and effectiveness of the plan and to determine
if any deficiencies exist and how they can be dealt with. An
audit of a company Disaster Recovery Plan should primarily
look into the probability that operations of the organization can
be sustained at the level that is assumed in the plan, as well
as the ability of the entity to actually establish operations at
the site.
The auditor should:
• Examine and test the procedures involved
• Conduct outside research relating to Disaster recovery
• Determine reasonable standards relating to
implementation
• Tour, examine, and research the outside facility.
Ability to Recover Data and Systems
The continual backing up of data and systems can help
minimize the impact of threats. Even so, the plan should also
include information on how best to recover any data that has
not been copied.
Controls and protections should be in place to ensure that
data is not damaged, altered, or destroyed during this process.
Information technology experts and procedures need to be
identified that can accomplish this endeavor. Vendor manuals
can also assist in determining how best to proceed.
Coping with Disasters through Effective... 301
Processes for Frequent Backup of Systems and Data
The auditor should determine if these processes are effective
and are actually being implemented by personnel. This can be
accomplished through:
• Direct observation of the processes
• Analyzing and researching the equipment used
• Conducting computer assisted audit techniques and tests
• Examination of paper and paperless records
Tests and Drills of Disaster Procedures
Practice drills should be conducted periodically to determine
how effective the plan is and to determine what changes may
be necessary. The auditor's primary concern here is verifying
that these drills are being conducted properly and that problems
uncovered during these drills are addressed and procedures
designed to deal with these potential deficiencies are
implemented and tested to determine their effectiveness.
Data and System Backups Stored Offsite
The auditor can verify this through paper and paperless
documentation and actual physical observation. Testing of the
backups and procedures should be done to confirm data integrity
and effective processes. The security of the storage site also
needs to be confirmed.
Appointed Disaster Recovery Committee and
Chairperson
The entity needs to appoint individuals responsible for
designing and implementing the plan when needed. Generally,
this consists of a team headed by a project manager, with a
deputy manager who has the capability to take over the
responsibilities if needed. The qualities needed for this position
vary depending upon the organization.
The qualities of the project manager generally include:
• Good leadership abilities
• Strong knowledge of company business
302 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
• Strong knowledge of management processes
• Experience and knowledge in Information technology
and security
• Good project management skills
Other members of the team need to have a clear
understanding and ability to perform the requisite procedures.
An auditor needs to examine and assess the project and deputy
project manager's training, experience, and abilities as well as
to analyze the capabilities of the team members to complete
assigned tasks and that more than one individual is trained
and capable of doing a particular function. Tests and inquiries
of personnel can help achieve this objective.
Visibly Listed Emergency Telephone Numbers
The auditor can verify through direct observation that
emergency telephone numbers are listed and easily accessible
in the event of a disaster.
Insurance
The auditor should determine the adequacy of the company's
insurance coverage (particularly property and casualty
insurance) through a review of the company's insurance policies
and other research. Among the items that the auditor needs
to verify are: the scope of the policy (including any stated
exclusions), that the amount of coverage is sufficient to cover
the organization's needs, and that the policy is current and in
force. The auditor should also ascertain, through a review of
the ratings assigned by independent rating agencies, that the
insurance company or companies providing the coverage have
the financial viability to cover the losses in the event of a disaster.
Procedures Allowing Effective Communication
Management and the recovery team should have Disaster
Recovery Procedures] which allow for effective communication.
This can be accomplished by making sure contact information
is easily accessible and drills conducted test communication
abilities. Procedures should include non-technological as well
as technological methodologies in case of power or system
Coping with Disasters through Effective... 303
failures. Communications between the organization and outside
individuals and organizations also need to be taken into account
when designing the plan. Procedures to test this communication
ability generally mirror those of the organization itself. The
auditor should evaluate these procedures and assumptions to
determine if they are reasonable and likely to be effective.
An auditor evaluation can be accomplished through:
• Testing of procedures
• An inquiry of all employees
• Comparisons to other company plans and industry
standards
• Examination of company manuals and other written
procedures
Updated System and Operation Documentation
Confirmation
Adequate records need to be retained by the organization.
The auditor should physically examine records, billings, and
contracts to verify this. Outside research such as contacting
vendors may also be conducted to determine the reasonableness
of management's assertions.
Emergency Procedures
Procedures for the stocking of food and water, capabilities
of administering CPR/first aid, and dealing with family
emergencies should be clearly written and tested. This can
generally be accomplished by the company through good training
programs and a clear definition of job responsibilities. The
auditor can verify this is accomplished through:
• Inquires of personnel
• Physical observation
• Examination of training records and any certifications
Backup of Key Personnel Positions
Clearly written policies and specific communication with
employees should be used to substantiate this. There must also
304 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Coping with Disasters through Effective... 305

be confirmation that the personnel backups can actually do the
duties assigned to them in an event of an emergency. Periodic
training can also help alleviate this. This training should include
updates to existing job positions and testing to confirm
proficiency.
The auditor needs to verify that:
• Policies are being enforced
• Testing is effective
• Training is adequate.
Hardware and Software Vendor List
Copies of this should be periodically updated and stored on
and off site, as well as being accessible by those who require
them. An auditor should test the procedures used to meet this
objective and determine their effectiveness.
Contractual Agreements with External Agencies/
companies
The plan needs to take into account the extent of its
responsibilities to other entities and their ability to make those
commitments in lieu of a major event. Are their clauses in
contracts that minimize against any legal liability for lack of
performance in the event of disaster or any other unusual
circumstance? Agreements pertaining to establishing support
and assisting with recovery for the entity should also be outlined.
