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Rechargeable battery
A rechargeable battery, storage battery, secondary cell, or accumulator is a type of electrical
battery which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times, as opposed to a
disposable or primary battery, which is supplied fully charged and discarded after use. It is composed of
one or more electrochemical cells. The term "accumulator" is used as it accumulates and stores energy
through a reversible electrochemical reaction. Rechargeable batteries are produced in many different
shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt systems connected to stabilize an electrical
distribution network. Several different combinations of electrode materials and electrolytes are used,
including leadacid, nickelcadmium (NiCd), nickelmetal hydride (NiMH), lithium-ion (Li-ion), and
lithium-ion polymer (Li-ion polymer).

Rechargeable batteries typically initially cost more than disposable batteries, but have a much lower total
cost of ownership and environmental impact, as they can be recharged inexpensively many times before
A ba ery bank used for an
they need replacing. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same sizes and voltages as
uninterrup ble power supply in a data
disposable types, and can be used interchangeably with them. center

Contents
1 Applica ons
2 Charging and discharging
2.1 Rate of discharge
2.2 Damage from cell reversal
2.3 Damage during storage in fully discharged state
2.4 Depth of discharge
2.5 Lifespan and cycle stability
2.6 Recharging me
A rechargeable lithium polymer mobile
3 Ac ve components phone ba ery

4 Types
4.1 Other experimental types

5 Alterna ves
6 Research
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links

Applications A common consumer ba ery charger

for rechargeable AA and AAA ba eries
Devices which use rechargeable batteries include automobile starters, portable consumer devices, light
vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric bicycles, and electric forklifts), tools,
uninterruptible power supplies, and battery storage power stations. Emerging applications in hybrid internal combustion-battery and electric vehicles
drive the technology to reduce cost, weight, and size, and increase lifetime.[1]

Older rechargeable batteries self-discharge relatively rapidly, and require charging before first use; some newer low self-discharge NiMH batteries
hold their charge for many months, and are typically sold factory-charged to about 70% of their rated capacity.

Battery storage power stations use rechargeable batteries for load-leveling (storing electric energy at times of low demand for use during peak
periods) and for renewable energy uses (such as storing power generated from photovoltaic arrays during the day to be used at night). Load-leveling
reduces the maximum power which a plant must be able to generate, reducing capital cost and the need for peaking power plants.

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The US National Electrical Manufacturers Association estimated in 2006 that US demand for
rechargeable batteries was growing twice as fast as demand for disposables.[2]

Small rechargeable batteries can power portable electronic devices, power tools, appliances, and so on.
Heavy-duty batteries power electric vehicles, ranging from scooters to locomotives and ships. They are
used in distributed electricity generation and in stand-alone power systems.

Charging and discharging

During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the negative material is
reduced, consuming electrons. These electrons constitute the current flow in the external circuit. The
electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for internal ion flow between the electrodes, as in lithium-ion and Cylindrical cell (18650) prior to
nickel-cadmium cells, or it may be an active participant in the electrochemical reaction, as in leadacid assembly. Several thousand of them
(lithium ion) form the Tesla Model S
cells.
ba ery (see Gigafactory).
The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery charger using AC mains
electricity, although some are equipped to use a vehicle's 12-volt DC power outlet. The voltage of the
source must be higher than that of the battery to force current to flow into it, but not too much higher or
the battery may be damaged.

Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery. Slow "dumb" chargers without
voltage or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking 14 hours or more to
reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to five hours, depending on the model,
with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes. Fast chargers must have multiple ways of detecting when
a cell reaches full charge (change in terminal voltage, temperature, etc.) to stop charging before harmful
overcharging or overheating occurs. The fastest chargers often incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells Lithium ion ba ery monitoring
from overheating. Battery packs intended for rapid charging may include a temperature sensor that the electronics (over- and discharge
charger uses to protect the pack; the sensor will have one or more additional electrical contacts. protec on)

Different battery chemistries require different charging schemes. For example, some battery types can be
safely recharged from a constant voltage source. Other types need to be charged with a regulated current
source that tapers as the battery reaches fully charged voltage. Charging a battery incorrectly can damage
a battery; in extreme cases, batteries can overheat, catch fire, or explosively vent their contents.

