Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Wolfgang Kasper
Manfred E. Streit
NI DUNG
Li ngi dch 6
Li ta 7
PHN I: C S CA KINH T HC TH CH
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KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
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KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
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KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Th mc kho cu 503
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KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
LI NGI DCH
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KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
LI TA
Cun sch ny a cc sinh vin, cng nhng ngi c hiu bit c bn v kinh t hc,
n vi chuyn ngnh kinh t hc th ch (institutional economics), vn ang trn
pht trin nhanh chng. Nguyn l ch o ca chuyn ngnh ny l ch: nn kinh t
hin i l mt h thng tin ho phc hp m mc hiu qu ca n trong vic p
ng nhng mc ch vn a dng v khng ngng thay i ca con ngi li ph thuc
vo cc quy tc gip hn ch cch ng x kh d c hi ch ngha ca h (chng ti gi
nhng quy tc ny l th ch). Cc th ch bo v phm vi t do c nhn, gip trnh
hoc gim mu thun, ng thi nng cao s phn cng lao ng (division of labour) v
phn hu tri thc (division of knowledge), qua thc y thnh vng. Qu thc, cc
quy tc iu chnh s tng tc ca con ngi li ng vai tr quyt nh i vi tng
trng kinh t n mc ngay chnh s tn ti v phn vinh ca nhn loi, m dn s chc
chn s cn tng trong tng lai, cng ph thuc vo nhng th ch ng n cng cc
gi tr con ngi c bn vn to nn tng cho chng.1
Kinh t hc th ch khc bit rt ln so vi kinh t hc tn c in hin i (modern
neoclassical economics), vn da trn nhng gi thuyt hp v tnh duy l (rationality) v
tri thc ng thi ngm gi nh v mt khung kh th ch c nh. Kinh t hc th ch
c mi lin h quan trng vi lut hc (jurisprudence), chnh tr hc (politics), x hi hc
(sociology), nhn chng hc (anthropology), lch s (history), khoa hc t chc
(organisation science), qun l (management) v o c hc (moral philosophy). V
kinh t hc th ch sn sng tip nhn nh hng tri thc t mt lot chuyn ngnh khoa
hc x hi nn cun sch ny khng ch c khuyn ngh cho cc nh kinh t hc quan
tm n tng trng, i mi, pht trin, cc h thng kinh t so snh v kinh t hc
chnh tr, m cn cho c cc sinh vin thuc cc chuyn ngnh ny.
Vic nhn ra vai tr quan trng ca cc th ch lan rng nhanh chng sut 20 nm
qua. Din tin ny gn y c mt nh quan st so snh vi cuc cch mng Copernici,
bi n chuyn trng tm ca kinh t hc t nhng qu trnh v kt qu c th sang
nhng quy tc tru tng, ph thng (M. Deaglio, chuyn san Biblioteca della libert, s
134, trang 3). Nhng nh tin phong trong phng php tip cn ny l cc tc gia nh
Friedrich von Hayekii cng nhng ngi theo truyn thng kinh t hc o khc, Ronald
Coaseiii ngi khuyn co cc nh kinh t hc v nhng h qu ca chi ph giao dch,
i
Nicolaus Copernic (1473-1543): Nh thin vn hc ngi Ba Lan, ngi xut l thuyt thin vn hc
cho rng mt tri ng yn gn trung tm v tr cn tri t cng cc hnh tinh khc chuyn ng xung
quanh n. L thuyt ny lt l thuyt thin vn hc ca Claudius Ptolemaeus, vn thnh hnh t th k
th 2, cho rng tri t nm trung tm v tr cn mt tri v cc hnh tinh khc chuyn ng xung quanh
n. (ND)
ii
Friedrich von Hayek (1899-1992): Nh kinh t hc v trit gia chnh tr ngi o, c trao gii Nobel
Kinh t nm 1974. (ND)
iii
Ronald Coase (1910 - ): Nh kinh t hc ngi M gc Anh, c trao gii Nobel Kinh t nm 1991 nh
nhng ng gp mi vo s hiu bit v cch thc vn hnh ca nn kinh t. (ND)
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KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
James Buchanani cng nhng ngi theo trng phi la chn cng khc, cc s gia
kinh t nh Douglass Northii ngi khm ph ra vai tr quan trng ca cc th ch qua
vic phn tch qu trnh pht trin kinh t trong qu kh, v cc nh kinh t hc nh
William Vickeryiii ngi ch ra h qu ca vic mi ngi ch nm c nhng tri thc
hn ch, bt i xng. Thc t l vic cc tc gia ny c trao gii Nobel Kinh t nm
1974 (Hayek), 1986 (Buchanan), 1991 (Coase), 1993 (North) v 1996 (Vickery) cho
thy hot ng nghin cu kinh t hc th ch ang ngy cng tin trin. Vic chuyn
tm im nghin cu sang kinh t hc th ch cng c thc y hn na nh cc l
thuyt v h thng phc hp, chng hn nh l thuyt tnh trng hn mang (chaos
theoryiv) v logic m (fuzzy logicv). Cc l thuyt ny ch ra rng hnh ng thng c
th em n nhng hiu ng ph kh lng, do vy m s can thip chnh sch vo cc
qu trnh li to ra nhng kt cc thp km hn so vi vic da vo nhng quy tc ph
bin v nht qun.
Mc d ngy cng nhiu hc gi vt ln vi nhng h qu t tnh phc hp ca i sng
kinh t, song nhn thc su sc ny vn cha tr thnh quan nim i chng phn ln
cc nc cng nh cha hin din trong nhiu cun gio trnh i hc. Chc chn, h qu
t tnh phc hp hin c bit n rng ri trong nhng lnh khc nh sinh thi hc
chng hn. Ti nhiu nc, ngi dn hin hiu ra rng cc h sinh thi vn c tnh
phc hp v khng ngng tin ho v trn nhiu phng din vt ra ngoi nhn thc
ca con ngi do hnh vi can thip c th dn n nhng hiu ng ph nguy him
v kh lng. Song, trong trng hp s can thip chnh sch vo cc h thng kinh t c
cng phc hp v m, thi cn trng tng t li him khi c khuyn ngh.
Qu thc, nhng hiu ng ph (side-effect) thng b loi tr trong cng tc ging dy
kinh t hc bi ci gi thuyt ceteris paribus (tt c cc mt khc khng thay i).
S thng tin gn y ca kinh t hc th ch cng chu nhiu nh hng t cc bin c.
Trong cc nn kinh t cng nghip pht trin vi nn dn ch bu c, trt t kinh t
truyn thng theo cc th ch t bn ch ngha ang dn dn phn r, thng khng th
nhn bit, di gnh nng ca nhng h lu khn lng pht sinh t s can thip ngy
mt su sc cng qu trnh chnh tr ho ngy cng tng ca i sng kinh t. iu ny
dn n tc tng trng kinh t chm hn v gy ra thi hoi nghi ph bin v
chnh sch cng. Trong mt phn t cui cng ca th k 20, nh kinh t hc th ch
Thrinn Eggertsson (1997) vit, nhng kh khn khn lng trong vic iu hnh cc h
thng kinh t Phng Ty... lm xi mn tinh thn lc quan ca nhng nm u k
nguyn hu chin v nhng g c th t c thng qua chnh sch cng. Song hin
tng ny ng thi cng chm ngi cho nhng n lc tng i nht qun v ci cch
i
James McGill Buchanan (1919 - ): Nh kinh t hc ngi M, c trao gii Nobel Kinh t nm 1986 nh
p dng cc l thuyt kinh t vo vic phn tch qu trnh ra quyt nh chnh tr. (ND)
ii
Douglass North (1920 - ): Nh kinh t hc ngi M, c trao gii Nobel Kinh t nm 1993 nh ni li
vic nghin cu lch s kinh t bng cch p dng l thuyt kinh t v cc phng php nh tnh nhm gii
thch s thay i v kinh t v th ch. (ND)
iii
William Vickery (1914-1996): Nh kinh t hc ngi M, c trao gii Nobel Kinh t nm 1996 nh n
lc thc y vic s dng c hiu qu cc ngun lc trong khu vc cng. (ND)
iv
L thuyt m t s vn ng hay ng tnh ca nhng h thng vn nhy cm vi iu kin ban u ca
chng. (ND)
v
Logic cho php nhng cu tr li khng chnh xc hoc m h cho cc cu hi, hnh thnh nn c s ca
lp trnh my tnh, vn c thit k nhm m phng tr thng minh ca con ngi. (ND)
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KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
kinh t (chng hn, qu trnh t nhn ho v phi iu tit ho). Nhng dn xp php l -
th ch ngy cng n gin ho c coi l ng vai tr then cht i vi thnh tu kinh
t v x hi. Ngy cng c nhiu nh hoch nh chnh sch tha nhn s cn thit phi
thc y cc th ch. Gii quan st cc nc cng nghip mi ni v nhng nc
km pht trin hn cng nhn ra rng cc l thuyt tng trng kinh t truyn thng
loi b nhng kha cnh quan trng, thc s thit yu, ca bi ton pht trin kinh t, c
bit l s pht trin th ch nhm t c t do, thnh vng v an ninh. Vai tr then
cht ca cc th ch chc chn s tr nn hin nhin khi chng ta phn tch ti sao kinh
nghim tng trng, chng hn gia cc nc ng v cc nn kinh t Chu Phi, li
khc nhau n th.
Mt din tin khc ang thu ht s ch nhm vo vai tr ca cc th ch chnh l qu
trnh ton cu ho. Trong nhng thp nin gn y, cnh tranh quc t gia tng, mc
no y cng chnh l cnh tranh gia cc h thng th ch khc nhau. Mt s h
thng quy tc t ra thnh cng trong vic thu ht nhng loi ngun vn v doanh nghip
gip thc y tng trng; v nhng nc tht bi ang bt u m phng cc th ch
ca cc quc gia thnh cng.
Xung lc mnh m nht thc y vic ti tch hp nhim v nghin cu th ch cng s
thay i th ch vo kinh t hc c l l s tht bi v sp ngon mc ca cc nn kinh
t k hoch ho tp trung x hi ch ngha. Cc th ch ca ch x hi ch ngha
thng khng khuyn khch ngi dn khai thc trit tri thc ca mnh. H qu l h
tht bi trong vic duy tr nhp pht trin cng vi cc nn kinh t th trng t bn
ch ngha. Nhng thch thc trong qu trnh chuyn i cc x hi x hi ch ngha
trc y hin ang hng tm tr ca nhiu nh kinh t hc vo tm quan trng ca cc
th ch i vi vic khai thc tri thc cng nh s khuyn khch hot ng kinh doanh v
trao i. Tng t, cc nn kinh t vi bn tay can thip mnh m ca chnh ph cng
cam kt su sc v hot ng ti phn phi v cung cp phc li cng cng, nh Ty
u chng hn, li ang tri qua hin tng chng li v mc i mi, tng trng v
to vic lm. Nhiu nh quan st y gi cng ln ting ng h ci cch th ch.
hiu c lun im ca h, trc ht cn phi a cc th ch vo l thuyt kinh t mt
cch dt khot. Chng hn, n gin l khng th gii thch tho ng ti sao qu trnh
(ti) t nhn ho nhiu hot ng kinh t ca chnh ph, v d nh cung cp phc li, li
em ti li ch ton cc v ti sao vic phi iu tit ho (deregulation) li to ra li th,
nu ngi ta dt khot loi b phn tch th ch ra khi nghin cu.
Chng ti nm trong s nhng nh kinh t hc xem vic tm kim v th nghim tri thc
hu ch l ng lc ch yu ng sau tng trng kinh t hin i. V vy, nhng cng c
x hi h tr chng ta tit gim chi ph tm kim tri thc l mi quan tm ch yu ca
kinh t hc. Khi bt tay vo ging dy kinh t hc t quan im ny, chng ti khng th
tm ra ni mt cun sch nhp mn no tht s ph hp. Chc chn, cc n phm lin
quan th khng thiu g, song phn ln cc cun sch gio khoa vn cn chu tc ng
tiu cc t khim khuyt bm sinh ca gi thuyt tri thc hon ho. Cun sch ny l
mt n lc nhm lp y l hng .
Cun sch bt u vi phn tho lun dn nhp v l do ti sao cc th ch li c nh
hng. Chng ti s ch ra rng s tng trng khc thng ca dn s th gii cng mc
sng trong th k [20] ny, cng nh s khc bit to ln v tc tng trng gia cc
quc gia, li lin quan nhiu n mt s loi hnh th ch, gi tr v trt t x hi nht
9
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
nh. Trong Chng 2, chng ti nh ngha nhng khi nim then cht, chng hn nh
th ch, trt t kinh t, chi ph phi hp, v chnh sch cng. Tip theo, chng ti
s bn v nhng gi thuyt nn tng lin quan n cch ng x ca con ngi v tha
nhn rng nhng ngi ng vai tr i din cho ngi khc c th i khi li hnh x c
hi ch ngha v i ngc li li ch ca thn ch (Chng 3). Mc d cc c nhn c xu
hng theo ui mc ich ring, song h vn chia s nhng gi tr nn tng vi nhng
ngi khc trong cng ng. Chng hn, h khao kht t do, an ninh v s phn vinh vt
cht. Cc gi tr nn tng ny gp phn cng c s c kt x hi. Chng c cp n
trong Chng 4. Sau y chng ti s bn v bn cht v vai tr ca cc th ch cng
hnh thi trt t m mt s dn xp th ch nht nh to thun li cho n (Chng 5 &
Chng 6).
Trong khi mc ch t Chng 2 n Chng 6 ca cun sch l nhm to nn tng l
thuyt cho nhn thc v kinh t hc th ch, cc chng khc li quan tm nhiu hn n
cc kha cnh ng dng ca kinh t hc th ch. Trong Chng 7, chng ti phn tch nn
tng ca h thng t bn ch ngha, c th l t hu v t do hp ng. Chng tip theo
tp trung vo vn cnh tranh, mt qu trnh nng ng m qua ngi mua v ngi
bn vi tinh thn doanh nhn s khm ph, pht trin v th nghim tri thc hu ch.
Chng ti s phn bit gia cnh tranh kinh t ca ngi mua v ngi bn v li ch ca
nhm ngi c li ch i lpi vi cnh tranh chnh tr tranh ginh nh hng chnh
tr. Tip theo, chng ti s xem xt nhng dn xp th ch h tr cc t chc kinh t,
chng hn nh doanh nghip (Chng 9). Chng 10, chng ti xem xt cc chc
nng ca chnh ph v nhng kh khn ny sinh khi cc vn kinh t li c gii
quyt bng hnh ng chnh tr tp th. Chng ti cng s bn v nhng bin php phng
nga cn thc thi nhm ngn chn hin tng cc chnh tr gia v quan chc c hnh vi i
ngc li li ch ca ngi dn.
Nhng g rt ra t u cho n Chng 10 li c s dng bn v hot ng trao i
kinh t quc t, v cch thc c th ngn nga chnh ph khi cn tr nhng thch
thc cnh tranh, v v phng thc tin ho ca cc h thng th ch (Chng 11 v 12).
Trong hai chng cui cng, chng ti p dng phng php tip cn kinh t hc th ch
cp n mt s ch thi s nht trong kinh t hc ng i: ti sao ch ngha
x hi li tht bi; h thng x hi ch ngha c th chuyn i nh th no; cc nh nc
phc li pht trin, vi bn tay can thip mnh m ca chnh ph, c th ci cch nh th
no ng u vi thch thc cnh tranh t cc nc cng nghip mi ni; cc nc
cng nghip mi ni, nh Chu chng hn, lm th no c th t bo v mnh tt
hn khi cc cuc khng hong pht sinh trong qu trnh pht trin; v ti sao s lan rng
khng ngng ca thnh vng trn khp th gii cui cng li ph thuc vo vic thc
y nhng th ch ph hp.
Trong cun sch ny, s khai trin cc ch chnh t nhng tin c s i hi c
gi phi kin nhn. Nhng c gi no thiu kin nhn c th mun i thng t Chng 7
cho n Chng 14, nu h mong mun nhanh chng tm hiu l do ti sao cc quyn ti
sn v th trng t do li c nh hng n thnh vng v i mi, iu g ng vai tr
thit yu i vi s vn hnh ca cc t chc kinh doanh v chnh ph, v kinh t hc th
ch c vn dng nh th no vo cc ch chnh sch bc thit. Chng ti khuyn
i
Tc cnh tranh gia ngi bn v li ch ca ngi mua v ngc li. (ND)
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KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
nhng c gi thiu kin nhn ny hy xem li phn Khi nim Then cht (Key
Concepts) trong nhng chng trc y m chng ti lng vo gia cc phn trnh by
ni dung.
Cun sch ny l d n chung gia hai ngi bn cng khi nghip hc thut nh nhng
thc tp sinh trong mt nhm tho lun vo gia thp nin 1960, l nhng nghin cu
sinh tin s v ph t ca Gio s Herbert Giersch ti i hc Saarbruken, c, ng
thi l nhn vin trong Hi ng C vn Kinh t c (German Council of Economic
Advisers). Sut 25 nm qua, ngh nghip a chng ti ti nhng min t xa xi vi
nhng tri nghim khc nhau: ngi th Chu u, ngi th nm tri cuc sng khu
vc ng - c. D vy, phn ln cc kt lun ca chng ti, phng thc m chng
ti ti nh hnh cc trit l c bn ca mnh v th kinh t hc m chng ti tng tip thu
c, li dch chuyn theo nhng l trnh tng ng. V th cng vic m thoi i
n cun sch ny khng gp qu nhiu kh khn, bt chp thc t l chng ti c l c
nhng kiu sinh vin rt khc nhau trong tr tng tng ca mnh khi thai nghn nn
cun sch vi nhiu chng mc a dng ny. Chng ti rt hi lng tha nhn rng
cng vic vit cun sch thm ch cn l mt cuc vui.
c gi s nhn thy vic tho lun chnh sch cng nhm a ra nhng nhn nh v gi
tr (value judgementi) v iu g ng v iu g khng ng mong mun thng l hu
ch. V th, chng ti cn cng b dt khot l chng ti c nhng u tin nht nh m
vi chng mt s c gi c th khng chia s hoc dt khot khng nht tr. Chng ti
cao t do c nhn (individual freedom) v coi c nhn nh l im tham chiu ti hu
cho mi chnh sch cng. Chng ti khng quy nhng mc ch tch ri khi c nhn
cho mt cng ng tru tng no chng hn nh quc gia, hoc cho nhng hin
tng phi con ngi (non-human) nh T nhin. Chng ti cng thin v vic gia tng
thnh vng thay v bng lng vi thnh qu vt cht khim tn, ng thi quan nim
rng cng bng (justice) v bnh ng (equity) cp n nhng quy tc chnh thc v
phng thc i x bnh ng vi mi ngi trong nhng hon cnh nh nhau ch
khng phi l kt qu bnh ng bt chp n lc hay may mn.
i vi chng ti, dng nh ngi ta khng th khng tha nhn quan im y khi
quan st qu trnh chuyn i kinh t v x hi ng c, ni m nhiu ni dung ca
cun sch ny c hnh dung v khi tho. Nhng hu qu vt cht v lun l t quan
im tp th ch ngha cng nh t nhng dn xp th ch m m tr nn hin nhin vi
bao nhc nhi khi chng ti qua li gia cc quc gia v x hi khc nhau. iu ny
cng th hin r khi so snh cht lng cuc sng ca qung i qun chng cc nc
ang pht trin vi nhng h thng kinh t khc nhau, hay khi quan st bu khng kh
cc quc gia phc li tp th ch ngha v nhng ch ch yu da trn s t lc (self-
reliance), tinh thn trch nhim (responsibility) v nng lc ch ng (initiative). C
nhin, nhng kt lun ny bc l thin hng c nhn cng nhng nhn nh v gi tr
(value judgement) ca chng ti.
B qua mt bn nhng nhn nh v gi tr ca mnh, chng ti cn lu ngay t u
rng cc th ch phn nh nhng gi tr c th v l cng c theo ui chng. Cc gi
tr v th cn c nhn din v khm ph vi t cch mt b phn ca kinh t hc th
i
nh gi v gi tr, tnh thch ng, hay vai tr quan trng ca mt ngi hay s vt no trn c s
nim tin, kin hay thin kin c nhn thay v d kin thc t (nh gi ch quan). (ND)
11
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Mt cun sch thuc th loi ny thng c xy dng da trn cng trnh ca nhiu
hc gi, v khng phi tt c h u c tha nhn qua s trch dn. Qu thc, chng ti
hm n nhiu nh tr thc v i i trc chng ti; l do duy nht cho n lc vit
cun sch ny l ch ngay c mt ngi ln cng c th nhn thy xa hn khi c
ng trn vai nhng ngi khng l. Trong qu trnh vit cun sch, chng ti c bit
chu n mt lp hc gi m chng ti vn cn trch dn cha : nhiu nh phn tch
qu kh v hin ti ca truyn thng kinh t hc c, nhng ngi ch nhiu hn
n cc th ch so vi cc nh kinh t hc chnh thng Anglo-Saxoni. Nhng bc thy v
i ca qu kh c nhin c dch sang ting Anh v c th trch dn. Tuy nhin,
kinh t hc trng phi c li to nn mt nhnh kinh t hc th ch hin i phc tp
v khc bit m nhng tm ti ca n, cho n nay, vn cha c n nhn y trn
v i hc thut ton cu. Chng ti khai thc c c li th so snh ln li th tuyt i
ca mnh qua kh nng c ting c, song li khng cho rng c gi bnh thng ca
mnh s tip cn c cc ngun t liu ting c v quyt nh khng th hin r rng
mi s tr gip v hc thut bng cch trch dn nhiu trc tc ting c.2
Xin dnh li cm n c bit cho Qu Gio dc Kinh t (Foundation for Economic
Education) New York v cho php chng ti in li tc phm kinh in ca Leonard
Read v s phn cng lao ng v phn hu tri thc, Ti, ci Bt ch (I, Pencil - c
in li trong phn Ph lc). Li cm n tng t cng xin dnh cho Paul Johnson
London, Trung tm Nghin cu c lp (Centre for Independent Studies) Sydney, v
i
Ch nhng ngi hay quc gia ni ting Anh nh l ngn ng th nht. (ND)
12
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Vin Fraser (Fraser Institute) Vancouver, h cho php chng ti s dng nhng trch
on v t liu m h gi bn quyn.
Trong mt phn thi gian dnh cho cng vic son tho cun sch ny, Wolfgang Kasper
nhn c s h tr t mt chng trnh nghin cu c bit ca c quan ch qun,
trng i hc New South Wales, gip gii phng ng khi nhim v thuyt ging cng
cc cng vic hnh chnh thng l v chu cp chi ph i li. Hai ln ng nhn c s
n tip y lng hiu khch t Vin Nghin cu cc H thng Kinh t Max Planck (Max
Planck Institute for Research into Economic Systemsi) ti Jena, c, ni m nhiu ni
dung ca cun sch c thai nghn v pht trin. C hai tc gi u mun t lng bit
n ti tt c nhng hc gi ca Vin c s quan tm tch cc i vi d n ny, c
bit l Danial Kiwit, Stefan Voigt, Oliver Volkart, Antje Funck, ne Mangels v Michael
Wohlgemuth. Hai ngi sau cng ho phng dnh thi gian v kin thc khi a ra
nhn xt chi tit v bn tho u tay. Anna Kasper Sydney, Mathias Drehmann
London v John W. Wood i hc Lincohn, New Zealand c nhng li nhn xt v
ph bnh hu ch. Chng ti cng xin gi li cm n ti gio s Fred Foldvary ti Hc
vin Kinh doanh Kennedy (Kennedy School of Business) California v nhng li nhn
xt ph bnh bn tho u tay. mc thit thc hn, cun sch ny nhn c s
h tr thnh thc v y tm huyt ca b Uta Lange Jena v c bit l b Firzia
Pepper Canberra trong vic cho ra i bn tho. Cui cng, chng ti mun ghi nhn
ng gp ca cc bin tp vin ti Nh xut bn Edward Elgar (Edward Elgar Publishing)
v v s cu hi chuyn mn cng s ci thin v vn phong cho cun sch.
Ch chnh xuyn sut cun sch l tnh hu hn ca tri thc con ngi cng nh, c
nhin, tri thc ca bn thn chng ti. Chng ti v th tha nhn trch nhim thng
thng i vi ton b nhng s st, nhm ln v din gii sai vn cn tn ti trong .
Chng ti hy vng c gi s hng th vi cun sch v vn dng cch nhn mi v cuc
sng t gc cc th ch kinh t x hi.
Wolfgang Kasper
Manfred E. Streit
Ghi ch:
1. Trong sut cun sch, chng ti s s dng thut ng kinh t hc th ch. Trong thp nin 1960 v
thp nin 1970 khi ngy cng nhiu tc gi ti khm ph ra tm quan trng ca cc th ch i vi
phn tch kinh t, thut ng kinh t hc th ch mi (new institutional economics) c s dng
nhm phn bit nhng n lc ng i ny vi s xem xt ban u, thng l mang nng tnh m t,
v cc th ch, c trong trng phi lch s (historical school) ca c ln cc nh kinh t hc th
ch M cui th k 19 v u th k 20.
i
Ra i nm 1993, l mt trong hn 80 vin nghin cu ca Hi Max Planck (Max Planck Society - thnh
lp t nm 1911, t chc nghin cu c bn quan trng nht ca c). Max Planck (1858-1947): Nh vt
l ngi c, ngi xng thuyt lng t, c trao gii Nobel Vt l nm 1918. (ND)
13
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Ordo l t Latin dng m t trng thi x hi m nhng ngi La M t do c th cm thy t do
v tho sc pht trin.
14
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cch ng x ca con ngi trong mi quan h th trng, phn nh thin hng mua bn
v trao i, cng nhng bin thi mun hnh mun v ca n... m mi quan h y c th
din ra; y l nhng ch thch ng cho cng vic nghin cu ca nh kinh t hc.
(James Buchanan, What should economists do? [Nh kinh t hc cn phi lm g?] 1964)
15
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
li cho ti, ti chim nghim ... l mt mng li rng ln ca nim tin vo s trung thc
trong kinh doanh. N khin ti khng sao dn lng ni khi hnh dung ra mc nhng g
m chng ta vn coi l ng nhin trong cc giao dch kinh doanh li nh treo l lng
di ci mng nhn mng manh .
