Professional Documents
Culture Documents
4.4 171
t = 2( If s)
p.20
in which tis the length of the tie bar, (.1. is the allowable bond stress, A1 is the area of
one bar, and 20 is the bar perimeter. For a given bar diameter d, A1 = 7rd2/4 and
400
It should be noted that many agencies use a standard tie-bar design to simplify
the construction. Tie bars 0.5 in. (13 mm) in diameter by 36 in. (914 mm) long spaced at
(4.39)
(4.40)
Example 4.11:
Same pavement as Example 4.10. Determine the diameter, spacing, and length of the tie bars
re-
24ft
of tie bars ?
FIGURE 4.21
Solution: Assume fs = 27,000 psi (186 MPa) for billet steel (see Table 4.1). With U = 12
ft = 144 in. (3.66 m), from Eq. 4.38, A, = 0.0868 x 8 x 144 x 1.507.000 = 0.00556 in.2lin.
If No.4 (0.5 in. or 1.2 mm) bars are used, from Table 4.2, the cross-sectional area of one bar is
0.2 in.2 (129 mmz). The spacing of the bar = 0.2/0.00556 = 36 in. (914 mm).
Assume that p. = 350 psi (24 MPa), from Eq. 4.40, t = 0.5 X 27,000 X 0.5/350 = 19.3 in.
(353 mm). After adding 3 in. (76 mm), t = 19.3 + 3 = 22.3 in. (use 24 in. or 610 mm).The design
selected is No. 4 deformed bars, 24 in. (610 mm) long and 3 ft (0.9 m) on centers.
The design of dowels and joints is mostly based on experience, although some theoretical
methods on the design of dowels are available. The size of dowels to be used depends on
the thickness of slab. Table 4.4 shows the size and length of dowels for different slab
thicknesses as recommended by PCA (1975). It can be seen that the diameter of dowels is
equal to one-eighth of the slab thickness In a recent edition of joint design, PCA (1991)
recommended the use of 1.25 in. (32 mm) diameter dowels for highway pavements less
172
Chapter 4
4.4.1
5 g 12
6 3 14
7 g 14
8 1 14
9 1,1, 16
10 1% 18
11 1%; 18
12 1% 20
than 10 in. (254 mm) thick and 1.5 in. (38 mm) diameter dowels for pavements 10 in.
(254 mm) thick or greater. A minimum dowel diameter of 1.25 to 1.5 in. (32 to 38 mm)
is needed to control faulting by reducing the bearing stress in concrete.
Design of Dowels
Dowel bars are usually used across a transverse joint to transfer the loads to the ad-
joining slab. The stress and deection at the joint are much smaller when the loads are
carried by two slabs, instead of by one slab alone. The use of dowels can minimize fault-
ing and pumping which has been considered by the Portland Cement Association
Allowable Bearing Stress Because concrete is much weaker than steel, the size and
spacing of dowels required are governed by the bearing stress between dowel and con-
crete.The allowable bearing stress can be determined by Eq. 4.41 (American Concrete
Institute, 1956),
4-d,
in which fb is the allowable bearing stress in psi, d is the dowel diameter in inches, and
(4.41)
Bearing Stress on One Dowel If the load applied to one dowel is known, the maxi-
beam and the concrete to be a Winkler foundation. Using the original solution by Tim-
oshcnko, Friberg (1940) indicated that the maximum deformation of concrete under
_R@+Bd
dowel, z is the joint width, Ed is Youngs modulus of the dowel, Id is the moment of
(4.42)
173
4.4 Design of Dowels and Joints 173
Dowel
FIGURE 4.22
inertia of the dowel, and B is the relative stiffness of a dowel embedded in concrete.