The auditor should:
• Examine the reasonableness of the plan
• Determine whether it takes all factors into account
• Verify the contracts and agreements through
documentation and outside research

Mission Statement Summary

This should clearly identify what the purpose and goals of In conducting the audit, the individual or team should
the Disaster Recovery Plan are. The mission statement can also make use of various other procedures and processes to achieve
help the auditor obtain a better understanding of the the objectives of the audit. These objectives should be clearly
organization's environment. An auditor should examine this to stated in the audit plan.
determine what the objectives, priorities, and goals of the
plan are:
Both Manual and Automated Procedures in Place
Procedures in place to accomplish the needed objectives
should take into account the possibility of power failures or
other situations in which technology cannot be utilized. The
plan should indicate what procedures to be used in this situation
and should also include information on storage of flashlights
and candles, as well as additional safety procedures in case of
gas leaks, fires or other phenomena. Trial runs should be
conducted to test the procedures' effectiveness and viability.
The auditor should:
• Examine and test procedures for reasonableness
• Make inquiries on personnel
• Conduct outside research
306 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
14
IMPROVING MILITARY-CIVILIAN COALITION
DISASTER MANAGEMENT PERFORMANCE
The present study examines the effects of face-to-face team
building, socially modeled decision making norms, and politico-
cultural constraints placed on agents in rapidly formed ad hoc
coalitions. This inquiry offers a framework for exploring
problems faced by joint civilian-military disaster management
teams. An instantiation of the Dynamic Distributed Decision-
making (DDD) simulator provides a medium fidelity, team-in-
the-loop simulation of a major disaster. The simulation
acknowledges the complexity of civilian-military coalitions by
intentionally breaking several of the assumptions of the Incident
Command System/Unified Command approach, emphasizing
the problem of ambiguous authority relationships. Participants
must balance authority hand-offs against internal political
pressures and potential costs to operational awareness. It is
hypothesized that social modeling of semantically rich
communication and cognitively ergonomic decisioning rules
during the simulation will overcome lack prior team building
interventions. If supported, the results will auger for the
inclusion of embedded meta-communication agents to improve
coalition disaster management performance.
INTRODUCTION
The 2005 hurricane season demonstrated the continued
shortcomings of the federal, state and local disaster response
efforts. Despite the wake-up call provided by the events of
9/11 and the development of the National Response Plan (NRP)
Improving Military-Civilian Coalition... 307
and the National Incident Management System (NIMS) (DHS,
2004a, DHS, 2004b), response agencies from state to federal
level were taken by surprise and were unprepared to respond
effectively to a mass disaster. The failures of response efforts
to hurricane Katrina point to a verity of systemic problems. In
particular, the issue of coordinated state and local government
integration with the US Military continues to prove particularly
difficult. Lack of effective disaster management becomes
magnified when coalitions made up of civil and military
authorities form decoupled command structures, often
amplifying coordination and communication difficulties rather
than improving them.
Several contradictory, almost paradoxical, motivations exist
among joint military-civilian coalition members in US disaster
response efforts. First, complex legal and historical arguments
about the involvement of federal troops on domestic soil give
rise to conflict between state authorities and federal disaster
managers. While the use of federal troops may assist in disaster
relief by leveraging the effectiveness of military chain of
command and resources, states often view federalization of a
disaster as usurping regional control. However, a state's failure
to allow military resources to be fully utilized at the outset of
a major disaster may have secondary effects that reverberate
for the rest of the relief effort, creating a cascade of sub-optimal
responses that crippled overall performance.
Second, when joint coalitions are created, ambiguous
authority relationships in these rapidly formed ad hoc teams
disaster managers must follow many masters. They must accept
the rules and political interests established by their parent
agency, commit to the superordinate goals of the coalition, or
struggle to find a balance between these objectives. Effective
disaster managers must assert authority and transfer it to
other agencies represented in the coalition, often overstepping
the powers vested in them by their parent agency. A tense
continuum exists, anchored by inaction at one end, modulated
appropriate action in the center, and overreaction at the other
end of the spectrum. For example, overuse of authority assertions
may cost the coalition in terms of overall operational awareness
308 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
as actions begin to deviate too much from initial disaster plans.
Finally, if the legal and social considerations are worked out,
introducing the military into a coalition disaster response team
is viewed as a slippery slope in which military command and
control styles may dominate the coalition's deliberative process.
No model of co-equal participation of civilian and military
coalition representatives exists in which command is distributed
among all parties, yet remains effective. Further, disaster
managers from the various agencies are trained as experts
within their fields, and may have effective communication and
decisioning skills within their respective teams. However, these
communication strategies may not be enough to facilitate their
work when they become representatives of their parent agency
within a complex coalition. While the problem of coalition
communication has been preliminarily addressed by Incident
Command System/Unified Command (ICS/UC), typical large
scale coalitions are made up of peer-to-peer relationships rather
than formalized command structures. The shortcomings of ICS/
UC were made painfully clear during Hurricane Katrina,
underscoring the need for increased research in co-equal
coalition management and improved training for those who
may serve as coalition members.
HOW DISASTER MANAGEMENT DIFFERS FROM
OTHER COALITION ACTIVITIES
Communication Training
While the understanding of large-scale disaster management
is based on findings derived from high reliability organizations
(HROs) and military coalitions, joint civilian-military disaster
management coalitions also differ substantially from these
groups. For example, HRO organizations are usually made up
of teams who have trained regularly together, who share some
level of technical interoperability, operate using mutually
understood and decisioning rules, employ communication
approaches that enhance situational awareness, and possess a
fairly unified politico-cultural background that is implicitly
understood by its team members. Other HROs, such as
commercial aviation, can not reliably put the same team
Improving Military-Civilian Coalition... 309
members together for each flight because of operational needs,
but have managed to overcome the loss in team cohesion by
training all flight crew personnel in a shared approach to flight
communication and decision making. In this way, individual
pilots, co-pilots, and flight attendants function fairly
interchangeably across ad hoc flight crews.
In contrast, because of the fundamentally unpredictable
nature of major disasters, the ad hoc teams that emerge during
response and recovery often are comprised of individuals who
have never trained together as a group, whose organizations
use incompatible communication approaches, different
decisioning rules, are not co-located, and who come from
organizations with widely differing (potentially competing)
cultures and political interests. Even though individual disaster
managers may be competent, overall response effectiveness
may be profoundly impaired by communication problems that
arise at the coalition level. Efforts to increase the ability of
coalition members to communicate have lead to a wide range
of technical efforts designed to allow greater information flow
between response agencies. However, increasing inter-team
communication through technology solutions alone has not
improved response performance in disasters.
