Chapter-1

Introduction

Electric energy is one of the most fundamental requirements of modern industrial

society. Electric power is produced at generating stations and transmitted to consumers
through a complex network of individual components in transmission lines, transformers, and
switching devices. The power system is mainly made up of generation, transmission,
distribution and its auxiliary system.
Power generation, in the electric industry, means conversion of energy from a
primary from to the electrical form. The current sources of all the electricity distributed by
utilities comes from the conversion of chemical energy of fossil fuels, nuclear fission energy,
and the kinetic energy of water which is allowed to fall through a difference of elevation. A
transmission system interconnects all major generating stations and main load centers in the
system. In addition to its original function of moving energy over long distances, it also ties
together the important generation station and primary substation. It forms the backbone of the
integrated power system and operates at the highest voltage levels (typically, 230kV and
above), while the generator voltages are usually in the range of 11kV to 35kV, which are
stepped up to the transmission voltage level. The distribution system represents the final
stage in the transfer of power to the individual customers. The primary distribution voltage is
typically between 4.0kV and 34.5kV. Small industrial customers are supplied by primary
feeders at this voltage level. The secondary distribution feeders supply residential and
commercial customers at 120/240V.
The secure operation of electric power system is very important. There are many
factors affecting the secure operation of power system, such as overload of power system
equipment (transmission lines, transformers etc.) and angular stability of synchronous
generators. The maximum temperature of a conductor determines the thermal limit.
Conductor temperature affects the conductor sag between towers and the loss of conductor
tensile strength due to annealing. If the thermal limit is exceeded for a long time, it may
cause the conductor to ground clearance to shorten, and the conductor will not shrink to its
original length when cooled. Angular (transient) stability is another factor. Power systems
rely on synchronous machines for generation of electrical power. A necessary condition for
satisfactory system operation is that all synchronous machines remain in synchronism or in

1
step. This aspect of stability is influenced by the dynamics of generator rotor angles and
power angles relation. If the systems are subjected to some disturbances, such as load
increase, switching operations, and faults with subsequent circuit isolation, these
disturbances may set up an oscillation that causes the system to swing beyond the critical
point. Recovery would be impossible in this situation, and, as a result, generator will lose
their angular stability.
Power-flow studies are of great importance in planning and designing the future
expansion of power systems as well as in determining the best operation of existing systems.
The principal information obtained from a power-flow study is the magnitude and phase
angle of the voltage at each bus and the real and reactive power flowing in each line. The
load flow study also provides information about the line and transformer loads as well as
losses throughout the system and voltage at different points in the system for evaluation and
regulation of the performance of power system under conditions known a priori. Further
alternative plans for future expansion to meet new load demands can be analyzed and
complete information is made available through this study.
Nowadays, line and transformer thermal limits have become less restrictive as the
power systems have become denser. Fast fault clearing, high performance excitation system
and other controls have raised the transfer limit in security limited system. However, due to
the economic and environmental considerations, it has become increasingly difficult for
many utilities to add new transmission or generation facilities to their system. Despite
restrictions in system expansions, customer load often continues to grow, and utilities are
forced to operate power system under increasingly stressed conditions. This has led to the
emergence of new forms of system instability. One such form of system instability, which
has stirred much interest in the research community in recent years, is voltage instability.
Voltage instability has become more limiting than angular instability, and in some systems it
has been responsible for severe system disturbance including major blackouts. As a result,
much attention has been given to the study of voltage stability and the development of
analytical tools capable of studying this phenomenon.
One of the most important functions in security assessment of power system is
contingency analysis. The result of this type of analysis allows power system to be operated
defensively. Many of the problems that occur in a power system can cause serious trouble so
quickly that the operator cannot take action fast enough to prevent it. This is often the case
with cascading failure. Become of this aspect of system operation, computers for power
system operation are equipped with contingency analysis programs that model possible
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system troubles before they arise. These programs are part of the security assessment
programs and are useful to the power system operators. These make it possible for the power
system to be operated in such a way that most of the contingencies do not cause serious
disturbance to the power system operation.
Many of the problems that occur on a power system can cause serious trouble within
such a small time period that the operator would not be able to take action fast enough. That
is often the case with cascading failures. Because of this aspect of systems operation, modern
operations computers are equipped with contingency analysis programs that model possible
systems troubles before they arise. These programs are based on a model of the power
systems and are used to study possible outage events and alarm operators to any potential
overloads or out-of-limit voltages. Several variations of this type of contingency analysis
scheme involve fast solutions methods, automatic contingency event selection, and automatic
initializing of the contingency power flows using actual system data and state estimation
procedures. The on-line steady-state analysis of a power system requires the evaluation of the
effects of all possible contingencies on the system. Since only a few of the contingencies
constitute security risks at any given time, an automatic contingency selection method that
ranks the contingencies and selects the most severe ones is sought. This analysis consists of
simulating outages of one or more generating units and transmission facilities to investigate
their effects on bus voltages and line power flows.
Furthermore, what constitutes the set of problem cases is easily determined by simply
running the load flow for each cases starting at the top of the list and stopping when the cases
do not give a problem. The cases below the stopping point need not be checked since they are
already ranked in severity below the cases at the stopping point. Fast computational
techniques such as Stotts Fast Decoupled Load Flow, the linearized ac load flow, may be
used. Fast and accurate ranking of contingencies are vital for the secure and economic
operation of power system. Due to an increase in transmission requirements and
environmental pressure, utilities are being forced to maximize the transmission capabilities of
the existing transmission line. This effectively means that in order to maintain system
security and stability, there is a demand for on-line contingency screening and ranking.
One of the major stumbling blocks to on-line contingency screening and ranking is
the heavy computational burden imposed by most of the power system analysis software.
Thus, computation speed, which in turn depends on the computer hardware specifications, is
the deciding factor which determines the on-line implementation of sophisticated computing

3
equipment are so high that in most cases utilities are not able to afford them. This prompted
researcher to look at alternatives to raw computing power.
Power system engineers are always investigating innovations and challenges ways to
enhance the performance of power system. Recently, there has been considerable interest in
the fast algorithm for contingency screening and ranking suitable for on-line security
assessment. However, to the best of the authors knowledge, some of these methods are
computationally demanding, while some are sensitive to different power system. When the
latter methods are applied, the ranking results are quite accurate for some test systems, but
not for others. In some cases, they cannot provide any useful information about the severity
of each of the contingencies.
A performance index is defined to include bus voltage limit violations and bus
reactive power deviations from specified limits. To save time, only the first iteration of the
Fast Decoupled power flow method is used to estimate the system variables, and for every
outage the system performance index is calculated. Outages are ranked according to the
magnitudes of their corresponding performance indices and then the outages in the severity
list are analyzed further by an AC load flow until a stopping criterion is satisfied. Another
way to gain speed of solution in a contingency analysis procedure is to use an approximate
model of the power system. For many systems, the use of DC load flow models provides
adequate capability. In such systems, the voltage magnitudes may not be of great concern and
the DC load flow provides sufficient accuracy with respect to the megawatt flows. For other
systems, voltage is of concern and full AC load flow analysis is required. The DC power
flow is only good for calculating MW flows on transmission lines and transformers. It gives
no indication of what happens to voltage magnitudes, or MVAR and MVA flows. The
method utilizes an approximate linear relation between power flows and bus angles and this
speed up the overall solution process.

4
 1.1 Objective of the Dissertation
The method used in contingency analysis and ranking were used here to test the both
sample test system i.e IEEE-14, IEEE-118 bus system.
The focus of the research presented in this desertion is on the contingency screening
and ranking (CS&R) methods suitable for on-line security assessment. Consideration factors
described above, this research is to meet the following objectives.
Study of power system security assessment and its importance in modern power
system.
Simulation two popular contingency analysis methods as Performance index method
and Distribution factor method.
Investigate several existing contingency screening and ranking methods.
Comparative study of contingency screening and ranking methods suitable for online
power system security.
Carry out the recommended method on various power system including IEEE-14 bus
and IEEE-118 bus system using conventional MATLAB programming and Mi-power
software.

5
 Chapter-2
Literature survey

1. Iraj Dabbaghchi et. al. [1] presented a computationally efficient automatic voltage
contingency selection algorithm. The methodology was based on the quantification of
the real time system wide impacts of the transmission branch ( line and transformer )
outages on the load bus voltage profile via the fast computation of a quadratic system
performance index (PI) for every branch and subsequent sorting of the result
according to the severity of effects. An application of the algorithm (1P-1Q) to the
ACS (automatic contingency selection) real time database was presented.

2. Yung-Chung Chang et.al.[2] presented two sensitivity factors in terms of the

generation sift distribution factor (GSDF) to improve some defects of the conventional
formula for the line outage distribution factor (LODF). The sensitivity factor were
established by using the concepts of generation change and power injection to
simulate the outage line flow and one of them was then applied to the case of line
addition. A transfer function was derived to calculate the power flow of the added line
very quickly from the relationship between the OPF and GSDF. The proposed method
has tested by means of a standard system compare with the conventional OPF in the
line outage case and with DC load flow in the addition case.

3. Yilang Chen et.al.[3] presented a direct ranking algorithm for contingency selection
taking into consideration voltage security problem. Here author compared 1P-1Q
iteration screening methods with second norm index, this direct ranking method
enjoys higher computation speed and almost the same accuracy. The test was
conducted on the IEEE-118 bus test system.

4. G.C.Ejebe et. al. [4] proposed a new method called Generalized curve fit(GCF) and
ranking for voltage stability analysis and compare it with existing methods like CPF
based method, Multiple load flow method, Test function method, V-Q curve fitting
method(VQF). The proposed method use to compute the stable branch and get an
approximation to the saddle-node bifurcation point was obtained by the use of curve
fitting technique. In the new method rather than computation and tracing the P-V and

6
 P-Q curve. An approximation to the role of the curve was determined; it was shown
that the newly proposed method has the best performance in terms of accuracy and
computation time. All the methods were evaluated using a 234-bus and 901 bus power
system.

5. Zhu Jizhong et.al. [5] presented a new approach to automatic contingency selection
(ACS) and ranking. ACS used with P and Q type sub-problems was solved by a
unified network flow model and algorithm. The performance indices to assess the
severity of contingencies were defined as the total real and reactive loads to be
curtailed. The proposed model and its algorithm were examined numerically with
IEEE-5 bus, 14 bus, 30-bus, 57-bus, 118-bus test system on an M-340 computer.

6. M. A. Kamarposhit et.al. [6] demonstrated that computing the MW margin

sensitivities from the nose of the P-V curve can be effective contingency analysis for
voltage collapse studies. It was shown that sensitivity of the MW margin to voltage
collapse studied with respect to first level contingencies could be computed efficiently
and quickly. Here author also described the procedure of CPF (continuation power
flow method) with ranking method. Simulation result was tested on IEEE-14 bus
system.

7. Amit Kumar Chowdhury et.al. [7] discussed about security aspects of power system
by evaluating the severity o transmission line outage. The severity of contingency was
measured using a scalar index called voltage performance index 1P-1Q method and
fast decouple load flow were used as approximation and exact load flow method for
voltage security assessment respectively. The result of severity of line was evaluated
and tested on IEEE-5 bus, 14-bus, 30-bus and compare using these load flow method.

8. Samrat Malakar et. al. [8] presented static security assessment based approach for
contingency ranking, incorporated analytic hierarchy process as an improvement to
the conventional power flow based ranking techniques. The proposed method was
employed to choose proper unequal priority factor for the weight severity index. The
usefulness of the technique has been verified on IEEE-14 bus system and the result
was presented with a detailed comparison with the help of network graphical overlays
for pre and post contingent states of power system.

9. Zhihong Jia et. al. [9] proposed a contingency ranking method for on-line voltage

7
 stability assessment. The method calculates the voltage stability margin considering
branch outages. The author also discussed about the CPF (continuation power flow)
and GCF (Generalized curve fit) method for contingency screening and ranking. The
proposed method was applied for the branch outages contingency ranking for the
IEEE-30, 600, 197, 1254 bus power system.

10. P.W. Bijwe et.al. [10] developed a contingency ranking algorithm which takes into
account corrective capability of the system. In the proposed approach the post-outage
line flow were obtained in terms of generation correction(around base case
conditions)using Generator shift distribution factor (GSDF), line outage distribution
factor used these line flows, the ranking performance index for line overload was
obtained in terms of generation corrections. The algorithm presented has been tested
on IEEE-25, 95 bus system.

11. F. Albuyeh et.al. [11] presented a technique for contingency ranking outages on the
basis of both real power and reactive power equations. This technique used the first
iteration of the AC load flow to rank outages case based on their expected severity. It
has also been shown that the ranking of outages case on the real power equations and
on the reactive power equation should be done independently. The technique was
applied to a southeastern U.S. utility system.

12. Brain L. Silverstein et. al. [12] discussed about the performance table criteria for a
deterministic bulk power planning. The focus was to use outage data and models for
multiple outages to examine the like hood of various contingencies author also
discussed about the line-outage, generator outage. Transformer outage, multiple
contingences case with cold weather effect and also discussed the contingency ranking
reliability criteria.

13. L.D. Arya et.al.[13] described a method for security control i.e. line overload,
alleviation using the switching under a line outage condition. This assessment was
made in pre-contingencies case using the line outage distribution factors. The author
represented a newly developed method which quickly calculates line flow after a
contingency and switched line. The algorithm had implemented on a 6 bus 11 line and
25 bus test system with help of PC-AT using turbo PASCAL.

14. S.N. Singh et. al. [ ] presented the development of a simple and fast method to

8
 calculate the new set of distribution factor using the sensitivity property of Newton-
Raphson load flow Jacobian at a base operating point. The factor has been used to
calculate the post-outage voltages and reactive power output of the sources following
outage of a transmission branch on a generator. The accuracy of post-outages results
using the distribution factor has been established with respect to full AC load flow
result on IEEE-14 bus , IEEE-57m 75-Indian system.

15. Chengjun Fu et.al. [14] proposed several indices for contingency screening in online
DSA (dynamic security assessment). These indices were based on the concepts of
coherency transient energy conversion between kinetic energy and potential energy
and three dot products of system variables. These indices have been tested on four
different systems as Canadian 55 bus, IEEE-162, IEEE-145, Midwestern USA 901
bus system.

16. Chong Suk Song et. al.[15] proposed a algorithm by utilizing the formulation of
PTDFs and LODFs to calculate the generation shift so that power flow on
transmission line that violate security limits due to single and multiple outage event
were adjusted to its security limits. This paper used the MATLAB software to build
the application where an algorithm was used to suppress the overloading on a line
following a single line and multiline fault or during a heavy load condition. This
program was applied on the New England 10 generator 39-Bus system.

17. S.N. Singh et.al. [16] suggested simple and efficient method for optimal selection of
weights along with higher order performance indices for voltage contingency
selection. Here author also reviewed existing performance indices for voltage
contingency selection. The proposed performance indices were able to eliminate
misranking and masking effects. The proposed algorithm has been tested on IEEE-14
bus system and a practical 75-bus Indian system.

18. G.B. Jasman et. al. [17] presented a new technique for ranking outage in power
system. The method of outage simulation by power system injection was used in this
paper and the result of the outage was then further analyzed to determine the level of
voltage instability of the network as a result of the outage. Result was tested on a 9-
bus system.

19. Chung-Liang chang et.al.[ 18] developed a new approach using the outage statistics of

9
 Taiwan power system was proposed for probabilistic contingency selection . Two
different ways could be approached for probabilistic contingency selection. One could
multiply the Pip index or the PIv index by probability of that event to get a
probabilistic index. The full ac load flows were performed according to the order of
this index. This approach suffers from the major drawback of being unable to give a
reasonable physical meaning for the index. This limits used of index among power
engineers. In this paper Pip index and PIv index were preserved for each outage event.
Generators Q limits were considered in the study and the effect of voltage considered
in the study and the effect of voltage condition on contingency selection was
investigated.