(Jane Jacobsi, Systems of Survival [Nhng h thng sinh tn], 1992)
Tng trng kinh t s din ra nu cc quyn ti sn (property rights) khin cho vic tin
hnh hot ng sn xut mang tnh x hi l ng gi... Chnh ph m nhn nhim v
bo v v p t cc quyn ti sn v n c th lm iu vi mt mc chi ph thp hn
so vi cc nhm tnh nguyn t nhn. Tuy nhin, nhu cu ca chnh ph li c th dn
ti vic bo v mt s quyn ti sn nht nh m chng li gy cn tr cho tng trng
thay v thc y n; v th chng ta khng c g m bo rng nhng dn xp th ch
hu ch s xut hin.
(Douglass North & Robert P. Thomas, The Rise of the Western World [S thng tin ca
th gii Phng Ty], 1973)
Xt qua nhiu thp k th nn kinh t lun trong trng thi bin ng. Trong vi trm
nm qua, mi mt th h u tm thy nhng phng thc lm vic hiu qu hn, v li
ch tch lu l v cng to ln. Ngy nay, mt ngi dn bnh thng c hng mt
cuc sng tt hn nhiu so vi nhng g m tng lp qu tc tng hng th vi th k
trc y. Tht tuyt vi khi c c mt mnh t vua ban, nhng cn nhng tin dn
ca nh vua th sao?
(Bill Gates, The Road Ahead [Con ng pha trc ], 1993)
i
Jane Jacobs (1916 - 2006): tc gia, nh hot ng x hi v nh th hc ngi Canada gc M. (ND)
16
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
17
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Armen Albert Alchian (1914 - ): Nh kinh t hc ngi M, gio s kinh t ti i hc California, Los
Angeles. (ND)
ii
Tc l trch t bi vit ca Alchian trong tc phm do Henderson ch bin, xut bn nm 1993. (ND)
iii
Tc l trch trong tc phm ca Olson nm 1996. Cc tc phm m tc gi trch dn y u nm
trong mc Th mc Kho cu cui cui sch. (ND)
18
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
19
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Cn gi l kinh t hc qun l (managerial economics), mt nhnh ca kinh t hc p dng phn tch kinh
t hc vi m (microeconomics) vo cc quyt nh kinh doanh c th. (ND)
ii
Phn tch cc hin tng kinh t t gc x hi hc. (ND)
iii
Mt cch tip cn i vi l thuyt php l (legal theory) vn dng cc phng php ca kinh t hc vo
php lut. N bao hm vic s dng cc khi nim kinh t hc l gii hiu lc ca php lut, nh gi
nhng quy tc php l no l hu hiu v mt kinh t, v tin on nhng quy tc php l no s c
ban b. (ND)
20
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
T th k 1 TCN n th k 15. (ND)
21
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
nn cc nc ang pht trin nhiu khu vc trn th gii. Nhng ngnh ngh
khc nhau tng lan to t nhng trung tm cng nghip lu i v thnh vng
vo cc giai on lch s trc kia, nhng cho n nm 1950 cc phng php
sn xut cng nghip hin i vn cn thuc s hu hu nh c nht ca nn vn
minh Chu u. Ngoi l ng ch nht l Nht Bn cng mt t trung tm cng
nghip khu vc nh Thng Hi chng hn.
Bng 1.1 Tng trng kinh t hin i: thu nhp u ngi c iu chnh
theo t l lm pht hng nm (%)
Cc nc cng nghip ho
Thi k Cc nc km pht trin
lu i (OECD)
Hu nh nh n (ch mt
n u th k 19 Hu nh nh n
s nc ct cnh)
1820-1870 +0,6
Hu nh nh n
1870-1913 +1,4
(mt s nc ct cnh)
1913-1950 +1,3
22
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
S qu dn s
Hin tng gia tng v mc sng li i km vi mc tng trng dn s cha
tng c. Khi nn cng nghip hin i bt u Anh (khong nm 1750), ton b
dn s th gii ri vo khong 790 triu ngi. Trong khi s lng ngi trn tri
t c tnh tng 68% sut th k 19, n s tng khng di 370% cho n thi
im kt thc th k 20 (Rostow, 1978, trang 1-44). V mt lch s, tui th ca
con ngi th ngn ngi. Chng hn, ph n Php vo nhng nm 1740 c tui
th trung bnh l 25 nm. Gi y, con s ln ti 81 nm. iu ny lin
quan nhiu n tng trng kinh t. N chm dt mi e do thng trc v nn
i (ch ring Php th k 18 c ti 16 nn i xy ra trn din rng) v tng
cng cc ngun lc y t ( London th k 18, 10% trn tng s ngi cht l do
bnh u ma, th bnh dch bin mt hon ton sau chin dch tim chng
vc-xin trn din rng). Khong s tr em sinh ra Paris trc cuc cch mng
Php (1789-1799) b m chng b ri. Thc n hng ngy ca ngi dn bnh
thng th n iu v bt cn i. Khi mc sng tng ln, thnh qu thng
c dnh cho vic chm sc sc kho, cu t nn i km v tng cng dinh
dng, nh vy s ngi cht tr t i. T nc ny sang nc khc, t l t vong
gim xung kh nhanh sau khi qu trnh pht trin kinh t bt u, trong khi t
sut sinh li gim vi mt tr v thi gian v vi tc chm hn, dn n s
bng n dn s tm thi. Hin tng ny c gi l s qu dn s
(demographic transtion).
Tng t, ng hnh vi s gia tng mc sng nhanh chng khu vc Chu -
Thi Bnh Dng t nm 1970 l s suy gim nhanh chng ca t sut t vong.
Chng hn, bnh qun trong 1,75 t dn s ca khu vc ny, t sut t vong tr s
sinh gim t mc 77 nm 1970 xung cn 40 nm 1995 (Ngn hng Th
gii, 1997, trang 225). y l hin tng in hnh, tui th con ngi lun tng
ln cng vi mc sng. Tng trng lm gia tng tui th con ngi, mt thc t
c th minh ho y bng d liu t M
i
Cc cuc chin gia Php (di triu i Napoleon Bonaparte) v mt s nc Chu u t 1799-1815.
(ND)
23
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Nm 1901 1995
Nm 1970 1995
i
Khi nim v mt x hi l tng vi mt h thng x hi - chnh tr - php l hon ho. (ND)
24
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Kinh nghim ca mt s nc
Hin tng tng trng trn ton cu m chng ta va phc ho li din ra khng
ng u. Nhn chung, cc quc gia tin phong vo u th k 20 M, Anh,
Australia vn nm trong s nhng nc giu c nht: qu thc, nhng x hi
kh gi nht v nng sut nht vo nm 1820 thnh cng trong vic t c
mc tng cao nht v mc sng sut th k 19. Phn ln nhng nc thuc s
ngho nht cch y 200 nm nay vn cn ang chp chi pha sau.
Tuy nhin quy lut chung ny vn c ngoi l: Nht Bn, mt nc ngho v tch
bit u th k 19 bt kp nhng quc gia giu c nht Chu u v Chu M
trong na cui ca th k 20 (Hnh 1.12). Cc nn kinh t thnh ph ng l
Hng Cng v Singapore (khng minh ho y) cng bt kp Phng Ty.
Qu trnh bm ui tng t vn ang din ra cc nn kinh t th trng khc
ng , chng hn nh Hn Quc (xem hnh). Cng ng ch nh th, cc
quc gia ng dn nht khu vc Chu - Thi Bnh Dng (Trung Quc v
Indonesia) tng trng nhanh chng sau khi tri qua hin tng gn nh nh
n v thu nhp bnh qun u ngi mc rt thp trong sut na u th k 20.
Trong chng mc m s liu thng k c th tin tng c th mc sng cc
nc tng trng nhanh nh Hn Quc, i Loan, Malaysia v k c Thi Lan
cho n gia nhng nm 1990 vt qua mc sng nhiu nc thuc ng
u (theo s liu t nhiu ngun ca Ngn hng Th gii).
Trong mt s trng hp, thu nhp bnh qun u ngi li suy gim sut mt
giai on kh di, chng hn nh n v Trung Quc sut na u th k 20,
v gn y hn l Chu Phi (lu Ghana v Nam Phi trong Hnh 1.1). Tng
t, cc nc cng sn trc y v d nh Lin bang Soviet/Nga v Cng ho
Sc trong Hnh 1.1 r rng l tri qua hin tng gim nhp tng trng v
sau , khi m cc th ch kinh t ca chng tht bi, l s suy thoi ton din.
Chng hn, thu nhp bnh qun u ngi ca Nga theo nh gi ca Ngn hng
Th gii gim 40% trong giai on 1985-1995 (Wolrd Bank, 1997, trang 215).
iu ny gy ra nhng h lu x hi su rng, nh v tui th v sc kho. C
th dn ra y mt v d, t l mc bnh bch hu vo nhng nm 1980 l khng
ng k, song con s ny li tng ln ti 50.000 trng hp vo u thp nin
1990. Tt c nhng hin tng nh th u cho thy rng tng trng kinh t
khng h mang tnh cht t pht v nhng iu kin cho tng trng kinh t cn
phi c quan tm, nu khng mun phi gnh chu nhng hu qu kinh t v
phi kinh t su rng.
25
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Hnh 1.1 Tng trng kinh t th gii, 1820-1995 (theo mc dollar M quc t
nm 1990)
26
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Hin tng suy gim mc sng mnh m, nh nhng g tng din ra Nga, li
gi ln cu hi v nguyn nhn c bn gy ra hin tng bt thng . Ngay c
s phn tch thiu ch cng nu ln bi hc l iu ny lin quan su sc n s
sa st ca cc th ch trong x hi. Kinh nghim v qu trnh chuyn tip ln xn
t mt tp hp th ch tht bi sang mt trt t kinh t - x hi khc chc chn ch
ra rng mc sng cao khng phi l t pht, m chng tu thuc vo cc quy tc
phi hp ca tr chi kinh t, chnh l cc th ch (v cc vn lin quan n
s chuyn tip, xem thm Chng 13).
Hin tng kinh t nh n v tng trng m dng nh, t kinh nghim thc
tin, ng hnh vi cc nn kinh t khp kn, vi s tranh chp trong nc v
quc t, vi nhng bin ng ln trong h thng kinh t, v vi nhng hn ch
ngt ngho i vi sng kin c nhn v quyn t hu (thiu t do); trong khi
tng trng nhanh v bn vng li song hnh vi cc quyn ti sn m bo, cnh
tranh, v tnh m [openness] (Vin Fraser [Fraser Institute], 1997). Gi thuyt ny
chc chn ng c khm ph v l gii c th.
Khi qut hn, vn ny ra y l: iu g l gii cho hin tng tng trng
kinh t?
27
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
28
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Phng hng tm ti ny nhn mnh n nhn thc rng tri thc k thut tt hn
cng vi cc k nng thnh tho hn l iu kin cn thit m bo lng t
bn gia tng s c s dng vi mt hiu sut t bn gia tng. Ngi ta nhanh
chng nhn ra mt thc t hin nhin l nhng tin b trong phn mm ca pht
trin (k nng, tri thc v k thut v t chc) li m bo hiu sut tt hn cho
phn cng ca pht trin (lao ng, t bn).
V cui thp nin 1960, cc nh quan st khc nhn mnh ng gp ca ti
nguyn thin nhin cho tng trng v ch ra kh nng cn kit ca mt s loi ti
nguyn thin nhin [natural resource, NR] (Cu lc b Rome [Club of Romei],
xem tc phm ca Meadows v cng s, 1972). Tuy nhin, nh kinh t hc no
hiu bit v b quyt v cng ngh th li c quan im lc quan rng mc gi
khan him ang gia tng ca mt s loi ti nguyn thin nhin s gip huy ng
tri thc mi nhm tm kim thm nhng ti nguyn nh th hay tit kim ngun
ti nguyn sn c, qua m ra nhng hng tng trng mi (Beckerman,
1974; Arndt, 1978).
D liu v cc yu t phn mm (sofware factors) tht kh tm kim. Song trong
nhiu nghin cu nh lng v tng trng kinh t (da trn gi thuyt v hm
sn xut tn c in v th trng cnh tranh), ngi ta li ch ra rng qu thc
cc yu t ny thng ng vai tr rt quan trng. Thng thng, t nht l mt
na mc tng o c v mc sng c th quy cho cc yu t th ba mt cch
hp l, tc l, nhng u vo khc vi lao ng v t bn (Denison, 1967). C
th, ngi ta pht hin ra rng s khc bit gia cc nn kinh t tng trng nhanh
v chm thng c th l gii bng cc yu t th ba (Chenery v cng s,
1986; Barro v Sala-I-Martin, 1995, trang 414-461).
Tuy nhin, mc d a ra mt nhn thc nh lng hu ch v nhng g tc ng
n tng trng di hn, song nghin cu trn vn khng thc s l gii c ti
sao mt s x hi nht nh li tch lu c nhiu ngun vn vt cht v con
ngi hn so vi s khc. Tt c nhng nghin cu trn y u ch a ra nhng
li gii thch gn ng nht v tng trng. Ngi ta vn cha th gii thch c
nguyn do ti sao ngi ta li tit kim, u t, khai thc ti nguyn thin nhin
v tip thu k nng hoc l khng gii thch c chng (Giersch, 1980;
Harberger, 1984).
Mt s nh kinh t hc khc, nhng ngi phn tch v tng trng kinh t cc
nc cng nghip lu i v mi ni, li tp trung vo mt nhn nh t thp nin
1930, l cu trc ca hot ng kinh t thay i mt cch c h thng cng vi
s gia tng ca thu nhp. C th, cng nghip ch to l ng c ca tng
trng trong mt phm vi thu nhp nht nh, tng trng nhanh hn so vi tng
th nn kinh t (Syrquin, 1988; Rostow, 1978; Fels, 1972). Trn mt mc thu
i
Mt t chc phi chnh ph gm cc chuyn gia hng u trn th gii, quan tm n nhiu ch chnh tr
quc t a dng; n ra i vo thng 4/1968 v t tr s Zurich, Thu S. (ND)
29
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
nhp nht nh, cc ngnh dch v li c xu hng tng nhanh mt cch bt tng
xng. Ngi ta cng nhn thy l cc ngnh cng nghip khc nhau th pht trin
nhng mc thu nhp khc nhau: nhng ngnh cng nghip thm dng lao ng
c tc tng trng vt tri khi mc thu nhp (v tin cng) thp, cn nhng
ngnh cng nghip thm dng t bn v i hi k nng chuyn su li pht trin
hn khi thu nhp tng. C cu tng sn phm quc dn (national product) nu bt
thc t l ng sau hin tng tng trng kinh t v m tc thi l nhng cu
trc kinh t vi m vn ang tin ho mt cch t nhin. Cc nn kinh t vi
linh hot gi c (price flexibility) cao cng kh nng lu ng ca cc yu t sn
xut (factor mobilityi) cao c xu hng tng trng nhanh hn cc nn kinh t
cng nhc (Kasper, 1982, trang 71-96). Do , mc thay i v c cu (STR)
l mt phn ca qu trnh pht trin:
Cc doanh nhn
Trong thp nin 1970, cc l thuyt gia kinh t da vo cc cng trnh trong na
u th k 20 ca cc tc gia nh Joseph Schumpeter (1883-1950) cng trng
phi kinh t hc o (Ludwig von Mises, 1981-1973; Friedrich August Hayek,
1899-1992), nhng ngi nghin cu vai tr ca doanh nhn trong tin b kinh
i
Kh nng chuyn sang hnh thc s dng khc hay a im khc ca lao ng, ngun vn v cc ngun
lc khc. (ND)
30
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
t v tm quan trng ca cnh tranh vi vai tr l phng thc khm ph tri thc
hu ch ca con ngi (Hayek, 1937; 1945; 1978; Kirzner, 1960, 1973, 1997;
Kilby, 1971; Machlup, 1981, 1984; Blandy cng cc tc gia khc, 1985). H lp
lun rng qu trnh tin ho ca tri thc, cng ngh v nn kinh t c thc y
bi nhng ch th dm chp nhn ri ro khm ph tri thc song ch vi iu
kin l h c ng c vt cht tm kim v i mi ng thi h phi i mt
vi thch thc cnh tranh lin tc.
Tri thc ch c th c khai thc v nhn rng nu nhng ngi nm tri thc
chuyn mn c th hp tc c vi nhau. Do , s phn cng lao ng tt hn
m trn thc t l s phn hu v phi hp tri thc (division and coordination of
knowledge) tt hn chnh l ngun gc thc s ca tin b kinh t. y khng
phi l nhn thc mi m g. Trit gia v nh kinh t hc ngi Scotland Adam
Smith tng vit trn 200 nm trc: Chnh s nhn rng mnh m ca hot ng
sn xut tt c cc ngnh ngh khc nhau, vn bt ngun t s phn cng lao
ng, to ra, trong mt x hi vi nn qun tr tt, s sung tc ph bin m
ngay c ngi dn nhng giai tng thp nht cng c th hng (Smith,
[1776], 1970-1971, trang 10).
T gia thp nin 1970, qu trnh tm kim li kin gii cho tng trng kinh t
cng c thc y ng k nh nhng nghin cu di hn v lch s kinh t
(North & Thomas, 1973, 1977; North, 1992; Jones, [1981] 1987, 1988; Rosenberg
& Birdzell, 1986; Hodgson, 1988). Nhng phn tch nh th cho bit ti sao
nhng tin b to ln v tri thc k thut v t chc li din ra trong cuc cch
mng cng nghip. Nhng bc tin ny khng din ra t ngt m ph thuc
ch yu vo s tin ho t t ca cc th ch to thun li cho s tch lu t bn
v hot ng trao i trn th trng (cc quyn t do dn s ca c nhn; cc
quyn ti sn; s bo v hp ng hu hiu bng php lut; chnh ph hu hn
[limited government]). Chng cho thy cc doanh nhn t bn ch ngha khng
th to ra tng trng kinh t bn vng khi h thiu s tin tng, m tng trng
kinh t bn vng li ch yu da vo cc quyn t do kinh t, dn s v chnh tr
cng nh vo nhng khung kh th ch thun li gip cng c s tin tng ln
nhau (Scully, 1991, 1992; Porter & Scully, 1995).
Mt phng hng nghin cu lin quan khc t vn l ti sao nhng tin b
to ln v tri thc k thut cc nn vn ho ngoi Chu u li khng dn ti mt
cuc cch mng cng nghip? C th, mt cu hi hc ba v lch s kinh t l ti
sao nn k ngh tuyt ho ca Trung Quc, c bit di triu i nh Tng (960-
1278), li cha bao gi chuyn ho thnh mt cuc cch mng cng nghip.
Nhng phn tch trn ch ra tnh trng thiu nhng iu kin tin quyt v x hi,
chnh tr v php l tm li l cc th ch ti Trung Quc v cc nn kinh t
ln khc ca Chu . cc nn kinh t ln v khp kn ny, gii cai tr khng
phi cnh tranh nhau thu ht hay gi chn nhng ngi giu tinh thn doanh
nghip v tri thc trn lnh a ca mnh (nh Chu u thi hu Trung c).
Gii cai tr khng phi pht trin nhng th ch m t bn v doanh nghip lu
ng nhn thy l hp dn (Jones, [1981], 1987). Sau khi xem xt nhng cch l
gii khc nhau v tht bi ca Trung Quc trong vic khi pht mt cuc cch
mng cng nghip bn vng, mt nhm s gia kinh t i n kt lun:
31
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
32
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Xem mc 2.2. (ND)
33
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
nh lng kinh t v m
Kinh t vi m v thay i c cu
Theo nhiu cch khc nhau, s ch trng vo cc kha cnh th ch l gii tng
trng kinh t cng ng ngha vi vic ti khm ph nhng g m cc nh t
tng bui u nh hai trit gia x hi ngi Scotland David Hume v Adam
Smith tng ni, l, t nht l c ba th ch to nn tng cho x hi vn minh v
s tin b ca con ngi: s bo m cho cc quyn ti sn, s chuyn nhng ti
sn t do bng tho thun hp ng t nguyn, v vic gi ng cam kt (Hume,
[1786] 1965). Chng ta cng c th kt lun, l thuyt tng trng kinh t ng
i ang quay v mi gn kt truyn thng vi x hi hc v nhn chng hc, v
tr m cc tc gia nh Max Weber tng t n trc khi n b chi phi bi s tru
tng ho (abstraction) v ton hc ho (mathematisation).3
Chng ta kt thc chng dn nhp ny vi vic khng nh rng cc th ch
cng c mng li tng tc phc hp ca con ngi xuyn qua cc quc gia v
chu lc, bi s tng tc ca con ngi lun ph thuc vo nhng mi lin kt
nim tin rt mong manh qu thc, mt th mng nhn mng manh, nh li m
t xc ng ca Jane Jacobs phn u chng.
34
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cu hi n tp
Bn c th ni i khi mt th ch l g c khng? Bn c th a ra mt
t v d c th v th ch hay khng?
Khi bn tng tc vi mt ngi no m anh ta khng chia s t nht mt
s th ch vi bn th liu iu c kh thi cht no i vi bn hay khng?
Hy th hnh dung mt s tng tc no y vi nhng ngi l mt v t hi
l nhng th ch chung no s khin cho s tng tc c th y tr nn kh
thi. Bn s phi ni g vi mt ngi l mt n t sao Ho trc khi anh ta c
th mua c th g t ca hng gn ni ca bn?
Bn c th hnh dung ra mn th thao no m li thiu s rng buc th ch
i vi ngi chi hay khng? Hy hnh dung trng hp mt u s m
bc v mt vn ng vin tennis tng tc vi nhau m khng c nhng hiu
bit chung v quy tc ca tr chi. Bn c th hnh dung ra ni giao thng
thnh ph ca bn s ra sao nu thiu cc quy tc gip kim ch nhng ngi
iu khin phng tin hay khng?
Trong nhng trng hp no, theo lp lun trong chng ny v kin ca
Douglass North, m kinh t hc chnh thng chun tc khng bt kp thc
ti kinh t. Bn c th ngh ra nhng v d khc m mt ngi c th gii
thch cho nhng ngi l mt v nhng g ang din ra m khng cn gii
thch v cc quy tc (nhng rng buc th ch) hay khng?
Chng ta nh ngha tng trng kinh t nh th no?
Chng ta o lng tng trng kinh t bng cch no?
Bn c th t mnh sng c trong bao lu (tc l khng c s phn cng lao
ng v phn hu tri thc vi nhng ngi xung quanh bn) nu bn sng ti
mt a im thun li nht trong mt mi trng t nhin cha khai ph?
S qu dn s l g? Khi nim y c th c gii thch nh th no?
iu c ngha g i vi tng trng dn s trong th k 21?
Nhng nhn t no c cc nh kinh t hc ch ra nh l li gii thch ch
yu cho tng trng kinh t?
i
Phn bit vi khi nim doanh nhn chnh tr (political entrepreneur) Chng 12. (ND)
35
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ghi ch:
1. Mt ngoi l ng ch y l bn m t su sc bng th ca Braudel (1981-1984) v
iu kin sng bnh qun Chu u trc khi bt u cuc cch mng cng nghip.
2. th ny da trn d liu so snh ca nh quan st k cu v lch s kinh t di hn, Angus
Maddison (1995). Cc d liu y da trn cc mc thu nhp quc dn vn iu chnh theo
lm pht v chuyn sang ng dollar M vi sc mua tng ng (tc l, phn nh bao
nhiu hng ho v dch v thc t m ngi dn c th mua c ti t nc ca h). R
rng, s so snh mang tnh quc t v di hn nh th da trn nhiu gi thuyt, v th d liu
c th ch ng vai tr ch dn khi qut. Tuy nhin, y dng nh vn l nhng d liu tt
nht sn c, chng cho thy nhng x hi khc nhau n lc nh th no trong cng cuc
tm kim s ci thin vt cht di hn.
3. Nh kinh t hc x hi hc ngi c Max Weber (1864-1920) tr nn ni ting trong th
gii ni ting Anh ch yu nh lun cho rng tng trng kinh t ph thuc vo qu trnh
tch lu t bn ch ngha (capitalist accumulation), iu ny li ph thuc vo tng lp doanh
nhn t bn ch ngha, nhng ngi n lt li ch c th hot ng nu c mt tp hp gi
tr tn gio, c tnh dn s v th ch ph hp (Weber, [1927] 1995).
36
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
PHN I
C S
CA KINH T HC TH CH
37
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
2.1 Cc nh ngha c s
y l cun sch gio khoa v kinh t hc mn khoa hc nhm mc ch gii
thch cch thc m con ngi tho mn nhu cu a dng ca mnh khi da vo
cc ngun lc khan him cng nh cch thc m con ngi khm ph ra cc nhu
cu v ngun lc mi v v vai tr ca cc th ch trong i sng kinh t. Trc
khi chng ta c th bn v cc ch th cn phi nu r cch thc m chng ta s
nh ngha nhng thut ng quan trng nht. (Nhng ngi khc, v cc nh
38
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cc th ch
Th ch c nh ngha y l quy tc do con ngi lp nn, rng buc cch
ng x kh d tu v c hi ch ngha trong hot ng tng tc ca con ngi.
Cc th ch c chia s trong cng ng v c p t bng mt loi ch ti
(sanction) no . Nhng th ch no thiu ch ti km theo th u v dng. Ch
khi ch ti c p dng th th ch mi khin cho hnh vi ca c nhn tr nn d
tin on hn. Cc quy tc cng vi cc ch ti hng hnh vi con ngi theo
nhng l trnh tng i d tin on, qua to ra mt mc trt t. Nu cc
quy tc a dng lin quan t ra nht qun vi nhau, iu ny s to iu kin cho
s hp tc tin tng gia mi ngi vi nhau, qua h c th khai thc tt s
phn cng lao ng v kh nng sng to ca con ngi. Chng hn, cc quy tc
giao thng mt tp hp th ch p t nhng hn ch i vi tng ngi iu
khin nhng li cho php a s ngi i li nhanh hn v an ton hn; v nhng
th ch gip xc lp cc quyn ti sn m bo s cho php mi ngi mua bn
hay cp tn dng cho ngi khc.1
Gi thuyt chung y l (i) cc th ch to ra nh hng to ln n mc hon
thnh mc tiu kinh t cng cc mc tiu khc ca mi ngi, v (ii) mi ngi
thng la chn nhng th ch no gip nng cao quyn t do la chn v s
phn vinh kinh t ca mnh. Song cc th ch khng phi lc no cng phng s
nhng mc ch ny. Mt s loi quy tc nht nh c th li to ra nhng h lu
tai hi cho s phn vinh vt cht, t do v cc gi tr con ngi khc, v s xung
cp ca h thng quy tc c th dn ti hin tng suy thoi kinh t - x hi. V
vy, cn phi phn tch ni dung v nh hng ca cc th ch n quyn la
chn (choice) v thnh vng (prosperity) nh mt phn ca kinh t hc th ch.
39
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Bao hm ton b tri nghim ca con ngi (trong mt bi cnh kinh t - x hi - vn ho - c nhn).
