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CLOSED-BOOK PRACTICE
CHAPTER 16: COMPOSITES
CONCEPT CHECK
1. Cite the general difference in strengthening mechanism between large-particle and dispersion-strengthened
particle-reinforced composites.
Ans:
The major difference in strengthening mechanism between large-particle and dispersion-strengthened
particle-reinforced composites is that for large-particle, the particle-matrix interactions are not treated on the
molecular level, whereas for dispersion-strengthening these interactions are treated on the molecular level.
2. The following table lists four hypothetical aligned fiber-reinforced composites (labeled A through D), along
with their characteristics. On the basis of these data, rank the four composites from highest to lowest
strength in the longitudinal direction, and then justify your ranking.

Fiber Ave. Fiber Critical

Composite Fiber Vol. Fraction Strength Length Length
Type Fibers (MPa) (mm) (mm)

A glass 0.20 3.5 103 8 0.70

B glass 0.35 3.5 103 12 0.75
C carbon 0.40 5.5 103 8 0.40
D carbon 0.30 5.5 103 8 0.50

Ans: The ranking from highest to lowest strength in the longitudinal direction is as follows: C, D, B and A.
Following the rule for continuous fibers: l 15lc , we observe that Composites B,C and D contain stronger
continuous/long fibers while Composite A has weaker discontinuous/short fibers. Furthermore, Composite
C is the strongest inasmuch as the carbon fibers are stronger than the glass fibers. In addition, C has the
highest fiber volume fraction. Composite D is of lower strength than C because it has a lower Vf. Composite
B is next because the glass fibers are weaker than carbon. Composite A is the weakest since it is composed
of the weaker glass fibers, the fibers are discontinuous, and Vf is the lowest of all four materials.
3. Cite one desirable characteristic and one less desirable characteristic for each of
(1) discontinuous- and oriented-fiber-reinforced composites and
(2) discontinuous- and randomly oriented-fiber-reinforced composites.
Ans:
For discontinuous- and oriented-fiber-reinforced composites, one desirable characteristic is that the
composite is relatively strong and stiff in one direction; a less desirable characteristic is that the mechanical
properties are anisotropic.
On the other hand, for discontinuous- and randomly oriented-fiber-reinforced composites, one desirable
characteristic is that the properties are isotropic; a less desirable characteristic is there is no single
high-strength direction for preferred designed orientation.

