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Abstract: This paper presents the development of a Sonie of the attempts to derive the distributioii factors
simple and fast metliod to calculate a new set of distribution only for reactive power or voltage security include the ef-
factors using the sensitivity property of Newton-Raphson orts of Illic-Spong et al. [7] and Taylor et al. [8]. Their
load flow Jacobian at a base operating point. These fac- models arc based on fast decoupled load flow (FDLF) [9]
tors have been used to calculate the post-outage voltages and require nine sets of distribution factors to calculate tlie
and reactive power output of tlie sources following outage reactive power flow of a transmission branch. The results
of a transmission branch or a generator. The accuracy of presented in their work show that in most of the cases, the
post-outage results using these distribution factors lias been normalized errors in the load flow solution using tlie distri-
established with respect to full RC load flow resulls on IEEE bution factors [7, 81 are greater than 10% which are more
l4-bus, IEEE 57-bus and a practical 76-bus Iiidian systems. than 30% in few cases.
Keywords: power system voltage security, Line outage Lee and Chen [lo] have suggested voltage distribution fac-
distribution factors, Generator outage distributioii fad ow, tors for line outages derived from the FDLF equations. How-
Seiisitivity property. ever, the P-V and Q-S decoupling assumptions may not re-
main valid during system stressed conditions [Ill. Hence,
the use o FDLF based model inay not be appropriate for
1 Introduction obtaining tliese factors. Rao [la] and Singh et al. [13] have
suggested the distribution factors for both voltage and reac-
Voltage security monitoring and analysis have assumed ini-
tive power calculations which were derived by exploiting the
portance in tlie present day stressed operation of power sys-
sensitivity property of Newton-Raphson load flow (NRLF)
tem networks. In order to minimize the coinputational time
Jacobian available at tlie end of a base load flow solution. In
required for the security analysis, contingency selectioii is
the above two works, line outage voltage distribution factors
performed. This requires tlie use of extremely fast models, were expressed in terms of only reactive power flow in the
which may not be as accurate as the exact AC load flow
transmission units prior to tlie contingency. These factors
models, for predicting the post-outage quantities for each
do not reflect the effect of tlie real power flow which may also
contingency case. affect the bus voltages significantly, specially under heavily
For real power or line flow security analysis several a d
loaded conditions.
methods such as distribution factors method [I], DC load
Hence, in this paper, new sets of distribution factors have
flow methods [2] and linearized load flow methods [3] have
been suggested which can be used for direct computation of
been suggested. Of late, the voltage security problem associ-
bus voltages as well as reactive power output of sources fol-
ated with nioiiitoriiig of reactive power flows and bus voltrage
lowing a line/transformer or a generator outage. The voltage
magnitudes have acquired grcater import ance. Linearized
and reactive power distribution factors have been defined in
load flow methods [4,5,G] have been suggested for voltage
terms of the pre-outage real and reactive power flows in the
security analysis but they are, iri general, very inaccurate.
lines or outputs of generators. They have been derived us-
ing an efficient method exploiting the sensitivity properties
96 SM 471-3 pWRS A paper recommended and approved by the of the NRLF Jacobian. The accuracy of the proposed dis-
IEEE Power System Engineering Committee of the lEEE Power
Engineering Society for presentation at the 1996 IEEEPES %nmer
.,
tribution factors in medictine:.,the bus voltaces and reactive
Meeting, July 28 - August 1, 1996, in Denver, Colorado. Manuscript
poller out.put of soirces lias beell established 011 IEEE 14-
submitted June 26, 1995; made available for printing July 17, 1996.
bus, IEEE 57-bus and a practical 75-bus Indian systems.
