"Malware" is short for malicious software and used as a single term to refer to virus,

spy ware, worm etc. Malware is designed to cause damage to a standalone computer or
a networked pc. So wherever a malware term is used it means a program which is
designed to damage your computer it may be a virus, worm or Trojan.

Worms:-
Worms are malicious programs that make copies of themselves again and again on the
local drive, network shares, etc. The only purpose of the worm is to reproduce itself
again and again. It doesnt harm any data/file on the computer. Unlike a virus, it does
not need to attach itself to an existing program. Worms spread by exploiting
vulnerabilities in operating systems
Trojans: - A Trojan horse is not a virus. It is a destructive program that looks as a
genuine application. Unlike viruses, Trojan horses do not replicate themselves but they
can be just as destructive. Trojans also open a backdoor entry to your computer which
gives malicious users/programs access to your system, allowing confidential and
personal information to be theft.

Spywares: - Spyware is a type of program that is installed with or without your

permission on your personal computers to collect information about users, their
computer or browsing habits tracks each and everything that you do without your
knowledge and send it to remote user. It also can download other malicious programs
from internet and install it on the computer. Spyware works like adware but is usually a
separate program that is installed unknowingly when you install another freeware type
program or application.

Spyware is software that is installed on your computer either directly or inadvertently. It

runs in the background of your computer and secretly monitors different programs. It
can be used to monitor your keystrokes, for example, and steal your login information to
different sites. It can also monitor your Internet activity--which pages you visit, what
things you buy, etc. Some parents use spyware to monitor their child's computer usage.
It is more deviously and illegally used by con artists looking to steal identities.

A Trojan horse program is similar to spyware except that it is packaged as another

program

Spam: - Spamming is a method of flooding the Internet with copies of the same
message. Most spams are commercial advertisements which are sent as an unwanted
email to users. Spams are also known as Electronic junk mails or junk newsgroup
postings. These spam mails are very annoying as it keeps coming every day and keeps
your mailbox full.
Tracking cookies: - A cookie is a plain text file that is stored on your computer in a
cookies folder and it stores data about your browsing session. Cookies are used by
many websites to track visitor information A tracking cookie is a cookie which keeps
tracks of all your browsing information and this is used by hackers and companies to
know all your personal details like bank account details, your credit card information etc.
which is dangerous .

A cookie, also known as an HTTP cookie, web cookie, or browser cookie, is a small piece of data
sent from a website and stored in a user's web browser while the user is browsing that website.
Every time the user loads the website, the browser sends the cookie back to the server to notify the
website of the user's previous activity.[1] Cookies were designed to be a reliable mechanism for
websites to remember stateful information (such as items in a shopping cart) or to record the user's
browsing activity (including clicking particular buttons, logging in, or recording which pages were
visited by the user as far back as months or years ago).

Although cookies cannot carry viruses, and cannot install malware on the host computer,[2] tracking
cookies and especially third-party tracking cookies are commonly used as ways to compile long-
term records of individuals' browsing historiesa potential privacy concern that prompted
European[3] and U.S. law makers to take action in 2011.[4][5] Cookies can also store passwords and
form content a user has previously entered, such as a credit card number or an address. When a
user accesses a website with a cookie function for the first time, a cookie is sent from server to the
browser and stored with the browser in the local computer. Later when that user goes back to the
same website, the website will recognize the user because of the stored cookie with the user's
information.[6]

Other kinds of cookies perform essential functions in the modern web. Perhaps most
importantly, authentication cookies are the most common method used by web servers to know
whether the user is logged in or not, and which account they are logged in with. Without such a
mechanism, the site would not know whether to send a page containing sensitive information, or
require the user to authenticate themselves by logging in. The security of an authentication cookie
generally depends on the security of the issuing website and the user's web browser, and on
whether the cookie data is encrypted. Security vulnerabilities may allow a cookie's data to be read by
a hacker, used to gain access to user data, or used to gain access (with the user's credentials) to the
website to which the cookie belongs (see cross-site scriptingand cross-site request forgery for
examples)

Definition - What does Database Management System (DBMS) mean?

A database management system (DBMS) is a software package designed to define,
manipulate, retrieve and manage data in a database. A DBMS generally manipulates
the data itself, the data format, field names, record structure and file structure. It also
defines rules to validate and manipulate this data. A DBMS relieves users of framing
programs for data maintenance. Fourth-generation query languages, such as SQL, are
used along with the DBMS package to interact with a database

A database is a collection of related files that are usually integrated, linked or cross-
referenced to one another. The advantage of a database is that data and records
contained in different files can be easily organized and retrieved using specialized
database management software called a database management system (DBMS) or
database manager.

After reading this lesson, you should be able to:

Define the term database management system (DBMS).

Describe the basic purpose and functions of a DBMS.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of DBMSs.

DBMS Fundamentals

A database management system is a set of software programs that allows users to

create, edit and update data in database files, and store and retrieve data from those
database files. Data in a database can be added, deleted, changed, sorted or
searched all using a DBMS. If you were an employee in a large organization, the
information about you would likely be stored in different files that are linked
together. One file about you would pertain to your skills and abilities, another file to
your income tax status, another to your home and office address and telephone
number, and another to your annual performance ratings. By cross-referencing these
files, someone could change a person's address in one file and it would automatically
be reflected in all the other files. DBMSs are commonly used to manage:

Membership and subscription mailing lists

Accounting and bookkeeping information
The data obtained from scientific research
Customer information
Inventory information
Personal records
Library information

Phishing is the act of attempting to acquire information such as usernames and credit
card details (and sometimes, indirectly, money) by masquerading as a trustworthy entity
in an Communications purporting to be from popular social web sites, auction sites,
banks, online payment processors or IT administrators are commonly used to lure the
unsuspecting public. Phishing emails
spoofing attack is a situation in which one person or program successfully
masquerades as another by falsifying data and thereby gaining an illegitimate
advantage.

Shoulder surfing is using direct observation techniques, such as looking over

someone's shoulder, to get information. Shoulder surfing is an effective way to get
information in crowded places because it's relatively easy to stand next to someone and
watch as they fill out a form, enter a PIN number at an ATM machine, or use a calling
card at a public pay phone. Shoulder surfing can also be done long distance with the aid
of binoculars or other vision-enhancing devices. To prevent shoulder surfing, experts
recommend that you shield paperwork or your keypad from view by using your body or
cupping your hand.

SERVER

1) In information technology, a server is a computer that provides services to other computer

programs (and their users) in the same or other computers.

2) The computer that a server program runs in is also frequently referred to as a server (though
it may be used for other purposes as well).

3) In the programming model, a server is a program that awaits and fulfills requests
from programs in the same or other computers. A given application in a computer may function
as a with requests for services from other programs and also as a server of requests from other
programs.

Specific to the Web, a server is the computer program (housed in a computer) that serves
requested pages or files. A Web client is the requesting program associated with the user. The
Web in your computer is a client that requests HTML files from Web servers.

What are primary and secondary storage devices?