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QUESTIONS & PROBLEMS

Dispersion-Strengthened Composites
Cite one similarity and two differences between precipitation hardening and dispersion strengthening.
Ans:
The similarity between precipitation hardening and dispersion strengthening is the strengthening
mechanism--i.e., the precipitates/particles effectively hinder dislocation motion.
The two differences are:
1) the hardening/strengthening effect is not retained at elevated temperatures for precipitation
hardeninghowever, it is retained for dispersion strengthening; and
2) the strength is developed by a heat treatment for precipitation hardeningsuch is not the case for
dispersion strengthening.
The Fiber and Matrix Phases
For a polymer-matrix fiber-reinforced composite:
(a) List three functions of the matrix phase.
(b) What are the desired mechanical characteristics of matrix and fiber phases in a typical fiber-reinforced
polymeric matrix composite (PMC). Why?
Ans:
(a) For polymer-matrix fiber-reinforced composites, three functions of the polymer-matrix phase are:
1) to bind the fibers together so that the applied stress is distributed among the fibers;
2) to protect the surface of the fibers from being damaged; and
3) to separate the fibers and inhibit crack propagation.
(b) The fiber (i.e., reinforcement) phase must be stiff and strong to provide stiffness and strength and the
matrix (i.e., resin) phase must be ductile and is usually relatively soft to provide ductility and toughness.
They both should have low densities to provide light-weight.
The figure at right shows schematically a fiber-
matrix interface of a polymer-matrix
fiber-reinforced composite. Cite two reasons why
there must be a strong bond between a fiber and
the matrix at their interface.
Ans:
There must be a strong interfacial bond between a
fiber and the matrix in order:
i) to maximize the stress transmittance between matrix and fiber phases through interfacial shear transfer;
and
ii) to minimize fiber pull-out; thus reducing the probability of failure.
(a) What is the distinction between matrix and dispersed phases in a composite material?
(b) Contrast the mechanical characteristics of matrix and dispersed phases for fiber-reinforced composites.
Ans:
(a) The matrix phase is a continuous phase that surrounds the noncontiguous dispersed phase.
(b) In general, the matrix phase is relatively weak, has a low elastic modulus, but is quite ductile. On the
other hand, the fiber phase is normally quite strong, stiff, and brittle.
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Polymer-Matrix Composites
(a) List four reasons why glass fibers are most commonly used for reinforcement.
(b) Why is the surface perfection of glass fibers so important?
(c) What measures are taken to protect the surface of glass fibers?
Ans:
(a) The four reasons why glass fibers are most commonly used for reinforcement are:
1) It can be easily drawn into high-strength fibers from the molten state.
2) It is readily available and may be fabricated into a glass-reinforced plastic economically using a
wide-variety of composite manufacturing techniques.
3) As a fiber, it is relatively strong and when embedded in a polymer matrix, it produces a composite
having a very high specific strength.
4) When coupled with the various plastics, it possesses chemical inertness that render the composite
useful in a variety of corrosive environments.
(b) The surface perfection of glass fibers is important because surface flaws or cracks act as points of stress
concentration, which will dramatically reduce the tensile strength of the material.
(c) Care must be taken not to rub or abrade the surface after the fibers are drawn. As a surface protection,
newly drawn fibers are coated with a protective surface film.
Cite the distinction between carbon and graphite.
Ans:
Graphite is crystalline carbon having the structure shown in the figure at left, whereas "carbon" will consist
of some noncrystalline material as well as areas of crystal misalignment, per the schematic diagram shown
in the figure at right.

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The figure at right shows a uniaxial fiber-reinforced

composite loaded in the longitudinal direction.
Assume the Youngs moduli and volume fractions , ,
of the fiber and the matrix are E f , V f , Em and Vm ,
respectively. Derive the effective Youngs modulus
Ec of the composite.
Ans:
iso-strain condition (or strain compatibility): c f m
Fc Ff Fm F A F A F
force equilibrium: Fc Ff Fm c f f m m
Ac Ac Ac Ac Ac Af Ac Am
stress equilibrium: c V f f Vm m
Hookes laws: f E f f , m Em m & c Ec c

c V f f Vm m V f E f f Vm Em m
effective composite modulus: Ec
c c c
Ec V f E f Vm Em

The figure at right shows a uniaxial fiber-reinforced

composite loaded in the transverse direction.
Assume the Youngs moduli and volume fractions , ,
of the fiber and the matrix are E f , V f , Em and Vm ,
respectively. Derive the effective Youngs modulus
Ec of the composite.
Ans:
iso-stress condition (or stress transmission): c f m
Lc L f Lm Lc L f L f Lm Lm
deformation compatibility: Lc L f Lm
Lc Lc Lc Lc Lc L f Lc Lm
strain compatibility: c V f f Vm m
Hookes laws: f E f f , m Em m & c Ec c
c c c 1
effective composite modulus: Ec
c V f f Vm m f m V f Vm
Vf Vm
Ef Em E f Em