Time & Leadership
The privileges offered by time in ad hoc team development
are afforded to even the most complex task environments-
aviators, naval command teams, and astronauts train until
they are adequately prepared for the actual task. However, in
disaster management the privilege of time is not available.
Coalition members must quickly form teams to address a series
of complex, low probability events that have not be adequately
addressed by prior planning and training. As a result of not
having sufficient time together as a group, problems with
conflict, trust, establishing lines of authority, identifying
resources, and developing a shared mental model of the work
often arise. The initial 72 hours following a major disaster is
critical to re-establishing order and preventing secondary
catastrophic events. Response teams do not have the luxury of
getting to know one another socially or having repeated work
310 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
experiences in which differences in their mental models can be
ironed out.
Another factor is the ambiguity leadership relationships in
disaster response coalitions. These networks are often comprised
of peer-to-peer relationships between officials at fairly equivalent
responsibility levels within their respective agencies. No one
individual is in a position to establish and exert absolute
authority over the group's interactions or the actions that are
taken as a result of the group deliberation. This organizational
structure has drawbacks that must be minimized (chaotic
communication) and benefits that should be capitalized upon
(e.g. emergent leadership and flexibility). Together, the problems
of limited time horizon and lack of formal leadership present
a unique set of constraints that must be addressed and overcome
if future disaster response performance is to improve.
Authority Hand-Offs
Because of over-reliance on military models of coalition
management, strict authority relationships in coalition disaster
management research are over-emphasized. Ad hoc teams are
not governed by a single individual with vested authority from
the outset. Instead, "emergent" leadership may occur, in which
one or several people in the group begin to take on authority
roles based on past experience, domain knowledge, or personal
leadership characteristics.
However, emergent leaders in coalitions still face the
problem of authorizing decisions. Typically, the authority to act
is not completely vested in the individuals who have the content
knowledge or the resources to solve a particular problem.
Authority may be vested in several members of a coalition, or
it may have to be obtained from other sources in their parent
organizations. In these situations, disaster managers often
attempt to "flatten" the bureaucratic hierarchy both within
their parent organizations and in the coalition itself by asserting
authority or "taking charge." These renegotiations of lines of
authority are sometime times accomplished easily, for example
where an authority figure agrees that knowledge worker is best
suited to make a decision and hands-off authority "gracefully";
Improving Military-Civilian Coalition... 311
or the transition of authority may be contested in "ungraceful"
shifts of authority. While the co-location of authority, knowledge,
and resources is necessary for task execution, there is an
inevitable performance trade-off when coalition members take
charge. Transfer of authority leads to unplanned actions and
allocation of resources that may occur outside the awareness
of other members in the coalition. While operational efficiency
on single tasks improves, eventually, as increasing numbers of
authority hand-offs occur, the overall operational picture
becomes blurred. Theoretically, an optimal balance between
authority hand-offs and operation awareness should exist.
PROBLEMS IN RAPIDLY FORMED DISASTER
RESPONSE AD HOC COALITIONS
A number of problems arise in rapidly formed, flexible ad
hoc teams that may impede performance. These include socio-
emotional factors, interoperability factors, and team authority
factors.
• Dominance & Passivity. Socio-emotional problems may
arise if team members exhibit high levels of dominance
or passivity. In addition to drowning out important
expert knowledge, dominance in communication systems
results in low stakeholder acceptance of the team's
decisions. In contrast, passivity of team members
generally results in wider acceptance of decisions by all
stakeholders, but the quality of decisioning is lower
than in groups with either constructive or aggressive
group styles (Potter et al., 2000, Kildare, 2004).
• Mistrust. It has been hypothesized that trust between
team members is one of the central factors in developing
constructive teams. Trust reduces information
withholding, increases cohesion between members, and
eventually facilitates the development of shared mental
models of the task environment. Factors that impede
trust include lack of positive leadership, physical
distance, unpredictable communication patterns, and
low-quality, low frequency feedback. Individual
perceptions of others' integrity appears to be particularly
312 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
important in the initial phases of team trust (Powell et
al., 2004).
• Interoperability failure . Problems in technical
interoperability factors include lack of uniform naming
conventions for assets, resources, and procedures that
are central to disaster recovery. Additionally, lack of a
common decisioning framework (non-technical
interoperability) between coalition members necessarily
impairs the development of shared mental models that
are seen as central to effective coordination (Powell et
al., 2004).
• Ambiguous Authority Relationships. Coordination
difficulties in coalitions often occur because authority
to act, expert knowledge, and resources are not co-
located in one individual or sub-team within a coalition.
Further, attempts to remedy coordination problems are
often compounded by the inefficient use of rich media
communication systems (e.g. teleconferencing and video
conferencing) that encourage dominance, passivity, and
feed into the feeling of pressure to act, even if the
ramifications of an action is not considered fully (Carver
and Scheier, 1998, Ramesh and Dennis, 2002).
FACTORS FOUND IN HIGH PERFORMANCE AD HOC
TEAMS
While much of the literature on disaster management
emphasizes the need for increased communication, more contact
between disaster managers alone is not enough to ensure optimal
performance. In fact, increasing, unmodulated communication
can degrade overall coordination efforts. As team size and
problem complexity increase, high performance teams must
dynamically adapt their structure and communication norms
to fit the demands of the task environment. These adaptations
can appear to be counterintuitive, but they make sense once
understood within the problem framework presented earlier.
• High performance teams engage in efficient
communication, not more communication. Efficient
communication involves "object oriented" team
Improving Military-Civilian Coalition... 313
communication that focuses on semantic richness rather
than media richness. Researchers in object oriented
communication argue that, "The object-oriented team
model shuns tight coupling in favor of a set of
independent objects, which (1) have standardized or
well-defined processes; (2) exchange information (inputs
and outputs) with other objects through well-defined
semantically rich interfaces; and (3) produce a decreased
flow of information." (Ramesh and Dennis, 2002).