Answer: A computer stores data using several different methods. Therefore, there
are different levels of data storage, which may may be referred to as primary
and secondary storage. A computer's internal hard drive is often considered a
primary storage device, while external hard drives and other external media are
considered secondary storage devices.
However, primary and secondary storage may also refer specifically to
the components inside the computer. In this case, primary storage typically refers
to random access memory (RAM), while secondary storage refers to the computer's
internal hard drive.
RAM, commonly called "memory," is considered primary storage, since it stores
data that is directly accessible by the computer's CPU. RAM is a high-speed storage
medium that can be accessed with minimal delay. Because the RAM is connected
directly to the CPU via the memory bus, the CPU can access data stored in RAM
very quickly. For this reason, RAM is used to store data loaded by
activeprograms and the operating system.
Hard drives are considered secondary storage since they are not connected directly
to the CPU. Instead, hard drives send and receive data through an I/O bus, which
may pass through a cache or other type of memory before getting to the CPU. Also,
hard drives are not as fast a RAM, which means they cannot transfer data as
quickly. However, unlike RAM, hard drives retain data when the computer is turned
off. This is because hard drives store data magnetically, while RAM requires an
electrical current.
While the computer's primary internal hard drive is the most common
secondary storage device, other devices may be considered secondary storage
devices as well. These include additional internal hard drives, external hard drives,
and optical drives, which are used for CDs, DVDs, and other optical media.
Go with hard drive as secondary

For example, when you open a program data is moved from the secondary
storage into the primary storage. EX RAM AND CACHE

CACHE

Cache memory is random access memory (RAM) that a computer

microprocessor can access more quickly than it can access regular RAM. As
the microprocessor processes data, it looks first in the cache memory and if
it finds the data there (from a previous reading of data), it does not have to
do the more time-consuming reading of data from larger memory.

Cache memory is sometimes described in levels of closeness and

accessibility to the microprocessor. An L1 cache is on the same chip as the
microprocessor. (For example, the PowerPC 601 processor has a 32 kilobyte
level-1 cache built into its chip.) L2 is usually a separate static RAM (SRAM)
chip. The main RAM is usually a dynamic RAM (DRAM) chip.
is a component that transparently stores data so that future requests for
that data can be served faster. The data that is stored within a cache might
be values that have been computed earlier or duplicates of original values
that are stored elsewhere.

SRAM vs DRAM

There are two types of Random Access Memory or RAM, each has its own
advantages and disadvantages compared to the other. SRAM (Static RAM)
and DRAM (Dynamic RAM) holds data but in a different ways. DRAM requires
the data to be refreshed periodically in order to retain the data. SRAM does
not need to be refreshed as the transistors inside would continue to hold the
data as long as the power supply is not cut off. This behavior leads to a few
advantages, not the least of which is the much faster speed that data can be
written and read.

The additional circuitry and timing needed to introduce the refresh creates
some complications that makes DRAM memory slower and less desirable
than SRAM. One complication is the much higher power used by DRAM
memory, this difference is very significant in battery powered devices. SRAM
modules are also much simpler compared to DRAM, which makes it easier
for most people to create an interface to access the memory. This makes it
easier to work with for hobbyists and even for prototyping.

Structurally, SRAM needs a lot more transistors in order to store a certain

amount of memory. A DRAM module only needs a transistor and a capacitor
for every bit of data where SRAM needs 6 transistors. Because the number
of transistors in a memory module determine its capacity, a DRAM module
can have almost 6 times more capacity with a similar transistor count to an
SRAM module. This ultimately boils down to price, which is what most
buyers are really concerned with.
Because of its lower price, DRAM has become the mainstream in computer
main memory despite being slower and more power hungry compared to
SRAM. SRAM memory is still used in a lot of devices where speed is more
crucial than capacity. The most prominent use of SRAM is in the cache
memory of processors where speed is very essential, and the low power
consumption translates to less heat that needs to be dissipated. Even hard
drives, optical drives, and other devices that needs cache memory or buffers
use SRAM modules.

Summary:

1. SRAM is static while DRAM is dynamic

2. SRAM is faster compared to DRAM

3. SRAM consumes less power than DRAM

4. SRAM uses more transistors per bit of memory compared to DRAM

5. SRAM is more expensive than DRAM

Telnet
The Telnet program runs on your computer and connects your PC to a on the network.
You can then enter commands through the Telnet program and they will be executed as
if you were entering them directly on the server console. This enables you to control the
server and communicate with other servers on the network. To start a Telnet session,
you must log in to a server by entering a valid username and password. Telnet is a
common way to remotely control Web servers.

Telnet is a user command and an underlying TCP/IP protocol for accessing remote computers.
Through Telnet, an administrator or another user can access someone else's computer
remotely. On the Web, HTTP and FTP protocols allow you to request specific files from remote
computers, but not to actually be logged on as a user of that computer. With Telnet, you log on
as a regular user with whatever privileges you may have been granted to the specific
application and data on that computer.

MIDI

MIDI (/mdi/; short for Musical Instrument Digital Interface ) is a technical standard that
describes a protocol, digital interface and connectors and allows a wide variety of electronic
musical instruments, computers and other related devices to connect and communicate with
one another.[1] A single MIDI link can carry up to sixteen channels of information, each of
which can be routed to a separate device.

Computers that have a MIDI interface can record sounds created by a synthesizer and then
manipulate the data to produce new sounds. For example, you can change the key of a
composition with a single keystroke.

A number of software programs are available for composing and editing music that conforms to
the MIDI standard. They offer a variety of functions: for instance, when you play a tune on a
keyboard connected to a computer, a music program can translate what you play into a written
score.

Definition The root folder of any partition is the "highest" folder in the hierarchy. The root
folder contains all other folders and can also contain files.

For example, the root folder of the main partition on your computer is probably C:\. The root
folder of your DVD or CD drive might be D:\.

The term root may also be relative to whatever location you're talking about. For example, the
files contained in the folder (but not subdirectories of) C:\Users may be referred to as the files
in the root of C:\Users.

Hot swapping and hot plugging are terms used to describe the functions of replacing
computer system components without shutting down the system . More specifically, hot
swapping describes replacing components without significant interruption to the system,
while hot plugging describes the addition of components that would expand the system
without significant interruption to the operation of the system. Once the appropriate is
installed on the computer, a user can plug and unplug the component without A well-
known example of this functionality is the (USB)(is installed) that allows users to add or
remove peripheral components such as a mouse, keyboard, or printer.

PLUG AND PLAY(Not hot plugging)

Plug and Play, sometimes, abbreviated PnP, is a catchy phrase used to describe devices that
work with a computer system as soon as they are connected. The user does not have to
manually install drivers for the device or even tell the computer that a new device has been
added. Instead the computer automatically recognizes the device, loads new drivers for the
hardware if needed, and begins to work with the newly connected device.

For example, if you connect a Plug-and-Play mouse to the USB port on your computer, it will
begin to work within a few seconds of being plugged in. A non plug-and-play device would
require you to go through several steps of installing drivers and setting up the device before it
would work.
While Plug and Play usually refers to computer peripheral devices, such as keyboards and mice,
it can also be used to describe internal hardware. For example, a video card or hard drive may
be a Plug and Play device, meaning the computer will recognize it as soon as it is installed. The
only difference is that internal components usually require the computer to be turned off when
they are installed, while external devices can typically be installed while the computer is
running.

Linux computer operating system assembled under the model of free and open source
software development and distribution. Open-source software is computer software with
its source code made available and licensed with a license in which the copyright holder
provides the rights to study, change and distribute the software to anyone and for any
purpose.

Expansion card

Alternatively referred to as an add-on card, expansion board, internal card, interface

adapter, or just card. An expansion card is an electronic board or card added into the
expansion slot ( or bus slot)(may be in motherboard)of a desktop computer or other
non-portable computer to give that computer a new ability, such as the ability to connect
to another computer using a network cable.