1 V f Vm E f Em
or Ec
Ec E f E m Vm E f V f Em

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The figures below show the schematic representations of fiber-reinforced composites with (a) continuous
and aligned fibers, (b) discontinuous and aligned fibers, and (c) discontinuous and randomly oriented fibers.
Assume all three composites are made of the same fibers and resin and have the same fiber volume fraction.
Knowing that their fiber stiffness E f is much greater than the matrix stiffness Em , determine among these
three composites, which one has the greatest longitudinal stiffness and which one has the highest transverse
stiffness. Justify your reason(s).
Ans:
Composite (a) will have the greatest
longitudinal stiffness Ec ,l since all fibers
are aligned in the longitudinal direction
and the reinforcement phase is
continuous/long fibers. Composite (c)
will have the highest transverse stiffness
Ec ,t since the projection of fibers in the
transverse direction will be the highest.
(a) (b) (c)
The figures at right show the schematic
representations of fiber-reinforced polymer matrix
composites with (a) discontinuous and aligned fibers
and (b) discontinuous and randomly oriented fibers.
Assume these two composites are made of the same
fibers and resin and have the same fiber volume
fraction and their fiber stiffness E f is much greater
than the matrix stiffness Em . With respect to stiffness,
cite the desirable characteristics and disadvantages
when comparing (a) to (b). Why?
Ans:
Following the Rules of Mixtures, for the (a) polymeric
matrix composites reinforced with discontinuous and
oriented fibers, the desirable characteristic is that the
composite is relatively stiff in the longitudinal
direction; the less desirable characteristics are:
i) the mechanical properties of (a) are anisotropic,
ii) the composites (a) are less stiff in the transverse direction.

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(a) Cite reasons why fiberglass-reinforced (FGR) composites are used extensively.
(b) Cite limitations of this type of composite.
Ans:
(a) Reasons why FRG composites are utilized extensively are:
1) glass fibers are very inexpensive to produce;
2) these composites have relatively high specific strengths; and
3) they are chemically inert in a wide variety of environments.
(b) The main limitations of the FRG composites are:
1) care must be exercised in handling the fibers inasmuch as they are susceptible to surface damage;
2) they are lacking in stiffness in comparison to other fibrous composites; and
3) they are limited as to maximum temperature use.
Hybrid Composites
(a) What is a hybrid composite?
(b) List two important advantages of hybrid composites over normal fiber composites.
Ans:
(a) A hybrid composite is a composite that is reinforced with two or more different fiber materials in a
single matrix.
(b) Two advantages of hybrid composites are:
1) better overall property combinations, and
2) failure is not as catastrophic as with single-fiber composites.
The figure at right shows a uniaxial
fiber-reinforced hybrid composite loaded in the
longitudinal direction. Assume the Youngs
moduli and volume fractions of the fiber 1, fiber 2 , ,
and the matrix are E f 1 , E f 2 , V f 1 , V f 2 , Em and
Vm , respectively. Derive the effective Youngs
modulus Ec of the composite.
Ans:
iso-strain condition (or strain compatibility): c f 1 f 2 m
Fc Ff 1 Ff 2 Fm F Af 1 Ff 1 Af 2 Ff 2 Am Fm
force equilibrium: Fc Ff 1 Ff 2 Fm c
Ac Ac Ac Ac Af 1 Ac Af 2 Ac Am
stress equilibrium: c V f 1 f 1 V f 2 f 2 Vm m
Hookes laws: f 1 E f 1 f 1 , f 2 E f 2 f 2 , m Em m & c Ec c
effective composite modulus:
c V f 1 f 1 V f 2 f 2 Vm m V f 1E f 1 f 1 V f 2 E f 2 f 2 Vm Em m
Ec
c c c
Ec V f 1E f 1 V f 2 E f 2 Vm Em

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The figure at right shows a uniaxial

fiber-reinforced hybrid composite loaded in the
transverse direction. Assume the Youngs moduli
and volume fractions of the fiber 1, fiber 2 and the , ,
matrix are E f 1 , E f 2 , V f 1 , V f 2 , Em and Vm ,
respectively. Derive the effective Youngs
modulus Ec of the composite.
Ans:
iso-stress condition (or stress transmission): c f 1 f 2 m
Lc L f 1 L f 2 Lm
deformation compatibility: Lc L f 1 L f 2 Lm
Lc Lc
Lc L f 1 L f 1 L f 2 L f 2 Lm Lm
strain compatibility: c V f 1 f 1 V f 2 f 2 Vm m
Lc Lc L f 1 Lc L f 2 Lc Lm
Hookes laws: f 1 E f 1 f 1 , f 2 E f 2 f 2 , m Em m & c Ec c
effective composite modulus:
c c c 1
Ec
c V f 1 f 1 V f 2 f 2 Vm m f1 f2 m Vf 1 V V
Vf 1 Vf 2 Vm f2 m
Ef1 Ef 2 Em Ef1 E f 2 Em