20. L.D.Arya et.al.[20] described a technique for ranking line outage causing voltage limit
violation taking into account the post outage correctability of the network during
contingency selection process. A computationally efficient algorithm for ranking line
outage has been developed taking into account the post outage corrective capability of
the power network and avoiding masking in optimization and ranking solution to such
a problem is computationally extremely demanding. Two set of compensated shift
factor were derived on IEEE-25, 30, 91 bus system.

21. Robert Fischl et.al.[21] presented the theory and method for systematically finding the
performance index(PI) which was used in automatic contingency selection (ACS)
algorithm. The author solved how to select the set of weighting coefficients in the
currently used PIs for analyzing either the real power flow or node voltage magnitude
problems in order to circumvent some of the contingency ranking problem .Even more
information it was shown how to select the threshold values of the PI which guarantee
proper classification of the contingencies .Author discussed about the method for
finding PI value using standard SUMI method. One such algorithm was given together
with an illustrative example.

22. K.W.Chan et. al. [22] described the security analysis methods adopted by OASIS with
an explanation and justification of why they can selected or developed. An on-line
dynamic security contingency screening and ranking system for large complex power
system, online algorithms for system instability studied (OASIS) was developed.
Result and discussion of the trails carried at the national grid control center NGCC)
were also presented.

10
23. D.Devaraj et.al. [23] presented an artificial neural network based approach for static
security assessment. The proposed approach uses radial basis function (RBF)
networks to predict the system severity level followed a given list of contingencies. A
method based on mutual information was proposed for selecting the input features of
the network. The performance of the proposed approach was demonstrated through
contingency ranking in IEEE-30 bus test system.

24. Zhengshuo Li et.al.[24] discussed about the future smart grid with distribution
network. A new transmission contingency analysis method based on global power
flow (GPF) was proposed in this paper (named as GTCA) to address the problem. The
definition and new features of GTCA was first introduced then necessity of GTCA
physically illustrated and difference on the results of and TCA was mathematically
analyzed .A GPF embedded algorithm of performing GTCA was provided with
theoretical analyzer and numerical verification, It was suggested that GTCA should be
performed instead of TCA to avoid potential false alarms especially in the condition
that DNS were more frequently looped in the future smart grid.

25. Quirino Morank [25] et.al. proposed a pervasive grid approach to defined a user
friendly software infrastructure for data acquisition from electrical network and for
data processing in order to simulate possible contingencies in a real electrical network
.The grid infrastructure adopts a broker service, based on an economy driven model to
satisfy the quality of service constrains specified by the user (i.e. a time deadline to
simulate the contingencies ).The author also discussed the clusters and PC to compute
the contingency analysis of a realistic electrical network . The experimental result
obtained demonstrates the effectiveness of the solution and the potential role of rid
computing in supporting and energy management in smart grid.

26. Mohammed Shahidehpour et.al. [26] reviewed the status of security analyses in
restructured power system .Here author discussed assumptions functions and
calculation tool that were considered for satisfying power system security
requirements .In addition the security coordination among time based scheduling
model was presented .This paper highlighted issues and challenges for implementing
security options in electricity for seeking optimal and feasible scheduled in various
time scales.

11
27. George K. Stefopoulos et.al.[27] described the development and implementation of
contingency ranking and selection algorithms, as part of power system security
assessment program. The ranking was based on the value of the sensitivity of the
performance index with respect to the contingency control variable for each outage.
The computation of the sensitivities was performed with co-sate method. The
effectiveness of the proposed method in identifying critical contingencies was
illustrated IEEE-4 bus and IEEE-24 bus system.

12
 Chapter-3
Power System Security

3.1. Introduction
Since 1920s, the power system security has gained importance in the planning, design
and at the operational stages. The fundamental goal of the power system is to supply
uninterrupted, quality power, economically to its consumers. The power system is a complex
network, where its security plays a major role for its reliable operation. The power system
networks are compelled to operate under stressed operating conditions closer to their stability
limits. When such systems experience any perturbation, it will lead to system collapse or
even black out, affecting the system security. This raises the reliability issue of the system.
Thus, there is a need to develop a powerful and robust online security monitoring system in
order to assess the system security level and forewarn the operational engineers to take
necessary preventive and control actions. Also, apart from the security monitoring and
assessment, there exists the need for necessary control action, such that the system regains
the secure state from the insecure one. In this context, it is necessary to develop an efficient
and economical control scheme in order to enhance the system security under the
contingency scenario.
An energy control center represents a large investment by the power system
ownership. Major benefits flowing from the introduction of this system include more reliable
system operation and improved efficiency of usage of generation resources. In addition,
power system operators are offered more in-depth information quickly. It has been suggested
that at Houston Lighting & Power Co., system dispatchers use of network application
functions (such as Power Flow, Optimal Power Flow, and Security Analysis) has resulted in
considerable economic and intangible benefits.
3.2. An Overview of Power System Security
With the increasing trend of power demand, the size and complexity of the power
system has been increased, which consists of several equipments such as the generators, the
transformers, the transmission lines, the switch gear equipments etc. The key goal of the
operational engineers is to provide reliable power to the consumers without interruption and
damage to the consumer appliances. Also, the utility companys goal is economic operation
of the power system. But such a power system network is also prone to several perturbations
like the transmission line outage, the generator outage, the sudden increase in load demand,

13
the loss of a transformer, etc. which are known as the contingencies. Thus, an important
factor in the operation of a power system is the desire to maintain the system security. The
system security comprise of practices that are well designed to maintain the system operation
when component fails. Apart from the economic operation, the power system must be
operationally secure. An operationally secure system is defined as the one with low
probability of system black out. The above aspects need security constrained power system
optimization.
From the security point of view, an outage can be defined as a temporary suspension
of operation. Therefore, the contingency is defined as a future event (outage) or circumstance
that is possible but cannot be predicted with certainty. The contingency analysis is performed
to assess the impact of a contingency on a power system for a specific state. However, the
increasing complexity of the modern real time power systems makes the security assessment
challenging. For instance, the day-to-day monitoring of a power system requires a quick
sensitivity analysis to recognize the parameters influencing the security and the
recommendations on control aspect to improve the level of system security [1]. Another
influencing factor is the economic and environmental factors, increasing the complexity of
the security and the economy, forcing the operators to operate the power system closer to the
limits [1]. Usually the security of the system is assessed for severe changes which have high
impact of system conditions. Such conditions are usually encountered because of
contingencies. These contingencies arises because of the faulty operation of the relays which
are installed to protect the power system network from faults and abnormal conditions. The
faulty operation of the relay may lead to loss of a transmission line, transformer, generator or
a primary load. Thus, for the secure operation of the power system, there is a pressing need to
monitor the system security to take necessary control actions and to avoid the system from
black out. In this context, the security assessment has emerged as a requirement in the
operational stage of the power system.

3.2. Power System Security: Definition

The Power system security is defined as, the ability of the system to withstand
unexpected failures (contingencies) and continues to operate without interruption of supply
to consumers [2]. The security assessment is the key aspect in the planning and operational
stages of a power system. The security assessment is also called as the security evaluation,
which investigates the robustness of the system security level to a set of preselected
contingencies in its present or future state.
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 The power system security assessment is the analysis performed to determine
whether, and to what extent, a power system is reasonably safe from serious interference to
its operation [3].

3.3. Security Monitoring, Assessment and Control

The static security is defined as the ability of the system to reach a steady state within
the specified secure region (defined by boundary limits) following a contingency [4].
The power system security can be divided into three key functions that are carried out
in an energy control centre.
1) System monitoring: It identifies whether the system operating state is secure or
not, based on the real-time system measurements. It provides the power system operators
with the latest information of the operating condition of the system, with the change in load
and generation.
2) Contingency analysis: The contingency analysis is carried out to study the outage
events and alert the operators to any potential overloads or serious voltage violations. This
approach helps the system operational engineers to locate protective operating states in such
a way that no single contingency event will generate overloads or voltage violations.
3) Corrective action analysis (Security constrained optimal power flow): This stage
includes the necessary control actions in order to restore the system security. If the system
experiences serious problem in the event of an outage, it allows the operator to change the
operation of the power system. Thus this function caters as preventive and post-contingency
control. An example of corrective action is rescheduling of generators which result in change
in power flows, which in turn cause a change in loading on overloaded lines. These three
security functions help to maintain the secure operation of the power system.

3.4. Power System Operating States

The control strategies alleviating the dangerous phenomena and maintaining the
power system in a secure state are primarily based on the classification of the power system
operating states [5], which are explained below:
1) Normal: In this state, all the system variables are within the operating limits and no
equipment is overloaded. The system is said to be secure, which has the capability to
withstand a contingency without violating the system constraints.

15
2) Alert: In this state, all the system variables are within the operating limits with all the
constraints satisfied. But, the system security level is degraded, where a contingency may
overload the equipment. This puts the system in an emergency state.
3) Emergency: In this state, some of the system variables violate the operating limits (for ex.
overloaded lines, low voltages etc.). If proper control strategies are not followed, the system
may advance towards In Extremis.
4) In Extremis: In this state, the cascading spread of the system component outages takes
place which leads to partial or complete black out.
5) Restoration: The power system disturbance, based on its nature, can lead the power
systems to a blackout or a brownout state. In the blackout state, the entire load is separated
from the generators, through either the tripping of the generators or the transmission lines.
No load is supplied. In the brownout state, the partial load is supplied through the
transmission network. The blackout state is more severe than the brownout state and requires
several stages for restoring it back to the normal operating state. After the disturbance has
occurred, the operator tries to bring back the power system to normal operating state through
measures known as restorative strategies. In this process the generators and lines which have
tripped will be bought back to service through a sequence of steps known as the restorative
measures. At this state, the control actions (for ex. energizing of the system or its parts and
reconnection and resynchronization of system parts) must be strong and effective in order to
bring back to the normal operating state.

Figure 3.1 Power system security operating states and control actions
The Figure 3.1 shows the associated relations and possible transitions between the
operating states and the typical control strategies. With reference to the discussed
classification of the operating states, the control strategies or the approaches required to keep
the power system secure.

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3.5. The Energy Control Center
The following criteria govern the operation of any electric power system
Safety
Quality
Reliability
Economy
The first criterion is the most important consideration and aims to ensure the safety of
personnel, environment, and property in every aspect of system operations. Quality is defined
in terms of variables, such as frequency and voltage that must conform to certain standards to
accommodate the requirements for proper operation of all loads connected to the system.
Reliability of supply does not have to mean a constant supply of power, but it means
that any break in the supply of power is one that is agreed to and tolerated by both supplier
and consumer of electric power. Making the generation cost and losses at a minimum
motivates the economy criterion while mitigating the adverse impact of power system
operation on the environment.
Within an operating power system, the following tasks are performed in order to meet
the preceding criteria:
Maintain the balance between load and generation.
Maintain the reactive power balance in order to control the voltage profile.
Maintain an optimum generation schedule to control the cost and environmental
impact of the power generation.
Ensure the security of the network against credible contingencies.
This requires protecting the network against reasonable failure of equipment or
outages. Heavier loading of tie-lines which were originally built to improve reliability, and
were not intended for normal use at heavy loading levels, has increased interdependence
among neighboring utilities. With greater emphasis on economy, there has been an increased
use of large economic generating units. This has also affected reliability.
These trends allow systems to be operated much closer to security limits (thermal,
voltage and stability). On some systems, transmission links are being operated at or near
limits 24 hours a day, with the following consequences. The trends have adversely affected
system dynamic performance. A power network stressed by heavy loading has a substantially
different response to disturbances from that of a non-stressed system.

17
 The potential size and effect of contingencies has increased dramatically. When a
power system is operated closer to the limit, a relatively small disturbance may cause a
system upset. The situation is further complicated by the fact that the largest size contingency
is increasing. Thus, to support operating functions many more scenarios must be anticipated
and analyzed. In addition, bigger areas of the interconnected system may be affected by a
disturbance.
Two control centers are normally implemented in an electric utility, one for the
operation of the generation-transmission system, and the other for the operation of the
distribution system. We refer to the former as the energy management system (EMS), while
the latter is referred to as the distribution management system (DMS). The two systems are
intended to help the dispatchers in better monitoring and control of the power system. The
simplest of such systems perform data acquisition and supervisory control, but many also
have sophisticated power application functions available to assist the operator.

3.6. Security Analysis

Power system security is the ability of power system to survive in looming
disturbances conditions (contingencies), without hampering to the safety, reliability and
customer service. Power system security refers to strength or robustness of any system to
imminent disturbances and it depends on system operating conditions and also on contingent
probable conditions. When the system is of insufficient security, it gets exposed to
catastrophic and system failure. So it is of paramount importance in having a safe, reliable,
continuous and economic operating condition of power system.
Power system security is the probability of systems operating conditions which
should remain within the tolerable ranges. This aspect plays an important role in point of
view its operations and planning. Following are few points which make the power reliability
and safety over a long run. Firstly, power system should be properly designed with taking
security as main concern. Secondly, regular monitoring during operation, maintaining with
acceptable ranges is second most concern. Thirdly, good engineering is required to achieve
these goals which mainly rely on the usage of tools used for power system analysis. The
changes that are occurring in the environment have finely tuned the requirement of power
system security analysis and its assessments and have also changed the analysis tools of
power system.
Power system consists of numerous of electrical based devices and is a complex
network in itself. And failure of any of these devices during operating condition hampers the
18
continuity of operation, security, safety and thus leads to outages, thus influencing security of
power system. Thus power system security is an important part of power system. The most
important aspect is evaluation of contingency, which leads to bus limit violations,
transmission line overloads during the operating conditions. Critical contingencies must be
identified firstly and fast to ensure secure, reliable and continuous operation.
As a major and important part of power system security, operational engineers need
to study the effect of outages and contingency on power system in terms of severity. Power
flow or load flows are important part of this analysis. They are required to have proper
operation, scheduling, and controlling of existing and operating power system and also on
proper planning for future expansion.
Security assessment is a major concern in planning, design and operation stages of
electric power systems. Security assessment consists of three modes, static, transient and
dynamic. The traditional method used in static security analysis involves solving full AC
load flow equations for each contingency scenario. This is highly time consuming and
inadequate for real time applications. Security assessment is the analysis performed to
determine whether, and to what extent, the system is reasonably safe from serious
interference to its operation. Occurrence of certain severe disturbances may cause the system
to go to an undesirable emergency state, if the system security is not well defined
beforehand. Hence, effective control of power systems demands a quick security evaluation
of their operating states. Conventional method of security evaluation, performed by
simulation program, involves long computer time and inadequate for real time applications.
System security was part of reliability assured at the system planning stage by
providing a strong system that could ride out any credible disturbances without serious
disruption. It is no longer economically feasible to design systems to this standard. At that
time, power system operators made sure that sufficient spinning reserve was on line to cover
unexpected load increases or potential loss of generation and to examine the impact of
removing a line or other apparatus for maintenance. Whenever possible, the operator
attempted to maintain a desirable voltage profile by balancing VARs in the system. Security
monitoring is perceived as that of monitoring, through contingency analysis, the conditional
transition of the system into an emergency state.
There is a need to clarify the roles of security assessment in the planning and real-
time operation environments. The possible ambiguity is the result of the shift of focus from
that of system robustness designed at the planning stage as part of reliability, to that of risk
avoidance that is a matter operators must deal with in real time. The planner is removed from
19
the time varying real world environment within which the system will ultimately function.
The term security within a planning context refers to those aspects of reliability analysis
that deal with the ability of the system, as it is expected to be constituted at some future time,
to withstand unexpected losses of certain system components. Reliability has frequently been
considered to consist of adequacy and security. Adequacy is the ability to supply energy to
satisfy load demand. Security is the ability to withstand sudden disturbances. System
operations is concerned with security as it is constituted at the moment, with a miscellaneous
variety of elements out for maintenance, repair, etc., and exposed to environmental
conditions that may be very different from the normal conditions considered in system
planning. In operations, systems nearly always have less than their full complement of
equipment in service. As a result, an operator must often improvise to improve security in
ways that are outside the horizon of planners.
3.7. Security Assessment
Security assessment involves using available data to estimate the relative security
level of the system currently or at some near-term future state. Approaches to security
assessment are classified as either direct or indirect
1. The direct approach:
This approach evaluates the likelihood of the system operating point entering the
emergency state. It calculates the probability that the power System State will move from
normal state to emergency state, conditioned on its current state, projected load variations,
and ambient conditions. It is common practice to assess security by analyzing a fixed set of
contingencies. The system is declared as insecure if any member of the set would result in
transition to the emergency state. This is a limiting form of direct assessment, since it implies
a probability of the system being in the emergency state conditioned on the occurrence of any
of the defined contingencies.
2. The indirect approach:
Here a number of reserve margins are tracked relative to predetermined levels
deemed adequate to maintain system robustness vis-a-vis pre-selected potential disturbances.
An indirect method of security assessment defines a set of system security variables that
should be maintained with predefined limits to provide adequate reserve margins.
Once derived for a given system configuration, they could be applied without further
power flow analysis to determine post-contingency line loading even, by superposition, for
multiple contingencies. Such a computationally simple method of analysis made on-line

20
contingency assessment practicable for thermal security, where reactive flows were not of
concern.
More recently, post-contingency voltage behavior has become a prominent element in
security assessment. Assessment of voltage security is a complex process because the
behavior of a system undergoing voltage collapse cannot be completely explained on the
basis of static analysis alone.