Types of expansion cards in a computer

Interface card (ATA, Bluetooth, EIDE, Firewire, IDE, Parallel, RAID, SCSI, Serial, and
USB)

Modem

MPEG Decoder

Network Card

Sound Card

Video Card

Video capture card

What is a Motherboard?:

The motherboard serves to connect all of the parts of a computer together. The CPU,
memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card and other ports and
expansion cards all connect to the motherboard directly or via cables.
The motherboard can be thought of as the "back bone" of the computer.

Microsoft Outlook is a personal information manager from Microsoft, available as a

part of the Microsoft Office suite. The current version is Microsoft Office Outlook 2013
for Windows and Microsoft Office Outlook 2011 for Mac.

Although often used mainly as an email application, it also includes a calendar, task
manager, contact manager, note taking, a journal and web browsing.Can be accesed
from another location by uploading them on online site

It can be used as a stand-alone application, or can work with Microsoft Exchange

Server and Microsoft SharePoint Server for multiple users in an organization, such as
shared mailboxes and calendars, Exchange public folders, SharePoint lists and meeting
schedules.

SYN FLOODING

SYN flooding is a method that the user of a hostile client program can use to conduct a denial-
of-service (DoS) attack on a computer server. The hostile client repeatedly sends SYN
(synchronization) packets to every port on the server, using fake IP addresses.

When an attack begins, the server sees the equivalent of multiple attempts to establish
communications. The server responds to each attempt with a SYN/ACK (synchronization
acknowledged) packet from each open port, and with a RST (reset) packet from each closed
port. In a normal three-way handshake, the client would return an ACK (acknowledged) packet
to confirm that the server's SYN/ACK packet was received, and communications would then
commence. However, in a SYN flood, the ACK packet is never sent back by the hostile client.
Instead, the hostile client program sends repeated SYN requests to all the server's ports.

The hostile client makes the SYN requests all appear valid, but because the IP addresses are
fake ones, it is impossible for the server to close down the connection by sending RST packets
back to the hostile client. Instead, the connection stays open. Before time-out can occur,
another SYN packet arrives from the hostile client. A connection of this type is called a half-
open connection. Under these conditions, the server becomes completely or almost completely
busy with the hostile client. Communications with legitimate clients is difficult or impossible.

A hostile client can exploit half-open connections and possibly get access to server files. The
transmission by a hostile client of SYN packets for the purpose of finding open ports and
hacking into one or more of them, is called SYN scanning. A hostile client always knows a port is
open when the server responds with a SYN/ACK packet.

A wireless USB adapter is a network adapter that normally plugs into a computer
system through the USB port. It is a kind of device that is used to put in wireless
connectivity to a computer or PDA. There are three main varieties of wireless adapters:
cellular, Bluetooth and Wi-Fi.

DSL

DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is a technology for bringing high-bandwidth information to homes
and small businesses over ordinary copper telephone lines. xDSL refers to different variations of
DSL, such as ADSL, HDSL, and RADSL. Assuming your home or small business is close enough to
a telephone company's central office that offers DSL service, you may soon be able to receive
data at rates up to 6.1 megabits (millions of bits) per second (of a theoretical 8.448 megabits
per second), enabling continuous transmission of motion video, audio, and even 3-D effects.
More typically, individual connections will provide either 512 kilobits (thousands of bits) per
second or 1 megabits per second. During 1998 and 1999, DSL is being installed in a number of
communities in the U.S. and elsewhere. Compaq, Intel, and Microsoft are among companies
working with manufacturers to accelerate deployment of an easier-to-install form of DSL called
"DSL Lite." Within a few years, DSL is expected to replace ISDN in many areas and to compete
with the cable modem in bringing multimedia and 3-D to homes and small businesses.

Therefore normally uses LAN

In ADSL (asymmetric ) download speed is greater than upload while in SDSL both are equal.

BSNL has a world class, multi-gigabit, multi-protocol, convergent IP infrastructure through

National Internet Backbone, through which it is providing convergent services through the
same backbone and broadband access network. The Broadband service is available on ADSL
technology (on the same copper cable that is used for connecting telephone), on a countrywide
basis.

In terms of infrastructure for broadband services NIB has put India at par with most advanced
nations. The services that are supported includes:

Always-on broadband access to the Internet for residential and business customers

Content based services

Internet Protocol TV (IPTV)

Games on Demand

Music and Video on Demand

MODEM
Short for MODulator/DEModulator, the first Modem was first released by AT&T in 1960 when it
introduced its dataphone. The Modem is a hardware device that enables a computer to send
and receive information over telephone lines by converting the digital data used by your
computer into an analog signal used on phone lines and then converting it back once received
on the other end

Logic error

In computer programming, a logic error is a bug in a program that causes it to operate

incorrectly, but not to terminate abnormally (or crash). A logic error produces unintended or
undesired output or other behavior, although it may not immediately be recognized as such.

Logic errors occur in both compiled and interpreted languages. Unlike a program with a syntax
error, a program with a logic error is a valid program in the language, though it does not behave
as intended. The only clue to the existence of logic errors is the production of wrong solutions.

Protocol Identifier is defined as the identifier that points to a specific protocol which will
be utilized to search the resource. For example, consider the URL, or Uniform Resource
Locator for eHow, "http://www.ehow.com". In this URL, "http" is referred to as the
protocol identifier.

Most websites come in a certain format, mostly it is

www.anything.com. The word at the end identifies the site as
commercial, the word in the middle is the domain name, and the
WWW in the beginning indicates that it is a website and it uses the
HTTP protocol. It is therefore redundant to have
http://www.anything.com since the WWW tells the browser to use
HTTP when it is already in use

Language

High level languages allow much more abstraction than low level languages. This allows
algorithms and functions to be written without requiring detailed knowledge of the hardware
used in the computing platform. The compiler provides this interface transparently for the
programmer.

Low level languages will require more involvement with the actual register and interrupt
interfaces to the hardware. This can provide more control and efficiency for the program and
can be good for applications which need high speed execution, but high level compilers are
much better at optimizing for speed now.
Examples of high level languages include C, C++, Java, etc.

Examples of low level languages include machine language specific to each processor and
assembly language specific to each processor.

The more distance a language puts between you and the hardware, the higher it is.

A compiler is a special program that processes statements written in a particular programming

language and turns them into machine language or "code" that a computer's processor uses.

Assembly languages have the same structure and set of commands as machine languages, but
they enable a programmer to use names instead of numbers.

Each type of CPU has its own machine language and assembly language, so an assembly
language program written for one type of CPU won't run on another. In the early days of
programming, all programs were written in assembly language. Now, most programs are
written in a high-level language such as FORTRAN or C. Programmers still use assembly
language when speed is essential or when they need to perform an operation that isn't possible
in a high-level language.

Peripheral device is an internal or external device that connects directly to a computer

but does not contribute to the computer's primary function, such as computing. It helps
end users access and use the functionalities of a computer.

keyboard

mouse

touchscreen

pen tablet

joystick

MIDI keyboard

scanner

digital camera

video camera

microphone

Some common output devices include:

monitor

projector
TV screen

printer

plotter

speakers

hard disk

There are also devices that function as both input and output devices, such as:

external hard drives

media card readers

digital camcorders

digital mixers

MIDI equipment

While these are some of the more common peripherals, there are many other kinds as well.