(ND)
40
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ngun gc ca cc th ch
Cc th ch xut hin nh th no? Mt kh nng y l cc quy tc v ton b
cc h thng quy tc c nh hnh bi kinh nghim lu di ca con ngi. Con
ngi c th khm ph ra nhng dn xp nht nh, cho php h tho mn tt hn
kht vng ca mnh. Chng hn, vic chp nhn tp qun cho hi ngi khc c
th cho thy l hu ch. Nhng quy tc hu ch s tr thnh truyn thng v
c ghi nh, nu chng c chp nhn bi mt s lng ngi ln to ra
s ng quyt nh (critical mass), nh vy chng c tun th trong ton cng
ng. Khi cc quy tc dn dn xut hin v c ton th cng ng bit ti,
chng s c p t v m phng mt cch t pht. Nhng dn xp no khng
tho mn kht vng ca con ngi th s b phn i v bin mt. V th, phn ln
nhng quy tc c nh hng trong i sng hng ngy ca chng ta u pht trin
trong phm vi x hi qua mt qu trnh tin ho: phn hi v iu chnh t t
(gradual feedback & adjustment). V ni dung c th ca phn ln cc th ch s
dn dn tin ho theo mt l trnh n nh. Chng ta gi nhng quy tc nh th l
cc th ch bn trong. Trong qu trnh phn tch s xut hin ca cc th ch bn
trong, kinh t hc th ch thng da vo nhng hiu bit v o c hc, nhn
chng hc, tm l hc v x hi hc.
Cc loi th ch khc xut hin do chng c thit k, c nh r trong cc b
lut v cc quy nh, ng thi c p t chnh thc bi mt c quan quyn lc
bn ngoi x hi, nh chnh ph chng hn. Nhng quy tc nh th c thit k
v p t bi nhng ngi i din, vn c tuyn chn thng qua mt quy trnh
chnh tr v hnh ng t bn ngoi x hi theo ng ngha. Cui cng, chng
c p t bng nhng phng tin cng bch hp php ho, chng hn
thng qua b my t php. Chng ta gi nhng th ch ny l cc th ch bn
ngoi. Ngay khi m gii cai tr, quc hi hay cc c quan cng quyn p t cc
41
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
42
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
43
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
44
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
45
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Tt c cc mt khc khng thay i. (ND)
46
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Qu trnh gii quyt vn bng cch vn dng nhng gii php khc nhau cho n khi tm ra gii php
thnh cng. (ND)
ii
Th hin trong phn Th mc Kho cu. (ND)
iii
Ordo l t Latin dng m t trng thi x hi m nhng ngi La M t do c th cm thy t do
v tho sc pht trin.
iv
Chnh ph c t nm 1919 n 1933. Tn gi Weimar xut pht t vic Quc hi nhm hp y nm
1919 nhm thit lp nn cng ho v khi tho hin php. (ND)
47
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Khu vc hay quc gia m mt h thng php l c th c hiu lc. (ND)
ii
Kinh t hc phc li (welfare economics): Mt nhnh ca kinh t hc quan tm n vic ci thin cht
lng cuc sng thng qua hot ng phn phi ca ci cng bng hn v cung cp y phc li x hi.
(ND)
iii
Trong kinh t hc, rent-seeking din ra khi mt c nhn, t chc hay doanh nghip tm cch kim tin
thng qua hnh vi thao tng mi trng kinh t v/hoc php l thay v hot ng thng mi hay sn xut.
Rent: thu nhp khng phi nh n lc cnh tranh trn th trng m l nh hnh vi thao tng mi trng
kinh t v php l, chng hn thng qua cc quan chc chnh tr. (ND)
48
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Stop-go policy: chnh sch thay i lun phin ch gia vic khuyn khch v khng khuyn khch nhu
cu kinh t nhm kim sot lm pht. (ND)
49
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cu hi n tp
c gi gi y cn thc c th ch l g. Th ch bn trong v th ch
bn ngoi l g v chng xut hin nh th no?
i
Hay German historical school in economics: Mt nhnh ca t tng kinh t hc, pht trin ch yu
c vo cui th k 19, trong tnh hnh kinh t ca mt t nc c coi l kt qu ca ton b kinh
nghim lch s ca n. Phn i cc quy lut kinh t, vn c rt ra theo li lp lun suy din, ca kinh t
hc c in, nhng ngi ch trng phng php tip cn lch s xem xt qu trnh pht trin ca ton b
trt t x hi, trong ng c v cc quyt nh kinh t ch l mt b phn ca n. H coi s can thip
ca chnh ph vo nn kinh t l tch cc v cn thit. (ND)
50
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Bn c th a ra mt s v d v mt th ch bn trong cng ng ca
mnh hay khng? Chng thc hin nhng chc nng g? Bn c th tng
tng iu g s xy ra nu cc th ch b vi phm rng ri v v th b xo b
hay khng?
iu g s xy ra nu nhng th ch v l li tt bin mt trong cng ng ca
bn? iu s tr nn d dng hn hay kh khn hn cho nhng ngi nh
bn hp tc hiu qu v hoch nh cho tng lai? Hy ngh ra nhng v d
thc tin.
Th ch bn ngoi (cc quy tc hin nh, lut php, cc quy nh) xut hin
t nc bn theo nhng quy trnh no? Chng thay i nh th no?
Hy nh ngha mt t chc l g. Cc ngn hng v tri tm thn c phi l
cc th ch theo ngha c s dng y hay khng?
Khi mnh Nu bn bn mt ngi no vo u c hon tt vi
(a) th ngi y cht;
(b) th bn rt h hng;
u l cu c tnh quy chun (normative), u l cu khng nh (positive)?
Hy a ra l do cho cu tr li.
Hy lit k nhng gi thuyt m kinh t hc chnh thng tn c in c xu
hng da vo. Chng c mang tnh thc tin hay khng?
Nhng c im chnh ca kinh t hc trng phi o l g?
Khi bn nghe nhng cu nh Cng ng quc t c ngha v xo b tnh
trng i km th gii th ba, Chnh ph cam oan gim con s tht
nghip xung mt na: ai l ngi c tr nh s ra tay hnh ng? Hy
tm nhng v d tru tng - tp th ch ngha (abstract-collectivist) tng t
trn cc ct bo, cc bi ni chnh tr hay cc bi thuyt gio, v phn tch
trong tng trng hp xem ai nu c l ngi c tr nh hnh ng,
hay nhng cu khng nh nh th l nhng cu ni v ngha, khng c chc
nng g khc ngoi vic khin cho ngi ta cm thy d chu.
Nu ai vit cho bn rng Trng i hc cc k vui mng vi thnh tch
ca bn: th tri tim ca ai (t quan im ca cch tip cn c nhn lun
phng php [methodological individualist approach]) s p nhanh hn?
Hy a ra mt v d t kinh nghim ca bn v mt iu g c tnh ph
thuc chui [path-dependent] (ngha l khng th no o ngc m khng
phi chu chi ph ng k).
c gi cn c kh nng a ra nhiu v d t cuc sng v sinh hot chnh tr
hng ngy, minh ho ti sao cc th ch li c nh hng.
Ghi ch
1. Thut ng institution c nhng nh ngha rt a dng v mu thun trong vn vit. Cc nh
khoa hc x hi t nhng chuyn ngnh v thi i khc nhau truyn cho n nhiu ngha
khc nhau n mc dng nh khng th no a ra mt nh ngha c gi tr chung ngoi
nh ngha thiu cht ch v tnh u n trong cch ng x. Tuy nhin, nh ngha m chng
ti s s dng nht qun trong cun sch ny cc quy tc km theo nhng hnh pht c tc
ng quy chun n hnh vi con ngi dng nh xut hin trong cc nh kinh t hc
51
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
L thuyt kinh t m t cch ng x ca nn kinh t cng nguyn nhn ca n, song li khng khuyn
ngh bt k chnh sch kinh t no nhm lm thay i cch ng x . (ND)
52
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Con ngi thc s b thay i bi s chung sng vi ngi khc; nng lc ca mt ngi
khng th no pht trin ch trong mnh anh ta, v ch bi anh ta.
(Samuel T. Coleridge, nh th v trit gia Anh, 1818)
53
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
54
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
55
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
56
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
57
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
con ngi (human senses) thu nhn cc n tng [impression] (cm gic
[sensation]) ri lnh hi chng thng qua cc qu trnh t duy xy dng mi
lin h ni ti [internal relation-building] (s chim nghim [reflection]).2 Hai
trit gia ny nghin cu phng thc m cc tng ca mt ngi pht trin
khi anh ta lnh hi cc n tng vo trong no b to ra khi tri thc ca mnh.
Khi mi ngi tng tc v hp tc, h lin tc khm ph ra nhng cm gic mi
v b ging x gia bn nng bo th mun gi li tri thc quen thuc, m h chia
s vi ngi khc, v bn nng th nghim mun khm ph nhng tng mi
v lt nhng g m h vn quen thuc v chia s vi ngi khc. Chng hn,
cc nh sn xut ca mt hng ho hay dch v no quan tm n vic ti to
nhng g m h sn xut trong qu kh. iu gip h tit kim cng sc.
Song li ch bo th y li c th b thch thc bi s cn thit phi tnh n phn
ng ca khch hng v nhng khim khuyt v v th phi thit k li sn phm.
Mong mun ginh chin thng trong cnh tranh vn thng xuyn thc y cc
nh sn xut xui theo bn nng th nghim v tu chnh tri thc hin c ca mnh.
H khng ngng hc hi. Nhng u tin c nhn v bi cnh i thc ng vai
tr then cht trong vic cc c nhn chn lc v gi li tri thc no, v th nhng
ngi khc nhau th s hu tri thc khc nhau.
Tri thc mi thng xut hin thng qua s tu chnh v bin i bn ngoi i vi
tri thc hin c. Khi mi ngi tng tc vi nhau, nhng bc i nh v sng
to xut hin y , v cc bc ci thin tch t theo thi gian. Chng hn,
nhiu tin b v thit k my bay k t khi anh em nh Wright bay ln khi mt
t nm 1903 l nh vo v s ci thin nh trong cng ngh, lc y v qun tr
hng khng, v nhiu trong s li xut hin t qu trnh tng tc gia ngi
s dng my bay v nh sn xut my bay. Nhng ci thin u n, mang tnh
thch ng ny thng b che lp bi nhng bc t ph sng to khi nhng
tng quan trng mi xut hin. Chng hn, chuyn bay ca anh em nh Wright
l s b sung mi m vo tri thc v n khi u cho cc chuyn bay c ng c,
58
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
59
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
60
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
tip chnh thc, hoc n c th bao gm nhng b quyt n tri thc khng chnh
thc, nh nht, thng vi mc phc tp ln v mang tnh c th v a im,
bi cnh v thi gian vn c th tip thu thng qua thc hnh (va hc va lm
learning by doing). Mt b phn ln tri thc ph hp nm di dng ngm
nh (hoc n), thng gi l b quyt (knowhow). Ngi ta lnh hi n bng
cch bt chc nhng trnh t m qua tt c nhng mnh tri thc ph hp, nh
b v phc tp c tip thu. Trong khi mt s tri thc n c th bin thnh tri
thc hin chng hn, c vit thnh cc cun sch hng dn th nhiu tri
thc n vn ph thuc vo b quyt ngm nh.
Tri thc thng ra i t hot ng tng tc t pht ca con ngi. N cng c
th c to ra bi khi ngi ta tp hp li vi nhau mt cch c t chc v
pht trin tri thc mi thng qua mt k hoch nghin cu v pht trin tri thc
hu ch.
Bi ton tri thc (knowledge problem) pht sinh t thc t l con ngi ch c
nng lc hu hn pht trin, th nghim v p dng tri thc. V th, s v
minh (ignorance) l mt yu t mang tnh th cht trong s tn ti ca con ngi
(human existence), trong c kinh t hc, tc l, cch thc vt qua s khan
him. Th cht (constitutional) y c ngha l mt phn ch yu trong s
tn ti ca con ngi v khng th b gi thuyt loi tr. Tri thc nm trong no
b con ngi, chnh xc hn l trong nhng b no a dng ca ton b s ngi
sng trn tri t. Ch nhng phn tri thc rt nh b mi c th tp trung vo
trong bt k b c no. V vy, tri thc ch c s dng hiu qu nu ngi ta c
th tm ra cc c ch khai thc tri thc a dng v chuyn mn ho ca mt s
lng ngi khng l.
S phn cng lao ng v phn hu tri thc (division of labour and
knowledge) cho php mi ngi chuyn mn ho song li i hi h phi hp tc
vi nhau. Nh s chuyn mn ho m ngi ta c kh nng tip thu c nhiu
tri thc hn v s dng chng gii quyt vn . Cng vi kinh nghim, h c
kh nng tnh c khm ph thm tri thc. Qua thi gian, h tr nn hiu qu hn
trong vic tho mn nhu cu ca bn thn v ca ngi khc, khi h bit thm tri
thc mi v tu chnh hoc loi b tri thc c. V th, s phn cng lao ng v
phn hu tri thc l mt khi nim ng v khng ngng tin ho (dynamic &
evolving).
Ngi ta phi phn bit s b sung mi m (emergent addition) vi s b sung
thch ng (adaptive addition) vo tri thc: tri thc mi m cp n nhng
bc t ph ln, sng to (chng hn, s phn tch nguyn t), trong khi s pht
trin thch ng ca tri thc li cp n nhng dng sng to u n m qua
nhng ci thin nh tng bc c thc hin nhm p ng nhng c hi v
cung cu (chng hn, nhng g to nn s khc bit gia chic t lch bch ca
ng Benz ngy no v nhng chic limousine bng ln trn ng ph hm nay
s c m t nh l kt qu ca s gia tng tri thc thch ng). S b sung tri
thc mi m thng l kt qu ca vic khm ph (discovery) ra nhng tng
vn trc hon ton khng c bit ti, trong khi s b sung tri thc thch
ng li thng l kt qu ca vic tm kim thng tin (information search) c k
hoch.
61
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Ch th tn ti trn l thuyt, c tri thc hon ho v i sng kinh t v c kh nng hnh x v li ch
ca mnh nhm ti a ho li nhun. y l mt cng c hu ch trong kinh t hc tn c in. (ND)
62
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Red-light district: Khu n (c nhiu nh th). (ND)
63
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
trung thc khng phi v chng ta phn tch k mt tnh hung c th qua mt dy
biu tng, m l phn tch n theo kiu c iu kin - bt pht (conditioned-
reflexive). Cch ng x bt pht nh th gia tng tc qu trnh ra quyt nh v
nng cao hiu qu tng tc ca con ngi.
64
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Nhng chi ph b ra v khng th thu hi c bt k mc ng k no. (ND)
65
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Tm cch t c mt gii php tho ng, khng nht thit phi l gii php ti u. (ND)
66
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
67
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Nirvana: Ci nit bn. (ND)
68
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
69
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
70
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ba loi ng c thc y
Mt tin c bn v cch ng x ca con ngi l c nhn thng hnh ng v
t li. H c th theo ui kht vng ca mnh theo bt k cch thc kh d no,
bt k iu c gy tn hi ti kht vng ca ngi khc hay khng. Chng hn,
kht vng khng chp nhn cht i c ngi ta theo ui bng cch trng cy
lng thc, bng cch mua bn, hay bng cch n trm. Tuy nhin, kinh nghim
li cho thy rng trm cp (v nhng kiu ng x c hi ch ngha khc) li dn
ti nhng mu thun t gi v iu ny gy lng ph bi mt x hi trm cp th
c mc hi lng thp hn so vi mt x hi m mi ngi hp tc thnh
thc vi nhau. V vy, chng ta phi t cu hi l quyn t ch c nhn nn b
rng buc nh th no th ch ngha c hi nh th nm trong vng kim sot.
Chng ta bit qua nhng ni dung trn y rng hnh thc rng buc y i vi
cch ng x ca con ngi chnh l chc nng ca cc th ch.
Trn nguyn tc, c ba cch m qua ngi ta c th c dn dt i n ch n
lc v li ch ca ngi khc (Boulding, 1969, trang 6; Hazlitt [1964] 1988, trang
92-107):
(a) h n lc v li ch ngi khc xut pht t tnh yu, tnh on kt, hay
nhng bin thi ca lng v tha;
(b) h b ai cng bch, e do s dng v lc vi mnh (mnh lnh);
(c) h hnh ng xut pht t ch t do ca mnh, song li c thc y bi
t li duy l (enlightened self-interesti) v h c th trng ch mt phn
thng y . Lc , nhng g m h lm cho ngi khc l hiu ng ph
t chnh s ch k ca h.
ng c th nht rt ph hp trong nhng nhm nh nh gia nh, trong mt b
tc nh hay gia m bn b. N xng ng vi s tha nhn ca x hi v
thng c tng thng bng uy tn. N cho php s phn cng lao ng v
phn hu tri thc din ra trong nhng cng ng nh m khng phi mt nhiu
chi ph phi hp v gim st. Nh chng ta lu trn, ng c nh th ng
vai tr thit yu i vi s tn ti ca nhng b tc nh b ca t tin chng ta
i
T li duy l l mt trit l trong o c hc, theo nhng ngi hnh ng nhm thc y li ch ca
ngi khc (hay li ch ca nhm hoc cc nhm m h l thnh vin), cui cng li phc v cho chnh li
ch ca mnh. (ND)
71
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
72
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
ng c trong x hi vi m v x hi v m
n im ny trong lp lun ca mnh, chng ta i ti mt s kt lun rt quan
trng:
tnh yu v lng v tha, vn chim v tr rt quan trng trong vic thc y con
ngi trong cc nhm nh, li khng c tc dng g vi nhng ngi trong x
hi i chng hin i khi h khng bit nhau v khng th kim sot nhau
mt cch trc tip;
phng n da vo s cng bch c mt nhc im h trng l nhng
ngi nm quyn lc thng thiu tri thc cn thit s dng ton b ngun
lc sn c, cn nhng ngi b cng bch li tm cch ln trnh trch nhim
mi khi h c kh nng thot khi hnh pht;
h thng s dng tri thc sn c ng thi tch lu thng tin mi, tri tim ca
qu trnh tng trng kinh t, li i hi s khch l hp dn dnh cho t li
v da vo hnh ng t nguyn. Thnh qu ng mong mun ca hnh ng
nh th thng l h qu ngoi d nh t hnh vi theo ui mc ch ch k
ca con ngi.
73
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
74
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
chi ph gim st cao nu h mun tm hiu nhng g m ngi i din ang thc
s lm (thng tin bt i xng asymmetric informationi). H qu l nhng
ngi cng nhn c th trn trnh mt phn nhim v ca mnh m khng b
trng pht trong khi h c th lm vic chm ch hn. Cc gim c doanh nghip
c th a cuc sng tt p v tm va lng vi thc ti, trong khi li ch ca ch
doanh nghip li i hi cc v ny phi hnh x mo him, sng to v to bo.
V nhn dn, nhng thn ch, thng khng nhn c t cc quan chc chnh
ph nhng g m mnh mong mun do cc ngh s v quan chc li theo ui mc
ch ring. Thc t ny c gi l vn thn ch - i din, h qu ca bi
ton tri thc cng gii hn t nhin v tnh on kt vi ngi khc.5
Khi ngi ta cm thy l h c th thot khi s trng pht vi cch ng x c
hi ch ngha, v nhng ngi m h la gt khng bit v s khng pht hin ra,
h tr thnh nn nhn ca ri ro o c (moral hazard). Thut ng ny u tin
c s dng trong ngnh bo him, khi nhng ngi c bo him l l trong
vic trnh gy h hng v khi m ch h mi kh d hiu c th no l s thn
trng y . V th, nhng ngi i din b t vo tnh th i mt vi ri ro
o c khi cc thn ch khng bit g hay khi hnh vi ca ngi i din khng
b rng buc bng nhng quy tc ph hp.
Vn thn ch - i din thng l ng xem xt khi nhiu ngi c tuyn
dng vo cc doanh nghip v t chc nh nc quy m ln. H c xu hng bn
rn vi nhng hot ng m bn thn h cm thy d chu v khng nht thit
phi l nhng hot ng phc v cho mc ch ca doanh nghip: bn hng
mc gi c li cho ch doanh nghip, hay t c nhng mc ch khc ca thn
ch. iu ny thng gy ra chi ph t chc cao. Cc gim c cng nhng ngi
lm thu khc trong doanh nghip c th a ra k hoch t chc v s cuc hp,
cc d n nghin cu, cc kho o to ti ch v cc ban b phi hp, lm sao
nhng hoc phn tn trch nhim gnh chu ri ro. H c th bin h cho nhu cu
i li cng hng lot hot ng dng nh l cn thit khc, trong c nhiu
hot ng mt nhiu thi gian v lm tng chi ph qun l m khng ng gp
y li nhun. Song ngi ngoi, k c cc ch doanh nghip v v vy c
nhng ngi thu h, li khng bit chi ph no l cn thit cn chi ph no th
khng.
i
Thng tin vi mc khng ng u cho cc bn lin quan ti mt cuc giao dch, dn n vic trao i
khng cng bng. (ND)
75
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
76
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cu hi n tp
77
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ghi ch
1. Lun im mu cht ny c L. E. Read nu ln mt cch thng minh trong tc phm
Ti, ci Bt ch m chng ti c php in li trong phn Ph lc.
2. John Locke l mt trng hp c th vt xa thi i ca mnh. Kt qu nghin cu sinh l
hc gn y khng nh cch thc m qua cc cm gic dn ti nhng mi lin kt ngn
hn trong no b v gn vi tr nh ngn hn. Khi mt cm gic cho trc c ti khng
nh thng qua nhng cm gic hay phn x lp li, nhng cn bng n kch thch t
(hormone) s gip chuyn nhng n tng ngn hn thnh nhng mi lin kt ni sinh
(hardwired) trong no b chng ta, nhng t hp lin kt m chng ta s ghi nh lu di.
3. L thuyt tin ho sinh hc, do Charles Darwin pht trin, khc bit vi s tin ho ca tri
thc v tng con ngi ch tri thc mi c th c tip thu v truyn sang ngi khc,
trong khi s tin ho sinh hc li rt c th cha ng mt c ch nhm tch hp nhng g
c tip thu vo trong chnh s gien c truyn sang cc th h tng lai. V th, s so snh
gn gi gia tin ho sinh hc v tin ho x hi s gy ra hiu nhm.
4. Trong x hi Phng Ty, phn ln mi ngi u hnh dung ra s tip ni lin tc ca cc
cng ng theo chiu ln dn, t cc nhm vi m n cc nhm v m m h l thnh vin:
gia nh ht nhn; gia nh m rng; cng ng a phng; tnh thnh; nh th; hi ngh
nghip, v cc nhm x hi dn s trung gian t nguyn khc; t nc; Phng Ty; cng
ng ton cu. cc x hi khc th nhn thc li khc. Chng hn, x hi truyn thng
Trung Hoa th hin tnh lin tc t hn rt nhiu trong nhn thc v vai tr thnh vin. Mt
ngi va l thnh vin ca mt x hi vi m ring bit, vn rng buc su sc v mang tnh
t qun gi l gia nh, va l thnh vin ca x hi v m mang tm quc gia (Redding,
1993). Tuy nhin, nhng ngi Hoa nhp c li nhanh chng pht trin nhiu hip hi t
nguyn, to nn nhng tng nc gia tm vi m ca gia nh v tm v m ca quc gia, ng
thi pht trin mt bin thin tng ng v tnh on kt.
5. Mt kha cnh ca vn thn ch - i din, thng khng c x l, lin quan n vic
thn ch n mnh mt cch c hi pha sau ngi i din: i khi ng ch li np sau lng
ngi i din hy hnh dung mt b gi bun bn ma tu hng ln trnh trch nhim ca
mnh. im ny s khng c tho lun thm trong cun sch.
78
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
79
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
C nhin, mt nn kinh t qu thc cha ng nhiu cng ngh, nhiu hnh vi, nhiu th
trng, nhiu t chc ti chnh v nhiu nh my thy u xc thc v hu hnh. Song
ng sau nhng th ny, dn dt chng v c chng dn dt cp siu vi m chnh
l nhng nim tin (beliefs) Gp li, nhng nim tin nh th nh hnh nn nn kinh t
v m Chng chnh l DNA ca nn kinh t.
(W.B. Arthur, Complexity [Tnh phc hp], 1995)
i
Nhng quyn do to ho ban cho con ngi. Trong Tuyn ngn c lp ca M, nhng quyn ny c
m t l bt kh xm phm, tha nhn tt c mi ngi sinh ra u bnh ng v tt c mi ngi u c
quyn c sng, quyn t do v quyn mu cu hnh phc. (ND)
80
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
81
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Value judgement: nh gi v gi tr, tnh thch ng, hay vai tr quan trng ca mt ngi hay s vt no
c a ra trn c s nim tin, kin hay thin kin c nhn thay v d kin thc t (nh gi ch
quan).
ii
Bao hm ton b tri nghim ca con ngi (trong mt bi cnh kinh t - x hi - vn ho - c nhn).
(ND)
82
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
iu g xc nh nn mt x hi mu mc?
Nhng x hi khc nhau c th c nh gi qua mc m cc thnh vin ca
chng c kh nng t c nhng gi tr ny cng nh mc ng h t pht
ca a s dn chng i vi nhng gi tr . Vic ly nhng chun mc c bn
v c tha nhn rng ri ny lm thc o nh gi chnh sch v hnh
ng c th ca chnh ph xem ra cng hp l. Tm li, mi mt gi tr con ngi
l quy chun m theo cc th ch v chnh sch cng thng c phn xt.
Nhng gi tr m t x hi tt p t quan im c nhn v phn nh mt tm
nhn: bin s phn vinh ca con ngi trong di hn thnh tiu chun nh gi
cc th ch v chnh sch cng.
83
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
84
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
85
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Quyn lc v t do
Khi mi ngi c t do, h c th theo ui nhng mc tiu t lp theo k
hoch ca mnh. Song con ngi cng c th thc hnh ch t do bng cch c
gng tc ng n ngi khc h ng h mc tiu ca mnh. S tc ng nh
th c th c chp thun xut pht t s phc tng t nguyn chng hn, t
s thu cm c nhn hay v mt hp ng k hoc do s e do dng v lc
(cng bch). Trong trng hp th nht, t do ca ngi khc khng b cn tr,
trong khi n li b cn tr khi xy ra s cng bch. Tuy nhin, s khc bit gia
phc tng t nguyn v cng bch li km r rng hn so vi ci v kh d khi
mi thot nhn. Cng bch ch l biu hin ca trng hp cc oan m
bn b cng bch khng c c hi cng li hay thot khi s e do dng v
lc m thi.