3.8. Implications of Security

The trend towards reducing the costs associated with robust systems has lead to
heightened requirements of active security control. This necessitates an increase in the
responsibilities of the system operator.
It is classified into three major functions which are carried out in an operation control centre.
1. System monitoring (SCADA, state estimation).
2. Contingency analysis.
3. Security constrained OPF (SCOPF).
The system monitoring provides the operators of the power system with pertinent up-
to-date information on the conditions of the power system. Generally speaking, it is the most
important function of the three. From the time that utilities went beyond systems of one unit
supplying a group of loads, the effective operation of the system required that critical
quantities be measured and the values of the measurements be transmitted to a central
location.
Such systems of measurement and data transmission, called telemetry systems, have
evolved to schemes that can monitor voltages, currents, power flows, and the status of circuit
breakers, and switches in every substation in a power system transmission network. In
addition, other critical information such as frequency, generator unit outputs and transformer
tap positions can also be Tele metered. With so much information telemetered
simultaneously, no human operator could hope to check all of it in a reasonable time frame.
For this reason, digital computers are usually installed in operation control centers to gather
the telemetered data, process them, and place them in a database from which operators can
display information on large display monitors.
More importantly, the computer can check incoming information against pre-stored
limits and alarm the operators in the event of an overload or out-of-limit voltage.

21
 State estimation is often used in such systems to combine telemetered system data
with system models to produce the best estimate of the current power system conditions or
state. It is discussed in detail in the other sections.
Such systems are usually combined with supervisory control systems that allow
operators to control circuit breakers and disconnect switches and transformer taps remotely.
Together, these systems are often referred to as SCADA systems, standing for Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition system.
The second major security function is the contingency analysis. The results of this
type of analysis allow systems to be operated defensively. Many of the problems that occur
on a power system can cause serious trouble within such a quick time period that the operator
could not take action fast enough. This is often the case with cascading failures. Because of
this aspect of system operation, modern operation computers are equipped with contingency
analysis programs that model possible system troubles that arise. These programs are based
on a model of the power system and are used to study outage events and alarm the operators
to any potential overloads or out-of-limit voltages.
The third method security function is security-constrained optimal power flow. In this
function, a contingency analysis is combined with an optimal power flow which seeks to
make changes to the optimal dispatch of generation, as well as other adjustments, so that
when a security analysis runs, no contingencies result in violation.
To understand the above functions, we shall divide the operating states of the power
system into four types:
1. Optimal dispatch
2. Post-contingency
3. Secure dispatch
4. Secure post-contingency
1. Optimal dispatch: It is the state that the power system is in prior to any contingency. It is
optimal with respect to economic operation but it may not be secure.
2. Post-contingency: It is the state of the power system after contingency has occurred. We
shall assume here that this state has a security violation (transmission line or transformer
outside its flow limit or bus voltage outside limit).
3. Secure dispatch: It is the state of the power system with no contingency outages but with
corrections to the operating parameters to account for security violation.
4. Secure post-contingency: It is the state of the power system when contingency analysis is
applied to base operating condition with corrections.
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It is illustrated with an example. Suppose a trivial power system consisting of two generators,
a load and double circuit line with both generators supplying load. Figure shows that the
system is in economic dispatch that is 500 MW from unit 1 and 700 MW from unit 2 is in
optimal dispatch. Further, the two double circuit lines can carry a maximum of 400 MW so
that there is no loading problem with respect to the base operating condition.

Fig 3.2. Optimal dispatch

Figure shows the post-contingency state. Suppose one of the circuits making double circuit
line is opened due to a failure. The circuit will be as shown in figure below. Then there is an
overload in the remaining circuit.

Fig.3.3. Post contingency

If we dont have this condition to arise and we shall correct this by lowering the generation on
unit 1 to 400 MW, then the secure dispatch is as shown in

Fig. Secure dispatch

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Now, if the contingency analysis is done, the secure post-contingency is as shown in Figure
Thus, by adjusting the generation on unit 1 and unit 2, the post-contingency state is prevented
from having an overload. Programs which make control adjustments to the base or pre-
contingency condition to prevent violations in post-contingency conditions are called Security
Constrained Optimal Power Flow (SCOPF).

Fig.3.4. Secure post-contingency

Contingencies are defined as potentially harmful disturbances that occur during the
steady state operation of a power system. Load flow constitutes the most important study in a
power system for planning, operation and expansion. The purpose of load flow study is to
compute operating conditions of the power system under steady state. These operating
conditions are normally voltage magnitudes and phase angles at different buses, line flows
(MW and MVAr), real and reactive power supplied by the generators and power loss. In a
modern Energy Management power system security monitoring and analysis form an integral
part but the real time implementation is a challenging task for the power system engineer.
A power system which is operating under normal mode may face contingencies such
as sudden loss of line or generator, sudden increase or decrease of power demand. These
contingencies cause transmission line overloading or bus voltage violations. In electrical
power systems voltage stability is receiving special attention these days. During the past two
and half decades it has become a major threat to the operation of many systems. The transfer
of power through a transmission network is accompanied by voltage drops between the
generation and consumption points. In normal operating conditions, these drops are of the
order of few percents of the nominal voltage. One of the principle tasks of power system
operators is to check that under different operating conditions and/or following credible
contingencies (e.g.: tripping of a single line) all bus voltages remain within bounds. In such
circumstances, however in the seconds or minutes following a disturbance, voltages may
experience large progressive falls, which are so prominent that the system integrity is
endangered and power cannot be delivered to the customers. This catastrophe is referred to as
24
voltage instability and its calamitous result as a voltage collapse. Large violations in
transmission line flow can result in line outage which may lead to cascading effect of outages
and cause over load on the other lines. If such over load results from a line outage there is an
immediate need for the control action to be initiated for line over load alleviation. Therefore
contingency analysis is one of the most important tasks to be met by the power system
planners and operation engineers. But on line contingency analysis is difficult because of the
conflict between the accuracy in solution of the power system problem and the speed
required to simulate all the contingencies. The simulation of contingency is complex since it
results in change in configuration of the system.
Contingency selection or contingency screening is a process in which probable and
potential critical contingencies are identified for which it requires consideration of each line
or generator outage. This method is very time consuming as it does not suit real time
requirement, as real time systems are large systems and requires lot of time for computation.
To solve this problem a number of algorithms have been developed which are classified into
two methods. One of those method is the Performance Index (PI) which is based on
calculation the PI values and ranking them accordingly to quantify the severity for each case.
The other method is based on approximate power flow which is used to eliminate
those critical contingencies. This method is known as screening method. There are numbers
of methods for evaluation of contingency of power system. AC load flow and mathematical
calculations are mostly used in most of the methods.
For contingency screening several methods have been developed. The most widely
used method for calculation of the performance index is based on the conventional method
known as fast decouple load flow program . The modern power system is a complex network
and due to its complexity and large scale networks, contingency analysis should be powerful
and computation should be fast. The most important point for contingency or outage is that
all possible outages does not affect overload in lines and transformers, and does not affect
voltage drops in different nodes of system. Therefore it is not required to consider all
possible outages for computer simulation purpose. It is necessary to specify the outages
which can cause the most of overloads and voltage drops in the system for contingency
screening. Such critical and potential contingencies should be quickly identified for further
evaluation process in detailed manner. Thus contingency selection is defined as the process
of identifying these critical contingencies. Thus contingency selection/screening or
contingency ranking is projected so in order to rank those outages which will violate the
normal operating condition.
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 Chapter-4
Contingency Analysis in power system security

4.1 Introduction
It is a hybrid two words, i.e. contingency and analysis, contingency in power system
is termed as a disturbance resulting from the outage of one or more elements such as
generator, transmission line, transformers and circuit breakers. However, contingency
analysis is the study of the power system element outage and it reveals its influence to the
line flow overload and bus voltage profile in the system. It is a useful measure for power
system security assessment, particularly to reveal which system element outage leads to the
line flow overloads and bus voltage margins violation. Performance index is used to
evaluate the rank contingency impact on the remaining system elements in such way as to
identify which critical system element outage, sub-outage its operational status. Therefore
power system information incorporated with contingency analysis and performance index in
order to detect its behavior under any branch outage or generator outage. This will enable us
to know which contingency may harm the steady state stability of the system in terms of
branch thermal ratings and bus voltage profile.

4.2 Type of contingency

The contingencies may be grouped into two broad categories:
1. Power outages
2. Network outages
The power outage includes
i.) Loss of generating unit
ii.) Sudden change in load which may cause stability or oscillation problems.
iii.) Sudden change of power flow in an inter-tie, which implies sudden gain of
generation for one area and loss of generation in the other area.

The most serious case from the point of view of steady state security is the loss of
generation. The real power lost is distributed to a number of regulating generators according
to an assigned set of distribution factors. However, if the generation is not available, then
load shedding will have to be performed and the power system is in insecure state.

26
 The network outage includes:
i) Outage of a transmission line
ii) Outage of a transformer

The system operator is interested to know if the network outage will lead to
emergency or restorative state implying that the present state is insecure.
Contingency analysis indicates to the operator what might happen to the system in the
event of unplanned equipment outage. It essentially offers answers to questions such as
What will be the state of the system if an outage on part of the major transmission system
takes place? The answer might be that power flows and voltages will readjust and remain
within acceptable limits, or that severe overloads and under-voltages will occur with
potentially severe consequences should the outage take place.
A severe overload, persisting long enough, can damage equipment of the system, but
usually relays are activated to isolate the affected equipment once it fails. The outage of a
second component due to relay action is more serious and often results in yet more
readjustment of power flows and bus voltages. This can in turn cause more overloads and
further removal of equipment. An uncontrollable cascading series of overloads and
equipment removals may then take place, resulting in the shutting down of a significant
portion of the system.
The motivation to use contingency analysis tools in an EMS is that when forewarned
the operator can initiate preventive action before the event to avoid problems should an
outage take place. From an economic point of view,
The operator strives to avoid overloads that might directly damage equipment, or
worse, might cause the system to lose a number of components due to relay action and then
cause system-wide outages.
External contingencies are caused by environmental effects such as lightning, high
winds and ice conditions or else are related to some non-weather related events such as
vehicle or aircraft coming into contact with equipment, or even human or animal direct
contact. These causes are treated as unscheduled, random events, which operators can not
anticipate, but for which they must be prepared.
The operator must play an active role in maintaining system security. The first step is
to perform contingency analysis studies frequently enough to assure that system conditions
have not changed significantly from the last execution. The outcome of contingency analysis
is a series of warnings or alarms to the operators alerting them that loss of component A will
27
result in an overload of PA on line T1. To achieve an accurate picture of the systems
exposure to outage events several points need to be considered:
A) System Model
Contingency analysis is carried out using a power flow model of the system.
Additional information about system dynamics is needed to assess stability as well. Voltage
levels and the geographic extent to include in the model are issues to be considered. In
practice, all voltage levels that have any possibility of connecting circuits in parallel with the
high voltage system are included. This leaves out those that are radial to it such as
distribution networks.
B) Contingency Definition
Each modeled contingency has to be specified on its own. The simplest definition is
to name a single component. This implies that when the model of the system is set up, this
contingency will be modeled by removing the single component specified. Another important
consideration is the means of specifying the component outage. The component can be
specified by name, such as a transmission line name, or more accurately, a list of circuit
breakers can be specified as needing to be operated to correctly model the outage of the
component. Contingencies that require more than one component to be taken out together
must be defined as well.
C) Double Contingencies
A double contingency is the overlapping occurrence of two independent contingent
events. To be specific, one outside event causes an outage and while this outage is still in
effect, a second totally independent event causes another component to be taken out. The
overlap of the two outages often causes overloads and under-voltages that would not occur if
either happened separately.
D) Contingency List
Generally, contingency analysis programs are executed based on a list of valid
contingencies. The list might consist of all single component outages including all
transmission lines, transformers, substation buses, and all generator units. For a large
interconnected power system just this list alone could result in thousands of contingency
events being tested.
E) Speed
Generally, operators need to have results from a contingency analysis program in the
order of a few minutes up to fifteen minutes. Anything longer means that the analysis is

28
running on a system model that does not reflect current system status and the results may not
be meaningful.

4.3 Historical Methods of Contingency Analysis

There is a conflict between the accuracy with which the power system is modeled and
the speed required for modeling all the contingencies specified by the operator. If the
contingencies can be evaluated fast enough, then all cases specified on the contingency list
are run periodically and alarms reported to the operators. This is possible if the computation
for each outage case can be performed very fast or else the number of contingencies to be run
is very small.
The number of contingency cases to be solved in common energy management
systems is usually a few hundred to a few thousand cases. This coupled with the fact that the
results are to be as accurate as if run with a full power flow program make the execution of a
contingency analysis program within an acceptable time frame extremely difficult.
Power system consists of numerous of electrical equipments and failure of any of
these leads to power failure and affects the system parameters to go beyond its operating
limits. It may lead to obstruct the secure operations and reliability of power systems. Power
system needs to be operationally secure i.e. with minimal probability of blackout and
equipment damage the power system is said to be normal when the power flows and bus
voltages are within operating and acceptable limits despite there are changes in load and or in
available generation.
Ejebe and Wollenberg introduced the concept of contingency. The unpredictable
events in the power system operations are termed as contingency. Contingency in a power
system leads to instability of entire power system, and affects the reliability, security and
continuity. An outage refers to the temporary suspension of power. And contingency can be
defined as the possible circumstance or outage which is possible but cannot be predicted with
certainty. A contingency is basically an outage of a generator, transformer and or line, and its
effects are monitored with precise security limits. From this perspective, security is the
probability of a power systems operating point remaining in a viable state of operation.
Contingency analysis is a software application run in an energy management system
to give the operators an indication of what might happen to the power system in the event of
an unplanned (or unscheduled) equipment outage . In other words, the contingency analysis
application allows the operator to ask what if questions such as: What will be the state of
the system if we have an outage on part of our distribution network? The answer to this
29
question might be that the system power flows and voltages will readjust and remain within
acceptable operating limits or the severe overloads and under voltages will occur so that the
systems ability to survive is in question. The use of a contingency analysis application in an
energy management system is predicated upon the idea that when forewarned, the operator
can take some action before or after the event to help the system avoid outage events.
Typical contingencies on a distribution network consist of outages such as loss of
feeders, distribution lines, or transformers. Contingencies can occur in the form of single
equipment outages or in the form of multiple outages. The causes of equipment removal and
short circuits can be classified as internal or external. Internal causes arise from phenomena
such as insulation breakdown, over temperature relay action or simply incorrect operation of
relay devices. The external causes result from some environmental effects such as lightning,
high winds and ice conditions or non-weather related events such as vehicle or aircraft
coming into contact with equipment, or even human or animal direct contact. All of these
causes are treated as unscheduled, random events which the operators do not expect to occur,
but for which the operators must be prepared.
The fact that the power system is designed to account for outages does not mean
power system operators can passively assume the system will withstand all such events.
There is a great difference between the system planners design and the actual system the
operations department must use to deliver power. Construction can be delayed or denied by
regulatory agencies, load patterns can shift in unforeseen ways or generator outages can
necessitate purchasing power and transmitting it over long distances. The result is a situation
wherein operators must play an active role in maintaining the system security.
The N-1 criterion is an abstraction representing equivalently a single contingency
(element kept out of service for maintenance, generating unit not scheduled, etc.), or the
tripping of one element following a normative incident, like a three phase short circuit. An
N-k contingency means a contingency resulting in loss of k components where it is implicit
that k>1.The difficulty of N-k contingency analysis lies in its combinatorial nature. The
number of credible contingencies may vary depending on the level of analysis, number of
elements (N), and level of contingency. That is, first level of contingency corresponds to N-1,
second level of contingency corresponds to N-2 and so forth.
Contingency analysis is one of the most talked issues in security assessment of any
power system because with the existing complex infrastructure and with no extensive
development of power stations, it is obvious that most of existing power systems cannot cope
with the increase in demand. Contingency analysis should be performed for the unexpected
30
and severe events that may occur in power system and preventing other related cascade
accidents.
Contingency is expressed as an unwanted event occurring in the power system for a
short duration of time, which actually specifies the loss or outage of one or more components
of power system. At the time of outage of any components or equipment in the power
system, contingency analysis shows an indication, of what might be the position of power
system. It is fundamentally a software application run on power management system,
simulating a speculative test on a list of notional cases, which would create power flow,
voltage or reactive power violation in the system. These cases are recognized and ranked in
order of their severity using contingency ranking approaches.
Since contingency analysis involves the simulation of each contingency on the base
case model of the power system, three major difficulties are involved in this analysis. First is
the difficulty to develop the approximate power system model. Second is the choice of which
contingency case to consider and third is the difficulty in computing the power flow and bus
voltages which lead to enormous time consumption in the energy management system.