AQZj
e; = - j = 1, . . . ,Nq & I = l,...,Ni(6)
are required to be computed. Two groups of distribution fac- QT
tors have been suggested viz. the voltage dzstrzbutzon factors
which can be used to compute the post-outage voltage pro- Where N,Niand Nq are the total number of buses, lines
file in the system and the reactzve power dzstrzbutzon factors and reactive power sources in the system. AQcj and AQgj
which can be used to compute the post-outage output of are the changes in reactive power output of source-j due
the reactive power sources. For a line/transformer outage, to outage of the fictitious lines I1 and d 2 , respectively. If
these factors have been termed as lane outage voltage drs- the pre-outage real or reactive power flow (PT or QT) of
trzbutzon factors (LOVDFs) and lzne outage reactave power the transmission unit is zero, the corresponding distribution
dzstrzbutzon factors (LOQDFs), respectively. In the case of factor has been taken to be zero.
a generator outage, they have been termed as the generator
outage voltage dzstrzbutzon factors (GOVDFs) and the gen- 2.2 Generator Outage Distribution Factors
erator outage reaclzve power dzstrzbutzon factors (GOQDFs),
respectively. These factors are defined as following: Consider the outage of a generator-g having real power out-
put P G g and reactive power output QGg during pre-outage
condition. The generator-g can be assumed to consist of two
ist r ib u t i o n Factors fictitious sources gl and g2 representing purely real power
Consider the outage of a line or a transformer-l carrying an source with output P G and ~ purely reactive power source
average real power PI'
and reactive power QT defined as having output Q G ~respectively.
, Cumulative effect of out-
age of these sources has been used to simulate outage of
1
PI' = -(Pij
2
- Pji) (1)
generator-g. Assume that the outages of these fictitious
sources g1 and g2 change the voltage at bus-i by AKP and
1 A F Q , respectively and the reactive power output of another
QT = ,(Qij - Qji) (2) source-j in the system by AQ;, and AQ:?, respectively.
The corresponding generator outage voltage distribution fac-
where (.)ij is the power flow in the line from bus-i to bus-j tors b: and b s can be defined as
and (.)ji is the power flow from bus-j to bus-i.
The transmission unit can be represented by two fictitious
lines 11 and 12 in parallel as shown in Fig.l, one carrying only (7)
the real power P;" and the other carrying only the reactive
power QT. Cumulative effect of outages of these fictitious
lines l1 and 12, determined individually, will provide the total
effect of outage of the transmission unit-1. If change in volt-
age at a bus-i is AKP due to outage of the line41 carrying Similarly, the generator outage reactive power distribution
only real power qT and AKQ is the change in the voltage factors d; and d$ can be defined as
following the outage of line-12 carrying only reactive power
QT, the net change in voltage at bus4 will be the sum of
(9)
A K P and AKQ for the line/transformer-l outage. The line
outage voltage distribution factors a$ and a? corresponding
to the outage of fictitious line-ll and line-12, respectively can
be defined as
p
. - -
AqP While simulating a generator outage, it has been assumed
li - p? (3) that the real power outage will be met by the slack bus
generator only.
a:
AYQ
= - i = 1, ...,N & b = 1,. . . ,NI
QT '' The above eight sets of distribution factors (equations (3)
to (10)) can be directly used to compute the post-contingency
1087
system voltage profile and reactive power output of the sources. If the generator
- or line outages are simulated, as changes in
If pre-outage voltage of the bus-i and reactive power output real and reactive power injections, the post-outage changes
of a source-j are vio and Q;j, respectively, then the post- in voltage magnitudes and angles can be directly computed
outage voltage at a bus-i can be computed as using equation (16). In case of any change in the topology
of the network, the sensitivity matrix S can be recomputed
&" =Ko+aEPT+atQT i= l,...,N (11) utilizing new load flow Jacobian at the end of corresponding
load flow solution.
and the post-outage reactive power output of the source-j, In order to simulate the effect of the real and reactive
&Ej can be computed as power changes separately, equation (IS) can be rewritten as
P
QEj=Q;j+cljPI T Q T
+cljQI 3. = 1 , . . . ,N , (12)
for a line/transformer-1 outage. In fact, equations(l1) and
(12) are similar to the first order approximation of Taylor's where superscript P denotes the change in voltage angle or
series expansion of functions and Q G in ~ terms of variables magnitude due to change in real power injection and su-
PT and QT. perscript Q due to the change in reactive power injection.