Rate of discharge
Battery charging and discharging rates are often discussed
by referencing a "C" rate of current. The C rate is that which
would theoretically fully charge or discharge the battery in
one hour. For example, trickle charging might be performed
at C/20 (or a "20 hour" rate), while typical charging and
discharging may occur at C/2 (two hours for full capacity). A solar-powered charger for
rechargeable AA ba eries
The available capacity of electrochemical cells varies
depending on the discharge rate. Some energy is lost in the
Diagram of the charging of a secondary internal resistance of cell components (plates, electrolyte, interconnections), and the rate of discharge is
cell or ba ery. limited by the speed at which chemicals in the cell can move about. For lead-acid cells, the relationship
between time and discharge rate is described by Peukert's law; a lead-acid cell that can no longer sustain
a usable terminal voltage at a high current may still have usable capacity, if discharged at a much lower
rate. Data sheets for rechargeable cells often list the discharge capacity on 8-hour or 20-hour or other stated time; cells for uninterruptible power
supply systems may be rated at 15 minute discharge.

The terminal voltage of the battery is not constant during charging and discharging. Some types have relatively constant voltage during discharge
over much of their capacity. Non-rechargeable alkaline and zinccarbon cells output 1.5V when new, but this voltage drops with use. Most NiMH AA
and AAA cells are rated at 1.2 V, but have a flatter discharge curve than alkalines and can usually be used in equipment designed to use alkaline
batteries.

Battery manufacturers' technical notes often refer to voltage per cell (VPC) for the individual cells that make up the battery. For example, to charge a
12 V lead-acid battery (containing 6 cells of 2 V each) at 2.3 VPC requires a voltage of 13.8 V across the battery's terminals.

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Damage from cell reversal

Subjecting a discharged cell to a current in the direction which tends to discharge it further to the point the positive and negative terminals switch
polarity causes a condition called cell reversal. Generally, pushing current through a discharged cell in this way causes undesirable and irreversible
chemical reactions to occur, resulting in permanent damage to the cell. Cell reversal can occur under a number of circumstances, the two most
common being:

When a ba ery or cell is connected to a charging circuit the wrong way around.
When a ba ery made of several cells connected in series is deeply discharged.
In the latter case, the problem occurs due to the different cells in a battery having slightly different capacities. When one cell reaches discharge level
ahead of the rest, the remaining cells will force the current through the discharged cell.

Many battery-operated devices have a low-voltage cutoff that prevents deep discharges from occurring that might cause cell reversal. A smart battery
has voltage monitoring circuit built inside.

Cell reversal can occur to a weakly charged cell even before it is fully discharged. If the battery drain current is high enough, the cell's internal
resistance can create a resistive voltage drop that is greater than the cell's forward emf. This results in the reversal of the cell's polarity while the
current is flowing.[3][4] The higher the required discharge rate of a battery, the better matched the cells should be, both in the type of cell and state of
charge, in order to reduce the chances of cell reversal.

In some situations, such as when correcting Ni-Cad batteries that have been previously overcharged,[5] it may be desirable to fully discharge a battery.
To avoid damage from the cell reversal effect, it is necessary to access each cell separately: each cell is individually discharged by connecting a load
clip across the terminals of each cell, thereby avoiding cell reversal.

Damage during storage in fully discharged state

If a multi-cell battery is fully discharged, it will often be damaged due to the cell reversal effect mentioned above. It is possible however to fully
discharge a battery without causing cell reversaleither by discharging each cell separately, or by allowing each cell's internal leakage to dissipate its
charge over time.