4.4. Purpose of Contingency Analysis

Contingency analysis is performed on lies t of credible contingency cases (single or
multiple equipment outages).Those contingencies that, if they occurred, would create steady-
state emergencies must be identified and ranked in order of severity. The power system
operator and/or an automated security-constrained scheduling function can then respond to
each insecure contingency case, usually in decreasing order of severity, by:
a) Altering the pre-contingency system operating state to mitigate or eliminate the emergency
resulting from the contingency, or
b) Developing a control strategy that will alleviate the emergency, should it occur, or
c) Deciding to do nothing, on the basis that the post contingency emergency is small and/or
very unlikely.

Contingency analysis is one of the most important tasks encountered by the planning
and operation engineers of bulk power system. Power system engineers use contingency
analysis to examine the performance of the system and to assess the need for new
transmission expansions due to load increase or generation expansions. In power system
operation contingency analysis assists engineers to operate at a secured operating point where
equipment are loaded within their safe limits and power is delivered to customers with

31
acceptable quality standards. Real time implementation of power system analysis and
security monitoring is still a challenging task for the operators.
In general the state of the system is determined on the basis of ability to meet the
expected demand under all levels of contingencies. The objective of contingency analysis is
to find voltage violations or line overloads under such contingencies and to initiate proper
measures that are required to alleviate these violations. Exhaustive load flow calculations are
involved in ascertaining these contingencies and determining the remedial actions. The
necessity for such tool is increasingly critical due to the emerging complexity of power
systems that results from network expansions and the fact that the power systems are pushed
to operate at their limits due to financial and environmental constraints.
The different methods used for analyzing these contingencies are based on full AC
load flow analysis or reduced load flow or sensitivity factors. But these methods need large
computational time and are not suitable for on line applications in large power systems. It is
difficult to implement on line contingency analysis using conventional methods because of
the conflict between the faster solution and the accuracy of the solution.
Electrical power plays a big role in the growth of the economy of any country, more
especially in the industrial sector. There is a need therefore to put emphasis on maintaining
electrical power system security in terms of generation, transmission and supply for
reliability. Power system security incorporates system monitoring installed capacity at the
utility dispatching centre, protective measures put in place along the system network and
contingency analysis to necessitate scheduled maintenance outage, abrupt element(s) outage
and system expansion plan. A secure power system is likely to be reliable in terms of
economic income for the utility, continuity of supply and technically vibrant in all system
elements to withstand system post contingency.
The power system security analysis is performed to create several control strategies to
guarantee security and survival of system during emergency conditions and hence operate at
its possible lowest cost. To have secure power system, its elements must operate within their
prescribed operating conditions such as voltage variation limits, thermal limits, reactive
power limits so as to maximize the avoidance of any hazardous event.
To reduce the computer time as system continue to grow increasingly larger, the list
of potential outage contingencies for CA could be selectively reduced by engineering
judgment before submitting it to CA for further automatic selection. And the list of
contingencies to be monitored for violations could similarly be reduced beforehand to further
decrease the computational effort.
32
 Concept of contingency was introduced by Ejebe and Wollenberg. Contingency is
termed as a unpredictable event in the power system where outage is referred as temporary
suspension of power. Contingency therefore defined as possible circumstance or as failure
outage which is possible but cannot be predicted with certainly.

4.5. Necessity of Contingency Analysis (CA)

Improving system reliability: In a developing country like India, we are already
facing huge amount of load shedding. There have been a number of reforms in the
power sector in India. But government reforms failed to bring desired improvements
in the power sector. On the other hand, we are losing transformers and generators for
security violation or for some overload problem, or a bus voltage outside the limit. It
means that if we arent able to maintain our existing generator or network properly it
might be a great loss of our valuable property. With the help of CA we will be able to
know the ranking by which helps us to know the amount of losses for any fault in
bus, generator, transformer and transmission line. So we must have to be aware to
solve the problem before they arise.
For secured operation: As we can determine early by using this method that which
components are risky and have probability to fail in near future so we can be more
aware about those components and can take additional steps of maintenance to protect
it. That means, we can operate components of the power system more safely and
effectively utilizing this analysis.
For future planning and expansion: If fault occurs in any transmission line then the
load flows through the rest of the lines in the system and this process will increase
pressure on those lines. To avoid such problem we can run contingency analysis and
design a parallel line and avoid this kind of problem. Thus CA helps us to expand
transmission line and improve future power system.

4.6. Approaches to Contingency Analysis

The traditional concept of contingency analysis is that each contingency should be
simulated on the base-case model of the power system. Then the calculated post-contingency
operating state is checked for operating-limit violations.
In principle, this is straightforward: a routine power flow solution must be run for
each contingency case. In practice, there are three major difficulties. The first is to establish

33
the appropriate power system model. This depends on what post contingency state is to be
represented, and how accurate the results need to be. The second is to determine which
contingency cases to consider. The third difficulty is the fact that processing power-flow
solutions for large numbers of contingency cases, usually at frequent intervals of time,
requires an enormous computational effort. In fact, contingency analysis is often the most
time-consuming function in an Energy Management System, with a significant and very
unwelcome impact on computer sizing.
The general approach now widely adopted is to separate on-line contingency analysis
into three distinct stages: contingency definition, selection, and evaluation.
Contingency definition is the least time-consuming function. The contingency list to
be processed within the EMS comprises those cases whose probability of occurrence is
deemed sufficiently high, and is specified by the utility company at system element level.
This list may vary with system topology and load, and may include secondary switching
(where one contingency results in further contingencies). The list, which is normally large, is
automatically translated into electrical network changes: normally injection and/or branch
outages.
Contingency selection is the process that offers the greatest potential for
computational saving, and has received most development effort. Its purpose is to shorten the
original long list of contingencies by eliminating that vast majority of cases having no
violations. It invariably uses an approximate (where possible, linear) power system model
with appropriate computational techniques, to give relatively rapid but limited-accuracy
results. On the basis of these results, the contingency cases are ranked in rough order of
severity.
Contingency evaluation using ac power flow is then performed on the successive
individual cases in decreasing order of severity. The process is continued up to the point
where no post contingency violations are encountered, or until a maximum number of cases
have been covered, or until a specified time has elapsed.
In some cases, contingency selection and evaluation become merged into one process.
A single set of simulations on the contingency list can be performed when either
a) The accuracy of an approximate selection-type model/solution is adequate
throughout, or
b) When fast-selection cannot be performed reliably, and the more accurate
evaluation-type model /solutions are needed throughout.

34
 4.7. Contingency analysis procedure
Contingency analysis need the simulation of each contingency for the given power
system model. In order to analyze the contingency analysis easier it comprises of three
important steps.
1. Contingency creation/Definition/Listing-
It is the initial step of contingency analysis. It is made up of all set of viable
contingencies that may happen in a power system. This process consists of making
contingencies lists.
2. Contingency selection-
It is the second step in contingency analysis. It is the process which includes finding
through lines. Here in these procedure contingencies that list is reduced by rejection of least
severe contingencies and taking into consideration of most severe outages. In this process the
performance index has been used to find the most severe ones.
3. Contingency evaluation
It is the third step and most significant step as it includes necessary control and
security actions which are required in order to reduce the effort of most severe contingencies
in a power system.

Contingency analysis is carried out using a power flow model of the system.
Additional information about system dynamics is needed to assess stability as well. Voltage
levels and the geographic extent to include in the model are issues to be considered. In
practice, all voltage levels that have any possibility of connecting circuits in parallel with the
high voltage system are included. This leaves out those that are redial to it such as
distribution network.
Each modeled contingency has to be specified on its own. The simplest definition is
to name a single component. This implies that when the model of the system is set up, this
contingency will be modeled by removing the single component specified. Another important
consideration is the means of specifying the component outage. The component can be
specified by name, such as a transmission line name, or more accurately, a list of circuit
breakers can be specified as needing to be operated to correctly model the outage of the
component. Contingencies that require more than one component to be taken out together
must be defined as well.
Let us consider that n power system components are there in a power system. And if
one component, i.e. one generator or a one line in a transmission system fails or outage
35
(single failure), then this event is called n-1 contingency analysis. Where as if two
components, i.e two lines in a transmission system or, a generator and a transmission line in
the system fails or, outage (two failures), then this event is called n-2 contingency analysis.
Generally, contingency analysis programs are executed based on the list of valid
contingencies. The list might consist of all single component outages including all
transmission lines, transformer, substation buses, and all generator units, for a large
interconnected power system just this list alone could result in thousand of contingencies
event being tested.

36
 Chapter-5
Contingency Screening and Ranking

5.1 Introduction
Currently, many utilities perform off-line studies to determine power system security
margin and control action necessary to ensure stability for a restricted set of system
conditions. These results are then, complied into a look-up table for use by the system
operators. This approach has many drawbacks such as significant amount of off-line analysis,
limited number of considered operating conditions, and limited number of considered
contingencies. In light of the importance of security to system performance and the
shortcomings of the off-line methods, there exists a strong need for on-line voltage stability
assessment method. Translating the available off-line security assessment tools for on-line
use provides many challenges.
An important function in voltage stability assessment tools is contingency screening
and ranking. Its objective is to quickly and accurately select a short list of critical
contingencies from a large list of potential contingencies and rank them according to their
severity. Suitable preventive control actions can be implemented considering contingencies
that are likely to affect the power system performance.
System insecurity may develop from a few seconds (short-term) to several minutes or
longer (long-term). Both are usually considered too fast to be corrected by system operators.
And hence corrective actions are implemented through automatic controls. However, the
time taken by the long-term insecurity to develop, while short for a human operator, would
be ample for a computer executing efficient software to identify the problem, warm the
operator and suggest or trigger corrective actions. Security assessment based on on-line
system analysis and adapting its decision to disturbance of concern has been investigated
with great interest.
In practice, system security is checked with reference to a set of credible
disturbances, i.e. disturbances with a reasonable probability of occurrence, referred to as
contingencies. Contingencies can consist of one or more events occurring simultaneously or
at different instants of time, with each event resulting in a change in the state of one more
power system elements. It may be initiated by a small disturbance, a fault, or a switching
action. Normally, following types of switching action should be supported in the definition of
a contingency.

37
 1. Breaker opening/closing
2. Shunt capacitor/reactive insertion and /or removal
3. Generator tripping
4. Load shedding
5. Transformer tap changing
6. FACTS device connectivity and operation

However, it is impractical and unnecessary to analyze in detail the impact of every

conceivable system contingency. Because of interconnection of power system, systems are
becoming larger and larger. If all contingencies are studied in detail, it will take a long time
for calculation. This is intolerant for on-line security assessment.
Further, most contingencies are not severe. Only a limited number of contingencies
will be of immediate concern and must be assessed. Therefore, it is desirable to be able to
screen the contingencies such that a list of those most likely to cause problems can be
assessed in detail. These contingencies should be ranked according to their expected impact.

5.2 Contingency selection approaches

The two main approaches to contingency selection are as follows-
A.) Direct method- These involve screening and direct ranking of the contingency cases.
Screening involves the fast approximate power flow simulation of each contingency
case. By monitoring the appropriate post-contingent quantities (flow, voltage), the
cases severity can be quantify directly in some heuristic manner for ranking purposes.
The severity measures in often a single number, the severity or performance index.
B.) Indirect Method- These produce the values of the contingency- case severity indices
for ranking, without calculating the monitored contingent quantities. Much of the
development work on contingency selection has been performed for the active power
problem, using dc power flow type models. Although many of the methods have
employed the typically inadequate non incremental dc version, incremental dc model
version these methods can in most cases be derived.

5.2.1 Direct method or ranking method (performance index)-

Power engineer must know which line or generation outage will cause flows or
voltage to fall out of limits. To predict the effect of outages, fast contingency analysis

38
techniques are used. For each outage tested, the contingency analysis procedure checks all
lines and voltage in the network against their respective limit.
An alternative way to produce a reduced contingency list is to perform a computation
to indicate the possible bad cases and perform it as often as the contingency analysis itself is
run. This builds the list of cases dynamically and the cases that are included in the list may
changes as conditions on the power system change. This requires a fast approximate
evaluation to discover those outage cases that might present a real problem and require
further detailed evaluation by a full power flow. Normally a sensitivity method based on the
concept of network performance index is employed. The idea is to calculate a scalar index
that reflects the loading on the entire system.
Selection is performed by various ranking schemes which compute a scalar
performance index (PI) for each contingency derived from the dc or FDPF (fast decoupled
power flow) solution for the contingency .the assumption in these ranking schemes is that the
magnitude of PI for each contingency is a measure of likelihood that it will cause line
overloads and violations of bus voltage and reactive power sources. For instance, the MW-PI
for each contingency is a summation of terms equal to the number of lines in the network.
Each term is a function of the incremental power flow in the one of the lines and its flow
limit.
If only the MW flow in a network is of concern, the DC load flow method provides a
quick, reasonably accurate method of estimating changes in network MW flows following a
contingency. A performance index, (PI) is used to determine the worst contingency based on
the extent of overloading of network components.
A performance index is defined to include bus voltage limit violations and bus
reactive power deviations from specified limit. To save time, only the first iteration of Fast
decoupled power flow methods is used to estimate the system variables, and for every outage
the system performance index is calculated. Outages are ranked according to the magnitudes
of their corresponding performance indices and then the outages in the severity list are
analyzed further by an AC load flow until a stopping criterion is satisfied.
If voltage behavior is also required then simplified version of the fast decoupled load
flow must be used (one or two iterations). A performance index similar to the MW PI is used
for the ranking algorithm based on the severity of voltage drops result from the contingency.
To complete the security analysis, the PI list is sorted so that the largest PI appears at
the top. The security analysis can then start by executing full power flows with the case
which is at the top of the list, then solve the case which is second, and so on down the list.
39
This continues until either a fixed number of cases is solved, or until a predetermined number
of cases are solved which do not have any alarms.
Ranking methods involve ranking of contingencies in approximate order of severity.
The performance indexes are explicitly expressed in terms of network variables and are
directly evaluated. It does not require computation of post-outage quantities, which in the
screening method are evaluated by using some approximate solution approach. Contingency
selection is carried out so as to reduce the number of contingencies that need to ne analyzed
by full load flow, while assessing the power systems security for quickly identifying those
contingencies which may cause out-of-limit violations. Two popular used method for
contingency selections are- ranking and screening.
Ranking method involve ranking of contingencies in approximate order of severity.
Contingencies are ranked based on the value of a scalar performance index (PI). Which
measures the system stress in some manner. Several PI based method have been suggested
and tested for voltage security analysis. In ranking method, the performance indices are
explicitly expressed in terms of post-outage quantities, which in the screening methods are
evaluated by using some approximation solution approach.
Screening method are approximate network solutions to identify cases causing limit
violations. First the network monitored quantities are calculated for all the contingencies.
Ranking is done based on the results of the approximate solutions. Some of the method used
to find approximate solution with screening methods are the distribution factors, DC load
flow, linearized load flow, one iteration of AC load flow, local solution methods. Etc.
Most of work on contingency selection algorithm utilizes the second order
performance indices which, in general, suffer from masking and misranking effects. The lack
of discrimination, in which the performance index for a case with many small violations can
be comparable in value to the index for a case with many small violations can be comparable
in value to the index for a case with one huge violation, is known as masking effect. By most
of the operational standards, the latter case is much more severe. Misrankings of
contingencies are mainly due to the inaccuracies in the model used for computing the
performance indices or monitored quantities. Misranking is characterized by error in the
computer order of relative severity of various contingencies. To some extent, the masking
effect can be avoided by using higher order performance indices. However, to eliminate the
misranking, the proper selection of weights for performance indices is required. Some of the
efforts in reducing these effects include the works of Halpin et.al. and Schafer et.al. to