For a generator-g outage, these quantities can be com- The above equation (17) can be decomposed into two sets
puted as of equations as following
tors The total change in bus voltage magnitudes and angles will
be summation of the changes computed from equations (18)
For computation of voltage and reactive power distribution and (19) separately. Thus, the change in voltages from pre-
factors as defined in equations (3) to (lo), the base case val- outage to the post-outage condition can be expressed as
ues of line flows and output of sources as well as the effect
of each outage on bus voltages and reactive power output
AV = AVp + AVQ (20)
of sources are required to be known. An approach utiliz- Ai5 = ASp + AbQ (21)
ing the sensitivity properties of the Newton-Raphson base
case load flow Jacobian has been suggested to compute the With the new complex bus voltages known, the post-outage
post-outage changes in bus voltage magnitudes and reactive reactive power output of sources and hence, the changes in
power generations. these outputs can be computed. The attractive feature of
The NRLF equations in polar coordinates [14] relate power this approach is that it does not require any additional load
mismatch with voltage corrections as flow simulation for the contingencies. Thus, the distribution
factors can be updated and the post-outage quantities using
them can be calculated very fast. The procedure for simulat-
ing line and generator outages in the sensitivity relationship
When Q-limits of the sources are considered, the size of Ja- and calculation of the distribution factors are given below.
cobian [J]will be (2N-Nq+rn-1)x(2N-Nq+n2-1),where m is
the number of P-V buses converted to P-Q type following 3.1 Line Outage Voltage Distribution Fac-
the violation of generator &-limits. Consider an extended tors
Jacobian [ J " ] at the end of base case load flow of size ( 2 N -
2) x (2N-2) with all source buses (except slack bus) treated Fig. 2 shows the pre-outage state of a part of a power system
as P-Q type. This matrix [J'] can be formed at the end network, where line-1 connecting bus-i and bus-j, is to be
of load flow easily by augmenting (aQ/aS) and (aQl8V.V) considered for outage study. Fig. 3 shows the post-outage
elements corresponding to all P-V buses (except slack bus) state of the power system in which line-1 is out of service.
in the final Jacobian [ J ] . A sensitivity matrix [SI can be Usual simulation of the line outage requires modification of
defined as [SI= [ J * ] - ' . This directly provides the sensitiv- [Ybus] to exclude the parameters of line-1 which changes the
ity relationship between bus powers and voltages and can Jacobian and hence, involves a time extensive process. In
be used to compute changes in bus voltage angles and mag- order to retain the original [UOus]and also the elements of
nitudes using the following equation, if the changes in bus the Jacobian and the sensitivity matrix, line outage has been
power injections are known. simulated by considering two fictitious generators at bus-i
and bus-j and a fictitious line having same parameter as the
original line. By retaining a fictitious line of same parameter,
[YbUs]remains unaffected. The power flow in this fictitious
1088
the base load flow results using equations (1) and (2). The
factors U [ and a: can be calculated for each line outage,
considered one at a time.
Table 3: 57-bus system- Post-outage bus voltage magnitudes Table 5: 75-bus system- Post-outage bus voltage magnitudes
Table 4: 57-bus system- Post-outage reactive power outputs (2) outage of a 400 kV line between bus-41 and bus-35
Outages of (Anpara), whose reactive power flow ( Q 4 1 - 3 5 = 105.7
Bus line (12-13) I transformer (13-49) MVAR and Q 3 5 - 4 1 = -113.0 MVAR) was the largest
amongst all the transmission lines. The real power flow
in this line was 184.0 MW.
Table 5 shows that the maximum bus voltage magnitude
error is 0.024 pu at bus-6 in the case of line (41-42) outage
and it is only 0.011 pu at bus-15 in the case of line (41-35)
outage. The reactive power output of the sources, calculated
by distribution factors method and load flow method, are
given in Table 6.