Even if a cell is brought to a fully discharged state without reversal, however, damage may occur over time simply due to remaining in the discharged
state. An example of this is the sulfation that occurs in lead-acid batteries that are left sitting on a shelf for long periods. For this reason it is often
recommended to charge a battery that is intended to remain in storage, and to maintain its charge level by periodically recharging it. Since damage
may also occur if the battery is overcharged, the optimal level of charge during storage is typically around 30% to 70%.

Depth of discharge
Depth of discharge (DOD) is normally stated as a percentage of the nominal ampere-hour capacity; 0% DOD means no discharge. As the usable
capacity of a battery system depends on the rate of discharge and the allowable voltage at the end of discharge, the depth of discharge must be
qualified to show the way it is to be measured. Due to variations during manufacture and aging, the DOD for complete discharge can change over time
or number of charge cycles. Generally a rechargeable battery system will tolerate more charge/discharge cycles if the DOD is lower on each cycle.[6]

Lifespan and cycle stability

If batteries are used repeatedly even without mistreatment, they lose capacity as the number of charge cycles increases, until they are eventually
considered to have reached the end of their useful life. Different battery systems have differing mechanisms for wearing out. For example, in lead-acid
batteries, not all the active material is restored to the plates on each charge/discharge cycle; eventually enough material is lost that the battery
capacity is reduced. In lithium-ion types, especially on deep discharge, some reactive lithium metal can be formed on charging, which is no longer
available to participate in the next discharge cycle. Sealed batteries may lose moisture from their liquid electrolyte, especially if overcharged or
operated at high temperature. This reduces the cycling life.

Recharging me
Recharging time is an important parameter to the user of a product powered by rechargeable batteries. Even if the charging power supply provides
enough power to operate the device as well as recharge the battery, the device is attached to an external power supply during the charging time. For
electric vehicles used industrially, charging during off-shifts may be acceptable. For highway electric vehicles, fast charging is necessary to approach
the speed of refueling of an internal combustion vehicle.

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A rechargeable battery cannot be recharged at an arbitrarily high rate. The internal resistance of the
battery will produce heat, and excessive temperature rise will damage or destroy a battery. For some types,
the maximum charging rate will be limited by the speed at which active material can diffuse through a
liquid electrolyte. High charging rates may produce excess gas in a battery, or may result in damaging side
reactions that permanenly lower the battery capacity. Very roughly, and with many exceptions and details,
restoring a battery's full capacity in one hour or less is considered fast charging. A battery charger system
will include more complex control circuit and charging strategies for fast charging, than for a charger
BYD e6 taxi. Recharging in 15 Minutes
designed for slower recharging.
to 80 percent

Active components
The active components in a secondary cell are the chemicals that make up the positive and negative active materials, and the electrolyte. The positive
and negative are made up of different materials, with the positive exhibiting a reduction potential and the negative having an oxidation potential. The
sum of these potentials is the standard cell potential or voltage.

In primary cells the positive and negative electrodes are known as the cathode and anode, respectively. Although this convention is sometimes carried
through to rechargeable systemsespecially with lithium-ion cells, because of their origins in primary lithium cellsthis practice can lead to
confusion. In rechargeable cells the positive electrode is the cathode on discharge and the anode on charge, and vice versa for the negative electrode.

Types
The leadacid battery, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Plant, is the oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low
energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-to-volume ratio, its ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells have a relatively large power-to-
weight ratio. These features, along with the low cost, makes it attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile
starter motors.

The nickelcadmium battery (NiCd) was invented by Waldemar Jungner of Sweden in 1899. It uses nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as
electrodes. Cadmium is a toxic element, and was banned for most uses by the European Union in 2004. Nickelcadmium batteries have been almost
completely superseded by nickelmetal hydride (NiMH) batteries.

The nickelmetal hydride battery (NiMH) became available in 1989.[7] These are now a common consumer and industrial type. The battery has a
hydrogen-absorbing alloy for the negative electrode instead of cadmium.