40
capture critical contingencies and optimal weight of the second order performance index,
based on probabilistic approach, to compute threshold value of PI.
Ejebe et.al., for ranking of contingencies according to their relative severities for both
line and voltage security analysis, suggested in 1979 the use of performance indices, various
modified versions of ranking method for voltage contingency selection have been suggested
by Lauby et.al., Albuyeh et.al., Medicherla et.al. And Wasley et.al., the performance indices,
in general form, can be written as
Wi 2n
PI = f z
2n i
i

Where fi z is a linear function of zi1 where zi denotes the changes in bus voltage
magnitudes or generator bus injections with respect to their ratings etc. the order of the above
performance index in 2n.
Method-
The voltage performance index (PIv), chosen to quantify system deficiency to out-of-
limit bus voltage, is defined as
N 2n
v
Wvi Vi Vilim
PI =
2n Vilim
i=1

Where Vilim and Vi are the post-outage magnitude and specified (rated) voltage
magnitude, respectively, at bus-i , n is the exponent of the function, and N is the total number
of buses in the system. Wvi is the weighting factor and
V max V min
Vilim = i i
2

Any contingency case with voltage levels outside the limit yields a high value of PI v .
On the other hand, when all voltages are within the limit, the voltage performance index PI v
is small. This, this index measures the severity of the out-of-limit bus voltages, and for a set
of contingencies, this index provides a direct means of comparing the relative severity of the
different outages.
The calculations made by the network sensitivity methods are faster than those made
by the ac power flow methods and therefore find wide use in operations control systems.
However, there are many power systems where voltage magnitudes are the critical factor in
assessing contingencies. In addition, there are some systems where VAR flows predominate
on some circuits, such as underground cables, and an analysis of only the MW flows will not
be adequate to indicate overloads. When such situations present themselves, the network

41
sensitivity methods may not be adequate and the operations control system will have to
incorporate a full ac power flow for contingency analysis.
When an ac power flow is to be used to study each contingency case, the speed of
solution and the number of cases to be studied are critical. That is, if the contingency alarms
come too late for operators to act, they are worthless.
Most operations control centers that use an ac power flow program for contingency
analysis involve either a NewtonRaphson or the decoupled power flow. These solution
algorithms are used because of their speed of solution and the fact that they are reasonably
reliable in convergence when solving difficult cases. The decoupled load flow has the further
advantage that a matrix alteration formula can be incorporated into it to simulate the outage
of transmission lines without reinverting the system Jacobian matrix at each iteration.
The simplest ac security analysis procedure consists of running an ac power flow
analysis for each possible generator, transmission line, and the transformer outage as shown
in Figure 6.7. This procedure will determine the overloads and voltage limit violations
accurately (at least within the accuracy of the power flow program, the accuracy of the model
data, and the accuracy with which we have obtained the initial conditions for the power
flow).
It does suffer a major drawback, however, and that concerns the time such a program
takes to execute. If the list of outages has several thousand entries, then the total time to test
for all of the outages can be too long. We are thus confronted with a dilemma. Fast, but
inaccurate, methods involving the a and d factors can be used to give rapid analysis of the
system, but they cannot give information about MVAR flows and voltages. Slower, full ac
power flow methods give full accuracy but take too long.

42
 Fig.5.1. AC power flow security analysis.
Fortunately, there is a way out of this problem. Because of the way the power system
is designed and operated, very few of the outages will actually cause trouble. That is, most of
the time spent running ac power flows will go for solutions of the power flow model that
discover that there are no problems. Only a few of the power flow solutions will, in fact,
conclude that an overload or voltage violation exists.
The solution to this problem is to find a way to select contingencies in such a way
that only those that are likely to result in an overload or voltage limit violation will actually
be studied in detail and the other cases will go unanalyzed. A flow chart is shown in Figure
6.8. Selecting the bad or likely trouble cases from the full outage case list is not an exact
procedure and has been the subject of intense research.
We would like to get some measure as to how much a particular outage might affect
the power system. The idea of a performance index seems to fulfil this need. The definition
of the overload performance index (PI) is as follows:

5.2.1.1. Performance index for voltage analysis:-

The voltage level performance index chosen to quantify system deficiency due to out-
of-limit voltage is defined by

NB sp
PIv= i=1
Vi Vi /Vilim .2n

Where |Vi|= Voltage magnitude at bus i

43
 |ViSP|= Specified (rated) Voltage magnitude at bus i
ViLim= Voltage deviation limit
NB= Number of buses in the system

The voltage deviation ViLim represents the threshold above which voltage level
deviations are outside their limit, any contingency load flow with voltage levels outside this
limit yields a high value of the index PIv. On the other hand, when all the voltage level
deviations from the rated voltage are within ViLim the voltage performance index PIv is
small. Thus, this index measures the severity of the out-of-limit bus voltage, and for a set of
contingencies, this index provides a direct means of a set of contingencies, this index
provides a direct means of comparing the relative severity of the different outages on the
system voltage profile.

5.2.1.2. Performance index for power flow analysis:-

An index for quantifying the extent of line overloads may be defined in terms pf a
real power performance index:

NL
PIMW= i=1
PiSP /Pilim .2n
Where
PiSP = The megawatt flow of line i
Pilim = The megawatt capacity of line i
NL= the number of line in the system
N= specified exponent (n=1)

The performance index PIMW contains all line flows by their limits. The index
PIMW has a small value, when all line flows are within their limits and a high value when
there are line overloads. This, it provides a good measure of the severity of line overloads for
a given state of the power system.
To complete the security analysis, the performance index (PI) list is sorted so that the
largest PI appears at the top. The security analysis can then start by executing full power
flows with the case which is at the top of the list, then solve the case which is second, and so
on down the list. This continues until either a fixed number of cases is solved, or until a
predetermined number of cases are solved which do not have any alarms.

44
 Fig. Flow chart for the power system contingency ranking using the Load flow method

The contingency ranking approach using the Load flow method is explained in the
following algorithm.
Step-1: Read the system bus data and line data
Step-2: Perform the load flow analysis for the base case without contingency
Step-3: Simulate N-1 line outage and proceed to next step
Step-4: Perform load flow analysis for the outage, calculate the active power flow and Pmax
Step-5: Find the active power performance index (PIP) using equation (2.27), which gives
the active power limit violation
Step-6: Following the contingency, calculate the voltages of all the load buses.
Step-7: Calculate the voltage performance index (PIV) which gives the voltage limit
violation at all the load buses due to contingency
Step-8: Repeat steps 3 to 7 for all the transmission lines
Step-9: The contingencies are ranked based on the severity of the contingency.

45
 Direct methods have been in use for many years and go under various names like
Linear Sensitivity Factors method, DC power flow method etc. The approach works only
when an approximate result of the effect of each outage on real power flow is desired. These
methods do not take in to consideration any aspect of voltage participation in real power
flows.
The Newton power flow is the most robust power flow algorithm used in practice.
However, one drawback to its use is the fact that the terms in the Jacobian matrix must be
recalculated after each iteration and then the entire set of equations must be resolved each
time. Since thousands of power flows are often run for power flow studies, ways to speed up
this process have been sought. DC power flow is a linearized version of the load flow
problem based on the assumptions discussed ahead. All line conductance are negligible, i.e.,
Gij 0, where Gij is the conductance and B. is the susceptance of the linesnconnecting buses
i and j. All angular differences are small; within 30 range. This implies that sin , where
is in radians . All voltages remain constant at their nominal values, i.e., at 1 p.u. The
implication of these assumptions is that only real power equations are considered with no line
losses. Given the above assumptions, the real power injection equation is expressed in
equation

Pi = Vi2 Gii Vj Vj Gij cos i j + Bij sin

(i j )
jk(i)

Pi is the net real power injection. Gij is assumed negligible as mentioned above.
Angular differences are small, so sin = .

Pi Vi Vi Bij i j
jk(i)

These assumptions make Pi approximately equal to the expression on left hand side of
equation

Pi = Vi Vi Bij i j
jk(i)

As voltages have been assumed equal to 1 p.u., so this representation of Pi is

equivalent to the left hand side expression in equation

Pi = aij i j
jk(i)

where aij =Bij or all i j Denoting by aij the negative sum is given by equation

46
 aii = aij
jk(i)

and the expression is written as P= A

Where

P2
P=
Pn

2
= A ij = aij ; i, j 1.
n

DC power flow is only useful for calculating real power flows on transmission lines.
It gives no indication of what happens to voltage magnitudes or reactive power flows. The
power flowing on each line using DC power flow is given by
1
Pik = k
Xik i
N

and Pi = Pk
k=buses
connected to i

Many methods have been used to obtain the value of performance index when a
branch is taken out. The calculations can be made and a table of performance index values,
one for each line in the network, can be calculated quite quickly. The selection procedure
then involves ordering the performance index table from largest value to least.
The lines corresponding to the top of the list are now used for further analysis.
However when n=l, the performance index does not increase in value suddenly, instead, it
rises as a quadratic function. A line that is just below its limits contributes to performance
index almost equal to one that is just below its limit. Hence, the performance index ability to
detect or distinguish bad cases is limited when n= 1. Ordering the performance index values
when n=l usually results in a list that is not at all representative of one with the truly bad
cases at the top. Many efforts have been tried to develop an algorithm that can calculate
quickly when n=2. Performance index is a scalar function of the network variables chosen as
a measure of the operating stress of the system. The analysis can be started by executing full
AC power flows for the cases at the top of the list. The methods that have been discussed

47
before are compared with AC power flow in terms of severity of performance index. DC
power flow and Linear sensitivity factors are not same as AC power flow. Other methods are
an alternative to AC power flow so accuracy is sacrificed but to a tolerable extent and speed
is gained with sacrifice in accuracy.

5.2.2. DC Power Flow-Based Methods for Security Analysis-

In the past decade, contingency selection has attracted many intensive studies from
which efficient and reliable algorithms have been developed. The two main approaches to
contingency selection are direct methods and indirect methods. The main platform on which
direct methods are based is DC power flow. Indirect methods calculate a scalar performance
index (PI) without calculating the post outage value of monitored quantities, which measures
the system stress in terms of circuit overloads and voltage violations. The methods for
calculating real power flows have been in use for a long and give fairly accurate results.
However, in the field of voltage calculation, little success has been achieved. The methods
for real power flow calculations are discussed in the this section.
Accurate contingency analysis modeling is the same as in case of normal power flow,
in that they both require the iterative solution of non linear equations [2]. In the case of
contingency selection, approximations are made to achieve speed and computational
efficiency. Among the limits of a power system, the one of concern in present discussions is
real power flows. These operating limits are soft and are neither precise nor to be rigidly
enforced. This softness justifies the use of limited accuracy models and solutions. There is no
way to quantify the tradeoff between speed and accuracy. The fundamental accurate power
flow model is the familiar Newton-Raphson Jacobian matrix equation that represents the
linearization of a given operating point :

=

H, N, J and L are the elements of the Jacobian that relate change in load angle and
voltage in response to change in real and reactive power on the buses. More emphasis has
been placed on real power flow than on bus voltages. This has given rise to the very
extensive use of linearized active power models. One of the models normally considered is
. =
Here, matrix B' is a symmetric approximation to the unsymmetrical submatrix H in
equation. The use of an active power model makes the assumption that voltages and reactive

48
flows change very little after a contingency, and that the latter are relatively small. This
assumption is most valid for strong high voltage systems, where branch R1X ratios are small.

5.2.2. Indirect method or screening method:-

When there is a single-fault or a multi-fault that occurs in the system, the power is
being shifted to the adjacent transmission lines. This normally results in unfavorable
operation conditions where the transmission lines are being overloaded i.e. Transferring
power above its capacity limit thereby resulting cascading fault. In order to avoid such a
situation, the overloaded lines need to be relieved from the extra load. A security analysis
study must be executed very quickly in order for it to be of any use to the operators. This is
where the computation of the distribution factors such as the power transfer distribution
factors and line outage distribution factors are required. These factors, which are based on the
DC power flow method, provide approximate but quick solutions for the change in the power
injections in the system.

5.2.2.2 Distribution factor method-

In order to observe the effect of the line outage, the line outage distribution factors are
being assessed. This factor is being computed using the injection shift factors (ISFs), which
are the building blocks of the other distribution factors. To shift the extra power being
transferred on the factors are being computed. The advantage of these distribution factors is
that since it is linear, quick computation is enabled and is therefore widely used in security
studies. Also, since it is linear, superposition is possible where different transactions can be
superimposed onto each other. These factors however vary with the change in the topology,
when an outage occurs and when there are change in the loadings on the lines in the system.
This would require a formulation of the factors so that we would be able to compute these
factors at any loading conditions.
Assumptions for the distributed factor ranking as follows:
1) All the voltages are considered to have a 1 p.u. magnitude.
2) Line resistance is neglected since it is small compared to line reactance. The shunt
reactance is being omitted.
3) Reactive power flow is disregarded.etc

The sensitivity analyses are becoming more and more important in practical power
system operations including in power market operations. These are analyzes and discusses all
49
kinds of sensitivity factors such as loss sensitivity factor, generator shift factor, constraint
shift factor, line outage distribution factor and response factor for the transfer path. It also
addresses the practical application of these sensitivity factors including a practical method to
convert the sensitivity with different references. The power engineer uses these to study and
monitor market and system behavior and detect possible problems in the power system
operation. These sensitivity calculations are also used to determine whether the online
capacity as indicated in the resources plan is located in the right place in the network to serve
the forecasted demand. If congestion or violation exists, the generation scheduling based on
the sensitivity calculation can determine whether or not a different allocation of the available
resources could resolve the congestion or violation problems.
The study of thousand of possible outage becomes very difficult to solve if it is
required to present the result quickly. One of the easiest ways to provide a quick calculation
of possible overloads is to use linear sensitivity factor. These factors show the approximate
changes in line flow for changes in generation on the network configuration and are derived
from the DC load flow. These factors can be derived in a variety of ways and basically come
down to two types:

I. Generation shift factors

II. Line outage distribution factors.
Step1- calculate the Ybus from impedance xij as equation
1
=


= y
=1 ij

We gets
y11 y12 y1n
y21 y2n
=
y21 yn2 ynn
Step2- since bus one is a slack bus and eliminates (1st now and the 1st column) from matrix
in equation. We get

50
 y22 y23 y2n
y31 y3n
=
yn2 yn3 ynn

Step3-Find the inverse of Yeliminate , we get

1
= yeliminate
Step4- Determine the sensitivity matrix by
0 0
=
0 M
Step5- Determine the generation shift sensitivity factor by performing the outage of
the generation connection to selected bus(k) with connected line (ll) from the following
equation
, = 1/xl (xnk xmk )
Step6- Determine of the line outage distribution sensitivity factor by performing the outage of
the line connected to bus is called (kk) that affected on the line in bus anther line is called (ll)
from the following equation
x kk
x in x jn x im x jm
x ll
, =
x kk (x ii x jj 2x ij )

The generation sift factor are designed (all,i) and have the following definition:
ll
, =
P i

Where
ll= line index
i=bus index
ll =change in megawatt power flow on line ll when a change in generation, Pi
occurs at bus i.
Pi = change in generation at bus i
It is assumed in this definition that the change in generationPi , is exactly
compensated by an opposite change in generation at all reference bus, and that all other
generators remain fixed. This , factor then represented the sensitivity of the flow on line
ll to a change in generation at bus i.