Note that
=_44
Id i I 1rd (4.
and
Kd
= 4 .44
B 4Ed1d (4 )
in which K is the modulus of dowel support, which ranges from 300,000 to 1,500,000 pci
(81.5 to 409 GN/m3), and d is the diameter of dowel. The bearing stress 0., is propor-
433Ed1d
The bearing stress obtained from Eq. 4.45 should compare with the allowable bearing
stress computed by Eq. 4.41. If the actual bearing stress is greater than allowable, then larg.
er dowel bars or smaller dowel spacing should be used. Recent studies have also shown
that the bearing stress is related to the faulting of slabs, as described in Section 12.1.4. By
limiting the bearing stress, the amount of faulting can be reduced to the allowable limit.
(Tb = Kyo =
Dowel Group Action When a load W is applied on one slab near the joint, as shown in
Figure 4.23, part of the load will be transferred to the adjacent slab through the dowel
group. If the dowels are 100% efcient, both slabs will deect the same amount and the re-
active forces under both slabs will be the same, each equal to 0.5W, which is also the total
shear force transferred by the dowel group. If the dowels are less than 100% efcient, as in
the case of old pavements where some dowels become loose, the reactive forces under the
loaded slab will be greater than 0.5 W, while those under the unloaded slab will be smaller
1 1 FIGURE 4.23
174
Chapter 4 Stresses and Deflections in Rigid Pavements
than 0.5W. As a result, the total shear force on the dowels is smaller than 0.5 W. Therefore,
Based on Westergaards solutions, Friberg (1940) found that the maximum nega-
tive moment for both interior and edge loadings occurs at a distance of 1.88 from the
load, where 8 is the radius of relative stiffness dened by Eq. 4.10. When the moment is
maximum, the shear force is equal to zero. It is therefore reasonable to assume that the
shear in each dowel decreases inversely with the distance of the dowel from the point
of loading, being maximum for the dowel under or nearest to the point of loading and
zero at a distance of 1.86. The application of the above principle for dowel design can
Example 4.12:
Figure 4.24 shows a concrete pavement 8 in. (203 mm) thick having a joint width of 0.2 in. (5.1
mm), a modulus of subgrade reaction of 100 pci (27 kN/m3), and a modulus of dowel support
of
1.5 X 106 pci (407 GN/m3). A load of 9000 lb (40 RN) is applied over the outermost dowel at a
distance of 6 in. (152 mm) from the edge. The dowels are ,1: in. (19 mm) in diameter and 12 in.
(305
mm) on centers. Determine the maximum bearing stress between dowel and concrete.
9000 lb
n: n: a: n: a:
3. 3. '43 R. 8.
OCoOO
P l I D:
Sum = 3.27 P,
FIGURE 4.24
Solution: From Eq. 4.10, e = [4 x 106 x 512/( 12 x 0.9775 x 100)]125 = 36.35 in. (427
mm). If the dowel directly under the load is subjected to a shear force P., the forces on the
dow-
els within a distance of 1.88, or 66 in. (1.68 m), can be determined by assuming a straight-line
variation, as shown in Figure 4.24. The sum of the forces on all dowels is 3.273, which must be
equal to one-half of the applied load based on 100% joint efficiency, or R = 4500/3.27 = 1376 lb
(6.1 kN). From Eq. 4.43, I,l = (075)4/64 = 0.0155 in.4 (6450 mm). From Eq. 4.44,
3 = [1.5 x 106 x 0.75/(4 x 29 x 106 x 0.0155)]"-25 = 0.889 in. (22.6 mm). From Eq. 4.45,
ab = 1.5 X 106 X 1376(2 + 0.889 X 0.2)/(4 X 0.703 X 29 x 106 X 0.0155) = 3556 psi (24.5
MPa). For a 3000psi (20.7-MPa) concrete, the allowable bearing stress obtained from Eq. 4.41
is
fb = (4 - 0.75) X 3000/3 = 3250 psi (22.4 MPa). Because the actual bearing stress is about
10% greater than the allowable, the design is not considered satisfactory.