1 V f 1 V f 2 Vm V f 1E f 2 Em V f 2 Em E f 1 Vm E f 1E f 2 E f 1 E f 2 Em
or Ec
Ec E f 1 E f 2 Em E f 1 E f 2 Em Vm E f 1E f 2 V f 1Em E f 2 V f 2 Em E f 1

Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites

Cite the advantages and disadvantages of pultrusion, filament winding, and prepreg production fabrication
processes, respectively.
Ans:
For pultrusion, the advantages are: the process may be automated, production rates are relatively high, a
wide variety of shapes having constant cross-sections are possible, and very long pieces may be produced.
The chief disadvantage is that shapes are limited to those having a constant cross-section.
For filament winding, the advantages are: the process may be automated, a variety of winding patterns are
possible, and a high degree of control over winding uniformity and orientation is afforded. The main
disadvantage is that the variety of shapes is somewhat limited.
For prepreg production, the advantages are as follows: resin does not need to be added to the prepreg, the
lay-up arrangement relative to the orientation of individual plies is variable, and the lay-up process may be
automated. The major disadvantages of this technique are that final curing is necessary after fabrication, and
thermoset prepregs must be stored at subambient temperatures to prevent complete curing.

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The figure below shows schematically the pultrusion processing of fiber-reinforced composites. Cite the
advantages and disadvantages of the fabrication technique.

Ans:
The pultrusion process is similar to the extrusion process in metal forming. Its main advantages are:
1) the process may be automated;
2) production rates are relatively high;
3) a wide variety of shapes having constant cross-sections are possible; and
4) very long pieces may be produced. The chief disadvantage is that shapes are limited to those having a
constant cross-section.
Laminar Composites & Sandwich Panels
Describe laminar composites. What is the prime reason for fabricating these materials?
Ans:
Laminar composites are a series of sheets or panels, each of which has a preferred high-strength direction.
These sheets are stacked and then cemented together such that the orientation of the high-strength direction
varies from layer to layer.
The main reason for fabricating laminar composites is to have a relatively high strength in virtually all
directions within the plane of the laminate.
(a) Describe sandwich panels.
(b) What is the prime reason for fabricating these structural composites?
(c) What are the functions of the faces and the core?
Ans:
(a) Sandwich panels consist of two outer face sheets of a high-strength material that are separated by a layer
of a less-dense and lower-strength core material.
(b) The prime reason for fabricating these composites is to produce structures having high in-plane
strengths, high shear rigidities, and low densities.
(c) The faces function so as to bear the majority of in-plane tensile and compressive stresses. On the other
hand, the core separates and provides continuous support for the faces, and also resists shear
deformations perpendicular to the faces.

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The figure at right shows the cross-section of a