51
 If the generator was generating Pio MW and it was lost, we would represent Pi , as

Pi = Pio
And the power flow on each line in the network could be calculated using a pre calculated set
of a factor as follows:

ll = oll + , for ll=1LL

Where
ll =flow on line ll after the generator on bus I fails.
oll = flow before the failure.
The outage flow, ll on each line can be compared to its limit and those exceeding
their limit flagged for alarming. This would tell the operations personnel that the loss of the
generator on bus I would result in an overload on line ll.
The line outage distribution factors are used in a similar manner; only here apply to the
testing for overloads when transmission circuit is lost. By definition, the line outage
distribution factor has the following meaning:

, =

where
, =line outage distribution factor when monitoring line l after an outage on line
k.
=change in MW flow on line l.
= original flow on line k before it was outage (opened)
If one known the power on line ll and k, the flow on line ll with line k out can be determined
using d factors.
ll = oll + ,
Where
oll , = pre-outage flow on line ll and k respectively.
ll = flow on line ll with line k out.

5.3 Comparisons of Direct and Indirect Methods

52
 Direct methods are more accurate and selective than the indirect ones at the expense
of increased CPU requirements. The challenge is to improve the efficiency of the direct
methods without sacrificing their strengths. Direct methods assemble severity indices using
monitored quantities (bus voltages, branch flows, and reactive generation), that have to be
calculated first. In contrast, the indirect methods calculate severity indices explicitly without
evaluating the individual quantities. Therefore, indirect methods are usually less
computationally demanding. Knowing the individual monitored quantities enables one to
calculate severity indices of any desired complexity without significantly affecting the
numerical performance of direct methods. Therefore, more attention has been paid recently to
direct methods for their superior accuracy (selectivity). This has lead to drastic improvements
in their efficiency and reliability.

5.4 Contingency evaluation

When contingency screening and evaluation both use the fast-decoupled power flow,
the selection and evaluation solutions can sometimes be merged together. For each
contingency case, the first half-iteration (MW monitoring only) or more of the fast-decoupled
power flow is performed, and then the limit violations are monitored. If there are no
violations, the case is abandoned. Otherwise, evaluation is performed merely by continuing
iteration to higher accuracy. Severity ranking of cases takes place at the very end. The main
drawback of such a scheme is the unpredictability of the time taken to find the most severe
contingency cases.
Contingency Evaluation (Preventive and Corrective Actions): Once contingency
violations are identified, the system operator embarks on determining control actions that
could partially alleviate or totally eliminate their threat. The control actions range from
adjusting control transformers, changing the network configuration, and modifying the
economic schedule of units to a pre-calculated set of load-shedding alternatives. It is
customary for a system operator to obtain decision support by running the EMS (Energy
management system) static security analysis. However, it is usually more difficult to achieve
credible decision support from EMS for the dynamic security analysis of power systems. The
immediate goal is to continue with improvements in the computation of preventive and
corrective control actions to assist dispatchers in decision making. The primary tools for
achieving this goal are programs for solving various definitions of SCOPF problem.
Reasonably satisfactory SCOPF (security constraint optimal power flow) solution methods
have been developed for some problems and better ones are constantly being sought. SCOPF
53
programs are not yet used for computing system control actions in real time, but operators in
making decisions about control actions are increasingly using them interactively. The trend is
toward expanding their role.
The preventive and corrective control actions for managing contingencies in SCOPF
represent a tradeoff between economics and security in restructured power systems. A
preventive dispatch for uncontrollable contingencies is included in the pre-contingency (i.e.,
steady state) solution of SCOPF for maintaining the economics and the secure operation of a
system in the event of contingencies. However, the preventive dispatch is conservative and
could be expensive and even infeasible for potentially dangerous contingencies.
The corrective actions represent post-contingency control actions for eliminating
system violations. Such contingencies are referred to as controllable contingencies. The
engine of SCOPF is the basic OPF problem, for which many solution methods have been
developed. In one of the leading approaches, based on variants of the Newton power flow
algorithm, contingency constraint violations obtained from CA are entered into the base case
problem, which is then solved in the usual way to enforce them in the base case.
The alternative approach uses LP (Linear programming)-based methods. Although
both approaches enforce the violations identified in a cycle of CA, they do not guard against
new contingency violations produced by control actions. To check for new violations, it is
necessary to repeat the CA. This additional iterative loop makes SCOPF much more costly
than OPF.
However, if SCOPF is unable to meet the system security, load shedding will be
implemented as an emergency control alternative. For contingencies found to cause
overloads, voltage limit violations, or stability problems, preventive actions are required. If a
feasible solution exists to a given security control problem, then it is highly likely that other
feasible solution exist as well. In this instance, one solution must be chosen from among the
feasible candidates. If a feasible solution does not exist, a solution must be chosen from the
infeasible candidates.
Security optimization is a broad term to describe the process of selecting a preferred
solution from a set of (feasible or infeasible) candidate solutions. The term optimal power
flow (OPF) is used to describe the computer application that performs security optimization
within an energy management system.
There are two parts in the contingency evaluation, one is post contingency analysis
and the other one is N-1 pre-contingency analysis. Each post contingency scenario is
evaluated in order to detect operational problems and the severity of violations. The most
54
common operational problems are line overloading, transformer overloads, and inadequate
voltage levels at system buses. N-1 pre-contingency analysis is also performed to identify
potentially harmful contingencies and reduce the risk of false alarms. Both the post
contingency evaluation and N-1 pre-contingency evaluation involve fast and accurate load
flow. A number of algorithms for fast contingency analysis such as fast decoupled load flow
(based on sparse matrix techniques, such as refactorization or compensation), or localization
methods are studied by many researchers.

55
 Chapter-6
Case Study

6.1 Problem Formulation:-

The Problem of studying thousand of possible outages becomes very difficult to solve if it is
desired to present the results quickly. One of the easiest ways to provide a quick calculation
of possible overloads is to use linear sensitivity factors. These factors show the approximate
changes in line flow for changes in generation on the network configuration and are derived
from the dc load flow.
1. Perform the contingency analysis on the IEEE-14 bus and IEEE-118 bus Test system.
2. Use both the contingency selection technique i.e., performance index and distribution
factor and rank the contingency list.
3. Compare the ranking methods.
4. Based on results best method for power system security checks (recommendations).

56
 6.2. Test system Overview
A. IEEE-14 bus system-
The bus data and line data of the IEEE-14 bus test system are detailed in Appendix-A.
The system as show in fig. consists of 1 slack bus, 9 load bus and 4 generator buses. There
are three synchronous compensator used only for reactive power support. The active power
flow in each transmission line that has been obtained using FDFL (corresponding to the base
case loading condition is also show in fig).The state of the system corresponds to the pre-
contingency state.

Fig.6.1.Single Line Diagram of IEEE-14 bus system

57
 B. IEEE-118 bus system-
The bus data and line data of the IEEE-118 bus test system are detailed in Appendix-B. The
system as show in fig. consists of 1-slack bus, 91-load bus, 35-synchronous condenser, 117-
line (Branches), 9 -Transformers and 19-generator buses. The active power flow in each
transmission line that has been obtained using FDFL (corresponding to the base case loading
condition is also show in fig).The state of the system corresponds to the pre-contingency
state.

Fig.6.2. Single Line diagram of IEEE-118 bus system.

58
 6.3. Contingency listing/ Contingency case Define-
Here in the case study we have two cases IEEE-14 bus and IEEE-118 bus system on
which we have to define N-1 contingency listing on which we perform contingency listing ,
then ranking and after that find out the most critical Pre-contingency and define post outage
redial action to make system more secure and reliable in real time.
A) IEEE-14 bus system-
For this system, all the single line outages and single generator (except slack) outages have
been considered. Thus a total of 23 contingency cases (20 branch outages) were analyzed.
The performance indices have been computed using the net work solution from an exact load
flow (FDFL) method.
The voltage performance index (PIV) and power performance index PIp have been computed
for each contingency. For exponential value n=1 using distribution factor and the exact load
flow method respectively PIv of some of the contingencies are presented in table for
calculation of PIp, PIv given in above tables all the weighs have been considered as unity.

S.No From To Contingency name

1 1 2 Line -1 outage
2 1 5 Line -2 outage
3 2 3 Line -3 outage
4 2 4 Line -4 outage
5 2 5 Line -5 outage
6 3 4 Line -6 outage
7 4 5 Line-7 outage
8 4 7 Line-8 outage
9 4 9 Line-9 outage
10 5 6 Line-10 outage
11 6 11 Line-11 outage
12 6 12 Line-12 outage
13 6 13 Line-13 outage
14 7 8 Line-14 outage
15 7 9 Line-15 outage
16 9 10 Line-16 outage
17 9 14 Line-17 outage
18 10 11 Line-18 outage
19 12 13 Line-19 outage
20 13 14 Line-20 outage
Table.6.1.List of contingency cases in IEEE-14 Bus system

59
 B) IEEE-18 bus system
For this system, all the single line outages and single generator (except slack) outages have
been considered. Thus a total of 20 contingency cases were analyzed. The performance
indices have been computed using the net work solution from an exact load flow (FDFL)
method.The voltage performance index (PIV) and power performance index PIp have been
computed for each contingency. For exponential value n=1 using distribution factor and the
exact load flow method respectively PIv of some of the contingencies are presented in table
for calculation of PIp, PIv given in above tables all the weighs have been considered as unity.
Con. No. Line no From To
1 71 Line outage 49 51
2 29 Line outage 22 23
3 16 Line outage 11 13
4 70 Line outage 49 50
5 74 Line outage 53 54
6 72 Line outage 51 52
7 38 Line outage 26 30
8 28 Line outage 21 22
9 62 Line outage 45 46
10 25 Line outage 19 20
11 60 Line outage 34 43
12 40 Line outage 29 31
13 31 Line outage 23 25
14 160 Line outage 100 101
15 151 Line outage 80 97
16 94 Line outage 63 64
17 68 Line outage 45 49
18 157 Line outage 96 97
19 97 Line outage 64 65
20 48 Line outage 33 37
21 37 Line outage 8 30
22 34 Line outage 27 28
23 181 Line outage 27 115
24 128 Line outage 77 82
25 137 Line outage 88 89
26 147 Line outage 94 95
27 33 Line outage 25 27
28 17 Line outage 12 14
29 148 Line outage 80 96
30 175 Line outage 109 110
Table.6.2.List of contingency cases in IEEE-14 Bus system

60
6.4. Contingency ranking:-
6.4.1. Contingency ranking by AC-FDLF method using(Mipower software)-

A) IEEE-14 bus system-

By using Mi-Power software the contingency ranking performed and gets the PIV
(voltage performance index) and PIP (Power performance index) value as below for the
listed contingency events.

Performance Index Based C.R. using -Mipower software with FDLF method

PIP PIV
(Power Performance (Voltage Performance
No From To index) Ranking Index) Ranking
1 1 2 1.06E+00 19 1.70E+01 1
2 1 5 1.98E+00 1 1.43E+01 13
3 2 3 1.72E+00 2 1.46E+01 11
4 2 4 1.37E+00 5 1.46E+01 12
5 2 5 1.15E+00 18 1.51E+01 9
6 3 4 1.24E+00 7 1.60E+01 2
7 4 5 1.40E+00 4 1.43E+01 14
8 4 7 1.22E+00 10 1.56E+01 5
9 4 9 1.25E+00 6 1.53E+01 7
10 5 6 1.56E+00 3 8.39E+00 20
11 6 11 1.22E+00 9 1.36E+01 16
12 6 12 1.22E+00 12 1.43E+01 15
13 6 13 1.24E+00 8 1.24E+01 19
14 7 8 1.20E+00 17 1.27E+01 18
15 7 9 9.91E-01 20 1.35E+01 17
16 9 10 1.21E+00 16 1.52E+01 8
17 9 14 1.22E+00 11 1.57E+01 4
18 10 11 1.21E+00 14 1.54E+01 6
19 12 13 1.21E+00 15 1.57E+01 3
20 13 14 1.22E+00 13 1.50E+01 10

Table-6.3. Contingency Ranking (C.R.)Using Mipower -FDLF method-IEEE-14 system

61
 B) IEEE-118 bus system

Contingency ranking performed with the use of Mipower software and get the value
of PIv and PIp from the listed contingency events.

Performance Index Based C.R. using -Mipower software with FDLF method

Con. No. Line no From To MiPIP Ranking MiPIV Ranking

1 71 49 51 1.44E+02 7 4.03E+01 1
2 29 22 23 1.45E+02 4 3.94E+01 2
3 16 11 13 1.42E+02 16 3.77E+01 4
4 70 49 50 1.43E+02 9 3.77E+01 3
5 74 53 54 1.42E+02 20 3.73E+01 5
6 72 51 52 1.42E+02 13 3.70E+01 6
7 38 26 30 1.55E+02 1 3.65E+01 7
8 28 21 22 1.44E+02 6 3.54E+01 10
9 62 45 46 1.42E+02 12 3.55E+01 8
10 25 19 20 1.42E+02 14 3.55E+01 9
11 60 34 43 1.42E+02 26 3.53E+01 11
12 40 29 31 1.42E+02 27 3.53E+01 12
13 31 23 25 1.49E+02 3 3.50E+01 14
14 160 100 101 1.42E+02 23 3.51E+01 13
15 151 80 97 1.41E+02 30 3.50E+01 15
16 94 63 64 1.42E+02 22 3.50E+01 16
17 68 45 49 1.43E+02 10 3.50E+01 17
18 157 96 97 1.42E+02 29 3.48E+01 19
19 97 64 65 1.42E+02 15 3.49E+01 18
20 48 33 37 1.42E+02 19 3.47E+01 24
21 37 8 30 1.45E+02 5 3.47E+01 23
22 34 27 28 1.42E+02 11 3.48E+01 20
23 181 27 115 1.42E+02 17 3.47E+01 21
24 128 77 82 1.42E+02 24 3.47E+01 25
25 137 88 89 1.44E+02 8 3.47E+01 22
26 147 94 95 1.42E+02 18 3.47E+01 26
27 33 25 27 1.52E+02 2 3.47E+01 27
28 17 12 14 1.42E+02 28 3.46E+01 29
29 148 80 96 1.42E+02 21 3.46E+01 30
30 175 109 110 1.42E+02 25 3.46E+01 28

Table 6.4. Contingency Ranking (C.R.) Using Mipower -FDLF method-IEEE-118 system

62
 6.4.2. Contingency ranking by Distribution factor (Linear sensitivity factor)
Contingency ranking performed with the use of distributed factor or linear sensitivity factor
with the help of Matlab based MATPOWER software and ranking the contingency listed
events.
A. IEEE-14 bus system-

Distribution Factor Based C.R. using -MATLAB software with LODF

using AC FDFL load flow method

No From To PIP ranking PIV Ranking

1 1 2 17.524 7 0.0296 15
2 1 5 10.5214 14 0.0336 8
3 2 3 20.1149 3 0.033 10
4 2 4 11.0597 13 0.0319 11
5 2 5 8.7793 18 0.0342 5
6 3 4 8.7008 19 0.0365 3
7 4 5 17.6387 6 0.0297 14
8 4 7 18.5822 4 0.0339 7
9 4 9 12.2295 11 0.034 6
10 5 6 57.6234 1 0.0422 1
11 6 11 12.7333 10 0.0305 13
12 6 12 16.3664 8 0.0319 12
13 6 13 46.4157 2 0.0077 19
14 7 8 Not converged NC 0.0244 16
15 7 9 18.5822 5 0.0179 18
16 9 10 11.6815 12 0.0404 2
17 9 14 15.2012 9 -0.0031 20
18 10 11 10.2444 15 0.0331 9
19 12 13 8.9113 17 0.0346 4
20 13 14 10.2153 16 0.019 17