Di mt ngng nht nh, nhng bin php tng i tinh t s dng quyn
lc cng bch i vi ngi khc li hin hu, ngay c trong nhng tnh hung
m ngi ta phc tng tng i t nguyn. Quyn lc i vi nhng ngi
khc, bt k c s dng bi cc c nhn hay cc nhm c t chc nh cc
carteli cng nghip, cc nghip on hay cc c quan chnh ph, u l h qu ca
nhng phng n hn ch hay thp km m nhng ngi ii c th la chn. Cc
phng n thay th cho s phc tng (tng i t do) c th tr nn hp dn,
chng hn khi c s l thuc tm l vo ngi nm quyn lc. Trong i sng
kinh t, quyn lc l kt qu ca tnh trng thiu cnh tranh, tc l, thiu nhng
phng n thay th m ngi ta c th la chn. Chng hn, cc nh cung cp c
th nm quyn lc th trng di hnh thc c quyn nh i mi thnh cng,
iu ny li hn ch nhng la chn thit thc ca ngi mua tim nng. S hn
ch y i vi quyn t do la chn ca ngi mua thng l tm thi. Nhng
hn ch lu bn hn i vi t do kinh t hin hu khi quyn lc th trng ca
mt nh cung cp l kt qu ca nhng hn ch cng hoc t i vi cnh tranh,
chng hn bng cch hnh thnh mt cartel cng nghipiii hay thng qua s can
thip ca chnh ph vo t do thng mi. Nhng hn ch cng (public restraint)
da trn quyn lc cng bch ca chnh ph. Vi v d t i ny minh
chng cho nhng kh khn vn thng xuyn ny sinh mi khi chng ta x l
nhng hin tng lin quan n quyn lc v t do trong x hi.
i
T hp cng ty c hnh thnh nhm kim sot hot ng sn xut, cnh tranh v gi c. (ND)
ii
Nhng ngi chu nh hng ca quyn lc. (ND)
iii
Hn ch c ngun gc t nhn. (ND)
86
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
87
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
88
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
89
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
90
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Chnh sch hay chng trnh nhm chng li s phn bit i x i vi cc nhm thiu s v ph n, c
bit l trong vic lm v gio dc. (ND)
91
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
92
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Thnh vng
Thnh vng (prosperity) hay phc li kinh t (economic welfare) cng lin h
n cc kha cnh an ninh, m trc ht l n s lm ch cc hng ho vt cht
v dch v nhm tho mn nhu cu. Thnh vng khng ch m bo cho c hi
tip cn s tho mn vt cht thun tu, m cn c c hi tip cn s tho mn
vn ho v tinh thn, dch v y t v s chu cp tui gi, cng nh nhng nhn t
gip m bo cho mt cuc sng thoi mi khc. u tin, vic t ti thnh
vng c o lng bng mc thu nhp v ca ci thc t theo u ngi. Tuy
nhin, vic m bo cho thnh vng qua thi gian, chng hn bng cch kim
sot lm pht v bng mt mc n nh ca cc dng thu nhp, cng l mt
phn ca nhng g m con ngi vn khao kht di ci mc phc li vt cht.
S khao kht thnh vng chim c u tin ln hn trong tm tr nhiu
ngi trn khp th gii cng vi s lan to ca hin tng tng trng kinh t
sut th k 20 (xem Chng I). Trong nhiu cng ng hin nay, thnh vng
dng nh chim gi mt v tr rt ni bt, c th snh vi vic theo ui
nhng kht vng tn gio v tinh thn Chu u thi Trung c hay mt s khu
vc thuc n v Trung ng ngy nay vo thi k y.
Nh chng ta lu , c s b tr v tho hip gia an ninh v kht vng ca a
s mi ngi v phc li kinh t hay thnh vng. Thnh vng, c bit l khi n
cho php ngi dn hnh thnh phng tin gim sc ti sn (buffer of wealth), s
thc y an ninh c nhn v cho php cc cng ng bo v an ninh ca mnh.
Rt cuc th chnh sch bo him, s bo v cho t do tng lai trc tranh chp
bn ngoi hoc bn trong v s thc y cc th ch cng c an ninh, li phi tr
gi bng nhng ngun lc khan him. Tuy nhin, nh chng ta nhn thy, mu
thun cng ny sinh khi nhu cu an ninh chi phi v gy nguy him cho thnh
vng trong tng lai.
May mn thay, nhng kht vng nn tng khc, nh t do, cng bng v ho
bnh, nhn chung li c xu hng c thc y nh nhng iu kin vt cht tt
hn. iu ny khng c ngha l thnh vng c th nh ng vi hnh phc, m
ch hm l n c nhiu ngi trn khp tri t coi l ng mong mun thi.
93
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
4.4 Bo tn mi trng
Cng bng xuyn th h v mi trng
Trong nhng thp nin gn y, khi m s lng ngi trn tri t v mt s
khu vc tng ln, kht vng bo tn mi trng thin nhin v nhn to gia
tng ti a s quc gia. Nhiu nh ph bnh x hi khng nh, bo tn mi
trng l mt gi tr con ngi nn tng v do l mc tiu chnh sch c bn,
cn c t ngang bng vi, hoc quan trng hn, chng hn, t do c nhn v
94
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
95
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Nhiu mi quan ngi v mi trng thin nhin ny sinh khi hot ng kinh t
ca mt ngi no gy nh hng ti ngi khc m li khng th n b mt
cch d dng (cc yu t ngoi lai). Nhng quan ngi v mi trng khc lin
quan n li ch ca cc th h tng lai: lm sao chng ta m bo c l cc
th h tng lai pht trin t do m khng phi i mt vi nhng tr ngi bt
ng, khc nghit v khng th gii quyt, hay vi s sp ca h t nhin ni
h sinh sng? iu ny lin h cc ch mi trng vi khi nim an ninh v
khi nim cng bng xuyn th h (intergenerational justice). Bt lun th no th
vic li cho hu th mt mi trng hoang tn cng l bt cng. Vic bao hm
nhng li ch kh d ca hu th vo trong cc gi tr nn tng ca chng ta, v
t vn lm th no chng c lu tm tt nht, chc chn l thch ng.
Bo tn thin nhin, v th, l mi quan tm c bn v chnh ng.
96
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Vic cp qua khi nim chnh thng lun sinh thi trn y gip lm sng t
mt lun im quan trng v cc gi tr nn tng: chng phi lun phn nh
nhng nh gi a dng v mu thun ca con ngi ng thi lin h ton b s
tng tc ca con ngi vi mt quan im nhn o. Mt x hi nhn o ph
thuc ct t vo vic ch trng nhng nh gi ca con ngi. Rt cuc, chng
vn l th ngn ng duy nht m qua cc thnh vin cng ng c th thng
t kht vng ca mnh. Vic p t nhng gi tr phi con ngi (non-human),
nm ngoi s nh gi ca con ngi, ln chnh sch cng s khin cho x hi
v. iu ny c th em li quyn hnh cho mt nhm tinh hoa (elite); h s gt
b li ch ca mi ngi, hu hoi t do, cng bng, thnh vng, an ninh, ho
bnh cng nhng kht vng khc m chng ta bn y.
97
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cu hi n tp
98
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
99
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cc th ch l nhng quy tc ph bin do con ngi to ra, nhm rng buc cch
ng x kh d c hi ch ngha ca con ngi. Chng km theo mt hnh thc x
pht no dnh cho s bt tun th, vn khc nhau nhiu v c im v mc
chnh thc.
Chng ta s bn v mt lot th ch tin ho trong x hi, chng hn nh tp
qun (custom), l li tt (good manner) cng nhiu dn xp th ch m cc
thng nhn cng nh cc nh u t ti chnh to ra v p dng nhm to thun
li cho hot ng ngh nghip ca mnh.
Tuy mt b phn ln ca i sng kinh t - x hi c iu chnh nh nhng th
ch bn trong nh th, song con ngi trong nhng x hi phc tp hn vn lun
nhn thy s tin li v hiu qu ca vic b sung thm cc th ch bn ngoi
cng nhng dn xp chnh thc nhm p t chng. Cc quy tc bn ngoi c
thit k thng qua cc quy trnh chnh tr v c p t bi cc c quan chnh
ph khi h thc thi ci gi l chc nng bo v ca nh nc, k c bng hnh
thc s dng v lc hp php.
Nhng th ch ph hp gip tit gim chi ph phi hp trong cc h thng phc
hp, hn ch v c th gii quyt xung t gia mi ngi, v bo v phm vi t
do c nhn. phc v nhng mc ch ny, cc th ch cn nhng phm cht c
th, chng hn nh tnh chc chn [certainty], tnh ph cp [generality] v tnh m
[openness] (tm li l tnh ph thng [universality]). Nhng quy tc no thiu tnh
ph thng m ch c thit k nhm t c nhng mc ch c th th s d
dng tht bi vi chc nng phi hp, quy chun v thng t ra gnh nng tri
thc qu mc cho ngi lp ra quy tc. Hn th, chng cn d dng vt qu
nng lc nhn thc ca nhng i tng m chng mun tc ng ti bng
ngn ng gin d: ngi dn hon ton khng th hiu v tun th hng ngn quy
tc, quy nh phc tp v li c th cho tng trng hp.
Vic tun th nhng quy tc quen thuc tr nn cn thit nhm kim ch nhng bn
nng t nhin vn khng thch hp vi trt t ca x hi m.
(Friedrich A. Hayek, Political Order of a Free People [Trt t chnh tr ca mt dn tc t
do], 1979)
100
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Phi gi ng li ha.
(Pacta sunt servanda.)
(Tc ng La M, th k th 2 trc CN)
101
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
trt ton b trch nhim ln ngi t kia v a ra nhng tnh tit gim ti. C hai
t nhn u i mt vi tnh th tin thoi lng nan ny, chng no h vn cha
th hp tc c vi nhau. Tnh th ca c hai s tt ln khi h hp tc c vi
nhau v a ra nhng cam kt ng tin cy, chng hn ha hn cng gi im lng.
Khi h khng th lin lc vi nhau m li khai ra nhm t bo v mnh, h buc
ti ln nhau v tnh th ca c hai u tr nn xu i. C may c mt y c
th thy r qua ma trn trong Hnh 5.1. Nhng tnh th tin thoi lng nan nh
vy thng xuyn xut hin khi ngi ta khng th hp tc vi nhau mt cch
ng tin cy. S hin hu ca cc th ch l nhm tng cng c hi hp tc cng
c li.
T nhn A
Gi im lng Khai ra
T nhn B
Khai ra A b kt ti C hai b kt ti
i
T hp cng ty c hnh thnh nhm kim sot hot ng sn xut, cnh tranh v gi c. (ND)
102
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cc th ch v s tin tng
Cc th ch l nhng quy tc ng x, v theo ng ngha, chng l phng tin
gip nh hng hnh vi con ngi. Thng thng, chng loi tr nhng hnh vi
nht nh v thu hp phm vi ca phn ng kh d. Qua , chng khin cho hnh
vi ca ngi khc tr nn d tin on hn. Chng to ra mt cu trc nht nh
cho s tng tc x hi. Trit gia v nh tm l hc ngi M Andy Clark gn
y nhn nh, cc th ch to ra mt kiu khung kh bn ngoi (external
scaffolding) dnh cho s la chn (choice) v s tip thu (learning) ca con ngi
(Drobak & Nye ch bin, 1997, trang 269-290). Qu thc, cc th ch to thun
li cho kh nng tin on v ngn nga tnh trng hn lon cng nh cch ng
x tu . Bng cch gp phn iu chnh hnh vi, cc th ch thit lp nn s tin
tng v cho php con ngi tit kim chi ph tm kim thng tin. Cho d cch
ng x theo quy tc khng chc chn n 100%, n vn c cm nhn l kh d
hn v ng tin cy hn tnh trng hn lon.
Cc th ch thng phn nh nhng g cho thy l hu ch trong qu kh v
nhng g cn thit cho con ngi trong vic tng tc vi ngi khc nhm theo
ui mc ch c nhn. Trn phng din , chng l nhng kho tng tri thc
m cc th h trc tch lu c. i mt vi bi ton tri thc thng trc, cc
th ch em li cho con ngi mt mc tin tng l s tng tc m h tham
gia vo s din ra nh k vng. iu ny gip gim bt chi ph tm kim thng
tin, vn l mt cng vic kh khn v ri ro, nh chng ta nhn thy trong
Chng 3. Nh vy, chi ph giao dch kinh doanh vi ngi khc hay chi ph hp
tc trong phm vi mt t chc c tit gim bng nhng quy tc ng x ph
hp. Nu thiu s tin tng trong ci khung kh rng ln hn, c nhn thng
khng c kh nng tp trung khai thc tri thc theo chuyn mn ca mnh hay tm
kim tri thc trong nhng lnh vc mi, v th v s hnh ng hu ch s khng
bao gi din ra (Hazlitt, [1964] 1988, trang 53-61). S phn cng lao ng v
phn hu tri thc s khng kh thi v mc sng s tip tc thp.
Con ngi, c th hoc nhm, thng tm cch ng ph vi bi ton tri thc bng
cch suy xt thu o v mt chin lc tng th nhm to ra mt khung kh quy
tc cho hnh ng c nhn. Do lo ngi s b qu ti bi nhng quyt nh tnh th
v s phi hp km trong sut qu trnh nn mi ngi u t rng buc mnh vi
chin lc trong cc quyt nh chin thut hng ngy, v nhng thay i
chin thut c gi trong phm vi chin lc y. y l mt cng thc thit thc
dnh cho hot ng qun s v kinh doanh nhm tit gim chi ph tm kim thng
tin v phi hp trc s v minh ca con ngi cng nh cc ngun lc hu hn
ng ph vi n.
Trc s hn ch v nhn thc cng nhng hn ch khc thuc bn cht con
ngi, cc th ch nu mun c tc dng th phi d hiu. t c mc ch
103
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
104
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
105
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Institutionalise ngoi ngha th ch ho cn c ngha l a ngi no vo mt t chc nh c s cai
nghin, bnh vin tm thn, hay nh t chng hn. (ND)
106
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
nghip khc trong ngnh, v ngi ta ch c th quy chng cho nhng thng l
khc nhau m thi (Kreps, 1990). Nhng th ch n ny i khi li c gn cho
nhng ci tn m h nh b nh cng ty (corporate memoryi) hay vn ho t
chc (organisational culture). Thc t l mt s th ch gn cht vo cc t chc
li khin cho vic chuyn giao chng sang mi trng t chc khc tr nn kh
khn. Song s biu t ca cc quy tc cng cho php ch nhn ca b quyt th
ch (institutional knowhow) i hi cc quyn ti sn trong nhng dn xp th
ch c th ca mnh v bn b quyt c quyn bng cch qun l cc t chc
khc. V d, mt s quy tc vn chi phi cch thc qun l mt s giao dch
chng khon trung thc v hiu qu li gn b mt thit vi b quyt n ca
nhng ngi iu hnh cng tc t chc ca mt s giao dch chng khon c th
n mc kh m tng tng rng tri thc nh vy c th tch ri khi s h tr
v mt t chc. V th, cc t chc thng l hin thn ca cc th ch (biu t
cc th ch) v l kho tng cha ng nhng tri thc n vn cn thit cho s vn
hnh ca chng.
Mi lin h gia cc th ch n v cu trc t chc tr nn r rng khi mt cng
ty thnh t tip qun mt cng ty khc. Lc , nhng thng l cng cc quy tc
v cch thc hot ng khc, vn pht trin cng ty m, phi c p t ln
cng ty va mi tip qun. Nu cc th ch n v b quyt m chng biu t
khng c tip thu y thng qua s lin kt v hp tc, s tip qun c l s
tht bi.
i
B nh cng ty c th hiu l ton b d liu, thng tin v tri thc cn thit nhm t c cc mc tiu
chin lc ca mt t chc doanh nghip. (ND)
107
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
5.2 Cc th ch bn trong
Cc th ch bn trong v bn ngoi
Trong Chng 2, chng ta cp n s khc bit gia cc th ch bn trong
v bn ngoi. nhc nh c gi, cc th ch bn trong c nh ngha l
nhng quy tc tin ho trong phm vi mt nhm di nh sng ca kinh nghim,
cn cc th ch bn ngoi l nhng quy tc c thit k t bn ngoi v p t
cho x hi t trn xung thng qua hnh ng chnh tr. S phn bit tng t
cng tng c Ludwig Lachmann (1973) a ra nhm nhn mnh rng nhiu
quy tc tc ng n cch ng x ca chng ta l kt qu ca qu trnh tin ho v
cc cng ng tng vn hnh da trn li ng x theo quy tc mt thi gian di
trc khi chnh quyn c pht minh ra. S khc bit gia cc th ch bn trong
v bn ngoi v th lin quan n ngun gc ca quy tc: chng xut hin nh th
no. V d v quy tc bn trong l nhng l li tt, nhc nh mi ngi phi ng
gi, v nhng chun mc o c m cc thnh vin cng ng tun th. Dn
chng v quy tc bn ngoi c th l b lut dn s hay lut giao thng do quc
hi hay chnh ph ban hnh. C nhin, trong thc t s chuyn tip m xui gia
cc th ch bn trong v cc th ch bn ngoi l r rng.
Cc th ch c th c phn loi tu theo hnh pht dnh cho hnh vi bt tun
th l phn ng x hi t pht, phi tp trung (th ch phi chnh thc) hay l thng
qua mt c ch c t chc chnh thc (th ch chnh thc). Nh chng ta s
nhn thy, s khc bit gia bn trong/bn ngoi v phi chnh thc/chnh thc
khng phi lc no cng trng hp.
Vn quan trng y chnh l mc cng bch m cc th ch p dng ln
hnh vi con ngi. Cc th ch bn trong c xu hng ku gi s hp tc t
nguyn. Hnh vi bt tun th quy tc khng phi l khng c h lu ca n, song
c nhn c quyt nh liu c chp nhn hu qu ca hnh vi vi phm trong
nhng hon cnh c th hay khng. Tri li, nhng trt t cng bch no da
nhiu vo cc th ch bn ngoi v ch ti chnh thc u cha cho c nhn mt
phm vi la chn hp hn nhiu nh gi tnh hung c th (Radnitzky, 1997,
trang 17-76).
Cc th ch bn trong tin ho nh th no
S tng tc ca con ngi chu s chi phi ca v s th ch bn trong, vn lin
tc tin ho theo kinh nghim. Con ngi duy tr cc th ch bn trong bi ai
khm ph ra v nhn thy chng hu ch; mt khi nhng quy tc ng x ny
lan rng v c tun th rng ri, chng khin cho s tng tc vi ngi khc
kh thi ngay v din ra d dng hn. Ngn ng l dn chng in hnh v cch
thc vn hnh ca cc th ch tin ho nh th. Con ngi sp xp nhng m
thanh m h c kh nng pht ra v nghe thnh nhng m thc d nhn bit gi l
t, ri xp t cc t, bng cch p dng cc quy tc ng php, thnh cu. Cc
quy tc ny tin ho qua thi gian v cha ng nhiu tri thc v cch giao tip.
Mt sinh ng chc chn l khng do bt k mt ai thit k nn. Thay v th, n
tin ho qua s tng tc ca hng triu con ngi. u m ngi ta n lc
108
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
109
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Baron de La Brode et de Montesquieu (1689-1755): Trit gia chnh tr - x hi ngi Php, tc gi The
Spirit of Laws (1748). (ND)
ii
Ch nhng ngi hay quc gia ni ting Anh nh l ngn ng th nht. (ND)
iii
John Locke (1632-1704): Trit gia, nh sng lp ch ngha kinh nghim (empiricism) Anh. ng c
kt Tro lu Khai minh (Enlightenment) qua vic t nim tin vo giai cp trung lu v quyn t do tn
ngng cng nh quyn t hu ca n, qua nim tin vo khoa hc v thin tnh ca con ngi. ng c nh
hng ht sc quan trng n trit hc v l thuyt chnh tr. (ND)
iv
Nh trit hc, nh kinh t hc, nh s hc ngi Scotland, ngi ni ting vi ch ngha kinh nghim
(empiricism) v ch ngha hoi nghi (skepticism). ng c coi l mt trong nhng trit gia quan trng
nht ca lch s trit hc Phng Ty. (ND)
v
Adam Smith (1723-1790): Nh kinh t hc v trit gia chnh tr ngi Scotland. ng l ngi t nn
mng cho l thuyt kinh t th trng t do c in. Tc phm ni ting ca ng l The Wealth of Nations
(1776). (ND)
110
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
111
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Trong l thuyt tr chi (game theory), khi nhng ngi chi tng tc vi nhau thng qua vic lp li
mt tr chi tng t v s ln (chng hn nh tnh th tin thoi lng nan ca cc t nhn nu phn
trc) th tr chi c gi l tr lp i lp li. Khng ging nh tr chi mt ln, mt tr lp i lp li
buc ngi chi phi cn nhc nh hng ca hnh ng hin ti ca mnh n hnh ng tng lai ca
nhng ngi chi khc; iu ny i khi c gi l danh ting. (ND)
112
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
113
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cc th ch bn trong c th l:
phi chnh thc (informal), tc l khng c ph chun thng qua cc c ch
chnh thc, l:
quy c (convention), tc l nhng quy tc em li li ch r rng, tc
thi cho nhng ngi m cch ng x ca h b chng kim sot v hnh
vi vi phm ca h s gy tc hi ti t li;
quy tc tip th (internalised rule), ngi vi phm ch yu phi chu
hnh pht l mt lng tm ti li;
tp qun v l li (custom & manner), chng c tha nhn phi chnh
thc thng qua phn ng ca nhng ngi khc, chng hn bng hnh thc
loi tr;
chnh thc ho (formalised), trong hnh pht c thc hin bi bn
bi mt s thnh vin x hi.
Xin nhc li, s khc bit gia cc th ch bn trong v bn ngoi lin quan n
ngun gc ca th ch; s khc bit gia cc th ch chnh thc v phi chnh
thc lin quan n cch thc p dng hnh pht, t pht hay bi bn.
114
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
115
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
116
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Lut do c quan lp php ban hnh. (ND)
ii
Lut trao cho cc quan chc ph hp quyn thc thi hay p t php lut. (ND)
iii
Meta rule: quy tc ca quy tc. (ND)
iv
Private law: nhnh lut lin quan n cc quyn v ngha v ca c nhn. trnh nhm ln vi khi
nim t php theo cch hiu thng thng l mt nhnh ca quyn lc nh nc, chng ti s b sung t
ting Anh bn cnh.(ND)
117
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
118
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
vi truyn thng thng lut (common lawi) ca mnh, lut do quan to thit lp
(judge-made law) l kh ph bin.
i
B phn lut pht trin t nhng tp qun v quyt nh ca quan to, khc vi lut do cc hi ng lp
php ban hnh. (ND)
ii
Bao hm ton b tri nghim ca con ngi (trong mt bi cnh kinh t - x hi - vn ho - c nhn).
(ND)
iii
Tng thng th 4 ca M (1809-1817), tc gi chnh ca bn Hin php M, mt trong nhng ngi sng
lp ra nc M. (ND)
119
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Quyn ca cng dn c i x cng bng, c bit l c xt x cng bng. (ND)
ii
Khu vc chu s kim sot [chnh tr] ca mt m ng. (ND)
iii
Lynching: Vic bt mt ngi b nghi l phm ti v git ngay lp tc m khng qua xt x, thng l
bng hnh thc treo c. (ND)
120
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Xem mc 5.1. (ND)
ii
S dng min ph. (ND)
iii
External organisation of government.
121
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Mt nhm cc nh bun, c bit l Bc Phi v Chu , xuyn qua sa mc cng nhau nhm m bo an
ton, thng l vi mt on lc . (ND)
ii
Vic gim chi ph sn xut n v t c bng cch tng sn lng, hay hin tng hiu qu sn xut
tng ln cng vi quy m. (ND)
122
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Internal non-governmental institutions.
123
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Lot v tinh vin thm ca M, c phng ln ln u tin vo nm 1972. (ND)
124
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
hi, v ngay c cc b lut chnh thc cng phu nht cng cn n lut n l do
quan to thit lp (judge-made law) tr nn hu hiu.
Lut do quan to thit lp, vn ph bin hn trong truyn thng Anglo-Saxon, c
xu hng m v kh d iu chnh. N vn ng cho s din gii v tip thu linh
hot hn, cho phn ng t gii t php v cng chng rng ln hn trc cc
phn quyt, qua thu ht c minh trit t nhiu thnh vin hn. Song, tng
t nh th, n li thiu tnh c kt, r rng v minh bch ca cc b lut bi bn
theo truyn thng La M.
Lut do quan to thit lp cng c to n cp cao ti nh hnh. Thnh vin ca
to n ny thng thng khng qua bu c m, nhiu nc, c ch nh theo
mt quy trnh chnh tr. Chng hn, nhm a s (majority) ca To n Ti cao M
c nh hng mnh m n cch thc m cc quy tc bn ngoi M c nh
hnh v ti din gii. Nhm a s ny c th chu nh hng su sc khi cc thm
phn ngh hu, v th phng hng ch o ca h thng php l M c th thay
i t ngt ch khng nh nhng h thng php l m quyn lc ca to n
ti cao b hn ch hn bi hin php v lut ch en (black-letter lawi). Nhng
nh hng tng t cng hin hu trong cc truyn thng php l khc bi d sao
cc thnh vin ng nhim ca to n ti cao ch t cng c quyn lc hn ch
din gii php lut hin hnh.
Lut do quan to thit lp c xu hng lm xi mn s phn chia quyn lc gia
hnh php, lp php v t php, v qua lm suy yu s kim sot quyn lc
trong x hi. Mt kha cnh phi cn nhc khc l chi ph vn hnh h thng
thng lut thng l cao, bi s thc hnh hng ngy i hi s phc v ca cc
chuyn gia php l v s phn x thng xuyn ca to n, trong khi nhiu mu
thun tim tng s trnh c nu cc b lut thng mi v dn s th hin y
trong sch lut. Tuy nhin, trn thc t, cc b lut ch en (black-letter) cng
c nhc im. Chng nh mt t lu tnh n gin v c kt logic, ng thi
kinh nghim cn cho thy vic da dm vo lut php chnh thc do quc hi ban
hnh thng dn ti s cng nhc trong cc giai on bin ng. Nhng ngi
theo ch ngha hnh ng chnh tr (political activist) vn i ph vi mc
phc tp ngy cng tng ca hot ng tng tc x hi bng cch ban hnh
nhng b lut v quy nh phc tp, thng l xut pht t yu cu ca cc nhm
c bit (special groupii). iu ny thng xuyn lm suy yu chc nng phi hp
ca cc th ch bn ngoi v i n ch ti khng nh nhn thc quan trng l
th gii phc tp li i hi nhng quy tc n gin (Epstein, 1995; v lun im
ng h vic cc quy tc bn ngoi c khm ph bi cc quan to v to n
cnh tranh, xem Cooter, 1996; Christaisen, 1989-1990).