The lithium-ion battery was introduced in the market in 1991, and it is the choice in most consumer electronics and has the best energy density and a
very slow loss of charge when not in use. It does have drawbacks too, particularly the risk of unexpected ignition from the heat generated by the
battery.[8] Such incidents are rare and according to experts, they can be minimized "via appropriate design, installation, procedures and layers of
safeguards" so the risk is acceptable.[9]

Lithium-ion polymer batteries (LiPo) are light in weight, offer slightly higher energy density than Li-ion at slightly higher cost, and can be made in
any shape. They are available[10] but have not displaced Li-ion in the market.[11] A primary use is for LiPo batteries is in powering remote-controlled
cars, boats and airplanes. LiPo packs are readily available on the consumer market, in various configurations, up to 44.4v, for powering certain
certain R/C vehicles and helicopters or drones.[12][13] Some test reports warn of the risk of fire when the batteries are not used in accordance with the
instructions.[14] Independent reviews of the technology discuss the risk of fire and explosion from Lithium-ion batteries under certain conditions
because they use liquid electrolytes.[15]

Other experimental types

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Charge
Voltagea Energy densityb Powerc E/$e Self-disch.f Cyclesg Lifeh
Type Eciency

(V) (MJ/kg) (Wh/kg) (Wh/L) (W/kg) (Wh/$) (%/month) (%) (#) (years)

0.94-
Lithium sulfur[16] 2.0 400[18] 350 ~1400[19]
1.44[17]

Sodium-ion[20] 3.6 30 3.3 5000+ Tes ng

Thin lm lithium ? 300[21] 959[21] 6000[21] ?p[21] 40000[21]

Zinc-bromide 0.27-0.31 75-85

Zinc-cerium 2.5[22] Under tes ng

1.15- 10
Vanadium redox 0.09-0.13 25-35[23] 20%[24] 14,000[25]
1.55 (sta onary)[24]

2500
Sodium-sulfur 0.54 150 8992%
4500

Molten salt 2.58 0.25-1.04 70-290[26] 160[27] 150-220 4.54[28] 3000+ <=20

Silver-zinc 1.86 0.47 130 240

Quantum Ba ery
(oxide 1.5-3 500 8000(W/L) 100,000
semiconductor)[29][30]

citations are needed for these parameters

Notes
a Nominal cell voltage in V.
b Energy density = energy/weight or energy/size, given in three dierent units
c Specic power = power/weight in W/kg
e Energy/consumer price in Wh/US$ (approximately)
f Self-discharge rate in %/month
g Cycle durability in number of cycles
h Time durability in years
i VRLA or recombinant includes gel ba eries and absorbed glass mats
p Pilot produc on
The lithiumsulfur battery was developed by Sion Power in 1994.[31] The company claims superior energy density to other lithium technologies.[32]

The thin film battery (TFB) is a refinement of lithium ion technology by Excellatron.[33] The developers claim a large increase in recharge cycles to
around 40,000 and higher charge and discharge rates, at least 5 C charge rate. Sustained 60 C discharge and 1000C peak discharge rate and a
significant increase in specific energy, and energy density.[34]

UltraBattery, a hybrid lead-acid battery and ultracapacitor invented by Australias national science organisation CSIRO, exhibits tens of thousands of
partial state of charge cycles and has outperformed traditional lead-acid, lithium and NiMH-based cells when compared in testing in this mode
against variability management power profiles.[35] UltraBattery has kW and MW-scale installations in place in Australia, Japan and the U.S.A. It has
also been subjected to extensive testing in hybrid electric vehicles and has been shown to last more than 100,000 vehicle miles in on-road commercial
testing in a courier vehicle. The technology is claimed to have a lifetime of 7 to 10 times that of conventional lead-acid batteries in high rate partial
state-of-charge use, with safety and environmental benefits claimed over competitors like lithium-ion. Its manufacturer suggests an almost 100%
recycling rate is already in place for the product.

The potassium-ion battery delivers around a million cycles, due to the extraordinary electrochemical stability of potassium insertion/extraction
materials such as Prussian blue.[36]

The sodium-ion battery is meant for stationary storage and competes with leadacid batteries. It aims at a low total cost of ownership per kWh of
storage. This is achieved by a long and stable lifetime. The effective number of cycles is above 5000 and the battery is not damaged by deep discharge.
The energy density is rather low, somewhat lower than leadacid.