In this example, only the left-wheel load near the pavement edge is considered. The right-
wheel load is at least 6 ft (1.83 m) from the left-wheel load, which is greater than 1.86, so the
right
175
wheel has no effect on the maximum force R on the dowel near the pavement edge. If the slab
is
thicker and stronger and the foundation is weaker, 8 may become much larger and both
wheels
must be considered in determining the force R on the most critical dowel.
Example 4.13:
Figure 4.25:: shows a 9.5-in. (241-mm) slab resting on a foundation with k = 50 pci
(13.6 MN/m3). Twelve dowels at 12 in. (305 mm) on centers are placed at the joint on the 12-
ft
9000 lb 9000 lb
9.
1.0
o 86
0.73
0.59
00
0.45 .5
0.32
o 18
o 05
:i
H
co
:2
.3;
2|
('0
O-
U3
1191
Force(1b)
FIGURE 4.25
176
Chapter 4
4.4.2
Stresses and Deflections in Rigid Pavements
(3.66-m) lane. TWO 9000-lb (40-kN) wheel loads are applied at points A and B. Determine the
Solution: From Eq.4.10, = [4 x 106 x (9.5)3/(12 X 0.9775 x 50)]"'25 = 49.17 in. (1.25 m),
so 1.88 = 88 in. (2.24 m). First, consider the 9000-lb (40-kN) load at A. If the dowel at A has a
load factor of 1, the load factors at other dowels can be determined from similar triangles, as
shown in Figure 4.25b. The sum of these factors results in 4.18 effective dowels, so the load
car-
ried by the dowel at A is 4500/4.18 or 1077 lb (4.8 kN). The loads carried by other dowels can
be
determined by proportion. Next, consider the 9000-lb (40-kN) load at B. If the dowel at B has a
load factor of 1, the load factors at other dowels can be determined from the triangular
distribu-
tion, as shown in Figure 4.25c. The sum of these factors results in 7.08 effective dowels. Note
that
the dowels on the other side of the longitudinal joint are not considered effective in carrying
the
load. The load carried by the dowel at B is 4500f7.08 or 636 lb (2.8 RN), and those carried by
other dowels can be determined by proportion. Figure 4.25d shows the forces on each dowel
due
to the combined effect of both loads. It can be seen that the dowel nearest to the pavement
edge
is the most critical and should be used for design purposes. The load carried by this dowel can
be
The above examples are based on the assumption that the maximum negative mo-
ment occurs at a distance of 1.86 from the load. Recent studies by Heinrichs et a1. (1989)
have shown that the maximum negative moment occurs at 1.06, so the load carried by
the most critical dowel should be larger than those shown in the examples This has been
proved by comparing the results with the KENSLABS computer program.
Design of Joints
ture or moisture changes will not occur. There are four types of joints in common use:
Contraction Joints Contraction joints are transverse joints used to relieve tensile
stresses. The spacing of joints should be based on local experience since a change in
coarse aggregate types may have a significant effect on the concrete thermal coef-
cient and consequently the acceptable joint spacing. As a rough guide, the joint spacing
in feet for plain concrete pavements should not greatly exceed twice the slab thickness
in inches For example, the maximum joint spacing for an 8-in. (203-mm) slab is 16 ft
(4.9 m). Also, as a general guideline, the ratio of slab width to length should not exceed
Figure 4.26 shows typical contraction joints. In Figure 4.26a, a dummy groove is
formed by placing a metal strip on the fresh concrete, which is later removed, or by
sawing after the concrete is set. The groove is then sealed with a plastic material. If the
joint spacing is small, the load transfer across the joint can be achieved by the aggre-
gate interlock and no dowels may be needed. However, dowels are needed if the joint
spacing is large or if the short panels are located near the end of the pavement. In such
cases, the joint may open up and the load transfer through aggregate interlock may be
lost. In lieu of a dummy groove, joints can be formed by placing a felt, asphalt ribbon,
or asphalt board strip in the fresh concrete and leaving it there permanently, as shown
in Figure 4.26b.