Cn phi kt lun rng vic thit lp v p t cc quy tc bn ngoi l mt nhim
v phc tp, v vic ch da vo hoc php lut h thng ho (codified law) hoc
cch tip cn thng lut u khng gip t c mc ch thit lp quy tc bn
ngoi mt cch tho ng. Do vy, s pha trn linh hot vn ang c th
i
Black-letter law: Nhng nguyn l php l ph bin v vt ln trn mi h nghi, tranh ci. (ND)
ii
Mt nhm ngi lm vic vi nhau nhm t c iu g m h rt quan tm, c bit l bng cch
gy p lc ln chnh ph. (ND)
125
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
126
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
ra nhng mi rng buc (bonds): chng khi dy ci thc thnh vin (sense of
belonging) m a s c nhn u cm thy hi lng.
Trong nhng hon cnh khc, chc nng phi hp ca cc th ch c th hn
nhiu. Chng hn, cng dn ca mt t nc m s n nh gi tr ng tin
c m bo bng cc th ch ng tin cy c th tin tng nhiu hn vo vic
tit kim v vic u t vo ti sn tin t, hay vic ti tr cho nhng phn vn
vn cn thit cho cng cuc pht trin kinh t. Ngi ta nhn thy rng chnh s
tn ti ca cc quy tc tin t gin n li c xu hng to ra tc ng bnh n t
pht ln tng cu (aggregate demand), iu ny tng c ch ra trong mt bi
vit, vn c th coi l mt bi phn tch kinh in v tc dng phi hp ca cc
th ch (Simons, [1936] 1948).
Cc th ch c th nng cao hiu qu ca cc yu t sn xut nh lao ng
chng hn trong vic p ng nhu cu con ngi theo nhng cch thc tng t
nh cc yu t sn xut khc, chng hn ngun vn (capital) gip cho lao ng
(labour) t hiu qu cao hn. V th, chng ta c th coi cc th ch ca mt
cng ng l mt ti sn sn xut (productive asset) c gi tr. Chng ta c th ni
n ngun vn th ch (institutional capital).
Bo v phm vi t ch c nhn
Chc nng th hai ca cc th ch l nhm bo v phm vi t ch c nhn
(domains of individual autonomy) trc s can thip khng ng mc t bn
ngoi, chng hn t nhng k nm quyn lc. Cc th ch qua bo v t do c
nhn, mt trong nhng gi tr con ngi c bn m chng ta bn Chng 4.
Chng hn, vn minh Chu u bit n khi nim mang tnh th ch v quyn
t ch c nhn (private autonomy) k t thi Hi Lp v La M. Khi nim
dominium (domain) trong php lut La M, hin thn ca nim ny, c th dch
thiu cht ch l nh ca ti l lu i ca ti: ngha l, ngi ta ai cng c mt
phm vi t ch trong ngi nh ca mnh, nm di s bo v ca nhng th ch
c tn trng v kh d p t. Theo php lut La M, ch nh c quyn lc to
ln trong phm vi ngi nh, ni anh ta c t do hnh ng v s can thip t
bn ngoi l tri php. Mt th ch tng t cng bo v t hu trong nhiu x
hi. Cc quyn ti sn bo v ch ti sn khi hnh vi can thip t bn ngoi vo
cc hnh thc s dng ti sn t do v to ra mt phm vi m ch ti sn
c t do.
Vic bo v cc quyn t do (liberties) phm vi t ch c nhn bng cc th
ch khng bao gi l v hn nh. Vic t do theo ui mc ch ca ngi ny
thng nh hng n s mu cu tng t ca ngi khc, v th quyn t do
ca ngi ny phi lun nhn ra gii hn ca n trong quyn t do ca nhng
ngi khc. Nu thiu nhng rng buc nh th, t do s bin thnh phng tng.
Nu thiu nhng rng buc thch ng i vi t do, x hi s ri vo hn lon.
Tuy nhin, cn lu l chng ta ang bn v mt phm vi la chn nm gia hai
thi cc: tnh trng t do hon ton (khng b rng buc) hnh ng mt cch
t ch v tnh trng b chi phi hon ton bi ngi khc. Trn thc t, ch
y l lm sao cho mi ngi c hng phm vi t do ln nht c th, ngha l
127
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
cng c nhiu la chn chp nhn c cng tt. Kenneth Boulding trnh by
tng ny mt cch thi v:
T do l nhng g nm bn trong
hng ro lun l, tin bc, php lut v thc.
V chng ta t do, nu nh hng ro rng
(Hay pha bn kia ch l trng khng).
Chng ta n vi chnh tr (v ti li)
Khi quyn t do tt p ca bn ngn cn ti,
ri thng qua php lut chng ta i ti
Hn ch t do c t do.
(Boulding, 1959, trang 110)
128
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Kh nng chuyn t nhm x hi hay ngh ny sang nhm x hi hay ngh khc ca mt ngi. (ND)
129
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
5.5 c im ch yu ca cc th ch hu hiu
Tnh ph thng
D ng n ch ny trong mc 5.1, chng ta vn cn t ra cu hi y:
vy c im ca nhng th ch vn t ra hu hiu khi phi hp hnh vi c nhn,
hay nh cc lut s thng ni ca nhng th ch c tc dng quy chun, l
g?
Tiu chun u tin l cc th ch cn c tnh ph cp. Ni cch khc, chng
khng nn phn bit i x gia cc c nhn v cc tnh hung m khng c l do
d hiu. Tnh ph cp (generality) c Hayek (1973, trang 50) nh ngha l c
th p dng cho mt s lng ngi v tnh hung cha bit v cha th xc
nh. Tiu chun th hai l mt quy tc hu hiu phi c tnh chc chn theo
ngha kp: n phi d bit (minh bch), v n phi a ra s ch dn ng tin cy
lin quan n nhng tnh hung tng lai. Nh vy, nguyn tc chc chn hm
rng nhng cng dn bnh thng cn kh nng c cc tn hiu th ch mt
cch r rng, bit c hu qu ca vic vi phm quy tc, v c th tin tng vo
s lin quan ca hu qu vi hnh vi ca mnh. Nhng cu pht ngn m h
ca n th Delphi (Oracle of Delphii) khng to ra nhng th ch hu hiu.
Tng t, nhng ch d b mt v th lut php m h hay ph du cng vi phm
nguyn tc chc chn. Tiu chun th ba l cc th ch cn c tnh m, qua
cho php ch th ng ph vi tnh hung mi bng hnh ng sng to. Ba iu
kin ny gp chung li thnh khi nim tnh ph thng [universality] (Leoni,
1961).
Tnh ph thng c th c m bo tng i d dng trong trng hp cc quy
tc cm on. Quy tc ngi khng c n cp mang tnh ph thng, n to
cho ch th (actor) mt phm vi ln a ra quyt nh. N c p dng cho
mt s lng ngi v tnh hung cha bit, ng. Tnh ph thng quy nh
rng khng ai cn phi ng trn php lut. Nh vy, n cng hm s bnh ng
th tc (procedural equality) ca mi c nhn, iu m chng ta tho lun
trong Chng 4. Tnh ph thng l mt phn ca nhng g m con ngi nhn
i
Tc n th Apollo, v thn tin tri trong thn thoi Hy Lp v La M. (ND)
130
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
thc l cng bng. Vic p dng cc quy tc v hnh pht cho mi ngi m phn
bit i x theo v th ca ci, nh hng, chng tc hay tn gio th b coi l bt
cng.
Vic ph v nguyn l tnh ph thng c xu hng lm xi mn s tun th quy
tc v tnh minh bch (transparency) ca n, v do lm suy yu tc dng quy
chun v phi hp ca cc th ch. Chng hn, nu quy tc thng l y l
nhng ngi giu c thuc mt tng lp no li c nh gi theo mt tiu
chun o c khc vi ngi dn bnh thng, nu cnh st c th vi phm quy
tc giao thng m khng b trng pht, hay nu ngi ta p dng chun mc o
c cho cc quan chc chnh ph km nghim khc hn so vi ngi dn bnh
thng, th s tun th th ch t pht c th s suy yu. Lc , cc th ch s
khng hon thnh nhng chc nng m chng ta bn phn trc.
Tnh ph thng l mt thuc tnh thit yu v chnh thc ca php tr (rule of
law), mt khi nim vi truyn thng lu i Chu u m chng ta s bn ti
trong chng k tip, sau khi nghin cu chc nng ca cc tp hp th ch bi
bn.
131
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
rng buc chi phi ca hin tng khan him, hy nhn mnh rng mi cng c php l
mi u phi em li kt qu thng qua s ci thin no trong vic phn b cc ngun
lc x hi. ng xut nhng quy tc n gin sau:
quyn t ch c nhn (individual autonomy), quyn chim hu u tin
(first possesioni), s trao i t nguyn (vonluntary exchange), kim sot
hnh ng gy hn (control of aggression), c quyn hn ch cho nhng
trng hp cn thit, v s n b cng bng cho vic trng thu ti sn c
nhn, vi mt ci gt u min cng trc chnh sch ti phn phi
Bn quy tc u tin c thit k nhm xc lp cc mi quan h c bn
gia ngi vi ngi v quyn kim sot s v ca h, hai quy tc tip
theo c thit k nhm ngn nga nhng vn v phi hp vn vn tn
ti trong mt th gii ca cc quyn ti sn v kh c c nhn mnh m.
Ton b sng kin l nhm tm cch gim thiu sai st pht sinh t hai
ngun ny
Vic bo v ngi giu v h giu, hay bo v cc nhm li ch trc
tip (vested interestsii) v h c quyn lc, khng nm trong k hoch
chung. Nu nhng ngi c ti sn v uy th ln khng th tip tc cung
cp nhng hng ho v dch v m ngi khc mong mun v cn thit th
h cn phi thy, v s thy, kh nng thnh cng ca mnh dn dn b suy
yu trong ci th gii chu s chi phi ca nhng nguyn l php l c
phc ho y Tp hp quy tc php l n gin ny khng cho thy
du hiu no ca ch ngha thin v.
i
Quyn s hu ti sn c xc nh trn c s ai l ngi u tin thc hin mt s hnh vi nht nh i
vi ti sn theo quy nh ca php lut. (ND)
ii
Vested Interests: xem mc 10.5. (ND)
132
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
xuyn b nhim giun xon. Nhng iu cm k nh vy trnh cho con ngi khi
s phin toi ca vic phi tm hiu l do cm on hay l do ti sao mt tnh
hung no li phng hi n h. Mc ch y l nhm t c s tun
th khng suy tnh. Tt nhin, iu ny i khi cng c th hn ch kh nng
thch ng ca cng ng v cn tr vic iu chnh cc th ch cho ph hp vi
tnh hnh mi, mt vn m chng ta s gii quyt trong Chng 12.
Nh vy, cc biu tng v cm k to ra nhng phn ng c iu kin, thng
nh th t ng, qua c tc dng rt ngn qu trnh thu thp v nh gi thng
tin. Chng cng khin cho s p t quy tc din ra d dng hn. iu ny khng
loi tr cc th lnh cng ng quyn lc khi kh nng thnh thong li lm dng
cc biu tng v cm k hng kim sot thuc h mt cch ch k, ging nh
vic h c th lm dng cc th ch theo ng ngha.
133
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
trng kinh t cha c tin l trong th k ny gia tng mnh m thng qua s
phn cng lao ng. S gia tng nhanh chng ca ton b chi ph phi hp l
phn then cht ca thnh cng kinh t m t trong Chng 1. Khi lng chi
ph phi hp (coordination cost) cc nn kinh t tin tin c nh gi bng
khong mt na ton b chi ph sn xut v phn phi sn phm quc dn (so
snh vi North, 1992, trang 6). V ngi ta nh gi, t trng lao ng ng gp
vo hot ng phn phi v phi hp M tng t 11% trong ton b n lc
kinh t ca nm 1900 ln n mc t nht l 61% vo nm 1980 (Oi, 1990, trang
4). Mt b phn ln thuc khu vc dch v vn ang tng trng nhanh chng
cc nn kinh t tin tin li lin quan n vic phi hp cc mng li sn xut v
trao i ngy cng phc tp, v chi ph phi hp chim mt t trng ln trong
ton b chi ph ca n.
Thot nhn, ngi ta c th ngc nhin khi mt phn n lc kinh t to ln n vy
li cn dnh cho hot ng phi hp. Song trn thc t, mt phn ln chi ph iu
hnh doanh nghip li bao gm chi ph phi hp v kim sot (a) nhng ngi i
din lm vic trong , v (b) nhng ch th m doanh nghip tng tc trn th
trng. Mt phn ln tng chi ph ca doanh nghip l dnh cho nhim v qun
l b my t chc ni b, nghin cu th trng, nghin cu v pht trin k
thut, mua bn, vay mn, thu v s dng c vn php l, cng nhng n lc
khc nhm phi hp mi ngi. Nu chng ta nhn vo nn kinh t quc dn nh
mt tng th th hot ng thng mi v hu cn (logistics), cc dch v kinh
doanh, hot ng ti chnh, b my qun l ca chnh ph v nhng phn khc
khc ca ci khi nim gi l cng nghip phi hp (coordination industry) li
chim mt phn to ln v ngy cng tng trong tng sn phm quc dn.
V vy, iu ng ngc nhin l gi thuyt chi ph giao dch bng khng vn
thng c a ra trong hu ht cc cun sch gio khoa chun mc v kinh t
hc. y, mc gi m ngi mua thanh ton v mc gi m nh sn xut thu
c li c, chng hn, gi nh l ngang bng (mc gi cn bng th trng
[market-clearing pricei]). Trn thc t, i n mc gi ca nh sn xut th chi
ph giao dch c khu tr khi mc gi m ngi mua thanh ton. Qu thc,
trc khi chng ta c th thm ch l ch gi nh l ang bn v mt th trng
thi th ngi mua v ngi bn phi chu chi ph thng tin ng k tm
hiu xem liu h c mun mua hay bn mt sn phm c th no hay khng,
cng nh nhng g m h cn phi bit tin hnh mua bn. Cc nh kinh doanh
s ni vi bn rng doanh nghip ca h thng gi c kh nng cnh tranh
ch yu l nh ch trng n cch thc tit kim chi ph phi hp, c ni b ln
trong hot ng giao dch vi cc nh cung cp v khch hng, ch khng phi
chi ph sn xut. V th, chng ta dt khot phi tnh n chi ph phi hp. Cc
th ch ph hp c th gip tit kim chi ph tm kim thng tin thch hp v chi
ph giao dch kinh doanh. Hot ng thng tin lin lc tr nn r hn khng phi
ch l nh tin b k thut m, rt quan trng, cn nh vo qu trnh pht trin th
ch. Khi cc th ch khng c nh ngha r rng cn cc c quan qun l theo
ch ngha hnh ng (activist authorities) li khin cho h thng quy tc tr nn
phc tp, cc th ch c th chu nh hng t tnh cht phc tp gy bt n
i
Mc gi m cung v cu trn mt th trng c th cn bng nhau. (ND)
134
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Chi ph khi mt ngi i din (agent) c thu nhm a ra quyt nh cho thn ch. (ND)
135
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cc chi ph s hu v s
dng cc quyn ti sn a Cc th
ch
Chi ph
loi tr Nu s dng ch ng
(kt hp cc quyn ti sn)
Chi ph phi hp
Trao i hp Kt hp v s
ng thng qua dng trong phm
th trng vi cc t chc
Chnh ph
p t cng php
CP giao dch CP t chc
Chi ph i din ca
Chi ph tun th chnh ph
Khi mi ngi i mt vi chi ph thng tin hay cc chi ph phi hp khc lin
quan, vic h khng nm c thng tin li thng th hin tnh duy l (chng ta
gi l s v minh duy l trong mt chng trc). Chng ta v th phi gi
nh rng s phi hp ca chng ta lun din ra vi nhng i tc ch c mt
phn thng tin, v chng ta thng nhn nh sai phn ng nu li t gi thuyt
l nhng ngi khc nm c y thng tin, hay thc s mun nm c y
thng tin.
kt thc phn ny, chng ta cn ch ra rng chi ph loi tr, chi ph giao dch,
chi ph t chc v chi ph tun th ca mt ngi thng li l thu nhp ca ngi
khc. Nhng ai phi chu cc loi chi ph ny th quan tm n vic tit gim
chng, cn nhng ai thc hin giao dch hay p t yu cu tun th li thng
xuyn quan tm n vic duy tr chng mc cao. S xung t li ch ny ng
vai tr quan trng trong cc cuc ci cch th ch nhm tit gim chi ph phi hp
136
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
v chi ph i din ca chnh ph. N l gii cho thi chng i trc nhng
ci cch nh th t nhiu trong s nhng ngi i din thc hin chc nng phi
hp (coordinating agents), chng hn cc quan chc chnh ph, lut s v nh ti
phn (arbitrator).
Cu hi n tp
i
Ton b ngha v ti chnh ca mt chnh ph. (ND)
137
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
138
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ghi ch
1. Thut ng quy chun (normative) s dng y l theo nh ngha m ngi ta p dng ph
bin trong lut hc: nh hnh cch ng x ca con ngi cho ph hp vi mt quy tc chun
mc. ngha ny ca khi nim quy chun khc vi nh ngha vn ph bin trong kinh t
hc: m t tnh hnh cn phi nh th no cho ph hp vi mt tp hp gm nhng nhn nh
139
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
nh gi v gi tr, tnh thch ng, hay vai tr quan trng ca mt ngi hay mt s vt no trn c s
nim tin, kin hay thin kin c nhn thay v d kin thc t (nh gi ch quan).
ii
L thuyt kinh t a ra nhng nhn nh v gi tr (value judgement) v m t nhng g cn phi lm
gii quyt cc vn kinh t. (ND)
iii
L thuyt kinh t m t cch ng x ca nn kinh t cng nguyn nhn ca n, song li khng khuyn
ngh bt c chnh sch kinh t no thay i li ng x . (ND)
140
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
141
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Chng ta cha bao gi thit k c h thng kinh t ca mnh. Chng ta khng thng
minh lm iu .
(Friedrich A. Hayek, The Political Order of a Free People [Trt t chnh tr ca mt dn
tc t do], 1979)
142
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
143
Hnh 6.1: Cc loi h thng
H thng ng, n gin
144
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Theo Hin php 1993 ca Lin bang Nga, ukase l sc lnh ca Tng thng, c hiu lc php lut (song
c th khng thay i cc quy nh ca php lut hin hnh v c th b thay th bng lut do Quc hi
Lin bang thng qua). (ND)
ii
Gio s Hi gio chuyn gii thch lut Hi gio. (ND)
145
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Lut t
nhin
Ph thng/khi qut
Tuyn ngn
H thng th bc ca cc nh lp php
nhn quyn
Lut thnh vn
Lut con/quy nh
Rng buc cc
tha thun c nhn
Rng buc v to
dng trt t hnh
ng c nhn
Consistency with internal norms of society: nht qun vi nhng quy chun bn
trong ca x hi.
146
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Lut trao cho cc quan chc ph hp quyn thc thi hay p t php lut. (ND)
147
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
chnh ca nhng quy nh hay lut con c th, chng rng buc nhng g m cc
bn tham gia hp ng c php lm v lm sng t nhng kha cnh ca tho
thun m hp ng khng quy nh r. Chng hn, hp ng c nhn c th l
gia ngi s dng lao ng v cng nhn, nhm xc lp mt mi quan h lao
ng. Quyn t do tham gia vo mt hp ng nh th c th, bt lun l v l do
tt hay xu, chu s rng buc ca nhng quy nh cm lm vic vo nhng gi
nht nh. C nhin, hp ng y cn ph thuc vo lut thnh vn chnh thc
(formal statute law), vn ng trn cc quy nh nu mu thun tr nn r rng.
V ton b lut thnh vn li khng quan trng bng nhng quy tc th bc cao
hn, nm trong cc bn hin php thnh vn v bt thnh vn. Nu mu thun
xut hin, to n hin php s c yu cu phn x xem mt lut thnh vn no
ph hp vi hin php nh th no; n c th pht hin ra l lut thnh vn kia
v hiu do mu thun vi mt iu khon hin php c th bc cao hn. n lt
cc quy tc hin nh li phi ph hp vi tuyn ngn nhn quyn (bill of rights)
v t nht l trong truyn thng Anglo-Saxoni vi lut t nhin (natural law).
Chng hn, hp ng s v hiu nu n cho php lao ng n l (slave labour), v
tnh trng n l b coi l vi phm lut t nhin. Cc th ch cp cao hn hnh
thnh nn mt khun kh to ra s n nh v m bo tnh nht qun cho cc
quy tc cp thp hn. H thng th bc th hin mt h thng php l theo
ngha va nu trn. Trong cc x hi hin i, n c xu hng tr nn phc tp,
ng thi n cng tin ho, phn nh nhng bin ng trong bi cnh th gii
thc m h thng php l y iu chnh. Song nhn thc y li cho thy cc h
thng quy tc phc tp th kh tun th, do chnh cc quy tc n gin li c
nhiu nh hng hn khi to dng trt t cho mt th gii phc tp (xem mc
5.5).
Tr li vi v d v mi quan h tuyn dng: mt h thng quy tc xung quanh
hp ng lao ng em n cho nh tuyn dng v ngi lao ng s tin tng
ln hn v cch thc m nhng bin c trong tng lai s c gii quyt theo
hp ng m (open-ended contract) ca h. Mt h thng quy tc cng khin cho
cng vic son tho hp ng tuyn dng tn km hn, v nhiu tnh hung c
th m l ra phi quy nh thng qua tho thun c nhn, v thm ch khng th
tng tng ra ni vo thi im k kt hp ng, li c nh ot bi cc yu
t trong h thng th ch ph thng, khi nhng tnh hung nh th xy ra. Nu
cn c nhng iu chnh c th trong hp ng tuyn dng m th cc chi tit c
th c iu chnh trong khi tng th hp ng vn tip tc din ra trong phm
vi nhng yu t hp thnh (constitutional element) n nh v ng tin cy ca h
thng, nh vy m s tin tng ln nhau gia nh tuyn dng v ngi lm thu
c m bo.
i
Ch nhng ngi hay quc gia ni ting Anh nh l ngn ng th nht. (ND)
148
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
cc quy tc l nhm h tr cho qu trnh tin ho trong h thng quy tc. Nhng
quy tc th bc cao hn t ra nhng g m cc quy tc cp thp hn c th quy
nh v c th khng quy nh, ngay c khi chng b thay i. Chng m bo
cho s nht qun ni ti trong h thng quy tc v chi phi trnh t iu chnh quy
tc. Cc siu quy tc (meta rule) ny khc vi nhng th ch tc ng trc tip
n hnh vi ca ngi dn bnh thng (t php private law) ch chng ch
dn cho nhng ngi vn hnh h thng quy tc bn ngoi (cng php public
law). Cc siu quy tc cng ban b nhng trnh t quen thuc dnh cho vic thay
i nhng quy tc cp thp c th khi cn thit. Nh vy, cc th ch cp cao hn
to ra mt khun kh gip khoanh nh nhng thay i no c th din ra v
chng s c quyt nh nh th no. iu ny cn thit cho s vn hnh d tin
on ca h thng th ch qua thi gian. Nhng quy tc hin nh cp cao hn
gip duy tr kh nng tin on ca s vic trong khi cc quy tc cp thp hn
phi c iu chnh theo hon cnh mi. Nhng h thng th ch thiu h thng
th bc ca cc th ch nh th s cn tr s iu chnh mang tnh tin ho. V
lu di, chng c th tr nn thiu nht qun v chc chn.
Vic duy tr s hi ho v c kt ni ti ca cc h thng th ch phc tp, tc l
duy tr trt t quy tc, l iu khng d dng g. Tnh trng thiu hi ho c th
trnh c khi nhng ngi thit lp quy tc hn ch ban b nhng th ch cp
thp c th v ch trng thc y nhng quy tc khi qut, n gin. S gia tng
nhanh chng ca nhng lut l chi tit, c th tht kh c th c xem l du
hiu ca mt quc hi hiu qu. ng hn, l du hiu cho thy cc quy tc
khi qut b sao nhng khi ngi ta ch tm vo chuyn can thip t c
nhng mc ch c th. Kiu thit lp quy tc nh th to ra s bt an cho nhng
ai phi tu thuc vo chng, v khng ai c th bit cha ni g n tun th
v vn quy tc cp thp c th. Khi cc quy tc c sinh si ny n, h thng s tr
nn bt n. Trong tnh hung nh th, vic n gin ho v hp l ho cc quy tc
cp thp v pht trin nhng th ch ph thng mi c th l mt cch lm tt
cho h thng th ch li tr nn hu hiu hn (Epstein, 1995). Nng cao nng lc
phi hp ca cc th ch theo cch l mt kha cnh quan trng ca cng cuc
ci cch kinh t.
149
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
150
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
151
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Mc ch lun (teleology): Thuyt cho rng cc s kin v din bin l nhm t c mc ch no v
din ra v iu . (ND)
ii
Ch mt x hi m ngi dn c hng kh nhiu quyn t do, nh trong mt nn dn ch chng
hn. (N.D.)
152
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cc hnh ng Cc th ch
c to trt t nhn to,
c phi
hp
bng cc Cc theo
bng v QUY TC h quy tc
ch th (bn tay tr (bn tay c
hu hnh) v hnh) to trt
t t pht
Trt t tr nh v hn ch ca n
Trt t tr nh (planned order) gi nh trc, nh chng ta lu , mt bn tay
to dng trt t no , n trao cho nhng ch th khc nhau nhng ch dn r
rng v cch thc hnh ng. Trt t tr nh lun hm mt no v s
phi hp thng qua nhng ch th hay quy nh (prescriptions) c th - chng hn
mt dn nhc (tun theo ch dn ca nh son nhc v ca nhc trng), cc cuc
hnh qun ca cc n v qun i, hay s phi hp hot ng sn xut trong
phm vi mt nh my theo k hoch sn xut m nhim v c th c giao
cho nhng ngi i din (agent) khc nhau.
S phi hp hnh ng ca con ngi trong phm vi trt t th bc, tr nh
(designed, hierarchial order) t ra nhng i hi to ln v:
(a) s sn c ca tri thc v kh nng ca nhng ngi phi hp hnh ng
trong vic thu thp thng tin lin quan;
(b) kh nng ca nhng ngi lnh o nhm tip thu, s dng v truyn t
nhng thng tin nh th; v
(c) kh nng ca nhng ngi lnh o nhm thc y nhng ngi i din
pht huy n lc v gim st hot ng ca h.