Alternatives

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A rechargeable battery is only one of several types of rechargeable energy storage systems.[37] Several alternatives to rechargeable batteries exist or
are under development. For uses such as portable radios, rechargeable batteries may be replaced by clockwork mechanisms which are wound up by
hand, driving dynamos, although this system may be used to charge a battery rather than to operate the radio directly. Flashlights may be driven by a
dynamo directly. For transportation, uninterruptible power supply systems and laboratories, flywheel energy storage systems store energy in a
spinning rotor for conversion to electric power when needed; such systems may be used to provide large pulses of power that would otherwise be
objectionable on a common electrical grid.

Ultracapacitorscapacitors of extremely high value are also used; an electric screwdriver which charges in 90 seconds and will drive about half as
many screws as a device using a rechargeable battery was introduced in 2007,[38] and similar flashlights have been produced. In keeping with the
concept of ultracapacitors, betavoltaic batteries may be utilized as a method of providing a trickle-charge to a secondary battery, greatly extending the
life and energy capacity of the battery system being employed; this type of arrangement is often referred to as a "hybrid betavoltaic power source" by
those in the industry.[39]

Ultracapacitors are being developed for transportation, using a large capacitor to store energy instead of the rechargeable battery banks used in
hybrid vehicles. One drawback of capacitors compared to batteries is that the terminal voltage drops rapidly; a capacitor that has 25% of its initial
energy left in it will have one-half of its initial voltage. By contrast, battery systems tend to have a terminal voltage that does not decline rapidly until
nearly exhausted. The undesirable characteristic complicates the design of power electronics for use with ultracapacitors. However, there are
potential benefits in cycle efficiency, lifetime, and weight compared with rechargeable systems. China started using ultracapacitors on two
commercial bus routes in 2006; one of them is route 11 in Shanghai.[40]

Flow batteries, used for specialized applications, are recharged by replacing the electrolyte liquid. A flow battery can be considered to be a type of
rechargeable fuel cell.

Research
Rechargeable battery research includes development of new electrochemical systems as well as improving the life span and capacity of current types.

See also
Ba ery pack List of energy densi es
Comparison of ba ery types Metalair electrochemical cell
Energy storage Search for the Super Ba ery (2017 PBS lm)
List of ba ery types