• While coordinating is important, effective teams also
partition duties where possible by vesting authority,
knowledge, and resources necessary in one individual
or small sub-teams (MacMillan et al., 2004, Entin, 2000),
thus minimizing communication overhead. Rapidly
establishing coordination norms is critical to ensuring
effectiveness (Powell et al., 2004).
• High performance teams build trust rapidly. Although
rich-media or face-to-face communication may be
inefficient in many cases, there is convergent evidence
supporting the utility of face-to-face interactions between
virtual team members at the inception of the project.
Initial face-to-face meetings may support the building
of trust, conveyance of subtle non-verbal information,
and reduction in the perception of physical distance in
virtual teams (Powell et al., 2004). Optimally, teams
iterate through phases of rich media supported
communication during the beginning phase of the task
and equivocal situations (where meaning making based
on a large number of alternative interpretations is
necessary), and the use of semantically supported
communication in uncertain situations (where there is
agreement on course of action, but information is lacking)
as semantically rich communication also reduces
overhead and relieves cognitive load (Ramesh and
Dennis, 2002).
• Establishing norms for communication that
simultaneously improve trust and decisioning accuracy
may be facilitated by positive leadership and feedback
314 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
(Jarvenpaaa & Leidner, 1999). Team members and
leaders should articulate short and long term goals
explicitly; expend effort in accurately identifying content
knowledge experts within the team; establish and enforce
communication and decisioning rules; encourage
assertive, non-dominant communication from content
knowledge experts; and actively articulate and accept
politico-cultural differences among team constituents
at the outset of the task (Ramesh and Dennis, 2002,
Powell et al., 2004, Potter et al., 2000, Härtel and Härtel,
1997).
SEMANTICALLY RICH, COGNITIVELY ERGONOMIC
DECISION COMMUNICATION
Decisioning problems that occur in coalition disaster
management include impaired ability to discriminate between
important and unimportant situational cues, pressure to make
decisions results in reflexive rather than adaptive responses,
and increased likelihood of making risky decisions because of
perceived pressure to act. However, even when explicitly taught,
experts may not incorporate improved decisioning strategies
into practice. It has been suggested this lack of adherence to
new decisioning approaches occurs because innovative strategies
do no take into consideration the information processing styles
of the individual experts and the context in which actual
decisions are made (Härtel and Härtel, 1997). Recent efforts
to improve decisioning performance focus on improving the
cognitive ergonomics of supported decision making. One
approach, the SHAPE decisioning model, encourages situational
evaluation using simple rules empirically demonstrated to be
readily accepted by decision makers and to improve decisioning
ability in complex, high consequence tasks. SHAPE stands for,
"scrutinize symptoms, hypothesize solutions, perform
modifications and corrections, and evaluate results" (Härtel
and Härtel, 1997). We suggest that some of the fundamental
techniques of the SHAPE model embody the characteristics of
semantically rich communication and that it is sufficiently
ergonomic for rapidly formed ad hoc teams to adopt "on-the-
fly" without prior training.
Improving Military-Civilian Coalition... 315
The SHAPE approach offers experts an iterative decisioning
process that views the rejection of a decision and reexamination
of the problem as forward movement toward a goal, where this
process is generally viewed as time consuming and "moving
backwards." Examined from a feedback control perspective,
decision makers not only want to reduce the discrepancy between
the current situation and the desired outcome (disaster
recovery), but they also monitor progress toward this outcome
over time. Processes that are perceived as blocking progress
(e.g. reviewing problem symptoms and re-decisioning) lead to
a desire to remove the block and reliance on reflexive responses
unless the block is reframed and viewed as an important sub-
goal associated with progress toward the valued outcome (Carver
and Scheier, 1998).
SHAPE offers two techniques that may be used by decision
makers across a variety of situations, but that can also be
tailored to specific decisioning environments. The indication
rule calls for team members to test the proposed decision to see
that it meets all of the needs identified in the situation. The
contraindication rule evaluates the decision for possible
undesirable consequences. If both rules are adequately met,
the decision is upheld as sound. If not, further reflection on the
problem and possible alternative decisions are needed (Härtel
and Härtel, 1997). These rules also serve as a basis for "object
oriented" communication that standardizes communicative
inputs and outputs to reduce overall cognitive load on team
members.
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY APPROACH
We argue that modeling effective coalition communication
and coordination techniques during a major disaster event may
provide a powerful way of changing the behavior of disaster
managers over the course of the event.
The modeling approach overcomes problems associated with
discrepancies in prior training, mental models, and
organizational biases. By embedding a human model that
behaves and encourages others to behave using a core set of
communication techniques that improve performance, social
316 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
modeling may be able to bring order to coordination activities
"on-the-fly"-in effect harmonizing the activities of all agents
involved even though there is no official leader and the group
has never trained together before.
Software based moderators for leaderless, ad-hoc online
teams have been suggested (Kildare, 2004), however, some
of the power that a human moderator possesses comes from
his or her ability to model, provide corrective feedback
across a wide range of situations, and persuade others about
their ability to perform in extreme conditions (Wood and
Bandura, 1989).
For example, such an agent might encourage the group to
discuss individual expertise, lines of authority, and available
resources without actually assuming authority over the group.
In situations in which the agent and other coalition members
had to develop an action plan, the agent might press for
alternative view points, simultaneously discouraging dominant
and passive social patterns.
Finally, the agent would clearly articulate cognitively
ergonomic, semantically rich decisioning rules and processes
that are easily grasped by others (e.g. indication and contra-
indication rules in SHAPE, viewing the analysis of disconfirming
information as forward rather than backward steps).
The goal of introducing a meta-communication agent to
support coalition disaster response capitalizes on the emergent
leadership paradigm found in ad hoc teams, but seeks to train
emerging leaders with skills that specifically address the socio-
emotional, interoperability, and authority ambiguity problems
that often cripple response (Wood and Bandura, 1989).