The post-outage magnitudes and reactive power output of
sources, as computed above by the proposed method have
been subsequently utilized by the authors [lG] for calculating
From Table 3, it can be observed that, tlie largest voltage the performance indices corresponding to each contingency.
magnitude error is 0.007 p.u. at bus-35 in the case of line TJse of higher order performance index to eliminate masking
(12-13) outage. It is 0.014 p.u. at bus-36 in the case of trans- effect and a method to calculate optimal weights for elimi-
former (13-49) outage. These errors are low as compared to nating misranking effect have been suggested [I 61.
those obtained by the distribution factors used in reference
[lo] which have been reported as 0.020 p.u. and 0.022 P.u.,
respectively for the above two outages. 4.4 Change in the System Loading
It was felt worth exploring the accuracy of predicting post-
4.3 75-bus Indian System outage states for change in the system loading using the same
distribution factors computed at a base loading. A typical
75-bus Indian system consists of 114 lines (400 kV and 220 case pertaining to the outage of line (2-4) in IEEE 14-bus
kV), 32 transformers (including 15 generating transformers) system has been presented. The real and reactive power
and 15 generators. For this system also, the results of oiily loadings were first changed in same ratio, at all tlie buses,
two outage cases have been presented in Table 5 and 6 cor- simultaneously, to simulate tlie above conditions. The com-
responding to the, parison of voltage predicted using the proposed distribution
(1) outage of a line between bus-41 (Singrauli) and bus- factors and the full AC load flow method for 115% and 50%
42 (Rihand-STS), whose pre-outage real power flow of the base loading are given in Table 7. The voltage magni-
(P41-42 = 445.90 MW) was the largest amongst all tudes ( V D F 2obtained
) by the distribution factors presented
the transmission lines and in references [12, 131 based on only reactive power flow in
1093
Table 6: 75-bus system- Post-outage reactive power outputs Table 7: 14-bus system- Bus voltages for different loading
I
I I Bus
Outages of
line (41-42) I line (35-41)
Bus
No.
1
V""
I 1.060
1.15 pu
I VU&''I VUP'2I V"&' I VU&'I VU&'2
1.060 I 1.060 1.060 I
0.50 pu
1.060 I 1.060
2 I 1.036 1.035 I 1.049 1.045 I 1.044 I 1.036
7 I
1.000 1.025 1.059 1.077 1.073 1.053
8 0.986 I 1.007 1.033 1.040 1.038 1.023
1092
e The prediction of the post-outage bus voltages using Trans. on Power Systems, Vol-PWRS-1, No.3, August
the new distribution factors are quite accurate and 1986, pp. 266-275.
provides the results with a maximum error of 2.45% [8] D.G. Taylor and L.J. Maahs, A Reactive Contingency
in IEEE 14-bus system, 1.48% in IEEE 57-bus sys- Analysis Algorithm Using MW and MVAR Distribu-
tem and 2.24% in the 75-bus Indian system for outage tion Factors, IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol-
of heavily loaded lines/generators. However, with the PWRS-6, No.1, February 1991, pp. 349-355.
use of distribution factors, the error in predicting the [9] B. Stott and 0. Alsac, Fast Decoupled Load Flow,
reactive power output of sources is slightly higher. IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol-
0 Since the distribution factors are obtained directly from PAS-93, No.5, May 1974, pp. 859-869.
a base load flow result, without involving any addi- [lo] C. Lee and N. Chen, Distribution Factors of Reac-
tional load flow for simulation of outages, its calcula- tive Power Flow in Transmission Line and Transformer
tion and updating is quite fast and can be applied to Outage Studies, IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol-
on-line monitoriiig of voltage security of the system at PWRS-7, No.1, February 1992, pp. 194-200.
control centers.
[ll] C.W. Taylor, Power System Voltage Stability, McGraw
e The set of distribution factors computed at a base load- Hill, EPRI Power System Engineering Series, New York,
ing accurately predicts the post-outage voltages of the 1994.
system even for small change in system loading. Thus,
[12] M.V. Rao, Fast Algorithm for Voltage Contingency Se-
they need not be recomputed for small deviation in the
Zectzon, M.Tech Thesis in Electrical Engg. Depart-
loading. This will further reduce the computational
ment, I.I.T. Kanpur(India), June 1992.
time for the voltage contingency analysis.