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0525084834/h p://www.evworld.com/ar cle.cfm?storyid=465). Evworld.com. Archived from the original (h p://www.evworld.com/ar cle.cfm?storyid=465)
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Further reading
Belli, Brita. Ba ery University Aims to Train a Work Force for Next-Genera on Energy Storage (h p://wheels.blogs.ny mes.com/2013/04/08/ba ery-universi
ty-aims-to-train-a-workforce-for-next-genera on-energy-storage/), The New York Times, 8 April 2013. Discusses a professional development program at San
Jose State University.
Vlasic, Bill. Chinese Firm Wins Bid for Auto Ba ery Maker (h ps://www.ny mes.com/2012/12/10/business/global/auc on-for-a123-systems-won-by-wanxian
g-group-of-china.html?), The New York Times, published online 9 December 2012, p. B1.
Cardwell, Diane. Ba ery Seen as Way to Cut Heat-Related Power Losses (h ps://www.ny mes.com/2013/07/17/business/energy-environment/ba ery-seen-
as-way-to-cut-heat-related-power-losses.html), 16 July 2013 online and 17 July 2013 in print on 17 July 2013, on page B1 in the New York City edi on of The
New York Times, p. B1. Discusses Eos Energy Systems' Zincair ba eries.
Cardwell, Diane. SolarCity to Use Ba eries From Tesla for Energy Storage (h ps://www.ny mes.com/2013/12/05/business/energy-environment/solarcity-to-u
se-ba eries-from-tesla-for-energy-storage.html), 4 December 2013 on line, and 5 December 2013 in the New York City edi on of The New York Times, p. B-2.
Discusses SolarCity, DemandLogic and Tesla Motors.
Galbraith, Kate. In Presidio, a Grasp at the Holy Grail of Energy Storage (h ps://www.ny mes.com/2010/11/07/us/07 ba ery.html?pagewanted=all), The
New York Times, 6 November 2010.
Galbraith, Kate. Filling the Gaps in the Flow of Renewable Energy (h ps://www.ny mes.com/2013/10/03/business/energy-environment/Filling-the-Gaps-in-th
e-Flow-of-Renewable-Energy.html), The New York Times, 22 October 2013.
Witkin, Jim. Building Be er Ba eries for Electric Cars (h ps://www.ny mes.com/2011/03/31/business/energy-environment/31BATTERIES.html), The New
York Times, 31 March 2011, p. F4. Published online 30 March 2011. Discusses rechargeable ba eries and the new-technology lithium ion ba ery.
Wald, Ma hew L. Hold That Megawa ! (h p://green.blogs.ny mes.com/2011/01/07/hold-that-megawa /?), The New York Times, 7 January 2011. Discusses
AES Energy Storage.
Wald, Ma hew L. Green Blog: Is That Onions You Smell? Or Ba ery Juice? (h p://green.blogs.ny mes.com/2012/05/09/is-that-onions-you-smell-or-ba ery-j
uice/#more-140249), The New York Times, 9 May 2012. Discusses vanadium redox ba ery technology.
Wald, Ma hew L. Green Blog: Cu ng the Electric Bill with a Giant Ba ery (h p://green.blogs.ny mes.com/2012/06/27/cu ng-the-electric-bill-with-a-giant-
ba ery/), The New York Times, 27 June 2012. Discusses Sa Groupe S.A.
Wald, Ma hew L. Seeking to Start a Silicon Valley for Ba ery Science (h p://green.blogs.ny mes.com/2012/11/30/seeking-to-start-a-silicon-valley-for-ba ery
-science/), The New York Times, 30 November 2012.
Wald, Ma hew L. From Harvard, a Cheaper Storage Ba ery (h ps://www.ny mes.com/2014/01/09/business/energy-environment/from-harvard-a-cheaper-st
orage-ba ery.html), The New York Times, 8 January 2014. Discusses research into ow-ba eries u lizing carbon-based molecules called quinones.
Witkin, Jim. Building Be er Ba eries for Electric Cars (h ps://www.ny mes.com/2011/03/31/business/energy-environment/31BATTERIES.html), The New
York Times, 31 March 2011, p. F4. Published online 30 March 2011. Discusses rechargeable ba eries and lithium ion ba eries.
Witkin, Jim. Green Blog: A Second Life for the Electric Car Ba ery (h p://green.blogs.ny mes.com/2011/04/27/a-second-life-for-the-electric-car-ba ery/),
The New York Times, 27 April 2011. Describes: ABB; Community Energy Storage for the use of electric vehicle ba eries for grid energy storage.
Woody, Todd. Green Blog: When It Comes to Car Ba eries, Moores Law Does Not Compute (h p://green.blogs.ny mes.com/2010/09/06/when-it-comes-to-c
ar-ba eries-moores-law-does-not-compute/), The New York Times, 6 September 2010. Discusses lithium-air ba eries.
Jang Wook Choi. Promise and reality of post-lithium-ion ba eries with high energy densi es. (h ps://www.researchgate.net/publica on/299552801_Promise
_and_reality_of_post-lithium-ion_ba eries_with_high_energy_densi es)

External links
High-performance lithium ba ery anodes using silicon nanowires (h p://www.nature.com/nnano/journal/vaop/ncurrent/abs/nnano.2007.411.html)
Scien c American - How Rechargeable Ba eries Work (h p://www.sciam.com/ar cle.cfm?id=how-do-rechargeable-that)
Electropaedia (h p://www.mpoweruk.com/index.htm)

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