Not peripheral power supply ram

Firmware

Firmware refers to the applications and operating system that control how a cellphone or
smartphone operates or PC. It is called firmware rather than software to highlight that it is very
closely tied to the particular hardware components of a device. Firmware is generally flashed
into a phone's ROM rather than simply being loaded into normal phone storage, where it could
more easily be erased and lost in the event of a crash. Firmware updates are sometimes provided
by a company as a way to fix bugs or introduce new functionality.
Software (programs or data) that has been written onto read-only memory (ROM). Firmware is
a combination of software and hardware. ROMs, PROMs and EPROMs that have data or
programs recorded on them are firmware

Firmware
Firmware is a combination of software and hardware. Computer chips that have
data or programs recorded on them are firmware. These chips commonly
include the following:

ROMs (read-only memory)

PROMs (programmable read-only memory)
EPROMs (erasable programmable read-only memory)
Firmware in PROM or EPROM is designed to be updated if necessary through a
software update.

Software is code that is loaded into memory from some other storage media in order to
work.

firmware is CPU code that resides on a unmodifiable ROM that is necessary for a
hardware device to boot and load an operating system or a binary (software) of choice.

Firmware is code that is read and executed directly from the EPROM chip where it is
stored, and is typically for low level hardware control.

The operating system is software.

The bios (the stuff that you see happening before you see any windows logos, etc) is a
type of firmware. Most hardware has a firmware chip that controls it. It contains very
basic microcode, and can be updated if needed for new conditions (new operating
systems, error fixes, etc.)

OS is generally stored in hard drive and firmware loads up the operating system when it
is device is switched on.

Analytical Engine contained an Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), basic flow control, punch cards,
and integrated memory and is the first general-purpose computer concept.

1940s transistor

A transistor is a semiconductor device which is used to switch and amplify electronic signals. It's
made of a semiconductor material which is a solid. It has got at least three terminals used to
connect to a circuit. This device is ubiquitous in modern electronic system.

1960s IC

Inventors of the Modern Computer

Intel 4004 (1971)- The World's First Single Chip Microprocessor
Mainframe

A Mainframe computer is a big computer. IBM builds Mainframe Computers. Today, a

Mainframe refers to IBM's z Series computers. Big companies; Banks, Insurance
Companies, Travel and Retail Sector, Telecom Companies employ Mainframes for
processing their business data. Today, thousands of people around the globe book
flights, do Electronic Money Transfers, swipe their credit-cards for purchases. These
transactions are processed in a snap by a Mainframe computer.
A mainframe is designed for processing large amounts of information by the use of
batch transaction processing. A mainframe doesn't have to have the operating system
that the server requires.

A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of
users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches, for
example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below
supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because
they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program
faster than a mainframe. The distinction between small mainframes and minicomputers is
vague, depending really on how the manufacturer wants to market its machines.

A microprocessor incorporates the functions of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) on a

single integrated circuit (IC)

PDA

Short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines computing, telephone/fax,
Internet and networking features. A typical PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax sender,
Web browser and personal organizer. Unlike portable computers, most PDAs began as pen-
based, using a stylus rather than79o87 a keyboard for input. This means that they also
incorporated handwriting recognition features. Some PDAs can also react to voice input by
using voice recognition technologies. PDAs of today are available in either a stylus or keyboard
version.

In 1994, IBM introduced the first PDA with full mobile phone functionality, the IBM Simon,
which can also be considered the first smartphone

PDAs are largely considered obsolete with the widespread adoption of smartphones.PDA
traditionally do not have mobile phone services

A smartphone is simply a merger between a mobile phone and a PDA

Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was one of the world's first
operational packet switching networks, the first network to implement TCP/IP, and the
progenitor of what was to become the global Internet

Diff bw internet and web

The terms the Internet and the Web are often used as if they are the
same thing. Theyre not, and understanding the differences can help make
things a lot clearer.
The Internet has been in development since the 1960s, and is a way
to allow different computers around the World to talk to one
another. Whether it is downloading a pdf file from a website, or chatting to
a friend over Skype it is the Internet that connects the computers
together. The Internet is not actually a single physical network its just a
set of rules (Internet Protocols) that allow different networks to
communicate.
When you connect your computer to the Internet, it joins this network and
you can send or receive information from any other computer or server
online.
The Web (or World Wide Web) is the system of web pages and
sites that uses the Internet to pass the files across. It was developed in the
late 1980s by Tim Berners-Lee, and you need a Web Browser to access it.
This could either be in a PC, a mobile phone or one of the new iPods.
The Web is just one of many services that use the Internet other services
include e-mail, internet telephony and peer-to-peer file transfers. In the not-
too-distant future, most people will probably get all their TV programmes
piped down the Internet as well. And, looking deeper into my Crystal Ball I
see people being digitally transferred from location to location.
Since many of the services that use the Internet (such as e-mail) can now
be accessed through websites, the confusion is likely to get worse.

1.The Internet is a Big Collection of Computers and Cables.

The Internet is named for "interconnection of computer networks". It is a

massive hardware combination of millions of personal, business, and
governmental computers, all connected like roads and highways. The
Internet started in the 1960's under the original name "ARPAnet". ARPAnet
was originally an experiment in how the US military could maintain
communications in case of a possible nuclear strike. With time, ARPAnet
became a civilian experiment, connecting university mainframe computers
for academic purposes

2.The Web Is a Big Collection of HTML Pages on the Internet.

The World Wide Web, or "Web" for short, is a massive collection of digital
pages: that large software subset of the Internet dedicated to broadcasting
content in the form of HTML pages. The Web is viewed by using free
software called web browsers.

Intranet is the generic term for a collection of private computer networks within an
organization. An intranet uses network technologies as a tool to facilitate communication
between people or work groups to improve the data sharing capability and overall knowledge
base of an organization's employees.

Intranets utilize standard network hardware and software technologies like Ethernet, Wi-Fi,
TCP/IP, Web browsers and Web servers. An organization's intranet typically includes Internet
access but is firewalled so that its computers cannot be reached directly from the outside.

An extranet can be viewed as part of a company's intranet that is extended to users outside the
company. An extranet requires security and privacy. These can include firewall server
management, the issuance and use of digital certificates or similar means of user
authentication, encryption of messages, and the use of virtual private networks (VPNs) that
tunnel through the public network.

Shareware

Shareware (also termed trialware or demoware) is proprietary software that is provided to

users on a limited basis and only for a certain limited trial basis and pursuant to a license which
restricts any commercial benefit, use or exploitation of the software.

ASCII
American standard code for information interchange

UNICODE

An international encoding standard for use with different languages and scripts, by
which each letter, digit, or symbol is assigned a unique numeric value that applies
across different platforms and programs

Unicode is a character encoding standard that has widespread acceptance. Microsoft software
uses Unicode at its core. Whether you realize it or not, you are using Unicode already! Basically,
computers just deal with numbers. They store letters and other characters by assigning a
number for each one. Before Unicode was invented, there were hundreds of different encoding
systems for assigning these numbers. No single encoding could contain enough characters.1
This has been the problem we, in SIL, have often run into. If you are using a legacy encoding
your font conflicts with the font someone in another area of the world uses. You might have an
in your font while someplace else someone used a at the same codepoint. Your files are
incompatible. Unicode provides a unique number for every character and so you do not have
this problem if you use Unicode. If your document calls for U+0289 it will be clear to any
computer program what the character should be.

CLOCK CYCLE

The speed of a computer processor, or CPU, is determined by the clock cycle, which is the
amount of time between two pulses of an oscillator. Generally speaking, the higher number of
pulses per second, the faster the computer processor will be able to process information. The
clock speed is measured in Hz, typically either megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). For
example, a 4GHz processor performs 4,000,000,000 clock cycles per second.