Table 6.5 C.R. using Distribution Factor -FDFL-IEEE-14 Bus System-with MATLAB

B. IEEE-118 system

Distribution Factor Based C.R. using -MATLAB software

with LODF-with FDFL load flow method

Con. No. Line no From To PIP LODF Ranking PIV LODF ranking
1 71 49 51 2.90E+01 8 5.82E+00 1
2 29 22 23 19.4205 9 5.60E+00 2
3 16 11 13 8.6134 15 5.15E+00 4
4 70 49 50 19.0756 10 5.20E+00 3
5 74 53 54 2.0291 25 5.13E+00 5

63
 6 72 51 52 5.9881 17 5.01E+00 6
7 38 26 30 320.5435 1 4.87E+00 7
8 28 21 22 12.9407 12 4.66E+00 9
9 62 45 46 9.5979 14 4.68E+00 8
10 25 19 20 1.7095 27 4.66E+00 10
11 60 34 43 0.9278 30 4.64E+00 12
12 40 29 31 1.4278 28 4.64E+00 11
13 31 23 25 171.3322 3 4.62E+00 13
14 160 100 101 2.8187 22 4.59E+00 14
15 151 80 97 5.2473 18 4.59E+00 15
16 94 63 64 149.5179 4 4.58E+00 16
17 68 45 49 17.052 11 4.55E+00 17
18 157 96 97 1.7782 26 4.52E+00 18
19 97 64 65 216.2477 2 4.52E+00 19
20 48 33 37 2.5994 23 4.51E+00 20
21 37 8 30 35.7595 7 4.49E+00 23
22 34 27 28 7.6633 16 4.49E+00 22
23 181 27 115 3.5575 19 4.49E+00 24
24 128 77 82 1.0004 29 4.50E+00 21
25 137 88 89 64.2635 6 4.45E+00 30
26 147 94 95 11.3929 13 4.48E+00 26
27 33 25 27 132.1798 5 4.46E+00 29
28 17 12 14 2.9684 21 4.46E+00 28
29 148 80 96 3.1193 20 4.46E+02 27
30 175 109 110 2.0494 24 4.48E+00 25

Table 6.6 C.R. using Distribution Factor -FDFL-IEEE-118 Bus System-with MATLAB
C. LODF-DC
A. IEEE-14 Bus System-

Distribution Factor Based C.R. using -MATLAB software

with DC load flow method

No From To PIP LODF ranking

1 1 2 0.1727 7
2 1 5 0.1037 14
3 2 3 0.1911 6
4 2 4 0.1119 13
5 2 5 0.0874 18
6 3 4 0.0867 19
7 4 5 0.1966 5
8 4 7 0.2043 3
9 4 9 0.1285 11
10 5 6 0.6081 1

64
 11 6 11 0.1228 12
12 6 12 0.1727 8
13 6 13 0.4908 2
14 7 8 NC NC
15 7 9 0.2043 4
16 9 10 0.1291 10
17 9 14 0.1594 9
18 10 11 0.0993 16
19 12 13 0.0892 17
20 13 14 0.1031 15

Table 6.7 C.R. using Distribution Factor -DC-IEEE-14 Bus System-with MATLAB
D. IEEE-118-

Distribution Factor Based C.R. using -MATLAB software

with DC load flow method

Con. No. Line no From To PIP LODF ranking

1 71 49 51 47.63708 8
2 29 22 23 31.10053 10
3 16 11 13 16.96112 14
4 70 49 50 31.73657 9
5 74 53 54 2.48987 25
6 72 51 52 10.58181 17
7 38 26 30 582.3986 1
8 28 21 22 20.52857 13
9 62 45 46 12.9888 16
10 25 19 20 1.9493 27
11 60 34 43 1.2569 30
12 40 29 31 1.4457 28
13 31 23 25 322.3772 3
14 160 100 101 3.7323 23
15 151 80 97 6.9956 18
16 94 63 64 258.9495 4
17 68 45 49 26.6773 11
18 157 96 97 1.2915 29
19 97 64 65 377.9928 2
20 48 33 37 2.2138 26
21 37 8 30 84.1478 7
22 34 27 28 14.1235 15
23 181 27 115 6.7011 19
24 128 77 82 4.0114 21
25 137 88 89 118.4026 6

65
 26 147 94 95 26.6176 12
27 33 25 27 225.017 5
28 17 12 14 5.9451 20
29 148 80 96 3.7597 22
30 175 109 110 3.6064 24

Table 6.8. C.R. using Distribution Factor -DC-IEEE-118 Bus System-with MATLAB

6.4.3. Contingency Ranking using AC-FDLF method using MATLAB

programming-

A. IEEE-14 bus system-

Performance Index Based C.R. using -MATLAB with

AC FDLF method by MATLAB

No From To PIp ranking PIQ Piv PIV=Piv+PIQ ranking

1 1 2 1.898 6 0.1762 4.38E-04 1.77E-01 1
2 1 5 1.0698 14 0.174 5.64E-04 1.75E-01 2
3 2 3 2.0355 3 0.174 5.45E-04 1.75E-01 3
4 2 4 1.1224 13 0 5.10E-04 5.10E-04 12
5 2 5 0.8856 19 0 5.84E-04 5.84E-04 9
6 3 4 0.8687 20 0.174 6.65E-04 1.75E-01 4
7 4 5 1.9226 5 0 4.41E-04 4.41E-04 15
8 4 7 1.8094 7 0.174 5.75E-04 1.75E-01 5
9 4 9 1.2104 11 0 5.78E-04 5.78E-04 10
10 5 6 6.1954 1 0 8.92E-04 8.92E-04 6
11 6 11 1.2627 10 0 4.67E-04 4.67E-04 14
12 6 12 1.6215 8 0 5.09E-04 5.09E-04 13
13 6 13 4.6147 2 0 2.94E-05 2.94E-05 19
14 7 8 0.9805 18 0 2.98E-04 2.98E-04 16
15 7 9 1.9283 4 0 1.60E-04 1.60E-04 18
16 9 10 1.1744 12 0 8.16E-04 8.16E-04 7
17 9 14 1.5454 9 0 4.90E-06 4.90E-06 20
18 10 11 1.0208 17 0 5.49E-04 5.49E-04 11
19 12 13 1.0372 15 0 6.00E-04 6.00E-04 8
20 13 14 1.0257 16 0 1.81E-04 1.81E-04 17

Table 6.9 C.R.using AC FDLF with MATLAB -IEEE-14 Bus System

66
 B. IEEE-118 bus system-

Performance Index Based C.R. using -MATLAB software

using AC-FDLF Load flow method
Con. No. Line no From To PIQ PIV PIVQ=PIP+PIQ ranking PIV
1 71 49 51 1.5801 0.0508 1.6309 1
2 29 22 23 0.00E+00 0.0501 0.0501 2
3 16 11 13 0.00E+00 0.0476 0.0476 3
4 70 49 50 1.5801 0.0476 1.6277 4
5 74 53 54 1.4929 0.0473 1.5402 5
6 72 51 52 0.00E+00 0.0469 0.0469 6
7 38 26 30 1.6558 0.0461 1.7019 7
8 28 21 22 0.00E+00 0.0449 0.0449 9
9 62 45 46 1.4712 0.045 1.5162 8
10 25 19 20 1.4446 0.0448 1.4894 10
11 60 34 43 1.4354 0.0447 1.4801 11
12 40 29 31 1.4355 0.0447 1.4802 12
13 31 23 25 1.534 0.0443 1.5783 17
14 160 100 101 1.85 0.0444 1.8944 13
15 151 80 97 2.7874 0.0444 2.8318 14
16 94 63 64 0.00E+00 0.0444 0.0444 15
17 68 45 49 1.5801 0.0444 1.6245 16
18 157 96 97 0.00E+00 0.0441 0.0441 18
19 97 64 65 1.8664 0.0441 1.9105 19
20 48 33 37 0.00E+00 0.0441 0.0441 20
21 37 8 30 1.2822 0.044 1.3262 21
22 34 27 28 1.4665 0.044 1.5105 22
23 181 27 115 1.4665 0.044 1.5105 23
24 128 77 82 1.4642 0.044 1.5082 24
25 137 88 89 2.6683 0.0438 2.7121 27
26 147 94 95 0.00E+00 0.0439 0.0439 25
27 33 25 27 1.5292 0.0439 1.5731 26
28 17 12 14 1.6483 0.0438 1.6921 28
29 148 80 96 0.00E+00 0.0438 0.0438 29
30 175 109 110 1.4695 0.0438 1.5133 30

Table 6.10. C.R.using AC FDLF with MATLAB -IEEE-118 Bus System

67
6.4.4. Contingency ranking using DC load Flow method-
A.) IEEE-14 Bus system-
Performance Index using MATLAB with DC load flow
No From To PIp Ranking
1 1 2 0.0016 7
2 1 5 0.001 14
3 2 3 0.0019 3
4 2 4 0.0011 12
5 2 5 8.45E-04 19
6 3 4 8.30E-04 20
7 4 5 0.0017 6
8 4 7 0.0018 4
9 4 9 0.0012 10
10 5 6 0.0057 1
11 6 11 0.0012 11
12 6 12 0.0016 8
13 6 13 0.0043 2
14 7 8 9.12E-04 17
15 7 9 0.0018 5
16 9 10 0.0011 13
17 9 14 0.0015 9
18 10 11 9.82E-04 15
19 12 13 8.60E-04 18
20 13 14 9.62E-04 16

Table 6.11 C.R. using DC load flow with MATLAB -IEEE-14 Bus System

B.) IEEE-118 bus system-

Performance Index using MATLAB with DC load flow

Con. No. Line no From To PIp ranking
1 71 49 51 1.22E-05 6
2 29 22 23 2.03E-05 2
3 16 11 13 1.09E-05 10
4 70 49 50 1.19E-05 7
5 74 53 54 1.08E-05 12
6 72 51 52 1.12E-05 9
7 38 26 30 8.46E-05 1
8 28 21 22 1.83E-05 4
9 62 45 46 1.06E-05 14
10 25 19 20 1.26E-05 5
11 60 34 43 1.13E-05 8

68
 12 40 29 31 1.07E-05 13
13 31 23 25 5.76E-07 22
14 160 100 101 6.40E-07 20
15 151 80 97 2.97E-07 28
16 94 63 64 1.42E-06 16
17 68 45 49 8.93E-07 17
18 157 96 97 4.74E-07 24
19 97 64 65 3.37E-06 15
20 48 33 37 7.69E-07 19
21 37 8 30 3.09E-07 27
22 34 27 28 4.45E-07 25
23 181 27 115 8.15E-07 18
24 128 77 82 9.27E-08 30
25 137 88 89 2.11E-07 29
26 147 94 95 5.02E-07 23
27 33 25 27 1.97E-05 3
28 17 12 14 6.17E-07 21
29 148 80 96 3.78E-07 26
30 175 109 110 1.09E-05 11

Table 6.12 C.R. using DC load flow with MATLAB -IEEE-118 Bus System
6.5. Result Comparison -
6.5.1. IEEE-14 bus system using
I. Power Performance Index-
Power Performance index (PIp) comparison with different method
MiPower MATLAB Distribution MATLAB AC- Distribution
based AC- DC-load flow Factor-DC FDLF load Factor-AC
No From To FDFL method LODF flow method LODF
1 1 2 19 7 7 6 7
2 1 5 1 14 14 14 14
3 2 3 2 3 6 3 3
4 2 4 5 12 13 13 13
5 2 5 18 19 18 19 18
6 3 4 7 20 19 20 19
7 4 5 4 6 5 5 6
8 4 7 10 4 3 7 4
9 4 9 6 10 11 11 11
10 5 6 3 1 1 1 1
11 6 11 9 11 12 10 10
12 6 12 12 8 8 8 8
13 6 13 8 2 2 2 2
14 7 8 17 17 NC 18 NC
15 7 9 20 5 4 4 5

69
16 9 10 16 13 10 12 12
17 9 14 11 9 9 9 9
18 10 11 14 15 16 17 15
19 12 13 15 18 17 15 17
20 13 14 13 16 15 16 16

Table 6.13 C.R. Power Performance Index Comparison with -IEEE-14 Bus System

II. Voltage performance Index -

Voltage Performance index (PIp) comparison with different method

MiPower based Distribution MATLAB AC-FDLF Distribution

No From To AC-FDFL Factor-DC LODF load flow method Factor-AC LODF
1 1 2 1 7 1 15
2 1 5 13 14 2 8
3 2 3 11 6 3 10
4 2 4 12 13 12 11
5 2 5 9 18 9 5
6 3 4 2 19 4 3
7 4 5 14 5 15 14
8 4 7 5 3 5 7
9 4 9 7 11 10 6
10 5 6 20 1 6 1
11 6 11 16 12 14 13
12 6 12 15 8 13 12
13 6 13 19 2 19 19
14 7 8 18 NC 16 16
15 7 9 17 4 18 18
16 9 10 8 10 7 2
17 9 14 4 9 20 20
18 10 11 6 16 11 9
19 12 13 3 17 8 4
20 13 14 10 15 17 17

Table 6.14 C.R. Voltage Performance Index Comparision with -IEEE-14 Bus System

70
 6.5.2. IEEE-118 bus system-
i.) Power Performance Index-

Power Performance index (PIp) comparison with different method

MATLA
MiPowe MATLA B AC-
r based B DC- Distributio FDLF Distributio
Con. Fro AC- load flow n Factor- load flow n Factor-
No. Line no m To FDFL method DC LODF method AC LODF
1 71 49 51 7 6 8 5 8
2 29 22 23 4 2 10 2 9
3 16 11 13 16 10 14 11 15
4 70 49 50 9 7 9 6 10
5 74 53 54 20 12 25 10 25
6 72 51 52 13 9 17 7 17
7 38 26 30 1 1 1 1 1
8 28 21 22 6 4 13 3 12
9 62 45 46 12 14 16 13 14
10 25 19 20 14 5 27 4 27
11 60 34 43 26 8 30 8 30
12 40 29 31 27 13 28 12 28
13 31 23 25 3 22 3 22 3
14 160 100 101 23 20 23 23 22
15 151 80 97 30 28 18 15 18
16 94 63 64 22 16 4 28 4
17 68 45 49 10 17 11 27 11
18 157 96 97 29 24 29 19 26
19 97 64 65 15 15 2 29 2
20 48 33 37 19 19 26 26 23
21 37 8 30 5 27 7 17 7
22 34 27 28 11 25 15 20 16
23 181 27 115 17 18 19 25 19
24 128 77 82 24 30 21 21 29
25 137 88 89 8 29 6 14 6
26 147 94 95 18 23 12 18 13
27 33 25 27 2 3 5 30 5
28 17 12 14 28 21 20 24 21
29 148 80 96 21 26 22 16 20
30 175 109 110 25 11 24 9 24

Table 6.15 C.R. Power Performance Index Comparison with -IEEE-118 Bus System

71
 ii.) Voltage Performance Index-

Voltage Performance index (PIp) comparison with different method

MiPower MATLAB AC-
based AC- FDLF load flow Distribution
Con. No. Line no From To FDFL method Factor-AC LODF
1 71 49 51 1 1 1
2 29 22 23 2 2 2
3 16 11 13 4 3 4
4 70 49 50 3 4 3
5 74 53 54 5 5 5
6 72 51 52 6 6 6
7 38 26 30 7 7 7
8 28 21 22 10 9 9
9 62 45 46 8 8 8
10 25 19 20 9 10 10
11 60 34 43 11 11 12
12 40 29 31 12 12 11
13 31 23 25 14 17 13
14 160 100 101 13 13 14
15 151 80 97 15 14 15
16 94 63 64 16 15 16
17 68 45 49 17 16 17
18 157 96 97 19 18 18
19 97 64 65 18 19 19
20 48 33 37 24 20 20
21 37 8 30 23 21 23
22 34 27 28 20 22 22
23 181 27 115 21 23 24
24 128 77 82 25 24 21
25 137 88 89 22 27 30
26 147 94 95 26 25 26
27 33 25 27 27 26 29
28 17 12 14 29 28 28
29 148 80 96 30 29 27
30 175 109 110 28 30 25

Table 6.16 C.R. Voltage Performance Index Comparison with -IEEE-118 Bus System

72
 6.5.3. Time Required For Performance Comparison

Time Taken (in sec.)