Seal with
plastic material
hl4
h to
his
177
4.4 Design of Dowels and Joints 177
Seal with
plastic material
Lubricat
smooth
dowel /
bar
h/4
to
h 11/3
bar
Lubricated I
ooth 11/2
dowel /
FIGURE 4.26
The sealant used in the joints must be capable of withstanding repeated extension
and compression as the temperature and moisture in the slabs change. Sealants can be
classied as eld molded and preformed. Field-molded sealants are those applied in liquid
or semiliquid form, and preformed sealants are shaped during manufacturing. Figure 4.27
shows the design of joint sealant reservoir for eld-molded sealants To maintain an effec-
tive eld-molded seal, the sealant reservoir must have the proper shape factor or depth-
to-width ratio. The common practice is to have the ratio between 0.5 to 1. Table 4.5 shows
the reservoir dimensions for eld-molded sealants, and Table 4.6 shows the joint and
Tape to Prevent
Bond between
Sawed Joint Face
or Inserted Strip
Rope or Rod
Back-up Material
or Inserted Strip
FIGURE 4.27
178
Chapter 4 Stresses and Deflections in Rigid Pavements
Sealants
15 or less i % minimum
20 g % minimum
30 minimum
55
40 s s
Seals
20 or less i- 17;
30 g g
3
40 r7; 4
50 ,1,
The preformed sealant is the type most recommended to achieve long-term perfor-
mance. Preformed sealants can do an excellent job of keeping out incompressibles over a
long period of time, but might not be completely water tight compared to the field-molded
sealants. The preformed sealants should be so designed that the seal will always be com-
pressed at least 20% in the joint. 'Ihe maximum allowable compression of the seal is
50%. Thus, the seal working range is 20 to 50% (Darter and Barenberg, 1977).
Example 4.14:
A concrete pavement 15 ft (4.6 m) long is placed on a gravel subbase. If the joint width is iin.
(6.4 mm), the design temperature range AT is 100F (556C), the coefficient of thermal expan-
sion a, is 5 x 105/F (9 x 10'6/C), and the drying shrinkage coefficient 6 is 1.0 x 10, deter-
Solution: From Eq. 4.36, the joint opening due to temperature change is AL = 0.65 X
15 X 12(0.000005 X 100 + 0.0001) = 0.07 in. (1.8 mm). Try {3 or 0.4375 in. (11.1 mm) sealant
installed in summer, so the joint would not be further compressed. Check maximum
compression
of sealant: (0.4375 - 0.25)/0.4375 = 0.43 < 50%, OK. Check minimum compression of sealant:
(0.4375 - 0.25 - 0.07)/0.4375 = 0.27 > 20%, OK. Therefore, the use of {gin (11.1 mm)
179
4.4 Design of Dowels and Joints 179
Contraction joints are usually placed at regular intervals perpendicular to the center
line of pavements. However, skewed joints with randomized spacings, say 13-19-1812 ft
(4.0-5.85.5-3.7 m), have also been used. The obtuse angle at the outside pavement
edge should be ahead of the joint in the direction of traffic, since that corner receives
the greatest impact from the sudden application of wheel loads. The advantage of
skewed joints is that the right and left wheels do not arrive at the joint simultaneously,
thus minimizing the annoyance of faulted joints. The use of randomized spacings can
Expansion Joints Expansion joints are transverse joints for the relief of compressive
stress. Because expansion joints are difficult to maintain and susceptible to pumping,
they are no longer in use today except at the connection between pavement and struc-
ture. Experience has shown that the blowups of concrete pavements are related to a
selecting the aggregates, distress due to blowups can be minimized. The plastic flow of
concrete can gradually relieve compressive stress, if any, so it is not necessary to install
Figure 4.28 shows a typical expansion joint. The minimum width of joint is gin.