Khi h thng tr nn phc tp v m ng, gii hn nhn thc ca nhng ngi
lnh o trong vic lp k hoch v to dng trt t c th d dng chuyn thnh
mt tr ngi. Trong nhng tnh hung phc tp, chng hn nh vic phi hp
hng triu ngi mua v ngi bn vi hng ngn th hng ho v dch v khc
153
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
154
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
155
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
S ph thuc vo cc quy tc ng x
Trt t t pht xut hin trong cc hnh ng bi cc c nhn ng ph vi h
thng quy tc vn iu chnh cch ng x ca h. Chng hn, cc hot ng th
trng ri vo mt m thc trt t d tin on v nhng hot ng u phi
tun theo cc quy tc: y, quyn t do hp ng v cc quyn ti sn (c tn
trng) m bo rng a s thnh vin th trng s x s theo nhng cch thc d
tin on. Thng thng, khi gi c tng ln, cc nh cung cp s cho bn khi
lng nhiu hn v ngi mua s gim bt nhu cu ca mnh. Ngi mua v
ngi bn a ra nhng quyt nh phc tp nhm ng ph vi nhng tn hiu gi
c nh th, song, bt chp quyn t do cng nh nhng l do a dng ng sau
phn ng ca mnh, h vn c th c ch i l s hnh x theo cch phi hp
t pht. V vy, th trng khng phi l ni hn lon v l ni tranh ginh v t
chc (free-for-all) nh cc nh quan st thiu hiu bit vn hay m t.
Nhng quy tc gip to ra trt t t pht trong nn kinh t th trng phi m
bo cc c nhn c thc y s dng tri thc ch quan nhm theo ui mc
ch ca mnh v c kh nng tin on li ng x ca ngi khc mt cch ng
tin cy. Trn th trng, iu ny ch yu ph thuc vo vic cc thnh vin c
php gi li nhng g m h kim c (quyn t hu c bo v) v tin tng
rng nhng ngi khc s gi ng cam kt (s ch ti hp ng). Nhng th ch
m bo cho iu ny ng vai tr ct t i vi trt t hu hiu trong qu trnh
th trng.
u im v nhc im ca hai cch to dng trt t khi gii quyt nhng nhim
v phc tp c minh ho mt cch n tng qua hai trn ng t ln xy ra
156
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Trong trit hc t nhin (natural philosophy), nguyn t lun l l thuyt cho rng mi vt th trong v tr
u c cu thnh t nhng khi rt nh, khng th ph v - cc nguyn t. (ND)
157
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
nhn cc h thng php l khc nhau v thuc nhng tng lp x hi khc nhau
phi gii quyt xung t trn c s bnh ng thay v da vo th php lut phong
kin ang thnh hnh thi by gi, vn phn b c quyn v ngha v cho mi
ngi theo giai cp c th.
Nhng nhn thc v x hi vn xem n tng t nh mt t chc m gii
lnh o sp xp s tng tc ca con ngi li th hin su sc trong k nguyn
ca nh nc chuyn ch (absolutist state) Chu u, chng hn khi hong
Luis XIV ca Php t m t mnh nh ci u ca x hi, cn x hi th c m
t nh mt c th.2 Nhiu trit gia th k 18 thuc Tro lu Khai minh
(Enlightenmenti) cng kch quan nim ny v nhn thc tt c mi ngi u
bnh ng trc php lut. Tuy nhin, mt quan nim tp th ch ngha v x hi
li c nh vn kim trit gia ngi Php gc Thu S Jean Jacques Rousseau
(1712-1778) ngi phn bc cc quan nim c nhn ch ngha ph bin. ng
truyn b khi nim ch chung (General Will, volont gnrale), phn nh
mt kiu ch x hi no vn tch bit khi v quan trng hn mong mun
ca cc c nhn. Nhng cng dn trng thnh, ng vit, cn phi t nguyn chu
s chi phi ca mt ch tp th nh th. Chng no m ci ch chung kia
c th hiu nh mt h thng th ch gip cho vic chung sng v lm vic cng
nhau tr nn kh thi th y khng c vn g. Song, trong trng hp cch
din gii v mt ch chung li vt ra ngoi iu , n s dn ti ch c
ti v ch ngha tp th tu tin. V Rousseau nhn xt, nhiu nh c ti by
t nim tin vo ci ch chung (vn lun do chnh h thc thi) v gn cho x
hi mt tm nhn, mt s mnh, mt nh mnh. Cc tc gia sau nh Auguste
Comte (1798-1857), Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) v Karl Marx
(1818-1883) u m t s mu cu c nhn nh l ngun gc ca nhiu ci xu
trong x hi v n gin ho qu trnh tin ho lch s phc tp m t nhng
m thc lch s tin nh v nhng bin chuyn x hi v i.
V d ni bt nht cho quan nim mang tnh t chc v x hi trong trit hc
Phng Ty l nim tin ca Karl Marx cho rng cc x hi vn ng theo mt l
trnh tin nh bao gm nhng giai on lch s cho n khi kt thc vi ch
ngha cng sn mt kiu thin ng trn mt t m hin tng khan
him (scarcity) s chm dt. Karl Marx t duy theo nhng quy lut st ca lch
s (iron laws of history) vn quyt nh s vn ng bin chng ca x hi (tt
nh lun lch s historic determinismii). Trong giai on chuyn tip l ch
ngha x hi, cn ch ng theo ui nhng mc tiu ca x hi bng cch t
chc cc c nhn thnh nhng n v tp th (hnh ng qun chng c t chc).
Tp th s thc y tin trnh lch s v do c hp php ho nh mt thc
th tp th tn ti tch ri khi cc thnh vin ca n. Trong trng hp ny sinh
xung t, n c quyn gt b kht vng c nhn v p t nhng mc tiu cao hn
ca mnh.
i
Tro lu tr tu Ty u th k 18, n nhn mnh l tr v khoa hc trong trit hc v trong hot ng
nghin cu v vn ho con ngi cng th gii t nhin. (ND)
ii
Thuyt cho rng tin trnh lch s c quyt nh bi nhng lc lng vt cht v tinh thn nm ngoi
ch con ngi v bt bin. (ND)
158
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
159
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
160
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
161
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
thng hng ho v tng. Nhng khc bit mang tnh h thng tng t cng
din ra gia nhng ngi theo ch ngha dn tc (nationalist) v sng trong cc
x hi cht hp, vi nhng ngi theo ch ngha th gii (cosmopolitan) v t
duy theo cc h thng m. Khi cc cng ng phi tri qua ci cch kinh t v bi
cnh th ch nn tng thay i th nhu cu chuyn i t m thc gi tr ny sang
m thc gi tr kia s xut hin, song cc tp hp phm cht c li thng tip tc
tn ti. iu ny km hm s iu chnh c nhn sang trt t mi v gy kh khn
cho qu trnh chuyn i h thng.
V d, ngi ta c th nhn thy cc quy chun ng x ca trt t khp kn trong
s nhng ngi ng truyn thng, nhng ngi min Nam Italia, hay cc
quc gia Trung ng. H khng sn sng hp tc vi cc i din ca chnh
quyn bi nhng ngi ny b coi l thuc v mt dng tc (th ch) khc v bi
ngi ta vn t ng cho rng c nhn ch theo ui nhng li ch ca nhm mnh
m thi. Khi cc quan chc chnh ph cng x s nh th h l i din ca mt
b tc (tribe) m khng phi l nhng k bo v cc gi tr ph thng th rt
kh t b m thc ng x ngi bo h ng thi pht trin trt t quy tc m, t
pht v cng vi l nhng li ch vt cht t s phn cng lao ng v phn
hu tri thc rng ri hn (Klitgaard, 1995). Trt t quy tc ph thuc vo thi
sn sng cng nh kh nng ca con ngi trong vic phn bit gia b tc v
x hi m.
162
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
163
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Tm nhn v x hi
Tnh v k nhm (s
Ch ngha c nhn
V k phn bit i x vi
ch k
ngi ngoi)
Thi i vi
ng loi Ch ngha c nhn
Lng v tha nhm
v tha (lng t thin
V tha (s chia s, tnh
c nhn, ch ngha
on kt nhm)
th gii)
164
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
165
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
166
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Xem mc 6.3. (ND)
ii
Chnh khch v nh lp php Athens, c cho l cha ca nn dn ch Athens. (ND)
iii
Giai on nn vn minh La M c i nm di chnh th cng ho, bt u t khong nm 510 trc
CN v ko di 450 nm. (ND)
167
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
tu v quyn kim sot ca c nhni ca pater familias, ngi cha ca gia nh.
ng ta c th kim sot cc vn trong phm vi dominium (ch quyn) ca
mnh: gia nh, t ai, ti sn m ng ta s hu. Nhng nim truyn thng ca
ngi Celtii v ngi Gicmanhiii (traditional Celtic & Germanic notions) v con
ngi t do cng c cc truyn thng Hi Lp v La M v t do c nhn
(individual freedom) v gip to ra truyn thng Chu u v t do c nhn.
Ti Chu u thi Trung c, nhng quy tc cho php to ra trt t t pht ca cc
c nhn t do c th hin r rng trong bn Magna Cartaiv nm 1215, y vn
l phn rng buc ca bn hin php vn nh hnh nn chnh ph Lin hip
Vng quc Anh (United Kingdom) v nhiu nc Anglo-Saxon khc. N
thng xuyn c ti khng nh, v tip tc tn ti hnh thnh nn mt phn
ca cc bn hin php hin hnh tt c cc nc theo truyn thng thng lut.
Trt t quy tc cng tng chim v tr quan trng trong ngh trnh ca nn cng
ho non tr M. V n l kht vng ca cuc Cch mng Php; i hi ca cuc
cch mng v galit (bnh ng) ban u c hiu l s bnh ng ca tt c
mi ngi, k c gii cai tr, trc php lut. Trong k nguyn hin i, ngi ta
tha nhn rng trt t quy tc khng ch i hi uy th ti thng ca cc th ch
m cn i hi s tha nhn chnh thc i vi nhng quy tc m bo cho s
tranh lun cng khai v s tun th quy trnh chun mc (due process) trong vic
iu hnh php lut v cc th ch khc (Walker, 1988, chng 1 & 2).
Cui th k 18 v trong th k 19, trt t quy tc tru tng chu s ph phn ca
cc tc gia nh Hegel v Marx (nh chng ta thy), v iu ny m ng
cho nhng n lc ln nhm xy dng cc trt t x hi, t ch ngha x hi ton
tr v ch ngha fascist cho n nhng n lc mang tnh cng bch t hn nhm
vo k ngh x hi (social engineeringv) cc x hi dn ch v cc nc thuc
th gii th ba. Nhiu nh nhn chng hc, tm l hc v x hi hc vn pht l
bi ton tri thc, chng hn nh Margaret Mead4, thc y nhng n lc ny v
h coi con ngi l sn phm ca vn ho, c th ti nh hnh thnh nhng con
ngi mi. H ra sc thc y nim lc quan thiu c s l x hi vi t cch
mt tng th c th c t chc theo mt trt t bi bn, c kt.
Tnh kh thi ca phng thc to dng trt t tp th cng l nn tng ca kinh t
hc phc li tn c in (neoclassical welfare economics) v vic vn dng n
vo chnh sch cng. u tin, cc nh kinh t hc hon chnh m hnh bng cch
gi nh v tri thc hon ho, t nht l nhm to thun li cho nh quan st khoa
hc. T , ngi ta c th suy ra nhng iu kin no cn p ng t ti
i
Personal discretion and control.
ii
Mt dn tc c ngun gc Trung u ri lan sang Ty u, qun o Anh (British Isles) vo cc giai
on trc khi ngi La M thng tr Chu u (t nm 27 TCN - 1453). (ND)
iii
Mt nhm dn tc c ngun gc Bc u, s dng cc ngn ng Gic-manh (mt nhnh con ca h
ngn ng n-u). Hu du ca cc dn tc ny ngy nay tr thnh cc nhm sc tc Bc v Ty u:
ngi Scandinavi (ngi an Mch, ngi Phn Lan - Thu in, ngi Na Uy, ngi Thu in, ngi
Iceland), ngi c (bao gm ngi o, ngi Thu S ni ting c, v ngi c bn a), ngi H
Lan, v ngi Anh, v.v. (ND)
iv
Bn hin chng xc lp quyn ca cc nam tc cng cc cng dn t do ca Anh c vua John ban
cho ti Runnymede nm 1215 v c xem l c s ca t do dn s v chnh tr Anh. (ND)
v
Xem mc 6.3. (ND)
168
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Guanxi: Cc mi quan h. (ND)
169
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
nh ngha vn ho
Thut ng vn ho (culture) c s dng nhm hm nhiu ni dung khc
nhau. iu ny chc chn s gy nhm ln nu nh ngha khng c lm sng
t. Chng ti chn nh ngha kinh in ca nh x hi hc ngi Anh Edward
Burnett Tylor (1883), ngi nh ngha vn ho bao gm ton b nhng kh
nng v thi quen m mt con ngi x hi thu nhn c. N kho lo ch ra
mi quan h cng thng gia c nhn v nhm x hi m vn ho ng vai tr cu
ni. N cng lm ni bt ci thc t l vn ho xoay quanh nhng th ch tip
th v nhng gi tr h tr chng. Tr s sinh th khng c vn ho. Vn ho v
th lun mang ni dung quy chun. Trn thc t, c th ni vn ho l tt c
nhng g ng truyn li cho th h k tip.
Vn ho theo ngha ny bao gm ngn ng (da trn mt h thng quy tc chi
phi nhng m thanh v k hiu m chng ta to ra), cc tng, cc gi tr, cc
th ch bn trong v bn ngoi; trong a s nh ngha, n cn bao hm nhng
cng c, k thut, cng trnh ngh thut, nghi thc v biu tng cng c kha
cnh th ch thun tu ca vn ho. (Trong ci ngha rng hn , t vn minh
[civilisation] thng c a chung hn.) N cha ng nhiu th ch bn trong
cc tp qun v quy c vn hnh thnh thng qua thc hnh v kh din gii
r rng cng nh kh chuyn giao tch bch cho nhng ngi khng phi l mt
phn ca nn vn ho . Nh vy, chng ta c th coi vn ho l mt h thng
quy tc m ch yu l ngm nh, c cng c bng nhng biu tng v du
hiu hu hnh khc v ni dung th ch ca n.
Mt nn vn ho chung s cng c s phn cng lao ng, v n gip gim bt ri
ro v chi ph giao dch. y l l do ti sao nhng ngi ng bo ca chng ta,
vn chia s nn tng vn ho vi chng ta, li thng c nh gi cao: vic
tng tc vi h s d dng hn. Nhng ngi tip thu mt nn vn ho chung,
m thng khng ngm ngi g v iu khi cn tr, vn cm thy thoi mi
gia nhng ngi khc trong cng ng vn ho ca mnh. T quan im ca cc
c nhn, nn vn ho ca h, v mt ch quan, l u vit so vi cc nn vn ho
khc, do s thn thuc vi cc th ch vn ho ca mnh gip h tit kim chi ph.
Khi chuyn ti mt nn vn ho khc, u tin ngi ta thng ch mun kt lun
ngay l nn vn ho kia thp km hn v n khng em n s thoi mi thng
l khi tng tc v buc h phi gnh chu thm chi ph giao dch. Tuy nhin,
nhng ngi theo ch ngha th gii (cosmopolitan) li hiu rng cc nn vn ho
l nhng h thng quy tc m gi tr ca chng li ph thuc vo nhng g m c
nhn tip thu c, ng thi cc nn vn ho thay th khc cng c th tip thu
c v c th vn hnh mt cch tho ng. H tha nhn nhng ngi khc c
170
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
S thay i vn ho
Vn ho khng phi l mt ct m l mt mng li h thng con (chng ln
ln nhau). Mt c nhn c th thuc v mt nn vn ho lng x, chia s nhng
quy c vn ho trn khp th gii ca mt ngnh ngh v ng thi cng c cm
gic gn b su sc vi nn vn ho ca mt quc gia bn ngoi. Ging nh bt
k mt th ch n l no, vn ho cng khng phi bt bin. Vn ho l mt
chun mc qun bnh tin trin chm chp ca nhng tng c nhn qua th
thch thi gian; n b ging x gia thi cc bo th, s cn thit phi bo tn
c s giao tip chung, v thi cc thc nghim, s cn thit phi ngn nga hin
tng cng nhc v suy gim nng lc trong bi cnh iu kin vt cht, k thut,
kinh t hay x hi thay i. V th, iu quan trng l cc nn vn ho lun sn
sng tip nhn nh hng t bn ngoi v duy tr c kh nng iu chnh.
i
Cross-fertilisation: s trao i qua li gia cc nn vn ho khc nhau hay li t duy khc nhau, c li cho
c hai bn. (ND)
ii
Thuyt tng i: nim tin cho rng nhng khi nim nh ng v sai, ci tt v ci xu, hay chn v gi,
khng c tnh tuyt i m thay i t nn vn ho ny sang nn vn ho khc, t bi cnh ny sang bi
cnh khc. (ND)
171
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ngun vn vn ho
Vn ho cc gi tr cng h thng th ch, cng nh nhng thnh t d nhn
thy hn ca n cu thnh mt b phn quan trng trong ngun vn con ngi
(human capital) ca x hi: tc l, n c ngha quan trng i vi mc hiu
qu trong vic chuyn ho cc ngun lc vt cht ca lao ng, t bn v t nhin
nhm p ng nhu cu v kht vng ca con ngi. V th, chng ta mi ni ti
ngun vn vn ho hay ngun vn x hi [cultural/social capital] (Coleman,
1990). Khi bn v tng l vn ho c tc ng kinh t mnh m n nn kinh
t, chng ta cn thc rng phn ln cc th ch vn ho u c tnh n (implicit)
v thng hin thn trong cc t chc (Chng 5). Qu thc, ngi ta thng
khng th d dng lm cho cc quy tc vn ho c tnh hin (explicit), v khng
i
Xem mc 2.2. (ND)
172
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
173
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Nhng s kin trong hai nm 1688-1689 dn n vic lt vua James II Anh (England) v s ln ngi
ca vua William III. (ND)
174
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
chc no chnh thc hay trn thc t ng trn php lut, chng hn l
khi khng c ch ti no dnh cho hnh vi vi phm hp ng ca cc nghip
on, hay khi nhng nhn vt quyn th vi phm php lut m khng b
trng pht. V th, php tr da trn mt s quy nh no ca t php
(private law), vn iu chnh cc mi quan h gia cc cng dn.
(b) Nguyn l th hai, h qu ca nguyn l th nht, l php tr cng phi p
dng cho nhng ngi c giao ph quyn lc chnh tr. Hnh vi ca cc
chnh tr gia v quan chc phi cng khai trc s thanh st theo quy nh
ca php lut. Vic min tr cc quan chc chnh ph khi php lut v
nhng l do chnh tr s vi phm hc thuyt php tr. iu ny cng ng
khi hot ng qun l khng chu s r sot ca cc quy trnh t php xc
minh l liu cc quan chc c tun th cc th ch hay khng, khi cc quan
chc chnh ph cp cao khng th b ngi dn kin tng, hay khi chnh ph
khng tun theo nhng quy tc k ton m n vn yu cu i vi doanh
nghip t nhn. Trn phng din ny, php tr i hi nhng quy nh no
ca cng php (public law).
(c) Ging nh tt c cc th ch, d nhin php lut cng i hi nhng ch ti
bt buc. Song cc ch ti cng bch phi c thc thi bi cc nh
chuyn mn bt thin v v tun theo quy tc. Hnh vi vi phm phi c
phn x bi nhng to n c lp v bt thin v, tun theo cc quy tc v
quy trnh chun mc (due process). Nhng phin to theo kiu n nh sn
(kangaroo court), hnh thc trng pht theo m ng (lynch law), vic ph
nhn mt s lng nghe thch ng trc bng chng, v s pht l cc th
tc thng thng lin quan n bng chng, u vi phm nguyn tc php
tr. Trn phng din ny, php tr i hi nhng quy tc th tc nht nh.
(d) Mt yu cu thit yu na ca php tr lin quan n s tng tc gia cc
th ch bn trong v bn ngoi. Php lut nhn chung phi khng mu thun
vi cc th ch bn trong ca cng ng v cc gi tr nn tng ca n,
mi ngi c kh nng v sn sng tun th php lut. u m hnh vi vi
phm thng xuyn xut hin, v cc gi tr nn tng ca con ngi xung
t vi php lut, y chnh l du hiu cho thy php tr b e do. S tun
th thun tu i vi tng cu ch php lut (ch ngha thc chng php l
legal positivism) v i vi cc th tc ca quy trnh chun mc (due
process), song li vi phm nhng gi tr nn tng v quy tc o c ph
bin, cng khng to nn php tr. Chng hn, ch ngha hnh thc php l
(legal formalism) c Quc x (lin quan n quyn ca cng dn Do
Thi) v k nguyn Stalin (lin quan n nhng ngi bt ng chnh
kin) chnh l s ph nhn r rng i vi php tr. Tng t, nu cc quan
chc tha nhn l mt s hnh vi no vi phm cc quyn t nhin
(natural rightsi) song vn nhn mnh vic p t tng cu ch ca php lut
hay quy nh th h li ang vi phm tinh thn php tr.
i
Nhng quyn do to ho ban cho con ngi. Trong Tuyn ngn c lp ca M, nhng quyn ny c
m t l bt kh xm phm, tha nhn tt c mi ngi sinh ra u bnh ng v tt c mi ngi u c
quyn c sng, quyn t do v quyn mu cu hnh phc. (ND)
175
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
176
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cu hi n tp
177
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ghi ch
1. Trong nhng nm 1990, mt t chc t thin c quan h vi nh th Mormon (Mormon
church) xy dng mt nh my xi mng Armenia nhm h tr cho qu trnh ti thit.
2. Cch nhn v x hi nh mt tng th c tnh cch (personality) ring v nhng mc tiu
ring, vn tch bit v cao hn c nhn, bt ngun t Plato (427-347 trc CN), t mt s
cch nhn Do Thi gio Thin Cha gio vn ch trng vai tr ca nhm, v t truyn thng
ch ngha tp on (corporatism) lu i Chu u. Nhng nim tng t v cc thc th
tp th cng tn ti trong cc x hi Phng ng, song y nim v cc mc tiu tp th
li gn cht hn vi nim v ci m nh cai tr th hin nh l biu tng ca mt x hi
tng th.
3. Ch ngha quc gia (nationalism) v ch ngha quc x (national socialism) cng cho rng cc
quc gia c nh mnh tp th, vt ln trn c nhn. iu ny dn n nhng bin thi khc
ca ch ngha tp th.
4. Margaret Mead l ngi tng rt c tn trng trn trng quc t nh quan nim rng x
hi c th ti nh hnh c. y l nhng quan nim da trn nghin cu hi ht, nu
khng mun ni l gian di, vng lnh th Samoai thuc M; chng cho rng c th tn ti
nhng x hi thot khi p lc (stress-free), khng c nhng th ch h khc rng buc
nhng bn nng ng vt. K t ngi ta chng minh qua nghin cu thc nghim
rng Mead hiu nhm x hi Samoa, ni vn c qun l bng nhng b quy tc ng x
kht khe, nhng iu cm k v cc bin php kim sot (Freeman, 1983).
5. o c hc Trung Hoa c xu hng ch trng nhng ngha v chung trong cc mi quan h
c nhn. Nh Mnh T (375-289 trc CN), hc gi v nh gio v Khng gio, tng vit:
i
Lnh th ca M, gm mt nhm o nm Nam Thi Bnh Dng. Din tch 195km2, dn s 57.663
ngi (2007). (ND)
178
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
o c hc [quy nh] ... nhng nguyn tc l gia cha con c tnh cm yu mn, gia vua
ti c bn phn, gia v chng c khc bit, gia gi tr c th bc, gia bng hu c thu
chung (trch trong tc phm ca Rozman, 1991, trang 58).
6. Max Weber, nh tin phong v i trong vic tm hiu vai tr ca cc th ch vn ho i vi
tng trng kinh t, nh x hi hc v nh kinh t hc ngi c, ngi pht minh ra thut
ng o c lao ng Tin Lnh (Protestant work ethici), tng kt lun rng nn vn ho
Trung Hoa b giam hm qu mc vo thi cc ph bo th (pro-conservative) nn khng th
cho php tng trng kinh t (Weber, 1951). Hin nay, cc nh bnh lun li ang tn dng
cc nn kinh t tn Khng gio (neo-Confucian ii economies) v quy thnh cng ca chng
cho nhng c im vn ho (xem Kasper, 1994b; ngoi ra xem thm Chng 11).
i
Nim tin vo gi tr lun l ca lao ng, s tn tin v trch nhim ca mi ngi i vi hnh vi ca
mnh. (ND)
ii
Tn Khng gio (Neo-Confucianism): Hc thuyt mi v Khng gio bt u t triu i nh Tng
Trung Hoa th k th 10. (ND)
179
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
PHN II
NG DNG
CA KINH T HC TH CH
180
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
181
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
182
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cc quyn t hu
Trong phn ln cc x hi hin i, c nhn v t chc c cc quyn t ch s
hu v s dng nhng ti sn nht nh, min l h khng can thip n quyn
ca ngi khc (ti sn ring, c nhn). i vi c nhn, nhng ti sn bao
gm thn th, k nng v tri thc ca mnh (quyn c sng v quyn lao
ng). C nhn cng c quyn, vn c tn trng v bo v rng ri trong x
hi, nhn thnh qu t lao ng ca mnh (tr nhng ni c tnh trng n l; xem
Engerman, do Drobak & Nye ch bin, 1997, trang 95-120). Cc c nhn v t
chc v th c quyn th hng nhng ti sn m mnh s hu, t quyt nh cch
thc s dng chng, nhn thnh qu t vic s dng v nh ot ti sn theo
mnh (Alchian, 1987; Alchian & Demsetz, 1973). Quyn t hu i vi mt ti
sn m bo cho cc c nhn v nhm c nhn c c quyn kim sot v
hng li t ti sn, chia tch v chuyn nhng ti sn. iu khin cho mi
ngi tin tng rng li ch t vic s dng ti sn, m nhng ngi khc nh
gi cao, c th gi c cho mnh. n lt, iu ny li thc y cc ch ti sn
khm ph v theo ui nhng hnh thc s dng ti sn m ngi khc mong
mun. Vic vi phm cc quyn ti sn phi chu nhng ch ti vn c cnh bo
thng qua nhng dn xp th ch bit. u m s bo v ny bt cp v
quyn t ch c nhn i vi ti sn b hn ch, cc quyn ti sn tr nn
km gi tr hn. Ngi ta s n lc t hn a ra nhng g m ngi khc nh
gi cao cng nh khai thc ti sn ca mnh nhm khm ph v cung cp
nhng th hng ho v dch v thm ch cn c nh gi cao hn.