DESIGN & PROCEDURES
Participants
Students in a Homeland Security masters degree program
at the US Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) will participate in
the simulation as part of a Capstone Exercise requirement. The
participants are mid-career homeland security professionals in
Improving Military-Civilian Coalition... 317
homeland defense related positions throughout federal and
state governments. The senior author in this proposal (LEB)
is an instructor in the masters program and is funded through
NPS to improve the training system.
Current Capstone Exercise
At present, participants are required to develop a disaster
response plan for the city of San Luis del Rey, a fictional city
in California. Several hazard scenarios are available, and
students' disaster plans are evaluated against these scenarios.
However, a number of drawbacks have been identified with the
current Capstone exercise. These include linear, pre-scripted
scenarios that do not flexibly respond to students' input;
undefined decision points; lack of ability to simulate coalition
communication and performance; no automated, passive data
collection for later assessment and after-action review; and
comparatively low fidelity to actual coalition disaster
management performance situations.
Coalition-Level Simulated Work Environment
The next logical step in improving the Capstone Exercise
is to develop a Simulated Work Environment (SWE) that
addresses the concerns that have been identified with the current
table-top model. SWEs have been demonstrated to improve
fidelity without the expense and overhead associated with high-
fidelity simulators. A research simulation system, the
Distributed Dynamic Decision-making simulator (DDD) a
commercially available tool set that is used extensively in the
US military for A2C2 (Adaptive Architectures for Command
and Control) research will be modified for use in a coalition
disaster management setting.
The simulator parameters will be changed so that the task
environment presents a major disaster facing the city of San
Luis del Rey rather than a military exercise. The linux-based
simulator has been used in a range of military, commercial, and
medical studies involving team performance on complex tasks
and has been made available to us through Aptima's DDDWeb
group with support from the US Navy (Weil et al., 2005,
Kleinman and Serfaty, 1989).
318 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
Experiment 1
A task environment in which team members must deal
with primary tasks as well as a set of study specific meta-tasks
will be presented to teams of 9 participants per trial. Participants
will be instructed that they represent a large response agency
and are responsible for coordinating the agency's efforts with
other coalition members. Participants will be told about the
political goals of their respective parent organizations and
encouraged to both meet the internal goals of the organization
and assist with the overall disaster response effort. Each trial
will last 90 minutes.
Resources, knowledge, and authority will be vested in
different team members for several important meta-tasks,
requiring team members to discuss lines of authority, identify
the best expert in the team, and gather information about
available resources. Successful completion of meta-tasks will
involve "graceful" transfer of authority, resources, and expert
knowledge to individuals or subgroups within the team.
Authority assertions may take place, however if they are not
explicitly recognized by the team member originally vested
with authority, the hand-off is considered to be "ungraceful"
and results in team performance costs. In order to approximate
the institutional politico-cultural pressures faced by disaster
managers, individual performance scores which are sensitive
to release of authority will be provided to participants during
the simulation.
This approach recalls the cooperation vs. defection problem
encountered in the prisoner's dilemma, but incorporates this
design into a complex system with superordinate goals, allowing
for the impact three important disaster management factors to
be systematically varied in an ecologically valid context. These
factors include the presence of a social model who acts as a
moderator, the presence or absence of intra-organizational
political costs for coalition members (i.e. political needs of their
parent organization), and effects of face-to-face meetings at the
inception of the task.
In the "peer" moderated condition a confederate trained in
the concepts of emergent leadership, coalition communication
Improving Military-Civilian Coalition... 319
strategies, decision support, and authority transfer models these
behaviors while working as a coalition team member. The
interactions of the moderator will change over the course of the
experiment and are categorized into three communication
modeling phases that take place over successive 30 minute
segments while the simulation is running, embodying the social
learning techniques suggested by Wood & Bandura. Finally,
the third factor, involving a face-to-face team building exercise
will be used to evaluate the relative merits of developing initial
"swift trust" versus embedded "on-the-fly" communication
modeling.
Experiment 2
The second experiment follows the same basic format as
the first, but instead of a confederate, the design uses
participants "infected" by the social model in prior trials with
teams composed of new participants. Adoption and usage of
modeled coordination skills will be evaluated by semantic
analysis of communications coming from the "infected" agent.
Phased Modeling Intervention
A phased modeling intervention will be used in which a
confederate moderator first displays and then begins to enforce
communication, decisioning, and authority rules that are
hypothesized to improve coalition performance.
• Phase 1 (0-30 minutes). Moderator displays appropriate
communication strategies (subtly discourages dominance
and passivity, attempts to resolve conflict, suggests
reductions in information broadcasting in favor of
"selective push"), displays indication and
contraindication rule strategies in communications with
others, and graceful authority hand-offs.
• Phase 2 (31-60 minutes). Moderator enforces appropriate
communication strategies through correction of peer-to-
peer communications directed toward the moderator if
they are dominant or passive, enforces SHAPE
decisioning rules when the moderator is impacted by
the decision, and punishes when peers fail to gracefully
320 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
vest authority in the moderator when needed (i.e. team
member delays, does not recognize, or fails to confirm
authority assertion).
• Phase 3 (61-90 minutes). Moderator monitors group
communications and points out relationship between
effective communication and improved team
performance, using motivational techniques.
Coalition Performance Dependent Variables
Dependent variables include individual performance scores
(i.e. initial good standing with home organization minus costs
associated with vesting authority in other team members), and
overall team performance scores, based on three key coalition
performance metrics: Assessment accuracy (time required to
accurately identify locations of authority, content expertise,
and necessary resources); Adaptability (time required to vest
authority, resources, and knowledge in one person or sub-
team); and Anticipation (anticipation ratio, implicit anticipation).