sandwich panel, which consists of two outer face
sheets separated by a core material.
(a) What are the structural functions of the faces
and the core?
(b) From the point-of-view of Structural Design,
what kind of beam cross-section in ME 33000:
Mechanics of Materials is similar to the
face-core sandwich construction? Justify the
reason.
Ans:
(a) The structural function of the faces is to bear the majority of in-plane tensile/compressive stresses. On
the other hand, the core separates and provides continuous support for the faces, and also resists
transverse shear deformation perpendicular to the faces.
(b) Structure-wise, the face-core sandwich construction is similar to the cross-section of an I-beam, whose
cross-section is composed of two flanges (similar to the faces) for in-plane load-bearing and a web
(similar to the core) for resisting transverse shear.
Large-Particle Composites: Cement & Concrete
(a) What is the distinction between cement and concrete?
(b) Cite three important limitations that restrict the use of concrete as a structural material.
(c) Explain three techniques that are used to strengthen concrete by reinforcement.
Ans:
(a) Concrete consists of an aggregate of particles that are bonded together by a cement matrix phase.
(b) Three limitations of concrete are:
1) it is a relatively weak and brittle material;
2) it experiences relatively large thermal expansions (contractions) with changes in temperature; and
3) it may crack when exposed to freeze-thaw cycles.
(c) Three reinforcement strengthening techniques are:
1) reinforcement with steel wires, rods, etc.;
2) reinforcement with fine fibers of a high modulus material; and
3) introduction of residual compressive stresses by pre-stressing or post-tensioning.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING
Which of the following is (are) composite(s)?
(A) Pearlitic steel
(B) Wood
(C) Bone
(D) Concrete
(E) Carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy
(F) All of the above
(G) Both A and D
(H) B, C, and E
Ans: F. Pearlitic steel, wood, bone, concrete, and carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy are all composites.
As particle content is increased, how does the strength a particle-reinforced composite change?
(A) Strength increases
(B) Strength decreases
(C) Strength remains about the same
Ans: A. As the particle content is increased, the strength of a particle-reinforced composite increases.
Which material retains its strength better at elevated temperatures?
(A) A dispersion-strengthened composite
(B) A precipitation-hardened alloy
Ans: A. A dispersion-strengthened composite retains its strength better at elevated temperatures.
How are continuous fibers typically oriented in fibrous composites?
(A) aligned
(B) partially oriented
(C) randomly oriented
(D) all of the above
Ans: A. Continuous fibers are typically aligned in fibrous composites.
For an aligned fibrous composite, when a stress is applied perpendicular to the fibers, what is the
reinforcement efficiency?
(A) 0
(B) 1/5
(C) 3/8
(B) 3/4
(B) 1
Ans: A. For an aligned fibrous composite, when a stress is applied perpendicular to the fibers, the
reinforcement efficiency is 0.
Which of the following describes fibers?
(A) Polycrystalline and amorphous materials with small diameters
(B) Single crystals with extremely large length-to-diameter ratios
(C) Metal wires having relatively large diameters
Ans: A. Fibers are polycrystalline and amorphous materials having small diameters.

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For a composite material, is the matrix phase normally more or less ductile than the dispersed phase?
(A) More ductile
(B) Less ductile
Ans: A. A composite's matrix phase is normally more ductile than the dispersed phase.
Carbon fiber-reinforced composites have which of the following properties?
(A) Relatively high strengths
(B) Relatively high stiffnesses
(C) High service temperatures (> 200C)
(D) All of the above
(E) Both A and C
Ans: D. Carbon fiber-reinforced composites have relatively high strengths, relatively high stiffnesses, and
relatively high service temperatures (> 200C).
Once the fibers fail in a fibrous composite, catastrophic failure of the piece takes place.
(A) False
(B) True
Ans: False. Once the fibers fail in a composite, catastrophic failure of the piece does not take place. Since
the broken fibers are still embedded within the matrix, they are still capable of sustaining a diminished load.
Compared to other ceramic materials, ceramic-matrix composites have better/higher
(A) fracture toughnesses
(B) oxidation resistance
(C) stability at elevated temperatures
(D) All of the above
(E) Both B and C
Ans: A. Ceramic-matrix composites have higher fracture toughnesses than other ceramic materials.
Which of the following materials is (are) typically used as stabilizer(s) in transformation-toughened
ceramic-matrix composites?
(A) CeO
(B) Y2O3
(C) Cr2O3
(D) ZrO2
(E) SiO2
(F) MgO
(G) A, B, C, and E
(H) A, B, D, and F
Ans: H. The following materials are used as stabilizers in transformation-toughened ceramic-matrix
composites: CeO, Y2O3, ZrO2, and MgO.
Laminar composites have high strengths in all directions (in three dimensions).
(A) False
(B) True
Ans: False. Laminar composites have high strengths in all directions only in their two-dimensional planes.

ME 46100: ENGINEERING MATERIALS CLOSED-BOOK PRACTICE