Computer processors can execute one or more instructions per clock cycle, depending on the
type of processor. Early computer processors and slower processors can only execute on
instruction per clock cycle, but faster, more advanced processors can execute multiple
instructions per clock cycle, processing data more efficiently.

BIOS

BIOS (basic input/output system) is the program a personal computer's microprocessor uses to
get the computer system started after you turn it on. It also manages data flow between the
computer's operating system and attached devices such as the hard disk , video adapter ,
keyboard , mouse , and printer .

The BIOS is typically placed in a ROM chip that comes with the computer (it is often called a
ROM BIOS). This ensures that the BIOS will always be available and will not be damaged by disk
failures. It also makes it possible for a computer to boot itself. Because RAM is faster than ROM,
though, many computer manufacturers design systems so that the BIOS is copied from ROM to
RAM each time the computer is booted. This is known as shadowing.

RAM and ROM are normally mounted in sockets on the motherboard.

OCR

OCR (optical character recognition) is the recognition of printed or written text characters by a
of the character image into character codes, such as ASCII, commonly used computer. This
involves photoscanning of the text character-by-character, analysis of the scanned-in image,
and then translation in data processing. Most OCR systems use a combination of hardware
(specialized circuit boards) and software to recognize characters, although some inexpensive
systems do it entirely through software

A driver is software that allows your computer to communicate with hardware or devices.
Without drivers, the hardware you connect to your computerfor example, a video card or a
webcamwill not work properly.

HOT SWAPPING

A hot swap is the replacement of a hard drive, CD-ROM drive, power supply, or other device
with a similar device while the computer system using it remains in operation. The replacement
can be because of a device failure or, for storage devices, to substitute other data.

Hot swapping works by providing a rack or enclosure for the device that provides an
appearance to the computer's bus or I/O controller that the device is still there while it's being
removed and replaced with another device. A hot swap arrangement is sometimes provided
where multiple devices are shared on a local area network. Hot swap arrangements are sold for
both SCSI and IDE hard drives may be not for ordinary hard drive. Hot swap versions of a
redundant array of independent devices ( RAID ) are also available.

COMPILER

A compiler is a program that translates a source program written in some high-level

programming language (such as Java) into machine code for some computer architecture (such
as the Intel Pentium architecture). The generated machine code can be later executed many
times against different data each time.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a computers hardware
and application programs. If we think of the computer system as a layered model, the system
software is the interface between the hardware and user applications.

The operating system (OS) is the best-known example of system software. The OS manages all
the other programs in a computer. BIOS is also system software

UTILITY SOFTWARE

A Utility software is a computer software designed to help in the management and

tuning of operating systems, computer hardware and application software. It is designed
to perform a single task or a multiple of small tasks. Examples of utility software's
include Disk defragmenters, System Profilers, Network Managers, Application
Launchers and Virus Scanners.
WHEN the computer is first switched on the OS should be running

A device driver is a small piece of software that tells the operating system and other software
how to communicate with a piece of hardware.

For example, all printers come accompanied with drivers to install that tell the operating
system exactly how to print information on the page. Sound card drivers tell your software
exactly how to translate data into audio signals that the card can output to a set of speakers.
The same applies to video cards, keyboards, monitors, etc.

The drivers for each piece of hardware in your Windows computer are centrally managed from
Device Manager, available in all versions of Microsoft Windows.

CUI stands for Character User Interface,it means that u have to type commands to interact with
ur computer. e.g. - In DOS for every thing we type the commands. Also known as command line
interface

GROUPWARE

A class of software that helps groups of colleagues (workgroups) attached to a local-area

network organize their activities. Typically, groupware supports the following operations:

scheduling meetings and allocating resources

e-mail

password protection for documents

telephone utilities

electronic newsletters

file distribution

Groupware is sometimes called workgroup productivity software.

DATABASE

A database is a collection of information that is organized so that it can easily be accessed,

managed, and updated. In one view, databases can be classified according to types of content:
bibliographic, full-text, numeric, and images. And there also exists database table just like excel
but more powerful

A database software is a type of computer program that is designed to handle lots of data, but
to store them in such a way that finding (and thus retrieving) any snippet of data is more
efficient than it would have been if you simply dumped them willy-nilly all over the place. With
such database software, if you (say) keep a list of customers and their shipping addresses,
entering and retrieving information about your one millionth customer will not take much
longer (if at all) than entering and retrieving information about your 1st customer.

SQL

SQL stands for Structured Query Language. SQL language is used to create, transform and
retrieve information from RDBMS (Relational Database Management Systems). SQL is
pronounced SEQUEL. SQL was developed during the early 70s at IBM.

Most Relational Database Management Systems like MS SQL Server, Microsoft Access, Oracle,
MySQL, DB2, Sybase, PostgreSQL and Informix use SQL as a database querying language. Even
though SQL is defined by both ISO and ANSI there are many SQL implementation, which do not
fully comply with those definitions. Some of these SQL implementations are proprietary.
Examples of these SQL dialects are MS SQL Server specific version of the SQL called T-SQL and
Oracle version of SQL called PL/SQL.

SQL is a declarative programming language designed for creating and querying relational
database management systems. SQL is relatively simple language, but its also very powerful.

SQL can insert data into database tables. SQL can modify data in existing database tables. SQL
can delete data from SQL database tables. Finally SQL can modify the database structure itself
create/modify/delete tables and other database objects.

SQL uses set of commands to manipulate the data in relational databases. For example SQL
INSERT is used to insert data in database tables. SQL SELECT command is used to retrieve data
from one or more database tables. SQL UPDATE is used to modify existing database records.

XML

What is XML?

XML stands for EXtensible Markup Language

XML is a markup language much like HTML

XML was designed to carry data, not to display data

XML tags are not predefined. You must define your own tags

XML is designed to be self-descriptive

XML is a W3C Recommendation

What is xml and how to open

Wired n/w is faster than wireless

Client/server describes the relationship between two computer programs in which one
program, the client, makes a service request from another program, the server, which fulfills
the request. Although the client/server idea can be used by programs within a single computer,
it is a more important idea in a network. In a network, the client/server model provides a
convenient way to interconnect programs that are distributed efficiently across different
locations. Computer transactions using the client/server model are very common.

Peer to peer is an approach to computer networking where all computers share equivalent
responsibility for processing data. Peer-to-peer networking (also known simply as peer
networking) differs from client-server networking, where certain devices have responsibility for
providing or "serving" data and other devices consume or otherwise act as "clients" of those
servers.

WEB BUG

A web bug is an object that is embedded in a web page or email and is usually invisible to the
user but allows checking that a user has viewed the page or email.[1] Common uses are email
tracking and page tagging for Web analytics. Alternative names are web beacon, tracking bug,
tag, or page tag. Common names for web bugs implemented through an embedded image
include tracking pixel, pixel tag, 11 gif, and clear gif.

A Web bug can gather the following statistics:

The IP address of the computer that fetched the Web bug.

The URL of the page that the Web bug is located on.

The URL of the Web bug.

The time the Web bug was viewed.

The type of browser that fetched the Web bug.

A previously set cookie value

EMAIL discussion group

Many DSL connections are broadband, but not all broadband is DSL. Broadband is a type of
telecommunication that uses multiple data channels to send large volumes of information. The
term broadband is an abbreviation of "broad bandwidth." Broadband Internet services such as
DSL and cable are considered to be high-bandwidth connections. Bandwidth is the amount of
data that can be sent along a given channel per second.