S.No. Method used with Software IEEE-14 IEEE-118
Bus system Bus system
1 Mipower-FDLF (Direct Performance Index) 0.01 0.01
2 MATLAB-DC (Direct Performance Index) 0.065351 0.069324
3 MATLAB-AC-FLDC (Direct Performance Index) 1.367425 1.428645
MATLAB-LODF-AC-FDLF Indirect method
4 (Distribution Factor method ) 1.059253 1.223871
MATLAB-LODF-DC Indirect method (Distribution
5 Factor method ) 0.025159 0.036548

Table 6.17 C.R. CPU Time Comparison with -IEEE-14,IEEE-118 Bus System

73
 CHAPTER- 7
Discussion and Recommendation

7.1. Discussion
As the results indicates, the techniques (the Fast decouple and DC Power Flow) to
achieve contingency selection were reasonably accurate. These methods were tested on a
Power system representing on IEEE-14, IEEE-118 bus test system. The Power engineer and
the dispatch center operator can discover system weakness such a low voltage, line
overloads, loading condition deemed excessive. These weaknesses can be removed by the
dispatcher through generation and network allocations involving changes to the base case
system. Outages are ranked on the basis of their corresponding performance indices. Ranking
for overloads and ranking for voltage problems are done separately but summed in the
pursuit of an overall general security index. An effort here to provide the capability to attach
different weights to each of the two performance indices was made. Although this capability
was not really needed here- each index has a weight equal to empower the dispatch center
operator to make the change when needed.

It is noteworthy to mansion here that it it not intended to achieve a high degree of

accuracy in calculating the performance index. What really matters is that the ranking system
works correctly. In other words one should get the same list of contingencies, in the order of
severity, whether one works with a full fast decoupled load flow or with an approximate
method. If the same list is maintained, then the object will have been accomplished, i.e. to
have developed a contingency ranking system that is both accurate and fast. The result shows
quite clearly that the approximate ranking method agrees to a fair extent with full load
ranking for the IEEE-14, IEEE-118 system, and with the operating conditions assumed, only
few misranking was detected in that contingency ranking. Here in this dissertation report
both the voltage performance index and power performance index based ranking was
performed with the full AC fast decoupled load method, Distribution factor based ranking
method with MATLAB software and one more newly developed software were used to
compare the result with the help of Mipower software based ranking.
The speed of execution is an important factor since the real advantage for the online
control center in particular and , additionally for the network planner is that a large number
of contingencies can be run in a relatively short time.

74
 An overall assessment of the systems security should be compiled before the system
operating conditions move into a different state (in case of on-line application).
To calculate the speed of execution, on needs to remove the user interface interaction
time, when the system is basically in a looped state, waiting for user information.
Unfortunately, system tools for estimating the processor time for execution were not found in
the platform used, which was Windows-7 Intel dualcorei3 running on a 1.7MHz. Hence a
crude estimate was made of the execution time for a IEEE-14, IEEE-118 bus system using
MATLAB software. The program required for the Fast decoupled method a time (IEEE-14)
of 1.367425 to reach a solution while distribution factor based method required 1.059253 sec
and the DC load flow method required time 0.065351, and Distribution factor based DC load
flow required 0.025159 which is less then overall with acceptable accuracy .

7.2. Recommendation
Based on the time comparison between all the ranking methods the distribution factor
based LODF -DC load flow method will be the best suitable method for the power system
security checks and can be implemented while using on-line security checks.
The ranking is more accurate in it and also the time required to less as compare to all
methods. But the Line outage distribution factor based on DC load flow have one
disadvantage that it cannot be useful if the operator wants to know the voltage performance
index to make system stable. So for the stability point of view the best method is AC load
flow (either by Fast decoupled method or by Newton-Raphson method).but for only security
checks the LODF-DC load based method is recommended by this dissertation results.

75
 CHAPTER- 8
Conclusion

Contingency analysis and contingency detection are the essential components for
distribution network operation and control. This study improves the accuracy of the
contingency analysis and contingency detection by applying accurate load models.
A novel contingency analysis model for Single contingency, with the consideration of
Performance index and distribution factor performed in this dissertation. This model is
computationally efficient and particularly suited for online security assessment. The DC load
model improves the accuracy of contingency analysis significantly. The load model part
might increase the time for computing, however, distribution network is relatively small, and
it is still possible to complete all the calculation within an acceptable time. The
Recommended (Distributed factor with DC load flow) approach is clear and simple in nature,
yet it provides an efficient, accurate, and feasible contingency analysis method.
Besides contingency analysis, contingency detection is also taken into consideration.
The implementation of the contingency detection algorithm makes it possible to detect the
occurrence of an incident and to identify the most possible incident location, which facilitates
the mission of repairing team and provides up-to-date information to improve contingency
analysis accuracy.
Based on the proposed algorithm, tests were performed on IEEE-14 bus and IEEE-
118 bus distribution network, and the evaluation efficiency, accuracy and practical feasibility
are confirmed.

8.1. Conclusive remarks:

1. Power system security is an essential part of on-line security assessment here the
approaches and importance of security assessment are presented.
2. Contingency analysis definition and its approaches in the power system security are
presented and also Contingency screening and ranking methodology and its
approaches are presented in this report.
3. Performance index is calculated using AC power flow solution and then compared
with performance index calculated using DC power flow based methods. The results
show that DC power flow bases methods can be used to estimate the severity of an
outage in a power system with less computational burden.

76
4. A sensitivity analysis based approach is used to calculate voltages during
contingences and the results are compared with those calculated using full AC power
flow solution. Time is a very important factor during contingency analysis and DC
power flow and sensitivity analysis based methods can be very helpful in predicting
contingency results in a shorter time. Due to practical limitations involving analysis of
large power system, only a part of the system called the internal system is considered
and the remainder of the system called external system is represented by a network
equivalent of that part of the system. This technique is used to analyze the part of
interest in a power system with reasonable accuracy and computational efficiency.
5. Study on the test system IEEE-14 bus and IEEE-118 bus system is carried out with
the different methodology of contingency screening and ranking performed and based
on the comparison the best out of it, recommended for the on-line security
assessment.

77
 Reference

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80
 MATLAB Programming for Distribution Factor-

% Determines Topology of the System

[baseMVA, bus, gen, branch, gencost] = case14;

% Determines the Swing Bus

D = size(bus);
swingbus = -1;
for i=1:D(1)
if bus(i,2) == 3;
swingbus = bus(i,1);
else
end;
end;
% swingbus is now a global variable storing the reference bus

%--------------------------------------------------------------------------
% Plan for Branch Out of Service
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------

% Print the Branch Topology

fprintf('\n=============================================');
fprintf('\n| Branch Setup Data |');
fprintf('\n=============================================');
fprintf('\n Branch # \t From Bus \t To Bus \t');
fprintf('\n -------- \t -------- \t -------- ');
for i=1:D(1)-1
fprintf('\n \t%1.0f \t\t\t%1.0f \t\t\t%1.0f ', i, branch(i,1),
branch(i,2));
end;
fprintf('\n');
fprintf('\n');

% Ask for a branch to be taken out of service and perform error checking

branchout = -1;
while branchout <= 0 || branchout > 20
branchout = input('Enter the branch number to be taken out of service:');
fprintf('\n');
fprintf('Your have chosen branch number: ');
fprintf('%1.0f', branchout);
fprintf(' to be out of service.');

if branchout >=9 && branchout <= 20

else
fprintf('\n');
fprintf('Your have chosen an invalid branch number: ');
fprintf('\n');
branchout = input('Enter the branch number to be taken out of
service:');
fprintf('\n');
fprintf('Your have chosen branch number: ');
fprintf('%1.0f', branchout);
fprintf(' to be out of service.');
end;
end;

81
tic
% Make a new branch data based on the outaged branch

branchnew = branch;
branchnew(branchout,:)=[];

% branchnew now contains the eliminated branch

% Formulate branch info on out of service

D = size(branch);
branchout2 = [0 0 0];
for i=1:D(1)
if i == branchout
branchout2 = [i branch(i,1) branch(i,2)];
else

end;
end;
branchout = branchout2;
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------
% Set-Up B-Prime Matrix
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------

alg = 2; % BX Method
[Bp, Bpp] = makeB(baseMVA, bus, branchnew, alg);

%--------------------------------------------------------------------------
% LODF Factors
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------

[deltPflo,LODFvalues] = computeLODF(Bp, swingbus, branchout, branch);

fprintf('\n\n');

fprintf('\n=============================================');
fprintf('\n| Line Outage Distribution Factors |');
fprintf('\n=============================================');
fprintf('\n From Bus \tTo Bus \tValue ');
fprintf('\n -------- \t------ \t --------');
D = size(LODFvalues);
for i=1:D(1)
fprintf('\n %1.0f \t\t\t%1.0f \t\t\t%6f', LODFvalues(i,2),
LODFvalues(i,3), LODFvalues(i,4));
end;

%-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
% Run a Fast-Decoupled Power Flow for the 14-Bus system
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------
options = mpoption('PF_ALG', 2);
[baseMVA, bus, gen, newbranch, success] = runpf('case14',options);

%--------------------------------------------------------------------------
% Post-Contingency Branch Flows
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------

branchtemp = [];
for i=1:20

82
 branchtemp(i,1) = i;
end;

% Determine the base MW flows taken at the FROM Bus

baseMW = [branchtemp newbranch(:,1) newbranch(:,2) newbranch(:,14)];

% Determines the branch flows

[newbranchflows] = determineBranchFlows2(LODFvalues, baseMW, branchout);
fprintf('\n\n');
fprintf('\n=============================================');
fprintf('\n| Post-Contingency MW branch flows |');
fprintf('\n=============================================');
fprintf('\n \tBranch \tFrom Bus \t To Bus \t MW ');
fprintf('\n \t-------- \t-------- \t--------- \t--------');
D = size(newbranchflows);
for i=1:D(1)
fprintf('\n \t\t%1.0f \t\t\t%1.0f \t\t\t%1.0f \t\t%6f',
newbranchflows(i,1), newbranchflows(i,2), newbranchflows(i,3),
newbranchflows(i,4));
end

function [deltPflo,LODFvalues] = computeLODF(Bp, swingbus, branchout,

branch)
%computeLODF Computes the Line Outage Distribution Factors
% Description: Computes the LODF (line outage distribution factors) on each
% branch
% Inputs: Admittance Matrix (with the swing bus), swingbus identifier, a
% 1X3 matrix called branchout [branchno frombus tobus], and the branch
% matrix given from wcc9bus
% Outputs: deltPlflo is the LODF matrix without the outage bus eliminated
% LODFvalues contain the final values for the effect of a branch outage on
% all other branches

%------------------------------------
% Formulate the P Matrix
%------------------------------------

D = size(Bp);
P = zeros(D(1),1);
for i=1:D(1)
if i == branchout(1,2) % Add +1 to the from bus
P(i,1) = 1;
else
if i == branchout(1,3) % Add -1 to the to bus
P(i,1) = -1;
else
end;
end;
end;

% Reduce the matrix for the swing bus

Ptemp = zeros(D(1)-1,1);

for i=1:D(1)
if i < swingbus
Ptemp(i,1) = P(i,1) ;
else

83
 if i > swingbus
Ptemp(i-1,1) = P(i,1);
else
end;
end;

end;
P = Ptemp;
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------
% Set-Up B-Prime Matrix Minus Swing Bus
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------
bprimematrixnoswing = zeros(13,13);

for i=1:14
for j = 1:14
if (i ~= swingbus & j ~= swingbus)
if (i < swingbus & j < swingbus)
bprimematrixnoswing(i,j) = Bp(i,j);
else
if (i > swingbus & j < swingbus)
bprimematrixnoswing(i-1,j) = Bp(i,j);
else
if (i < swingbus & j > swingbus)
bprimematrixnoswing(i,j-1) = Bp(i,j);
else
if (i > swingbus & j > swingbus)
bprimematrixnoswing(i-1,j-1) = Bp(i,j);
else
end;
end;
end;
end;
end;
end;
end;
% bprimematrixnoswing holds the matrix with the swing bus removed

%----------------------------------------------------
% Solve for the Theta Values
%----------------------------------------------------
% P = B'*Theta

% Computes the Theta Matrix

thetavalues = bprimematrixnoswing\P;
D = size(thetavalues);
thetavalues2 = zeros(D(1)+1,1);
for i=1:D(1)+1
if i < swingbus
thetavalues2(i,1) = thetavalues(i,1);
else
if i > swingbus
thetavalues2(i,1) = thetavalues(i-1,1);
else
if i == swingbus
thetavalues2(i,1) = 0;
else
end;
end;
end;
end;

84
% this holds all the delta thetas for each bus including the zero value for
% the swing bus
thetavalues = thetavalues2;
D = size(thetavalues);
thetavalues2 = zeros(D(1),2);
for i=1:D(1)
for j=1:2
if j==1
thetavalues2(i,j) = i;
else
thetavalues2(i,j) = thetavalues(i,1);
end;
end;
end;

thetavalues = thetavalues2;
%----------------------------------------------------
% Calculates the LODF's
%----------------------------------------------------

% Find the Branch Series Reactance

D = size(branch);
branchr = [branch(:,1) zeros(D(1),1) branch(:,2) zeros(D(1),1)
branch(:,4)];
D = size(branchr);
F = size(thetavalues);
LODFvalues = [branchr zeros(D(1),1)];

% This part assigns the theta values to the columns corresponding to the
% branch t, from
for i=1:D(1)
for m=1:F(1)
if LODFvalues(i,1) == thetavalues(m,1)
LODFvalues(i,2) = thetavalues(m,2);
else
if LODFvalues(i,3) == thetavalues(m,1)
LODFvalues(i,4) = thetavalues(m,2);
else
end;
end;
end;

end;

% This calculates the LODF in the final column

D = size(LODFvalues);

for i=1:D(1)
LODFvalues(i,6) = (LODFvalues(i,2) - LODFvalues(i,4))/LODFvalues(i,5);
end;

%-----------------------------------------------------------------------
% Final Results
%-----------------------------------------------------------------------

% This is the LODF (nbranch x 1) vector per the assignment

deltPflo = [LODFvalues(:,6)];

85
i = [1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 ]';

% This is the LODF (nbranch x 3) including the from bus, to bus, and LODF
LODFvalues = [i LODFvalues(:,1) LODFvalues(:,3) LODFvalues(:,6) ];

LODFvalues(branchout(1),4) = -1;

return;
function [newbranchflows] = determineBranchFlows2(LODFvalues, baseMW,
branchout)
%determineBranchFlows2 Computes the Post-Contingency Branch Flows
% Description: Computes the Post-Contingency Branch Flows for a particular
% branch being outaged
% Inputs: LODFvalues (matrix of branch number, from bus, to bus, and LODF
factor), a
% 1X3 matrix called branchout [branchno frombus tobus], and the baseMW or
% pre-contingency branch flows
% Outputs: newbranchflows contains the branch number , from bus, to bus,
% and the post-contingency branch flow

D = size(baseMW);

% Determine the MW of the branchout

for i=1:D(1)
if i == branchout(1,1);
branchMW = baseMW(i,4);
else
end;
end;

newbranch = zeros(D(1),D(2));
for i=1:D(1)
newbranchflows(i,1) = baseMW(i,1);
newbranchflows(i,2) = baseMW(i,2);
newbranchflows(i,3) = baseMW(i,3);
newbranchflows(i,4) = baseMW(i,4) + LODFvalues(i,4)*branchMW;
end;

for i=1:D(1)
if i == branchout(1,1)
newbranchflows(i,4) = 0;
else
end;
end;

return;

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