[13] S.N.Singh, S.C. Srivastava, P.K. Kalra and M.V. Rao,
e The proposed distribution factors defined with respect
Voltage and Reactive Power Distribution Factors for
to both pre-outage real and reactive powers of the ele-
line, Transformer 8~ Generator outage studies, Proc.
ments, predict the post-outage voltages of the system
of IEE sponsored International Conference on Advances
more accurately than the distribution factors proposed
an Power System Control, Operation and Management,
in references [lo, 12, 131 defined in terms of only reac-
Hong-Kong Dec7-10, 1993, pp 794-800.
tive powers under different loading conditions.
[14] M.A. Pai, Computer Technaques 211 Power System Anal-
ysis, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New
eferences DeIlii, 1980.
[l] A.J. Wood and B.F. Wollenberg, Power Generatzon, [15] S.N. Singh and S.C. Srivastava, Corrective Action
Operatzon and Coafrol, John Wiley & Sons Inc.,1984. Planning to Achieve Feasible Optimal Power Flow So-
lution IEE Proc., Part-C, November, 1995.
[a] K.L. Lo, M.A. Bismil, R.D. MacColl and A.M. Mof- [le] S.N. Singh, Voltage Securaty and Loss Minzmazatzoii
fatt, A Comparison of MW Ranking Methods, Elec- Studies in Electric Power Systems, Ph.D. Thesis in
trac Power Systems Research, Vol-15, 1988, pp. 157- Electrical Engineering Department, I.I.T. Kanpur (In-
171. dia), April 1995.
[3] N.M. Peterson, W.F. Tinney and D.W. Bree, Iter-
ative Linear AC Power Flo~7Solution for Fast Ap- S.N. Sing11 was born at Deoria (UP), India in 1966. He
proximate Outage Studies, IEEE Trans. on Power received his M.Tech. and Ph.D. degree in Electrical En-
Apparatus and Systems, Vol-PAS-91, No.5, Septem- gineering from Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur in
ber/October 1972, pp. 2048-2058. 1989 and 1995 respectively. He is currently working with
[4] K.T. Khu, M.G. Lauby and D.W. Bowen, A Fast U.P. State Electricity Board (India) as Assistant Engineer.
Linearization Method to Evaluate the Effects of Cir- His research interests include energy management systems,
cuit Contingency Upon System Load Bus Voltages, power system optimization, security analysis and power sys-
IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, 1701- tem planning.
PAS-101, October 1982, pp. 3926-3932.
S.C. Srivastava(SM 91) received his B.Tech. in Elec-
[5] A.K. Jana, P.B. Duttagupta and G.D. Prasad, An
trical Engineering from B.H.U. Varanasi and P1i.D. from In-
Improved Linearized Method for Evaluation of Bus
dian Instilute of Technology, Delhi. He worked in Engineers
Voltage for Line Outage Contingency, Int. Journal
India Ltd, New Delhi, a consultancy organization from 1976
of Electrac Power and Energy Systems, Vo1-15, No.5,
to 1988 and is presently Associate Professor in department
1993, pp. 301-305.
of Electrical Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology,
[6] S.N. Singh, P.K. Kalra and S.C Srivastava, Novel Kanpur. His research interests include energy management
Non-Iterative Load Flow for Voltage Contingency Anal- Systems, power system optimization, state estimation, secu-
ysis, Internattonal Journal of Electracal Power & En- rity analysis, voltage stability and neural network applica-
ergy System, Vol. 16, No. 1, 1994, pp. 11-16. tions to power systems.