Types

There are three popular types of broadband Internet service: satellite, DSL and cable. Satellite
Internet uses a satellite that's in orbit around the Earth to facilitate the transfer of data. DSL
transfers data along unused bandwidth on ordinary telephone cable. Cable Internet uses a
coaxial television cable to provide Internet service.

Features

The slowest of all broadband services is DSL. It is also the least expensive service. It offers
speeds up to 6 megabits per second (Mbps). Cable is faster, but it's less reliable and more
expensive. Although cable Internet service providers often advertise download speeds up to 30
Mbps, cable users rarely achieve these speeds. Satellite is the most expensive of all commonly
used broadband Internet services. Satellite speeds can range anywhere between 1 and 3 Mbps.
The Federal Communications Commission now defines a broadband connection as having
speeds of 768 Kbps. Therefore, not all DSL connections are considered broadband.

Optical fiber is not cable

Cable:

Though often confused with fiber, cable utilizes the coaxial cable that connects to your
television set. In contrast to DSL, the quality of a cable connection does not depend on distance
so your speed is guaranteed regardless. However, unlike DSL, which runs on a dedicated line,
cable connections are typically shared amongst your neighbors, making it a slightly less secure
option.

Optical fibre is fastest

Benefits

Having a broadband connection can speed your downloads significantly. Getting DSL service is
one of the most economical ways to increase your Internet connection speeds.

BSNL broadband may be ASDL

GUI is not OS it is a software interface. OS is System software (or systems software) is computer
software designed to operate and control the computer hardware and to provide a platform for
running application software

ThinkPad line of laptop computers and tablets was originally designed, developed, and sold by
IBM but is now produced by Lenovo

A program that executes instructions written in a high-level language. There are two ways to
run programs written in a high-level language. The most common is to compile the program;
the other method is to pass the program through an interpreter.
An interpreter translates high-level instructions into an intermediate form, which it then
executes. In contrast, a compiler translates high-level instructions directly into machine
language. Compiled programs generally run faster than interpreted programs. The advantage of
an interpreter, however, is that it does not need to go through the compilation stage during
which machine instructions are generated. This process can be time-consuming if the program
is long. The interpreter, on the other hand, can immediately execute high-level programs. For
this reason, interpreters are sometimes used during the development of a program, when a
programmer wants to add small sections at a time and test them quickly. In addition,
interpreters are often used in education because they allow students to program interactively.

Both interpreters and compilers are available for most high-level languages

Interpreter line by line and compiler whole program

This has implications for error reporting, eg: when an interpreter encounters an error it reports
it to the user immediately and halts further execution of the program. Such instant feedback,
pinpointing the exact location of the error, helps the programmer to find and remove errors.

Compilers, on the other hand, analyse the entire program, taking note of where errors have
occurred, and places these in an error/diagnostic file. If errors have occurred then the program
cannot run. Programmers must then use the error messages to identify and remove the errors
in the source code.

Assembler is used for converting the code of low level language (assembly language) into
machine level language.

CACHE

Cache (pronounced cash) memory is extremely fast memory that is built into a computers
central processing unit (CPU), or located next to it on a separate chip. The CPU uses cache
memory to store instructions that are repeatedly required to run programs, improving overall
system speed. The advantage of cache memory is that the CPU does not have to use the
motherboards system bus for data transfer. Whenever data must be passed through the
system bus.

A cache (pronounced CASH) is a place to store something temporarily. The files you
automatically request by looking at a Web page are stored on your hard disk in a cache
subdirectory under the directory for your browser (for example, Internet Explorer). When you
return to a page you've recently looked at, the browser can get it from the cache rather than
the original server, saving you time and the network the burden of some additional traffic. You
can usually vary the size of your cache, depending on your particular browser. Utilises portion
of ram.
Cache memory is random access memory (RAM) that a computer microprocessor can access
more quickly than it can access regular RAM. As the microprocessor processes data, it looks first
in the cache memory and if it finds the data there (from a previous reading of data), it does not
have to do the more time-consuming reading of data from larger memory.

Some part of hard drive may be cache as of 8 GB

Routers are small physical devices that join multiple networks together.

The router is connected to at least two networks and decides which way to send each
information packet based on its current understanding of the state of the networks it is
connected to. A router is located at any gateway (where one network meets another), including
each point-of-presence on the Internet. A router is often included as part of a network switch.

Like a wireless wifi router(we have and is also a modem)

Network gateway is an internetworking system capable of joining together two networks that
use different base protocols. A network gateway can be implemented completely in software,
completely in hardware, or as a combination of both. Depending on the types of protocols they
support, network gateways can operate at any level of the OSI model.

Because a network gateway, by definition, appears at the edge of a network, related

capabilities like firewalls tend to be integrated with it. On home networks, a broadband router
typically serves as the network gateway although ordinary computers can also be configured to
perform equivalent functions.

Network site license

A type of software licensing agreement that grants the purchaser permission to use the
software on a network on a single site, with an unlimited number of end users. Usually this type
of license allows you to copy and use the software on multiple computers at one site and is
more expensive than purchasing a single copy but less expensive than purchasing a copy for
each computer at the site. There may be a maximum specified number of simultaneous end
users.

Defragmentation

Most hard drives have spinning platters, with data stored in different places around that
platter. When your computer writes data to your drive, it does so in "blocks" that are ordered
sequentially from one side of the drive's platter to the other. Fragmentation happens when
those files get split between blocks that are far away from each other. The hard drive then
takes longer to read that file because the read head has to "visit" multiple spots on the platter.
Defragmentation puts those blocks back in sequential order, so your drive head doesn't have to
run around the entire platter to read a single file.

Disk defragmentation describes the process of consolidating fragmented files on your

computer's hard disk.
Fragmentation happens to a hard disk over time as you save, change, or delete files. The
changes that you save to a file are often stored at a location on the hard disk that's different
from the original file. Additional changes are saved to even more locations. Over time, both the
file and the hard disk itself become fragmented, and your computer slows down as it has to
look in many different places to open a file.

Disk Defragmenter is a tool that rearranges the data on your hard disk and reunites fragmented
files so your computer can run more efficiently. In this version of Windows, Disk Defragmenter
runs on a schedule so you don't have to remember to run it, although you can still run it
manually or change the schedule it uses.

Computer terminal is an electronic or electromechanical hardware device that is used for

entering data into, and displaying data from, a computer or a computing system. Early
terminals were inexpensive devices but very slow compared to punched cards or paper tape for
input, but as the technology improved and video displays were introduced, terminals pushed
these older forms of interaction from the industry. A related development was timesharing
systems, which evolved in parallel and made up for any inefficiencies of the user's typing ability
with the ability to support multiple users on the same machine, each at their own terminal.

The function of a terminal is confined to display and input of data; a device with significant local
programmable data processing capability may be called a "smart terminal" or fat client. A
terminal that depends on the host computer` for its processing power is called a dumb terminal
or thin client. A personal computer can run terminal emulator software that replicates the
function of a terminal, sometimes allowing concurrent use of local programs and access to a
distant terminal host system.

While many people think of the modern day desktop or laptop computer that is positioned at a
workstation as being a terminal, these devices are only the latest in terminal types that have
been used over the years. With the advent of the computers of the 1940s and 1950s, the
concept of a work station that made it possible to feed information into the database, as well
as retrieve information based on queries, the original concept of the computer terminal came
into being.