V vy, chng ta c th nh ngha cc quyn ti sn l mt nhm quyn c bo
v ca cc c nhn v t chc trong vic nm gi hay nh ot nhng ti sn
nht nh (chng hn bng cch thu tm, s dng, cm c v chuyn nhng ti
sn), v trong vic nm gi li ch t qu trnh s dng nhng ti sn . iu
ny d nhin cng bao hm c li nhun m tc thua l. Nh vy, cc quyn ti
sn ko theo trch nhim i vi vic s dng ti sn cng nh li ch t ti sn.
Khng nn nhm ln cc quyn ti sn vi hin vt c s hu. Cc quyn ti
sn cho php ch nhn hng li ch t ca ci v p t nhng chi ph m quyn
s hu em li. Cc quyn ti sn do khng phi l nhng vt th vt cht m
l cc quyn s hu (title) v nhng ngha v, m x hi tn trng rng ri.
Cc quyn t hu lun xc lp mi quan h gia cc c nhn xc nh v ti
sn xc nh, c th l hng ho vt cht, tng hay thn th ca con ngi.
u m nhng quyn ny c tn trng v bo v, chng ta ang ni n
cc quyn t do kinh t (economic liberties). iu quan trng l mi quan h
quyn ti sn (property rights relationship) phi mang tnh ph thng theo nh
nh ngha trong Chng 5. u m cc quyn ti sn m nht v thiu chc
chn, nhiu hnh thc s dng ti sn hu ch khng din ra. Chng hn, tnh
trng m h v lng lo trong khu qun l ti sn ca khi Soviet c to ra
nhng bt trc ln v tng ng vi l tnh trng khai thc ti sn vt cht v
tr tu yu km. Nn kinh t suy thoi. V nhng bt trc ngy cng tng v quyn
s hu t ai vn bt ngun t nhng yu sch t ai ca th dn Canada v
Australia bt u dn n tnh trng gim st hot ng u t v s dng t
183
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
S hu tr tu
Cc quyn ti sn khng ch c th gn vi nhng ti sn vt cht m cn c th
gn vi nhng mnh tri thc d nhn bit. Nh chng ta nhn thy trong
Chng 1, tng trng kinh t hin i ph thuc rt nhiu vo vic nng cao tri
thc k thut v t chc. Tng trng s din ra nu mi ngi c th trng ch
vo vic chim hu thnh qu t n lc v hnh vi chp nhn ri ro ca mnh.
iu ny c ngha l ngi ta phi tm ra nhng dn xp th ch cho php ch s
hu tri thc hu ch gt hi c li ch vt cht t vic chia s tri thc. Mt cng
c nh th l s bo v sng ch c quyn (patent). Cc c quan chnh ph nh
gi s sng to v gi tr ca nhng mnh tri thc khc bit, c th c cp bng
sng ch, v trao cc quyn sng ch c quyn (patent right), cho php ch nhn
c quyn s dng tri thc .1 Trong nhng hon cnh nht nh, iu ny c th
ng vai tr l ng c thc y mi ngi to ra v th nghim tri thc cch
tn, cho d th tc cp bng sng ch gy hao ph ngun lc.
Vic bo v s hu tr tu i hi s thn trng v nhiu tri thc k thut c th,
v tnh trng cp giy php v sng ch c quyn (patent) qu mc s to ra
nhng v th c quyn gy cn tr cho hot ng i mi (xem mc 8.2), c
bit l nu ngnh ngh v c quan cp php li cu kt vi nhau. Do vy, vic
bo v ngun vn tri thc phi lun nm trong mt khong thi gian hu hn.
Ch ngha t bn
Ngy nay, h thng t bn ch ngha da trn cc quyn t hu cng vic s dng
t ch cc quyn l h thng kinh t thnh hnh nht trn th gii, cho d him
khi hnh thi thun tu ca n. Cc ch ti sn quyt nh a ra th trng ti
sn ca mnh, hay mt s hnh thc s dng no , mt mc cht lng no
, s lng no v mc gi no . H hy vng s t c giao ko vi
ngi mua, nhng ngi s quyt nh liu c nn chp nhn hnh vi cho hng
kia hay khng v thng dng tin trao i. Nu ngi mua nh gi nhng g
ang cho bn l bao hm mc gi m nh cung cp yu cu th nh cung
cp y c l s c li nhun. Ngi bn thm ch cn c th cm thy b thuyt
phc l nn tng thm s lng cho hng trong tng lai. Nu nhu cu gim
xung, nh cung cp b tht vng v phi chu thua l. Trong trng hp y, anh
ta s khng cn tip tc cho bn th hng ho hay dch v c th theo nhng
iu kin cung ng ban u. Ngi mua qua tc ng n nhng g c sn
xut v cung cp trong di hn (ch quyn ca ngi tiu dng consumer
sovereignty).
i
Quan nim t v ch: ( Australia v Canada) tng v quan nim php l cho rng khi nhng ngi
Chu u u tin t chn n Australia v Canada th t ai y l v ch v do h c t do nh
c. iu ny c phn quyt l khng c gi tr php l. (ND)
184
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
7.2 c im ch yu ca cc quyn ti sn
Kh nng loi tr
c im c bn ca cc quyn t hu l ch ti sn c quyn loi tr ngi khc
khi vic chim gi, ch ng s dng v hng li t hnh vi s dng ti sn ,
ng thi phi chu trch nhim y i vi ton b chi ph s dng ti sn.
Kh nng loi tr (excludability) l iu kin tin quyt i vi quyn t ch ca
ch ti sn, cng nh i vi c ch khuyn khch m qua cc quyn t hu
thc hin chc nng ca n. Ch khi ngi khc c th b loi tr khi vic chia s
li ch v chi ph m cc quyn ti sn em li th nhng li ch v chi ph ny
mi ni b ho (internalised) c, tc l, c tc ng y v trc tip n
k vng v quyt nh ca ch ti sn. Khi , s nh gi ca ngi khc v
cng dng ca ti sn c bo hiu y n ch ti sn v anh ta s c ng
c tham gia vo hnh thc s dng ti sn m ngi khc hoan nghnh thng qua
nhng l phiu bng tin ca h.
Nhng tn hiu hiu ny s b mo m khi mt s li ch, hay mt s chi ph,
khng tc ng n ch ti sn. Xin minh ho iu ny qua mt s v d:
mt ch t b mt mt phn hoa li do nn trm cp s khng thm canh
nhiu nh mt ch t m rung ng ca anh ta c bo v y ;
ngi chu chi ph tim phng vc-xin to ra li ch c nhn cho bn thn,
song ng thi cng to ra li ch bn ngoi, chng no m anh ta lm gim
nguy c bnh tt cho ngi khc. S ngi tim vc-xin s nhiu hn nu
nh, bng cch no , ngi c hng li bn ngoi c th buc phi
thng mt khon tin cho ngi tim phng vc-xin;
ch nh my no to ra nhng chi ph ch ni b ho (interalised) c mt
phn, v mt phn tc ng n ngi ngoi (chng hn, nhim mi
trng), s quyt nh sn xut nhiu hn so vi ch nh my no phi chu
hon ton chi ph v buc phi n b cho nhng nn nhn b nhim.
Nh vy, kh nng loi tr ng vai tr quan trng m bo hnh vi s dng
ti sn t hu s c dn dt nhm phn nh nhng g m ngi khc mong
mun. Tn hiu li-l ng vai tr ng c (incentive) y, v vic cung cp
nhng hng ho v dch v m ngi khc mong mun ch l h qu ca ng c
y m thi (Schumpeter, 1947, trang 148).
Hiu ng ngoi lai pht sinh khi bi ton tri thc hin hu, khi m vic o lng
ton b chi ph v li ch ri quy chng cho trch nhim ca ch th l bt kh thi
185
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
186
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
187
Hnh 7.1 Cc hnh thi ca ti sn
Nhng ngi s dng khc c th b loi tr hay khng?
Phn b qua th trng Khng Khng cn La chn tp Phn b thng qua qu trnh chnh
(la chn t) hn sut nhu
cn thit th t nguyn tr (la chn cng, tp th)
hn sut cu. La
chn cc
188
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Khng c ngun lc
vn tp th
kinh t
no
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
189
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Phiu dng trao i hng ho v dch v thay tin. (ND)
ii
X hi ho l hnh vi chuyn cc quyn ti sn t t hu sang cng hu, i lp vi t nhn ho. (ND)
190
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Nhng thay i v v th ti sn
S xem xt trn phng din quyn ti sn i vi mt s ti sn li thay i cng
vi thi gian v cng ngh. Khi trn tri t t ngi sinh sng th khng c hin
tng khan him ti nguyn thin nhin. Trng thi ny c thut li trong Kinh
thnh nh l Thin ng. Khi s ngi chuyn ti mt khu vc nhiu hn, cc
ngun lc tr nn khan him v ci cng c th ch hng ho cu lc b (club
good) c pht minh ra. Cc b tc loi tr ngi ngoi khi vic s dng ti
sn ca mnh (trng hp 1a trong Hnh 7.2). Khi cc nhm pht trin v cc quy
tc phi chnh thc nhm hn sut s dng bt u tht bi, t cng s c phn
chia v ro chn, bin thnh nhng l ti sn t nhn (trng hp 1b trong Hnh
7.2).
Nu ti sn x hi ho hot ng khng hiu qu, ngi ta c th cn nhc vic
chia nh cc nhm ln v khng hn ch c hi tip cn, nh vy ti sn x hi
ho c th c i x nh ti sn cu lc b, v cc cng c hn sut t tn km
hn, t quy cch hn s tr nn kh thi (trng hp 3 v 4). Chng hn, dch v y
t trn ton quc c th c trao cho cc cng ng v cc nhm nh chng
ch phc v thnh vin ca mnh v hn sut hay tr cp cho c hi tip cn.
Nhng loi hng ho cng cng nhn to m vic cung cp v ti tr ngy cng
tr thnh gnh nng cho ngi np thu th c th chuyn thnh hng ho cu lc
b (club good) hoc thm ch hng ho t nhn (t nhn ho, trng hp 2). iu
c th s khin cho mt s ngi luyn tic, bi h tng c tip cn nhng
hng ho gn nh t do ny, song hnh thc phn b mang bn cht kinh t rt
cuc li c th dn ti vic cung cp nhng hng ho v dch v nh th hiu qu
hn. iu ny s khin cho nhng dn xp hnh chnh phc tp nhm hn sut
mc s dng tr nn khng cn cn thit. Hng ho khu vc cng ng
(public-domain good) cng c th chuyn sang t hu, vi hy vng hoc gim tr
cp hoc gim chi ph gim st nhng quy tc hn sut c hi tip cn. Chng
hn, cc phiu thanh ton lng thc (food voucher) c th b rt li hay mt s
tng lp nhn dn no b mt quyn chuyn ch min ph (trng hp 5 trong
Hnh 7.2). Chng ta nhn thy l hng ho t do c th tr thnh hng ho t
nhn v ngc li (trng hp 8), v hng ho cng cng thun tu c th tr
thnh hng ho t nhn c quyn, chng hn khi hot ng bo v ca cng an
c cc c quan an ninh t nhn tip qun (trng hp 7).
Khi cc quyn t hu c tp th ho (trng hp 6), giao ko t nhn song
phng c thay th bng hnh thc la chn chnh tr, v cc vn ca la
chn t (private choice) c thay th bng cc vn ca la chn cng (public
choice), ni dung m chng ta s bn ti trong Chng 10.
191
Hnh 7.2 S thay i trong nhng dn xp v ti sn: cc trng hp chn lc
Ti sn chung
192
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
193
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Chi ph loi tr
Vic loi tr ngi khc khi hnh vi s dng ti sn tri php s gy ra chi ph
cho ch ti sn. Hnh vi s dng tri php nh th c th l trm cp hay chim
dng t tri php chng hn. ngn nga iu , ngi ta phi chu ph tn
lm kho, hng ro, ng k c phiu cng nh quyn s hu t, v ci t h
thng bo v thng tin trong my tnh. Chng ta gi nhng chi ph ny l chi ph
loi tr (exclusion costs).
Chi ph loi tr cao lm gim gi tr ca ti sn. Chng ph thuc ng k vo
nhng dn xp th ch, bt u vi cc chun mc o c nn tng m cng
ng chia s. Nu t hu c tn trng t pht th chi ph loi tr s thp v gi
tr ti sn s tng i cao. Nu mt cng ng pht minh ra mt h thng p t
quyn ti sn vi chi ph thp, iu cng c li cho gi tr ti sn. Chng hn,
mt h thng ng k quyn s hu t ai hu hiu s lm tng gi tr t ai.
u m php lut ti sn c p t thng qua hnh ng tp th (lut php, cnh
st, b my t php), mt b phn ln chi ph loi tr s do tp th gnh
chu, song i vi cc ch ti sn iu ny li em n li th chi ph ng k so
vi hnh thc bo v t nhn (hin tng kinh t quy m). Chng ta bit rng cc
h thng th ch khc nhau c nh hng to ln n chi ph loi tr v gi tr ti
sn. Khng c g ng ngc nhin khi cc ch ti sn, nu c c hi, s chuyn ti
sn ca mnh sang mt mi trng m ti sn y c nh gi cao v h
sn sng ng thu cung cp hot ng bo v tp th (protective collective
action).
Chi ph loi tr thp khng phi l thc t m nhn loi vn thng gp. Ti
nhng khu vc rng ln mnh mng thuc th gii cc nc ang pht trin, ti
sn ca nhng ngi dn bnh thng t khi nhn c s bo v hu hiu. H
thng xuyn phi da vo nhng h thng bt hp php; nhiu ngi phi nm
194
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
195
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
196
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
197
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
198
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
199
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
hon ton (bn) hay quyn s hu v s dng ti sn trong mt khong thi gian
hu hn (chng hn, cho vay mn hoc cho thu); bn kia c th c nhu cu v
ti sn hay vic s dng ti sn v thng ngh thanh ton mt khon tin.
Trong trng hp trao i, mt tho thun mua bn c th da trn hp ng
mt ln tc thi (once-off, simultaneous contract) hoc hp ng phi tc thi
(non-simultaneous contract), tc l tho thun quy nh vic hon thnh hp ng
vo mt thi im n sau: chng hn, hnh vi chim hu hin vt c th kt thc
vo thng sau, v vic thanh ton c th l di hnh thc tr gp din ra trong
nhiu thng sau khi bn.
Hp ng phi tc thi lin quan n tn dng (credit). Trong trng hp ny,
nhng vn c th v gim st v ch ti (enforcement) s ny sinh. Cc bin
php bo v mang tnh th ch nhm chng li s trn trnh ngha v hon tr ti
sn theo hp ng theo kiu c hi cn phi c thit lp.
Hp ng m hay hp ng quan h (open-ended/relational contract) l nhng
tho thun nhm m trch vic thc hin mt cng vic no trong mt
khong thi gian bt nh. Khng phi tt c mi kt cc kh d (eventualities)
u c th nhn thy trc, cha ni g n chuyn iu chnh, thng qua cc iu
khon hp ng. Cc hp ng quan h xut hin thng xuyn trong nn kinh t
hin i phc tp, ni m nhiu mi quan h kinh t l bn vng v lp i lp li
ng thi s lin kt gia chng l ph bin.
Nhng hp ng quan h buc cc bn hp ng phi ng u vi bi ton tri
thc; chng em n cho hai bn hp ng mt cu trc ng tin cy v s tin
tng no . Song chng li da vo cc th ch nhm tit kim chi ph thng tin
v cho php iu chnh linh hot. Cc quy tc ph hp t ra nhng th tc lin
quan n cch thc gii quyt nhng tnh hung bt ng v cha quy nh, nh
chi ph giao dch c hn ch v cc i tc hp ng c th tin tng l nhng
chi tit c th v mi quan h tng lai ca h s c gii quyt trong trng
hp xy ra xung t.
200
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
nhn (v doanh nghip t nhn) mt khng gian t do cho php h tm kim cch
s dng ti sn tt nht, k c tri thc ca mnh. Quyn t ch ca ch ti sn d
nhin khng b hn ch bi cc quy tc ph thng; song n li b vi phm khi cc
ch ti sn phi i mt vi v s hn ch kh d xut pht t quyn lc c nhn
(nhng thng l mang tnh hn ch ca nhng ngi tham gia th trng) hoc t
hnh ng tp th (chng hn, s gia tng nhanh chng ca nhng quy nh c th
nhm nh trc cc kt qu v mi trng t nhin, sc kho con ngi hay
phn phi thu nhp). Nhng hnh thc can thip nh th c th c hp php
ho bng hnh ng chnh tr, song chng li lm gim quyn t ch c nhn v
lm phc tp thm bi ton tri thc ca cc ch ti sn, v chi ph thng tin v cc
chi ph giao dch khc b i ln. Khi nhng hn ch i vi quyn t ch c nhn
nh th l ph bin, chng c khuynh hng tr nn mu thun v mc tiu thnh
vng c kh nng b nh hng. Quyn t ch c nhn l s phn chiu ca ch
ngha c nhn vo trong lut ti sn. cc ch tp th ch ngha, ni c
khuynh hng p t nhng mc tiu tp th ht sc gt gao, cc quyn t hu
ngay c khi tn ti chnh thc s dn dn b xo b. Lc , cng thng
xuyn v tnh trng trn lan ca nhng ch th mang tnh quy nh s khin cho t
hu ch cn tn ti trn danh ngha thi, k c tinh thn trch nhim v s t lc
(self-reliance) cng vy.
Quyn t ch trong vic s dng ti sn c nhn ca mt ngi k c tri thc v
lao ng ca ngi ng ngha vi khi nim m i khi c m t l cc
quyn t do kinh t (economic liberties), mt phm vi t do hot ng kinh t
c tn trng. Cc quyn t do kinh t s hu v s dng ti sn c nhn ny
em li ngha thc cht cho cc quyn t do dn s v chnh tr (civil and
political liberties). Chng cho php ngi dn bo v cc quyn ny vi nhng
phng tin vt cht trong tay mnh, v h lm vy m khng cn phi xin php
ai trc (Friedman, 1962).
201
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
s phi i mt vi cnh tranh trn thc t hay nguy c cnh tranh tim tng t
cc ch ti sn khc. Ngy nay, trong k nguyn ca chi ph vn chuyn v chi
ph giao dch thp, phn ln cc th trng khng sm th mun cng s b cnh
tranh bi nhng k bn ngoi, nhng ngi lc s a ra nhng la chn t
do, t ch cho pha bn kia ca th trng. Mc bn vng ca phn ln hn
ch t nhn i vi quyn t ch c nhn ph thuc vo s ng h ca chnh ph
(Friedman, 1991).
Do , nhng hn ch su rng v bn vng hn i vi quyn t ch kinh t c
nhn u bt ngun t hnh ng chnh tri. Quyn lc chnh tr thng c s
dng hn ch quyn ca cc ch ti sn (cc quyn t do kinh t). Vai tr c
bn ca cc th ch bn ngoi l nhm bo v cc quyn ti sn, ch yu thng
qua nhng quy tc ph thng mang tnh cm on (proscriptive). Nu nguyn l
tnh ph thng (universality) b t b v nhng quy tc c th mang tnh quy nh
li c sinh si ny n th rt c kh nng l chnh ph s phn bit i x gia cc
ch ti sn khc nhau v nhng ngi s dng ti sn s phi chu chi ph giao
dch ngy mt tng nhanh. Vn khng phi l bn thn vic s dng cc quy
tc mang tnh quy nh (cc ch th) ca chnh ph, m chnh l cng v mt
s dng chng.
Chng ta s quay tr li vn ny trong Chng 8 khi bn v cnh tranh v
trong Chng 10 khi bn v hnh ng tp th.
i
So vi nhng hn ch t nhn. (ND)
ii
T hp cng ty c hnh thnh nhm kim sot hot ng sn xut, cnh tranh v gi c. (ND)
202
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
203
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Anh Ronald Coase khm ph ra cho l thuyt kinh t khi ng tm cch gii
thch l do tn ti ca cc doanh nghip. ng kt lun, chi ph k hp ng
thu ph vi cc nh cung cp mt s u vo nht nh trn th trng c th tit
gim c bng cch tham gia vo nhng mi quan h m, tng i lu bn v
c h thng th bc, ni cch khc l bng cch kt hp cc ngun lc hnh
thnh nn nhng t chc nh doanh nghip (Coase, [1937] 1952); Cheung, 1983;
Demsetz, 1988). Mi quan h t chc tng i bn vng, chng hn gia ngi
lm thu v doanh nghip, gip tit kim chi ph thu nhn cng hng ngy trn
th trng.
Cng vic tnh ton v d on chi ph giao dch c th l tn km, v ngi ta
phi gim st nhng c im k thut phc tp, thi gian, nhng bin php m
bo cho vic hon thnh hp ng cng nhng quy nh v hnh ng trong
trng hp khng hon thnh hp ng, ng thi cn phi m bo rng nhng
iu khon tho thun phi c p ng sao cho c hai bn u cm thy hi
lng. Nu bt ng xy ra, s phn x vn kh d tn km, cng nh cc bin
php ch ti hp ng, s tr nn cn thit. Do nhng chi ph nh th nn vic
tham gia vo nhng dn xp m, chc chn, nhm iu tit nhng tng tc lp i
lp li, chng hn cc hp ng tuyn dng, thng l c ngha. Nhng dn xp
m nh vy to ra cc doanh nghip m s hin hu ca chng ch c th gii
thch l do s tn ti ca cc chi ph giao dch.
Mt s tc gi gi nhng chi ph giao dch tc nghip, lp i lp li, m Coase
lm sng t ln u tin vo thp nin 1930 trn y l chi ph giao dch theo l
thuyt Coase (Coasean transaction costs).
204
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Vic mt cng ty thu lao ng hay mua linh kin t mt ngun bn ngoi thay v s dng nhn lc hay
nh my ca mnh. (ND)
205
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
206
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Hp ng t ch ti
S tin tng vo kh nng hon thnh hp ng qua thi gian li bt ngun, trc
ht, t s tn ti ca mt s c ch t ch ti, da trn nhng th ch bn trong
khng i hi cc c ch ch ti chnh thc:
(a) Do nhiu mi quan h kinh doanh sinh li ko di nn hai i tc hp ng c
s kim sot ln nhau t ng. Nu mt bn vi phm hp ng, bn kia c
quyn la chn l tr a theo mt cch no hay chm dt hon ton quan
h kinh doanh. Hnh thc n ming tr ming (tit for tat) c th l mt ch
ti mnh. Trong trng hp cc oan v trong nhng nhm nh, n kh d th
hin di hnh thc loi tr bn vi phm (ty chay ostracism). Khi cc i
tc hp ng hiu rng h ph thuc ln nhau v c th l con tin ca nhau, n
s c tc dng. Lc , h t c kh nng ln trnh trch nhim v s m bo
cho vic thc hin hp ng thng sut. Qua thi gian, nhng tri nghim v
c tnh trung thc, s ng hn v ng tin cy trong giao thng c th tr
thnh mt th ch c tip th (internalised institution), mt thi quen v
thc (second nature). Kinh nghim cho thy l nhng phm cht thng
nhn (merchant virtues) nh th em li li ch to ln cho c hai bn hp
ng (Giersch, 1996).
(b) Mt cch khc cc i tc hp ng c th a ra nhng cam kt ng tin
cy l tng bc to dng th danh ting m h cn nhm thuyt phc ngi
khc ng thi li l th m h c th d dng nh mt nu hnh x theo
kiu c hi. H u t vo cht lng sn phm, dch v v qung b cc dch
v ca mnh c danh ting, y thng l mt qu trnh tn km. Danh
ting tr thnh mt phn trong ngun vn v hnh ca h. Nu cc khch hng
quay sang mt nh bn l danh ting, h hiu mt phn mc gi m h thanh
ton l dnh cho s tin tng rng hp ng vi nh mt cung cp nh th s
c thc thi chu tt v nhng bt ng kh d s c gii quyt chng vnh.
H cng hiu l h c s kim sot nht nh i vi nh cung cp nu b tht
vng, v h c th hu hoi danh ting ca nh cung cp y. Ni cch khc,
nu cn thit h c th bt nh cung cp lm con tin (hostage). Cc nh cung
cp thng sn sng t buc mnh lm con tin nh mt phn trong chin
lc kinh doanh.
Cng ngh hin i lm cho nhng hp ng lp i lp li (repeat contract) v
s lan truyn ca thng tin tr nn d dng hn, v th danh ting ca nhng
ch th c hi ch ngha d gp ri ro hn. Tuy vy, danh ting li ch c tc
dng nh mt c ch ch ti trong nhng cng ng m thng tin c
thng t v tn ti mt s gi tr c bn chung. iu cn thit cho c ch
danh ting (reputation mechanism) vn hnh l cc thnh vin cng ng phn
ng gn nh nhau trc thng tin v cch x s c hi ch ngha. Nu mt
hnh vi c hi ch ngha - chng hn, s gian ln i vi ngi giu c - c
mt s ngi n nhn vi thi tn ng cn s khc li ln n th c ch
207
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Lin minh thng mi ca cc thng nhn v cc thnh ph c, hot ng t gia th k 12 cho n
gia th k 17. Vo thi im cc thnh gia th k 15 ca n, lin minh ny bao gm 80 thnh ph v
khong 100 th thnh vin, c quyn hot ng thng mi Bc u v vng bin Baltic. (ND)
208
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
209
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
210
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
211
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Giai on lch s Chu u sau s sp ca ch La M nm 476 cho n khong nm 1000 (trc
thi k Trung c), y l thi k c t s liu v cuc sng tng i thiu vn minh. (ND)
212
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
213
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
H qu cng ng ca cc quyn ti sn
Kinh nghim lch s thng cho thy t hu v quyn t ch c nhn c mt s
u th r rt vt ra ngoi phm vi c nhn. Phi tha nhn l cc ch ti sn
hnh x v t li, song chnh thng qua nhng hnh vi ny m h to ra kt qu
hu ch cho ngi khc. Trong th gii thc, nhng h thng kinh t no da trn
quyn t hu v quyn t ch c nhn trong vic nh ot ti sn th khng bao
gi l thun nht (pure). Chng khng vn hnh mt cch hon ho. Song
y vn c th a ra c mt tp hp l l vng chc ng h ci h thng
ch yu vn da vo cc quyn ti sn phn tn rng ri v quyn t ch c nhn
s dng v nh ot chng theo mnh (quyn t do kinh t); quyn t ch
ny c khuynh hng em n mt s h qu hu ch (ngoi d nh) cho cng
ng.