Psychological Performance Predictors
While much of the emphasis in optimal disaster response
has been placed on creating increased technical interoperability,
improving equipment available to first responders, and
formalizing procedures, it is clear that these are necessary but
not sufficient efforts to improve performance. Effective
management of large-scale, high-consequence events is also
controlled by complex psychological, social, and political
phenomena. To date, individual psychosocial behavior factors
in organizational performance have focused largely on cognitive
and emotion factors (Jones, 2005). We suggest that personality
and integrative complexity factors may also play a significant
role in optimal disaster management. Further, these
characteristics may play a role in individual coalition members'
willingness to adopt modeled coordination styles and predict
the use of these styles in future un-moderated disaster
management situations. Participants will complete the NEO-
PI-R personality questionnaire and an integrative complexity
task (PCT, Suedfeld et al., 1992). These measures will be used
on an exploratory basis to identify personality characteristics
Improving Military-Civilian Coalition... 321
that are predictive of emergent leadership qualities and
inclination toward accepting and integrating modeled
communication strategies.
CONCLUSION
Joint civilian-military disaster management coalitions
operate differently than large military-only coalitions on which
most A2C2 research has been based. Civilian-military coalitions
suffer from poor performance in part because the agents involved
in the coalition can not be expected to have trained together
prior to the event. Because of the unpredictable nature of
disasters it is unrealistic to assume that all parties will be
adequately trained in Incident Command System/Unified
Command. Further, many of the assumptions of ICS/UC are
broken in high-level joint coalitions because of divergent politico-
cultural interests of the supporting agencies. A deeper
understanding of the role that time limitations, ambiguous
leadership roles, authority hand-offs, and emergent leadership
play in these coalitions is needed in order to provide effective
interventions that will improve overall disaster response.
We argue that efficient, object oriented communication;
cognitively ergonomic decisioning rules; and trust enhancing
strategies may be socially modeled "on the fly," thus overcoming
some of the problems with poor performance in rapidly formed
ad hoc coalitions. Further, personality factors may predispose
some individuals to be better at modeling these behaviors and
serving as emergent communication moderators in unfolding
disasters. Training such individuals in these strategies, in
addition to their primary disaster management tasks, may
provide one avenue to performance optimization.
The results of the present study will be incorporated into
the training model for the Masters program in Homeland
Security at the US Naval Postgraduate School. Future research
and development efforts will involve replicating the DDD-based
simulation used here in a simplified Advanced Distance Learning
based simulation that can be widely used with disaster response
professionals.
322 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
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Grazulis, Tom P. : Significant Tornadoes 1680-1991, St. Johns
Bay, Environmental Films, 1993.
Greene, Mott : Natural Knowledge in Preclassical Antiquity,
Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.
Hadfield, Peter : Sixty Seconds that Will Change the World: The
Coming Tokyo Earthquake, Boston, C.E. Tutle, Co., 1992.
Harris, Stephen L. : Fire and Ice: The Cascade Volcanoes,
Seattle, The Mountaineers, 1980.
Bibliography 323
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Jilovsky, C. : Disasters in Libraries, Prevention and Control,
Cooperative Action by Victorian Academic Libraries Ltd,
Melbourne, 1994.
John D. : The Last Great Subsistence Crisis in the Western
World, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977.
Jones S. : Building an Emergency Plan: A Guide for Museums
and other Cultural Institutions, Getty Conservation
Institute, Los Angeles, 1999
Jordan, William : The Great Famine, Princeton, Princeton
University Press, 1996.
Julia Niebuhr : Handbook for the Recovery of Water Damaged
Business Records, Prairie Village, KS, Association of Records
Managers and Administrators, 1986.
Kahn, Miriam B. : Disaster Response and Planning for
Libraries, Chicago, American Library Association, 1998.
Keyes K.E. : Emergency Management for Records and
Information Programs, ARMA International, Kansas, 1997.
Laskin, David : Braving the Elements: The Stormy History of
American Weather, New York, Doubleday, 1996.
Ling, Ted. : Solid, Safe, Secure: Building Archives Repositories
in Australia, National Archives of Australia, Canberra,
1998.
Lundquist, Eric G. : Salvage of Water Damaged Books,
Documents, Micrographic and Magnetic Media, San
Francisco, Document Reprocessors, 1986.
McPhee, John : The Control of Nature, New York, Farrar,
Straus, Giroux, 1989.
Norris, Debra Hess : Disaster Recovery: Salvaging Photograph
Collections, Philadelphia, PA, 1998.
Odum, Howard T. : Environment, Power and Society, New
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Peter Woodrow : Rising From the Ashes, Developing Strategies
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1989.
324 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Index 325

Quarantelli, E.L. : What is a Disaster—Perspectives on the

Question, New York, Routledge, 1998.
Robert A. : Insurance for Libraries: Part I and Insurance for
Libraries: Part II, Conservation Administration News, 1994.
Saffady, William : Managing Vital Electronic Records, ARMA INDEX
International, Kansas, 1992.
Stephen J. : Fire in America: A Cultural History of Wildland
Fire and Rural Fire, New Jersey, Princeton University A Consumer, 269.
Press, 1982. Accountability, 44, 275. Contributions, 80, 105, 295.
Stephen Reyna : The Political Economy of African Famine, Arrangements, 20, 33, 34, 63, Crisis, 28, 31, 54, 65, 71, 94,
82, 94, 142, 144, 146, 225, 269, 270, 271, 272,
Philadelphia, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1991
178, 214, 219, 238, 286, 273, 274, 277, 287.
Stommel, Elizabeth : Volcano Weather: The Story of 1816, The 287. Crop, 7, 10, 15, 141, 149,
Year Without a Summer, Newport, Seven Seas Press, 1983. Association, 62, 82, 181. 156, 203, 206.
Culture, 61, 77, 84, 97, 107,
Thomas A. : Integrated Pest Management for Libraries, IFLA
B 113, 246.
Publications 40/41, Munich, K. G. Saur Verlag, 1987. Cyclone, 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10,
Budget, 45, 120, 121, 259.