IP

Short for Internet Protocol address, an IP address is an address of a computer or other network
device on a network using TCP/IP. For example, the number "166.70.10.23" is an example of
such an address. These addresses are similar to an addresses used on a house and is what
allows data to reach the appropriate destination on a network and the Internet.

The Internet Protocol (IP) is the method or protocol by which data is sent from one computer to
another on the Internet. Each computer (known as a host) on the Internet has at least one IP
address that uniquely identifies it from all other computers on the Internet.

HTTP
Short for HyperText Transfer Protocol, the underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web.
HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions Web servers and
browsers should take in response to various commands. For example, when you enter a URL in
your browser, this actually sends an HTTP command to the Web server directing it to fetch and
transmit the requested Web page.

The other main standard that controls how the World Wide Web works is HTML, which covers
how Web pages are formatted and displayed

LISTSERV

Listserv, like Majordomo , is a small program that automatically redistributes e-mail to names
on a mailing list. Users can subscribe to a mailing list by sending an e-mail note to a mailing list
they learn about; listserv will automatically add the name and distribute future e-mail postings
to every subscriber. (Requests to subscribe and unsubscribe are sent to a special address so
that all subscribers do not see these requests.) These programs are also known as list server s.

Internet Relay Chat, commonly abbreviated IRC, is a chat protocol, a way how to enable several
people to talk to each other by entering text messages, each participant seeing everything that
the other participants write, as if they were in a telephone conference.

ICB (Internet Citizen's Band) is an Internet teleconferencing program that uses a client-
server model to allow users across the Internet to communicate with each other.

Sysop (system operator) is the person who runs a computer server . In general, a sysop or
system operator is one who runs the day-to-day operation of a server and the term suggests a
person who is available when the system is. A related term is administrator . In larger computer
systems, the administrator manages security and user access while a system operator monitors
and performs routine operations at the computer. In smaller computer systems (for example,
UNIX systems), the administrator and the system operator tend to be the same person.

Or monitors the site postings and enforces the rules

Modifier keys

Key on the keyboard that is only used in conjunction with another key. For example, on an IBM
compatible computer, the Alt, Ctrl, and Shift keys are modifier keys. On the Apple Macintosh
computer, the Control, Option, and Shift keys are modifier keys. Modifier keys are often used in
conjunction with other keys to perform computer keyboard shortcuts. For example, in many
text editor programs pressing the Ctrl + A will select all text.

KIOSK

In information technology, a kiosk (pronounced KEE-ahsk ) is a small physical structure (often

including a computer and a display screen) that displays information for people walking by.
Kiosks are common near the entrances of shopping malls in North America where they provide
shoppers with directions. Kiosks are also used at trade shows and professional conferences. The
word is of Turkish and earlier Persian origin, where it meant an outdoor pavilion or a portico.
The kiosks best known to travellers are those that display show and movie posters on the
streets of Paris.

CPS

CPS means characters per second. That's the speed at which your printer will print the text. One
character meaning one letter or number.

A Thread is one execution of a program

Intel itenium is primarly designed for servrers

An SSD does much the same job functionally (saving your data while the system is off, booting
your system, etc.) as an HDD, but instead of a magnetic coating on top of platters, the data is
stored on interconnected flash memory chips that retain the data even when there's no power
present. The chips can either be permanently installed on the system's motherboard (like on
some small laptops and netbooks), on a PCI/PCIe card (in some high-end workstations), or in a
box that's sized, shaped, and wired to slot in for a laptop or desktop's hard drive (common on
everything else). Ram? rom ?Hard disk drive are magnetic.

SSD

Short for Solid-State Drive or Solid-State

Disk, SSD is a drive that uses non-volatile memory as a means of
storing and accessing data, much like computer RAM. Unlike other
storage devices such as hard drives, an SSD has no moving parts,
which gives it advantages such as accessing stored information faster,
produces no noise, often more reliable, and consume much less power
than the traditional hard drive (HDD) found in computers. The picture
shows a Crucial SSD and is an example of what an SSD looks like.
The first SSD was implemented in IBM supercomputers in the 1970s and
1980s. They have since been drastically improved upon and offer storage
capacities of 128GB and 256GB for home computers. Unfortunately, because
of the much greater cost perGB of storing information these drives have not
yet become suitable solutions for replacing a standard computer's hard
drive. However, are a great solution for netbooks, nettops, and other
applications that don't require several hundred GB of space. These drives are
also popular for computer enthusiasts who use the smaller SSD to run only
Windows and some of their more popular programs and then have all their
data files such as pictures and music files on a second larger traditional hard
disk drive (HDD).
What Flash Memory Is
Turns out flash memory is all of the above. Pen drives, key chain memory, stick memory they're all the same thing.
Flash memory is an amazing tool that goes by many names. But at the center of all the names and confusion is the
simple fact that flash memory is a form of EEPROM.

"Sure, EEPROM," you might say, "What the heck is that?" Or maybe you might not say that, but I did when someone
at the computer center finally told me that's what flash memory is. EEPROM is a type of ROM, or Read Only Memory.
And what's Read Only Memory? We'll get into that on the next page, Pen Drive Basics.

Ram rom not magnetic what are they ?

SSD are faster, increased battery life less noise but are costly

Flash memory stores in block like EEPROM

file allocation table (FAT) is a table that an operating system maintains on a hard disk that
provides a map of the clusters (the basic units of logical storage on a hard disk) that a file has
been stored in. When you write a new file to a hard disk, the file is stored in one or more
clusters that are not necessarily next to each other; they may be rather widely scattered over
the disk. A typical cluster size is 2,048 bytes, 4,096 bytes, or 8,192 bytes. The operating system
creates a FAT entry for the new file that records where each cluster is located and their
sequential order. When you read a file, the operating system reassembles the file from clusters
and places it as an entire file where you want to read it. For example, if this is a long Web page,
it may very well be stored on more than one cluster on your hard disk.

What is file fragmentation?

Sometimes when you install a program or create a data file, the file ends up chopped up into chunks and
stored in multiple locations on the disk. This is called fragmentation.
What makes this happen?

When you first install your operating system and programs on your hard disk, they are written to the disk,
for the most part, in one contiguous block without any gaps. The exceptions are certain system files that
must be stored in specific locations. Over time, as you create and then delete documents or uninstall
programs, once-filled locations are left empty and you end up with files dotted all over the disk.

Your operating system needs to have a way of keeping track of each files location. Windows 98 and
Windows Me use a system called FAT32. The FAT stands for File Allocation Table. When your file is
written to disk, FAT32 provides Windows with the address of an unoccupied disk cluster. FAT32 also tells
Windows on which disk sectors it will find that cluster; that is, it provides the physical location of the
cluster. This information is used by your PCs BIOS (the Basic Input/Output System) to direct the actual
disk writing operation.

If the file is too large to fit in a single cluster, Windows asks FAT32 for another vacant cluster, and
another, and another until the whole file is written to disk. If you have lots of free clusters side by side,
FAT32 can point Windows to an adjacent series of clusters, resulting in a file which occupies one
contiguous chunk of the disk. If no adjacent cluster is available, FAT32 tracks down a space elsewhere
on the disk and tells Windows to put the next bit of the file there; and so on until the full file is written to
disk.

A record of the clusters used for storing the file is kept by FAT32 so Windows can find the file once more
when you want to read it.

ScanDisk is a Windows utility used to check your hard disk for errors and to correct problems
that are found. These errors often occur when Windows locks up and must be restarted.