[7] M. Illic - Spong and A. Phadke, Redistribution of
Reactive Power Flow in Contingeiicy Studies, IEEE
1093
Discussion reported by Lee and Chen [ 101. These two work have adopted
different approaches in suggesting the set of distribution
D P KOTNARI (Indian Institute of Tecchnology, Delhi, India), factors useful for the post outage voltage and reactive power
L D ARYA, H K VERMA and S C CHAUBE(SGSITS, Indore, calculations. Some of the differences are given below:
India): We wish to commend the authors for their valuable
contribution in providing improved voltage and reactive power
distribution factors for solving Q-V related problems under
In ref [lo], closed form expressions have been suggested
line/generator outage conditions. to calculate the distribution factors, whereas in the present
work these are obtained from a base load flow solution
The important aspect is the basic heuristic definition of line outage using the sensitivity properties of the load flow Jacobian.
distribution factors in terms of transmitted real and reactive powers Fast decoupled load flow (FDLF) equations have been
as given by relations (3)-(6). It appears that loss terms as used in ref. [101 to derive the closed form expressions of
considered in the a section model of Lee and Chen [ 101 has been the distribution factors, whereas full Newton Raphson
neglected. We would like to seek the author's clarification on the
load flow model has been used in the present work.
following points.
I. The power utilities still need a set of distribution factors Our replies to the specific queries raised by the discussors are
which can be utilised for assessing voltage stability accurately as following:
under contingent conditions. Have the authors tested their factors
for such an application? One such application can be the quick 1. The discussors' suggestion to extend the use of the
calculation of slope of PV curve under line outage conditions. This distribution factors to the voltage stability prediction
can be quickly assessed by applying chain rule of differentiation to
equation (1 1) as follows.
under contingent conditions seems to be interesting.
However, our present work was limited to the outage
dV," - dI<O
analysis required for the voltage security assessment and
dPIT
+ -:a, t a Q- we have not attempted the application of these factors to
dP, dP, dPd dPd
the voltage stability analysis.
whem 2. As stated above, Lee and Chen [lo] have used the FDLF
equations to derive the closed form expressions for the
-
d'o = PE-outage h p e distribution factors. The FDLF model assumes P-V and
dpd Q-S decoupling which does not remain valid specially
and
during stressed operation of the power systems [ 111 when
the problem of voltage security becomes more
dP,* dP,TdVk dP dV, dP,Td8h pronounced.
- z . + I - t - -
dP, dVk dP, dV, d P d dah dPd 3. The accuracy of the results provided by the proposed
distribution factors have been compared with those
de,T= - -d- +e -r-T+ dVk
--
d e l TdV, d e l Tdah suggested in ref. [lo] for two severe outage cases of the
dp, dVk dpd dV, d P d d 8 b dp, IEEE-57 bus test system. The discussors may refer to
section 4.2 of the paper which demonstrate that the
k and m are the buses to which an outaged line is connected.
proposed distribution factors provide more accurate
2. Would it be more meaningful to obtain closed form results than those of ref. [lo].
expressions for outage factors using some algebraic manipulation 4. Although the proposed line outage distribution factors
similar to Lee and Chen[lOJ? have been defined with respect to the transmitted powers,
these have been calculated considering outage of both the
3. Have the authors compared the accuracy of their factors transmitted and the loss part of the transmission line or
with those of Lee and Chen?
transformer. The discussors may refer to figures-2 & 3
4. I n the opinion of the discussors better results would have and section 3.1 of the paper. Outage of a line or
been obtained if loss part of real and reactive parts also would transformer-1, connected between bus-i and bus-j, has
have been considered. Then in that case heuristic definition (3)-(6) been simulated through fictitious sources having output
will not be required. same as the preoutage power flows ( P, + j Q, and Pji + j
Qji ) at the two ends. These power terms do include the
Once again we congratulate the authors for their very interesting
paper. transmitted as well as the loss parts of the n-model
suggested in [lo].
Manuscript received August 13, 1996.
S.N.SINGH and S.C.SRIVASTAVA : The authors thank the We once again thank the discussors for their interest in our
discussors for their valuable comments. Most of the comments paper.
are related to the comparison of the present work with that Manuscript received November 12. 1996