Varley, Anne : Disaster, Development Environments, New York, Building Disaster Risk 16, 19, 22, 97, 115,
J. Wiley, 1994. Reduction, 75. 116, 123, 125, 128, 138,
139, 141, 142, 146, 147,
Walker, Bridget : Women and Emergencies, Oxford, Oxfam, C 148, 149, 161, 163, 164,
l994. Coalition Disaster, 306, 308, 182, 183, 184, 185, 187,
Waters, Peter : Procedures for Salvage of Water-Damaged 310, 314, 316, 317. 188, 194, 197, 198, 201,
Library Materials, Washington, DC, Library of Congress, Commission, 6, 11, 15, 82, 225, 226, 243, 249, 294,
1979. 212. 298.
Communication, 1, 2, 3, 4, 23,
Watson, Lyall : Earthwork: Essays on the Edge of Natural 26, 42, 55, 70, 88, 89, D
History, London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1956. 93, 99, 101, 103, 106, Disaster Risk Communication,
Webster, Noah : A Brief History of Epidemic and Pestilential 127, 128, 139, 149, 179, 88, 89, 93.
Diseases, with the Principle Phenomena of the Physical 225, 226, 229, 244, 250, Disaster Risk Reduction, 25, 36,
255, 258, 259, 266, 269, 54, 75, 82, 84, 89, 105,
World which Proceed and Accompany Them, Hartford,
270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 110, 219.
Hudson and Goodwin, 1799.
275, 276, 277, 279, 286, Diseases, 15, 96, 156.
Worster, Donald : Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s, 287, 288, 290, 291, 292, Doctrine, 55.
New York, Oxford University Press, 1979. 293, 295, 296, 297, 302, Drought, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 16,
Zenaida, D. : Women and Children During Disaster: 303, 306, 307, 308, 309, 115, 125, 130, 137, 139,
310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 141, 148, 149, 151, 152,
Vulnerabilities and Capacities, Elaine Enarson and Betty
315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 157, 173, 174, 177, 180,
Hearn Morrow, 1995. 181, 184, 186, 202, 203,
320, 321.
Conflict, 95, 222, 316, 319, 204, 211, 221, 225, 226,
321. 298, 299.
326 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects
E I
Earthquake, 2, 11, 12, 13, 16, Identity, 97.
19, 22, 23, 55, 57, 69, Insurance, 54, 57, 110, 143,
72, 75, 88, 92, 93, 97, 149, 160, 224, 246, 253,
101, 114, 115, 116, 120,
302.
123, 198, 199, 241, 243,
Integration, 22, 32, 53, 67,
259, 287, 293, 294, 298.
86, 97, 131, 136, 179,
Emergency Management, 53,
219, 223, 232, 235, 307.
54, 56, 58, 59, 60, 63,
Investment, 33, 78, 83, 84,
64, 65, 66, 82, 94, 95,
89, 90, 93, 100, 101,
96, 101, 125.
107, 110, 122, 143, 217,
Emergency Managers, 55, 59,
219.
62.
Eruption, 1, 13, 14, 16, 227, L 41, 75, 95, 117, 118,
287.
Landslides, 2, 14, 57, 80, 105,
Evaluation, 82, 93, 94, 113,
108, 109, 126, 151, 153,
119, 120, 128, 129, 130,
155, 181, 182, 183, 184,
131, 145, 150, 303, 314.
185, 186, 189, 199, 201,
211, 220, 221, 225, 226,
F 299.
Flood Management, 82, 137,
Leadership, 89, 292, 301, 309,
164.
310, 311, 313, 316, 318,
Forest Fire, 1, 2, 15. 321.
Framework, 1, 18, 19, 23, 30,
31, 33, 34, 63, 91, 92, M 158, 161, 228, 233,
93, 97, 114, 116, 117,
Managers, 55, 59, 62, 79, 80,
118, 138, 143, 144, 208,
94, 134, 226, 307, 308,
212, 214, 215, 232, 239,
309, 310, 312, 315, 318.
242, 243, 245, 247, 248,
Media, 59, 62, 65, 67, 69, 70,
249, 254, 306, 312.
71, 74, 89, 99, 101,
105, 107, 223, 259, 266,
H 33, 43, 76, 81, 82, 86,
277, 278, 287, 291, 297,
Hazards, 2, 14, 19, 21, 31, 312, 313.
32, 37, 38, 53, 54, 55,
Mission, 7, 8, 15, 63, 111,
57, 67, 77, 79, 97, 100, 236, 304.
101, 102, 118, 122, 124,
Monitoring, 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10,
125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 34,
132, 133, 134, 136, 137,
73, 74, 93, 94, 106,
139, 140, 142, 146, 151, 113, 119, 120, 130, 131,
181, 207, 209, 214, 215,
136, 149, 219, 226, 228,
216, 218, 219, 222, 223, 232, 235, 241, 264, 265,
227, 228, 243, 247, 250,
268, 288, 289.
251, 281.
Index
N 170, 172, 176, 179, 180,
National Systems, 223.
Natural Disaster, 2, 5, 20, 24,
25, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35,
36, 39, 45, 77, 80, 114,
115, 122, 123, 125, 130,
136, 138, 142, 143, 144,
146, 148, 150, 151, 158,
181, 182, 183, 184, 185,
186, 189, 202, 205, 214,
217, 222, 224, 275, 278.
Natural Disasters, 1, 2, 3, 5,
16, 17, 19, 20, 22, 32,
122, 123, 124, 126, 133,
139, 141, 150, 151, 176,
177, 181, 185, 186, 204,
205, 211, 212, 213, 214,
216, 217, 220, 221, 222,
225, 226, 228, 271, 276,
294, 297.
O 41, 42, 43, 54, 55, 56,
Options, 19, 103, 104, 135,
283.
Organisations, 58, 62, 65, 112,
113, 116, 118, 119, 243,
295, 297, 298.
P 139, 141, 143, 144, 145,
Partnerships, 18, 19, 20, 23,
92, 100, 103, 110, 112,
116, 214, 221.
Peasants, 125.