(19 mm). Smooth dowel bars lubricated at least on one side must be used for load
transfer. An expansion cap must be installed at the free end to provide space for dowel
must be placed in the joint and the top sealed with a plastic material.
Construction Joints If at all possible, the transverse construction joint should be placed
at the location of the contraction joint, as shown by the butt joint in Figure 4.29a. If the
work must stop due to an emergency or machine breakdown, the key joint shown in
Figure 4.2% may be used.This joint should be placed only in the middle third of a normal
joint interval. Key joints have not performed well and many failures have occurred.
curling and warping stresses. Different types of longitudinal joints are used, depending
In the full-width construction, as shown in Figure 4.30, the most convenient type
is the dummy groove joint, in which tie bars are used to make certain that aggregate
interlock is maintained, as shown in Figure 4.30a. These bars may be shoved into the
wet concrete before the nal finishing and placement of the dummy groove. The joint
3 Expansion cap
fixed
FIGURE 4.28
Smooth, lubricated
dowel bar
steel plate
Strip.
FIGURE 4.30
FIGURE 4.31
can also be formed by inserting a premolded strip into the fresh concrete and leaving it
there permanently as an integral part of the warping joint, as shown in Figure 4.30b.
Another method is to install deformed steel plates and tie bars at the center line before
other lane. To insure load transfer, key joints are usually used, as shown in Figure 4.31.
In most cases, the keyed joints are tied together with tie bars. However, tie bars may be
omitted if the longitudinal joint is at the interior of a multilane pavement and there is
Butt joints have also been used for lane-at-a-time construction. Current practice
prefers the use of butt joints over keyed joints because keyed joints usually do not per-
form well due to the occurrence of cracks along the key and they are also difcult to
SUMMARY
This chapter discusses the stresses and deections in rigid pavements, on the basis of
with full subgrade contact. Analyses based on partial contact and other types of foun-
1. Curling stresses in an infinite slab are caused by the restraining effect of the slab
2.
3.
and can be determined easily from Hookes law by assuming plane strain.
Curling stresses in a finite slab are caused by the curling of the slab and are diffi-
for determining the maximum warping stress in the interior and at the edge of a
finite slab.
versial. The Portland Cement Association does not consider curling stresses in
fatigue analysis because the very few number of stress reversals does not con-
tribute to fatigue cracking and also the curling stresses may be added to or sub-
tracted from the loading stresses to neutralize the effect. Others think that curling
stresses should be combined with loading stresses. because past experience has
shown that longer slabs with greater curling stresses always result in more cracking
of the slab. A more reasonable approach is to consider the fatigue damage due to
curling separately from that due to loading and then combine them.
Westergaards closed-form formulas can be used to determine the maximum
stresses and deflections in a concrete slab due to a circular loaded area applied at
the corner. in the interior. or near to the edge. if the load is applied over a set of
dual tires. the formulas can still be applied by using an equivalent circular area.
The stresses and deections due to interior and edge loadings can also be deter-
mined by influence charts. When inuence charts are employed. the actual tire
The design of steel reinforcements and tie bars is based on the stresses due to
friction. These steel reinforcements, such as wire fabric and bar mats. do not
increase the structural capacity of the slab but are used to increase the joint spac-
ing and to tie the cracked concrete together to maintain load transfers through
aggregate interlock.
The design of dowels is mostly based on experience. One rule of thumb is that the
method is available to determine the bearing stress between dowel and concrete
temperature or moisture changes will not occur. As a rough guide. the joint spac-
ing in feet for plain concrete pavements should not greatly exceed twice the slab
thickness in inches, and the ratio of slab width to length should not be greater
than 1.25. Contraction joints are usually placed at regular intervals perpendicular
to the center line of. pavements. However. skewed joints with randomized spacings
have also been used. Expansion joints are used only at the connection between
pavement and structure. Longitudinal joints are used to relieve curling and warp-
ing stresses. and different types may be used. depending on whether the construc-