EIDE (Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics)

Enhanced (sometimes "Expanded") IDE is a standard electronic interface between your

computer and its mass storage drives.

Kernel
 In computing, the kernel is a computer program that manages
input/output requests from software and translates them into data processing instructions for
the central processing unit and other electronic components of a computer. The kernel is a
fundamental part of a modern computer's operating system.

Clipboard

Sometimes improperly referred to as the pasteboard, the clipboard is the location in a

computer operating system such as Microsoft Windows that stores information that has been
cut or copied from a document or other location. The clipboard will hold this information until
it has been overwritten by new information. For example, a user may copy information from a
word processor and paste that information into an e-mail message.

Workbook

A workbook is an Excel file that contains one or more worksheets

Direct x

Microsoft DirectX is a collection of application programming interfaces (APIs) for handling tasks
related to multimedia, especially game programming and video, on Microsoft platforms. ...

SDSL

Short for symmetric digital subscriber line, a technology that allows more data to be sent over
existing copper telephone lines (POTS) . Plain Old Telephone Service. SDSL supports data rates
up to 3 Mbps.

SDSL works by sending digital pulses in the high-frequency area ?of telephone wires and can
not operate simultaneously with voice connections over the same wires.
Unlike ADSL, SDSL can't co-exist with a conventional voice service on the same copper pair
(phone line) as it takes over the entire bandwidth, whereas ADSL dedicates some of the copper
pair's bandwidth to voice. Rquires different modem

SDSL requires a special SDSL modem. SDSL is called symmetric because it supports the same
data rates for upstream and downstream traffic. A similar technology that supports different
data rates for upstream and downstream data is called asymmetric digital subscriber line
(ADSL).
There are specific modems for DSL connections, and specific modems for cable Internet access

If you want to buy or sell online then you must know the difference between b2b and b2c
because, otherwise, you will be scratching your head in frustration and wondering what
platform you should be using for buying or selling products and services online.
B2B:

Now, lets get started with B2B. The term B2B or B to B or Business to Business refers to
transactions between two businesses where both the buyer and seller are business owners.
Hence, in B2B environment, the product is not sold to end users. Buyers purchase products in
large quantities to satisfy the demands of their local consumers.

B2C:

The term B2C or Business to Consumer refers to transactions between a business and end-user.
An example of B2C can be one of your local stores. The store is a business which sells products
to local consumers or end users. Another example can be an e-commerce website selling
products or services to individuals from around the world.

Click and Mortar Company

A type of business model that includes both online and offline operations, which typically
include a website and a physical store. A click-and-mortar company can offer customers the
benefits of fast, online transactions or traditional, face to face service.

Brick and mortar are organizations that operate physically. This is that they have physical stores
in which they sell or provides services. Opposed to click and mortar, it is the variation of
internet sales and physical in store sales. So the organization sells products and services online
and also contains a physical store

Telecommute simply means to work from a remote location, usually a home office, by
electronically linking to a company. For many, the word telecommute implies employment
(though working off-site) because often companies don't allow non-employees access to their
computer systems in order to telecommute

Assembler: Assembler is a computer program which is used to translate program written in

Assembly Language in to machine language.

Compiler: A compiler is a program that translates a programme written in HLL to executable

machine language

Interpreter: The basic purpose of interpreter is same as that of complier. In compiler, the
program is translated completely and directly executable version is generated. Whereas
interpreter translates each instruction, executes it and then the next instruction is translated
and this goes on until end of the program.

IP spoofing, also known as IP address forgery or a host file hijack, is a hijacking technique in
which a cracker masquerades as a trusted host to conceal his identity, spoof a Web site, hijack
browsers, or gain access to a network. Here's how it works: The hijacker obtains the IP address
of a legitimate host and alters packet headers so that the legitimate host appears to be the
source.

When IP spoofing is used to hijack a browser, a visitor who types in the URL (Uniform Resource
Locator) of a legitimate site is taken to a fraudulent Web page created by the hijacker. For
example, if the hijacker spoofed the Library of Congress Web site, then any Internet user who
typed in the URL www.loc.gov would see spoofed content created by the hijacker.

If a user interacts with dynamic content on a spoofed page, the highjacker can gain access to
sensitive information or computer or network resources. He could steal or alter sensitive data,
such as a credit card number or password, or install malware . The hijacker would also be able
to take control of a compromised computer to use it as part of a zombie army in order to send
out spam.

A technique used to gain unauthorized access to computers, whereby the intruder sends
messages to a computer with an IP address indicating that the message is coming from a
trusted host. To engage in IP spoofing, a hacker must first use a variety of techniques to find an
IP address of a trusted host and then modify the packet headers so that it appears that the
packets are coming from that host.

Newer routers and firewall arrangements can offer protection against IP spoofing.

Minicomputers were also known as midrange computers.Minicomputer: "A minicomputer

(colloquially, mini) is a class of multi-user computers that lies in the middle range of the computing
spectrum, in between the largest multi-user systems (mainframe computers) and the smallest single-user
systems (microcomputers or personal computers)." RFID (Radio frequency identification)

checkout lines at the grocery store are one of the biggest complaints about the shopping
experience. Soon, these lines could disappear when the ubiquitous Universal Product Code
(UPC) bar code is replaced by smart labels, also called radio frequency identification (RFID) tags.
RFID tags are intelligent bar codes that can talk to a networked system to track every product
that you put in your shopping cart.

Imagine going to the grocery store, filling up your cart and walking right out the door. No longer
will you have to wait as someone rings up each item in your cart one at a time. Instead, these
RFID tags will communicate with an electronic reader that will detect every item in the cart and
ring each up almost instantly. The reader will be connected to a large network that will send
information on your products to the retailer and product manufacturers. Your bank will then be
notified and the amount of the bill will be deducted from your account. No lines, no waiting.

RFID tags, a technology once limited to tracking cattle, are tracking consumer products
worldwide. Many manufacturers use the tags to track the location of each product they make
from the time it's made until it's pulled off the shelf and tossed in a shopping cart.

Outside the realm of retail merchandise, RFID tags are tracking vehicles, airline passengers,
Alzheimer's patients and pets. Soon, they may even track your preference for chunky or creamy
peanut butter. Some critics say RFID technology is becoming too much a part of our lives -- that
is, if we're even aware of all the parts of our lives that it affects.

In this article, you'll learn about the types of RFID tags and how these tags can be tracked
through the entire supply chain. We'll also look at the noncommercial uses of RFID tags and
how the Departments of State and Homeland Security are using them. Lastly, we'll examine
what some critics consider an Orwellian application of RFID tags in animals, humans and our
society.

Bug is error in a program and debugging is correcting it

Microsoft Access, also known as Microsoft Office Access, is a database management system
from Microsoft that combines the relational Microsoft Jet Database Engine with a graphical
user interface and software-development tools.

Datasource is a name given to the connection set up to a database from a server. The name is
commonly used when creating a query to the database

CMOS alternatively referred to as a Real-Time Clock (RTC), Non-Volatile RAM (NVRAM) or

CMOS RAM, CMOS is short for Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor. CMOS is an on-
board semiconductor chip powered by a CMOS battery inside computers that stores
information such as the system time and date and the system hardware settings for your
computer. The standard lifetime of a CMOS battery is around 10 Years. However, this can vary
depending on the use and environment that the computer resides. When the battery fails the
system settings and the date and time will not be saved when the computer is turned off until
the battery has been replaced.

Ram is faster than hard disk. And learn about magnetic ram

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