Planning, 3, 14, 19, 20, 21,
34, 35, 43, 53, 54, 58,
59, 60, 61, 62, 65, 73,
79, 80, 84, 86, 87, 91,
92, 93, 98, 99, 101,
103, 104, 107, 112, 132,
135, 136, 140, 141, 143,
146, 149, 151, 161, 162,
327
197, 198, 202, 204, 215,
217, 219, 221, 223, 224,
228, 240, 243, 249, 254,
256, 264, 270, 272, 277,
294, 309.
Platforms, 85, 106, 227, 293.
Policy, 26, 30, 78, 79, 80, 84,
86, 92, 100, 101, 104,
106, 111, 112, 179, 180,
181, 212, 215, 221, 222,
237, 239, 240, 241, 242,
243, 244, 245, 247, 248,
253, 254, 257, 261, 263,
291, 302.
Prediction, 3, 5, 6, 9, 12, 16,
104, 109, 137, 138, 139,
227, 228, 234, 235.
Preparedness, 1, 3, 5, 15, 16,
17, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24,
25, 26, 27, 28, 32, 33,
35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40,
57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 64,
66, 67, 68, 74, 76, 77,
78, 79, 80, 91, 92, 93,
96, 99, 105, 109, 111,
116, 117, 118, 119, 125,
133, 134, 135, 137, 138,
147, 148, 151, 158, 159,
160, 161, 178, 204, 205,
207, 208, 210, 211, 212,
213, 214, 215, 217, 219,
220, 221, 222, 223, 224,
226, 229, 238, 239, 243,
248, 249, 253, 254, 255,
288, 289, 291, 292, 293,
297, 298, 299.
Prevention, 2, 5, 16, 19, 22,
23, 36, 61, 89, 91, 95,
96, 111, 122, 124, 133,
134, 135, 136, 138, 140,
328 Disaster Management : Causes and Effects Disaster Management : Causes and Effects 329

141, 143, 144, 145, 148, Risk Evaluation, 129.

158, 159, 160, 190, 202, Risk Reduction, 24, 25, 32, 36,
205, 207, 208, 216, 217, 43, 54, 75, 79, 82, 84,
223, 224, 225, 238, 243, 89, 93, 98, 99, 101,
248, 253, 254, 255, 256, 105, 110, 119, 214, 215,
270. 217, 219, 238, 241, 254.
Priority, 78, 84, 85, 88, 89,
C ONTENTS
99, 100, 139, 141, 149, S
210, 220, 233, 257, 258, Satellite, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11,
286, 289, 292. 12, 13, 14, 15, 70, 73, Preface
Professions, 3, 60. 131, 149, 178, 225, 226,
1. Introduction 1
Project, 6, 7, 8, 11, 15, 20, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235,
21, 23, 29, 31, 34, 35, 276, 279, 292. 2. Disaster Risk Management Programme 17
41, 44, 77, 80, 84, 85, Society, 3, 18, 20, 23, 24, 28,
3. Emergency Management 53
86, 89, 92, 93, 104, 31, 33, 35, 36, 37, 39,
108, 115, 116, 117, 119, 53, 65, 72, 100, 132, 4. Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia:
120, 130, 147, 215, 221, 135, 241, 249, 253, 272, A Way Forward 75
222, 231, 264, 265, 267, 311, 312, 313, 315, 316,
5. Strategic Framework for Disaster Risk
301, 302, 313. 318, 319, 321.
Space Technology, 1, 3, 5, 15, Management after the Gujarat Earthquake 114
R 16. 6. Water Hazards, Resources and Management for
Recovery, 7, 17, 19, 20, 22, Strategy, 1, 21, 25, 26, 31, Disaster Prevention 122
23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 36, 37, 43, 80, 116,
29, 31, 36, 37, 38, 40, 197, 204, 214, 215, 219, 7. Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Options
54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 227, 237, 242, 243, 247, for the ESCAP Region 158
61, 62, 63, 68, 70, 71, 248, 255, 291, 296, 297. 8. Regional Cooperation on Disaster Management
73, 74, 85, 116, 128, Sustainability, 20, 31, 34, 35, and Preparedness 211
133, 215, 216, 217, 221, 42, 86, 193, 238, 246.
229, 238, 246, 266, 271, 9. Satellite Technology for Disaster Management 225
280, 283, 299, 300, 301, T
10. Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy 237
302, 304, 305, 309, 312, Transparency, 44, 100.
315. 11. Norton School of Family and Consumer Sciences 269
Red Cross, 56, 63. U
12. Disaster Response 275
Research, 12, 30, 31, 35, 37, Urban Disaster Risk Manage-
38, 40, 43, 103, 105, ment, 76, 77, 79, 86, 97. 13. Coping with Disasters through Effective
118, 141, 151, 156, 177, Urban Risk, 99, 108, 109. Inter-organizational Networks 285
193, 249, 253, 265, 270,
V 14. Improving Military-Civilian Coalition
277, 283, 284, 285, 287,
Violence, 96, 108, 271.
Disaster Management Performance 306
315, 317, 321.
Risk Communication, 88, 89, Volcanic Eruption, 1, 13, 16, Bibliography 322
93, 99, 101, 103. 227.
Index 325
‰‰‰
 PREFACE

Natural disasters cause major and widespread loss of life

and property damage from time to time. Losses caused by
natural disaster events are particularly damaging, depriving
countries of resources which could otherwise be used for
economic and social development. The toll from such disasters
is most severe and tragic in the developing countries of the
region, which have sometimes had their development goals set
back years and even decades as a consequence of major disaster
impacts.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT :
The primary objective of the Decade is to reduce, through
concerted international action, and especially in developing CAUSES AND EFFECTS
countries, the loss of life, property damage and social and
economic disruption caused by natural disasters, such as
earthquakes, windstorms, tsunamis, floods, landslides, volcanic
eruptions, drought and other calamities of natural origin.
This book is concerned with all types of natural disasters.
A companion paper is being prepared on the topic of geology-
related disasters.

— Author