Ngi ta c th cho rng hai h qu quan trng nht ca mt h thng t bn ch
ngha vn hnh ng n l n gip kim sot cc ch th c nhn, k c nhng
k nm quyn lc, v khuyn khch mi ngi s dng ti sn v tri thc mt
cch ch ng k c bng cch khuyn khch hot ng tm kim v th nghim
thng tin hu ch. Vic tn trng v bo v cc quyn ti sn c li ch n dn
dt tinh thn doanh nhn (entrepreneurship) cng nng lc, tnh sng to v s
ganh ua ca con ngi theo nhng phng hng hu ch v ho bnh. Chin
tranh hay trm cp ch hng tinh thn doanh nghip vo nhng tnh hung ho
i
Giai on ni bt ca Scotland th k 18 c trng bi v s thnh tu tr tu v khoa hc v trit hc,
kinh t hc, k ngh, kin trc, y hc, a cht, nhn chng hc, lut hc, nng nghip, ho hc v x hi
hc, vi cc nh t tng v khoa hc li lc nh Francis Hutcheson, David Hume, Adam Smith, Thomas
Reid, Robert Burns, Adam Ferguson, John Playfair, Joseph Black v James Hutton. (ND)
214
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
c lng [zero-sum gamei] hay thit c lng [negative-sum gameii], trong khi
vic bo v cc quyn ti sn li to iu kin cho v s tnh hung li c lng
[positive-sum game] (Tullock, 1967; Baumol, 1990). Nhng tnh hung li c
lng ny gp phn vo tng trng kinh t chung v khin cho cc thnh vin x
hi d hin thc ho kht vng ca mnh hn.
Nh chng ta lu , h qu quan trng th hai ca cc quyn t hu l chng
em li ngha thc cht cho t do c nhn. Khi nhng ngi i din chnh ph
c thin hng hn ch cc quyn t do c nhn th s bo v t hu thng ng
vai tr nh mt bc tng chn gip bo v chng hu hiu nht (Mises, [1920]
1994; Friedman, 1962, chng 1; Seldon, 1990, chng 7 & 8). Trong mt x hi
ca nhng cng dn c ca n, ngi dn ra sc cng c cc quyn t do kinh t
ca mnh bng nhng rng buc dn ch v php l i vi gii cai tr. Chng
no m ngi dn cn kim sot c cc ngun lc vt cht ca mnh, chng
h cn c hng quyn t ch ng k t do tin hnh nhng v vic dn s
v chnh tr. S tng tc gia t hu v t do th hin rt r Chu u v Bc
M sut hai th k qua v c nhng ngi xng cc quyn t do c nhn
thu t. Mi lin h ny hin cng tr nn r rng nh th ti mt s nc t
bn ch ngha ng , vi danh sch khng ngng di ra. y tng lp trung
lu mi ni ang i hi php tr v dn ch cng nh cc quyn t do kinh t v
quyn t ch kinh t (nhng minh chng gn y l Hn Quc, i Loan v Thi
Lan, cng mt s quc gia ln cn bt u i theo con ng : xem Chng 14;
Scully, 1991, 1992; Gwartney & Lawson, 1997).4
H qu ng hoan nghnh th ba ca cc th ch m bo cho t hu l chng
thng khin cho cc ch ti sn tit kim ngun lc. Con ngi c khuynh
hng bo tn nhng ti sn qu gi nu h c php s hu chng v chim
hu li lc cho bn thn cng nhng ngi tha k ca mnh. Khi mi ngi s
hu ti sn, h hn ch vic khai thc cn kit v s dng nhng ngun lc khan
him mt cch ti u trong di hn. Ci thc t c bn l quyn s hu khuyn
khch s qun l cn thn l iu m trit gia Hy Lp Aristotle (384-322 trc
CN) cng chng h l lm g. ng vit: Nhng th ca chung nhiu ngi th t
c ch hn c, v mi ngi ai cng tm n nhng g thuc s hu ring
ca mnh nhiu hn nhng th m h c chung vi ngi khc (trch tc phm
ca Gwartney, 1991, trang 67). Nhng nghin cu thc nghim m chng ta
cp n u ch ra rng, trong cc x hi i chng hin i, vic bo v ti sn,
k c cc ti nguyn thin nhin, li c h tr mnh m bi cc quyn ti sn
vi nh ngha r rng. cc cng ng truyn thng v nh b, cc th ch bn
trong phi chnh thc thng sc bo tn ti sn thuc s hu chung, nh cc
ti nguyn thin nhin chng hn, t nht l chng no m p lc dn s i vi s
ti nguyn hin hu l khng ln (Ostrom, 1990). Tuy nhin, trong nhng cng
ng ln, t hu dng nh li thng ph hp hn cho cng tc bo tn.
Nh vy, s qun l khn ngoan i vi cc ngun ti nguyn thin nhin khan
him c th c thc y bng cch cho php cc ch t nhn khng nh cc
i
Tnh hung m nhng g m mt ngi hay mt nhm ginh c ng ngha vi nhng mt mt
tng ng t mt ngi khc hay nhm khc. (ND)
ii
Tnh hung m tt c mi ngi hay nhm lin quan u b thit hi. (ND)
215
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
216
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
217
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
V c cowrie, trc y c s dng nh tin mt s khu vc thuc Chu Phi, Nam v Nam Thi
Bnh Dng. (ND)
ii
Mt thut ng ch bt k khon tin no khng phi l mt khon n i vi bt k ai bn trong nn
kinh t. V d nh vng, tin mt (cash) hay cc ti sn th hin di dng ngoi t. (ND)
iii
Mt thut ng ch bt k khon n no c s dng nh tin. N l mt khon n i vi nh pht
hnh. Tng lng tin bn trong rng ca mt nn kinh t l bng khng. (ND)
218
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
S n nh mt bng gi c
Mt yu cu thit yu l gi tr tin t xt theo mt r hng ho v dch v mang
tnh cht i din khng dao ng khn lng. Nu cc th ch hin hu to ra
nhng k vng vng chc vo gi tr n nh ca ng tin, nhng ngi lnh o
doanh nghip c th tp trung vo hot ng sn xut v tip th sn phm, vo
vic i mi phng thc sn xut v tit kim chi ph. H s hiu rng s bin
ng ca cc mc gi ring r trn th trng yu t sn xut v th trng sn
phm l tn hiu cho thy hin tng khan him ang thay i v s iu chnh k
hoch ca mnh tng ng theo . Chng hn, h s tin tng l s gia tng mc
gi ca mt yu t u vo bo hiu cho h bit l cn tit kim yu t sn xut c
th ; v s tng gi ca mt sn phm bo hiu cho h bit ngi mua mong
mun nhiu sn phm c th y hn, v th h cn ngh ti vic m rng hot
ng cung cp. Ni cch khc, nu cc th ch m bo cho s n nh mc gi
th cc tn hiu gi c s pht i nhng thng ip r rng thng qua ln sng v
tuyn (radio traffic). Tri li, nu cc th ch khng m bo cho s n nh tin
t v mi ngi phi nm tri hin tng bin ng gi c tht thng, cc nh
sn xut s khng th hiu r nhng bin ng gi c m h ang quan st thy:
s tng gi ch l mt phn ca tnh trng lm pht ni chung hay y li xut
hin c hi bn hng mi? C th ni, sng v tuyn b nhiu. Thng tin lin
lc v s phi hp tr nn kh khn hn v km tin cy hn. Cc nh sn xut bt
u sao nhng hot ng kinh doanh ct li ca mnh v phi a ra nhng phng
on v lm pht, mt nhim v m h vn khng c chun b tt. H c th
219
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
chuyn hng thi gian v ngun lc khan him t lnh vc chuyn su ca mnh
sang hot ng u c ti sn. V th, trong di hn lm pht lun lm suy yu
tng trng, tn ph vic lm ng thi ti phn phi thu nhp v ca ci t
nhng ngi tit kim rng [net saver] sang nhng ngi vay rng [net borrower]
(thng l nhng ngi c nhiu mi quan h nh hng v kh gi hn)
(Friedman & Friedman, 1980). Nh vy, kt cc cui cng ca cc th ch tin t
yu km l s lng hng ho v dch v c cung cp t hn v do kt qu
kinh t ngho nn hn cho cng ng ni chung.
220
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
ca chnh ph, hai ngn hng thng mi hot ng a phng t chi chp nhn ng
dollar Qun o Cook gi vo cc ti khon tit kim hay chuyn khon ra nc ngoi.
Ngi gi tin phi a ra ng dollar New Zealand phc v nhng mc ch ny.
ng tin ca qun o ngay lp tc bin mt khi lu thng. Chnh ph sa vo khng
hong ngn sch v gn nh ph sn, v cc khon thm ht khng th tip tc c trang
tri bng cch pht hnh tin na, cn cc nh ti tr nc ngoi th t chi ra tay gii
cu.
(Ngun: The Australian, 13/3/1996, trang 11)
i
t nc c thuc ty bc Th Nh K ngy nay. (ND)
221
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
222
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Quy tc hay quyn hnh trong vic kim sot cung tin t
Hot ng cung cp tin ca ngn hng trung ng c th chu s dn dt ca cc
quy tc hay cc c quan quyn lc c u thc (Simons, [1936] 1948). Mt quy
tc cung ng tin t c th quy nh l lng tin ch c th gia tng tng nm
theo tc d kin ca tng trng kinh t thc t cng vi t l lm pht tt yu.
Mt ngn hng trung ng tun th nht qun quy tc ny c l s n nh c
l trnh tng trng nhu cu tin t quc gia: khi nhu cu tng nhanh, li sut th
trng tng ln, dn n s kim ch nhu cu tin t. Khi nhu cu tng chm hn
so vi mc tng cung tin t, li sut gim xung v kch thch cu tin t. Simons
v nhiu nh kinh t hc khc la chn li ng x theo quy tc nh th thay v
ph thc cho mt ban lnh o ngn hng trung ng vi quyn hnh tu , thnh
thong li nh gi tnh hnh ri hnh x theo d bo v nhn nh ca n. ng
ch ra rng cc c quan quyn lc c th phm sai lm trong d bo v c th chu
s chi phi ca cc ch th v ch ngha c hi chnh tr, bi vy, sau khi cn
nhc mi kha cnh, s tun th theo quy tc xem ra l ng mong mun hn
trong cng tc iu hnh chnh sch tin t. Tuy nhin, nh kinh t hc no vn
quen vi gi thuyt tri thc hon ho li c khuynh hng ng h chnh sch tin
t tu (discretionary monetary policy). Nhng thp nin gn y, cuc tho lun
v quy tc hay quyn hnh (rules versus authorities) trong vic kim sot cung
tin t thu ht nhiu s ch , v nhiu nh chc trch tin t p dng
nhng chnh sch gn tc tng trng tin t vi tc tng trng ca nn
kinh t quc dn hoc mt tiu chun tng t.
Tm li, tin t ch hon thnh tt cc chc nng ca n nu cung tin t tun theo
nhng rng buc, hoc mang tnh vt cht hoc mang tnh th ch. Trn thc t,
tht khng may l nhng rng buc ny li b vi phm nhiu hn l tun th.
i
Cng ng t nhn l cng ng m cc thnh vin tham gia mt cch t nguyn. c th l mt hip
hi (association) hay mt t chc thuc s hu t nhn (proprietary organisation); khi nim ny phn bit
vi cng ng chnh ph (governmental community), l nhng c quan hay t chc thuc chnh ph. (ND)
223
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cu hi n tp
224
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Loi c nc ngt nh c mu sc sc s ui, con thay v trng, thng c nui trong b c, c
ngun gc Caribe, Nam M. (ND)
ii
Hng ho tm kim l mt hng ho hay dch v c nhng c im d dng nh gi trc khi mua.
(ND)
iii
Hng ho tri nghim l mt hng ho hay dch v c nhng c im nh cht lng v gi c kh nhn
thy trc, song nhng c im ny li c th bit c chc chn sau khi tiu dng. (ND)
225
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ghi ch
1. Vic ginh c s bo v chnh thc cho hot ng khai thc c quyn i vi tri thc,
chng hn sng ch c quyn (patent), thng l phc tp v tn km. gi c li ch t
tng mi, cc nh cch tn phi dnh nhiu cng sc biu t tri thc qua nhng cng
c gip ngn nga s bt chc. Chng hn, tri thc mi c gn vo nhng thit b c kh
hay in t vi dng v l lm m nhng k bt chc khng th d dng dng ln; hay cc
cng ty s hu tri thc tr tu t chi cp giy php s dng tri thc, iu m v sau c th
khin cho vic bt chc tr nn kh thi, v thay vo li yu cu s dng tri thc y trong
phm vi nh my ca mnh.
2. Nh chng ta s nhn thy trong Chng 9, cc chi ph phi hp tng t s pht sinh khi
mi ngi tng tc kinh t vi nhau trong phm vi mt t chc. Chng ta s gi nhng chi
ph ny l chi ph t chc.
3. c gi c th t cu hi l ti sao cc nh trung gian, nhng ngi vn thc hin mt chc
nng ht sc quan trng lp y khong trng th ch cng nh to ra ca ci, li thng
xuyn b khinh mit v sch nhiu n vy (Sowell, 1994, trang 46-59). Nhng c im khc
thng v vn ho v chng tc ca h xem ra khng phi l mt li gii thch y . ng
hn, nhiu nh trung gian to ra nhng dch v c quyn ri d d cc nh lnh o chnh
ph ng ca th trng v li ch ca mnh, thng l dng giy php i ly nhng
khon li qu hu hnh. iu ny khng phi lc no cng gip bo v cc nh trung gian
khi s sch nhiu sau bi chnh cc nh lnh o chnh ph y. Cch thc tit gim chi
ph cho cc nh trung gian l nng cao h tng th ch (institutional infrastructure), pht trin
cc th ch ca mt trt t th trng tng i phi cm tnh (impersonal), m ai cng c th
tip cn c, qua gim li th tng i ca cc nh trung gian.
4. iu ny khng phi l mun ni ch nn dn ch bu c mi c kh nng bo v t hu v
quyn t ch. Mt s nh cai tr c ti bo v hu hiu cc quyn t do kinh t, k c l
m bo cho cc quyn ti sn khi b tch thu. Trng hp Hong Kong thuc a l mt v
d, y t hu c bo v tt (theo php lut ca Anh v trong mt nn kinh t rng m),
tht n tng khi hnh dung ra tt c nhng li ch tng trng bt ngun t . Song nu
thiu s kim sot thng qua c ch bu c th hnh thc bo v nh th li thng mong
manh, c bit l khi gii cai tr c quyn ng ca nn kinh t quc dn (chnh sch bo h
thu quan, cc bin php kim sot dng vn v xut nhp cnh).
5. Cc nh ph bnh x hi ca ngnh ti chnh c khuynh hng gi thuyt (ngm nh) v tri
thc hon ho, v d nhin sau h li khng hiu c chc nng thng tin ca tin t v
hot ng trung gian ti chnh gia ngi tit kim v nh u t.
6. Cc biu hin ca tin cn c nhng thuc tnh hu ch khc, l d mang theo, thun nht,
d nhn bit, c kh nng phn chia v rt kh ph hu (Clower, 1969, trang 12-14).
226
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
227
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ch ngha t bn, xt v bn cht, l mt hnh thi hay phng thc bin i kinh t v ...
khng bao gi ... c th ng yn ... Xung lc c bn gip khi ng v duy tr s vn
hnh ca c my t bn ch ngha n t cc hng ho tiu dng mi, t cc phng thc
sn xut hay vn ti mi, t cc th trng, v t cc hnh thi t chc cng nghip mi
m hot ng kinh doanh t bn ch ngha to ra.
(Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy [Ch ngha t bn, ch
ngha x hi v dn ch], 1991)
228
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
229
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
L thuyt tm kim nghin cu cch thc m ngi mua v ngi bn thu thp thng tin v tnh hnh th
trng cng nh vic cc i tng tham gia th trng tim nng tp hp li vi nhau nh th no. Vic
p dng l thuyt ny vo th trng lao ng c nh kinh t hc ngi M George Stigler (1911-1981)
khi xng nm 1962. (ND)
230
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ngi
mua
Th trng:
ni gp g
Khung kh th ch
Cc qu trnh trao i:
to ra, th nghim v
nh gi tri thc cng Cc nh trung gian gip
gim CPGD
cc quyn ti sn (qu
trnh hnh thnh gi)
Nh cung
cp
231
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Tp on sn xut t s 1 th gii ca M. (ND)
232
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
233
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
cung v cu. H thng cnh tranh pht i nhng tn hiu cn thit bng tn hiu
gi c n gin, d nhn bit v nhanh chng pht tn thng tin l cung du ang
thiu ht. Tn hiu ny thc gic cc ch ti sn, nhng k mu cu t li, gp rt
ra tay, vi hy vng nh bi i th. Khng mt h thng no khc li c th lan
truyn thng tin nhanh chng v hiu qu nh c ch gi c trn th trng cnh
tranh, v cng khng mt h thng no khc li c th huy ng c nhiu hot
ng tm kim tri thc din ra sau n th.
Kim sot sai st: Khi mi ngi phm sai lm trong mt h thng cnh tranh, h
nhanh chng rt ra bi hc t phn ng ca pha bn kia th trng cng nh t
cch thc b i th nh bi. H nhn ra l mnh khng s dng cc quyn ti
sn mt cch c li nht cho ngi khc v qua cho chnh bn thn: h phi
chu s khin trch bng mc thua l. Trong mt h thng th ch gip
m bo cc quyn t hu, h chu trch nhim v tnh trng thua l v v th
nhiu kh nng s sa cha sai lm ca mnh. Nu ti sn do tp th nm gi,
nhng ngi i din (agent) c th tip tc nm thm nhiu tin vo , km
theo l l l ti sao h li c phi tip tc (voice). Khi b cc i tc trao i trn
th trng ri b (exit), h phi nhanh chng sa cha v tm kim gii php mt
cch thc dng. H qu l h thng cnh tranh c nhng c ch t kim sot t
pht bn trong. Sai st thng c hn ch bi chng c th b cc nh cnh
tranh c nhiu tri thc hn khai thc.
H thng tm kim tri thc thng qua qu trnh cnh tranh th trng ny c t
tn l catallaxy, nh chng ta bit trong mc 8.1: qu trnh tng tc gia
ngi mua v ngi bn nhm tm ra tng no l hu ch. Bn thn h thng,
cng kh nng to ra tri thc v thnh vng ca n, tng c cc nh trit hc
kim kinh t hc th k 18, nh Adam Ferguson v Adam Smith, nhn thc su
sc. H cng nhn mnh s cn thit phi c cc quy tc cnh tranh nhm m
bo cho hot ng cnh tranh tip din gay gt v cc ch ti sn thng xuyn b
thch thc a ti sn ca mnh i mt vi th thch cnh tranh. S m bo
khi b cnh tranh - chng hn, cc cng ty c quyn, nhng c quyn c li
chnh tr, hng ro thu quan - c nhng ngi sng lp ra kinh t hc coi l
nhng tr ngi to ln i vi qu trnh tm kim v phn tn tri thc, v qua
i vi tin b.
Bn cht ca qu trnh cnh tranh, nh trnh by y, b nh mt khi cc nh
kinh t hc a ra ci gi thuyt tri thc hon ho mt trm nm sau (Mahovec,
1998). Gi thuyt cho php h xy dng cc m hnh so snh tnh
(comparative-static) trang nh v n gin ca kinh t hc tn c in.2 Khng th
no nm bt hin tng cnh tranh, vn lin quan n qu trnh mang tnh tin
ho ca hot ng tm kim tri thc phn tn, thng qua phn tch tnh tn c in
v cung cu da trn ci gi thuyt l tri thc c bit. Khng th no phn
tch ngha ca nhng khi nim v chi ph giao dch, vn l h qu ca s v
minh, v v cc th ch gip tit kim chi ph giao dch tr phi chng ta coi cnh
tranh nh mt phng thc khm ph tri thc m khng ai c. Ch khi chng ta
xem xt cnh tranh trong bi cnh s v minh ca con ngi v nh mt phn ca
mt h thng phc hp khng ngng tin ho, chng ta mi c th hiu nhng
chc nng quan trng no m n thc hin: xin dn li Hayek, cnh tranh l mt
234
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Tnh th kinh t m s lng nh cung cp mt loi sn phm t n mc hnh vi ca mt nh cung
cp c th gy tc ng ng k ti gi c cng nhng i tng cnh tranh vi mnh. (ND)
235
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
n vic ti a ho tho dng (utility) hay li nhun vi nhng nhu cu, cng
ngh sn xut v loi sn phm c nh. Vn i vi tng trng kinh t chnh
l kh nng catallaxy ca x hi. Khi nim ny c Ludwig von Mises (1949,
chng 15) hi sinh trong kinh t hc hin i v ngy cng ginh c s tha
nhn cng vi s pht trin ca kinh t hc tin ho (evolutionary economics).
c quyn (monopoly) l mt tnh hung trn th trng m ch c mt nh
cung cp. Do nh cung cp duy nht khng phi i mt vi cnh tranh t ngi
khc, nhng ngi c th mi cho ngi mua nhng hng ho thay th c li
hn, nn nh c quyn khng phi b chi ph giao dch nhm tm kim tri thc
mi v a ra nhng hng ho tt hn v r hn. Tuy nhin trn thc t, nh cung
cp duy nht li lo s thch thc cnh tranh t nhng hng ho thay th tim tng
tr phi th trng b ng ca bi hnh vi can thip ca chnh ph. Do , h s
hnh x theo hng cnh tranh, tc l, tham gia vo hot ng tm kim thng tin
chng li cnh tranh tim tng t bn ngoi.
i
Unquestioningly obeyed custom, duty, making a virtue of the fatalistic acceptance of how things are.
ii
Xem mc 3.1 v 8.1. (ND)
236
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Hng ho tm kim hng ho tri nghim: Ai phi chu chi ph giao dch
Ngi bn thng iu chnh cc th ch ca th trng nhm gim bt chi ph
giao dch thc t cho ngi mua, k c chi ph thng tin ca h. Mt trng hp
quan trng c Phillip Nelson (1970) ch ra khi ng ln u tin cp n s
khc bit gia hng ho tri nghim (experience goods) v hng ho tm kim
(search goods). Cht lng ca mt s hng ho v dch v c th nh gi c
ngay bng cch thm nh trc khi mua, chng hn, mt ci vy nm trn gi
hay hoa qu trong ch nng sn. Ngi mua c th tm kim cht lng m mnh
mong mun vi chi ph thng tin t i (hng ho tm kim). Song trong nhiu
trng hp, cht lng hng ho v dch v ch c th minh xc bng cch tri
qua s dng hay tiu dng chng (hng ho tri nghim). Khi cht lng sn
phm d thay i, ngi mua hng ho tri nghim thng phi chu chi ph
thng tin cao xc nh cht lng trc khi mua. Mt s v d v hng ho tri
nghim nh th l hoa qu ng hp, xe hi, cc gi tua du lch v phu thut tim
m.
u m ngi mua c th d dng tm kim c cht lng mong mun (v
thm ch c th tn hng ci th la chn hng ho), cc quy c th trng
c xu hng ph mc chi ph tm kim thng tin cho ngi mua (Barzel, 1982).
Tuy nhin, cc chi ph ny li thng chuyn sang pha nh cung cp trong trng
hp hng ho tri nghim. Cc nh cung cp nhn ra li ch khi b chi ph tiu
chun ho cht lng cng nh em n cho ngi mua cam kt ng tin cy
v cht lng (v gp vo gi bn), chng hn thng qua nhng nhn hiu
qung co, thng qua vic thit lp mng li bn hng, hay nhng quyn kinh
doanh (franchise). Mt cch qua nh cung cp c th bo hiu cht lng
ca hng ho tri nghim l to dng danh ting v cht lng, mt hot ng tn
km v mt nhiu thi gian, gip tit kim chi ph cho nhiu hot ng tm kim
thng tin ca ngi mua. Khch hng v th sn sng tr thm tin cht lng
di hnh thc gi cao trnh nhng tri nghim gy tht vng. H c th cho
rng tht phi l khi nh sn xut danh ting v ch nhn ca nhng nhn hiu
hng ho ni ting li i bn nhng mt hng cht lng thp km, bi iu s
nhanh chng c ngi ta bit n v hu hoi li ch t danh ting. Nhiu k
thut nhm mc ch gim bt chi ph thng tin cho ngi mua hng ho tri
nghim li dn n ch tiu chun ho (standardising) v qun bnh ho
(averaging), cho d ngi mua c nhng s thch ch quan dnh cho nhng c
237
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
238
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
239
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Mt phng thc sng to gip tit gim chi ph giao dch: Hot ng ngn hng vi
tn dng
nhng t nc km pht trin, nhiu ngi c tri thc vn hnh doanh nghip nh s
to ra nhiu li nhun hn nu h tip cn c vi ngun vn v tn dng. Tuy nhin,
cc chi ph c nh nh gi ri ro tn dng v vn hnh c ch ch ti trong cc mi
trng th ch mp m li hn ch ngt ngho ngun tn dng dnh cho nhng ngi vay
nh l. Tn dng v th ch sn sng trn c s c nhn, dnh cho nhng ngi c danh
ting cng vi s hu thun ln v ti sn (tn dng da trn quan h c nhn
personalised credit). Nhng ngi vay nh l, ngho ti sn ch c th ti nhng k cho
vay tin (money lender), ni h phi i mt vi nhng mc li sut qu cao, do nhng
khim khuyt v mt th ch dn n chi ph gim st vay mn cao v bin php ch ti
tn km trong trng hp ngi vay khng thc hin ng ngha v.
Nhng vn trn c Ngn hng Grameen ca Bangladesh gii quyt mt cch
sng to v hiu qu. Ngn hng ny do Tin s Muhammad Yunus, nh kinh t hc
c o to ti M, thnh lp. ng nm bt c nhng khim khuyt v mt th ch v
khc phc chng theo cch sau y. Ch c s sn xut v ngi bn hng nh c th
vay c nhng khon tin nh nu n xin vay ca h c mt nhm t nm n mi
ngi m bo. iu ny cho php h khi s hot ng kinh doanh nh, chng hn mua
in thoi di ng ri cho thu trong lng. Khi ngi u tin trong nhm ngi vay
thanh ton ng hn, cc thnh vin khc s iu kin c vay. Chi ph nh gi ri
ro, cng nh chi ph ch ti, v th khng phi do ngn hng m do nhm ngi vay gnh
chu. Cc thnh vin hnh x y trch nhim, do bn thn h c li ch su sc khi to
dng tin cy tn dng (creditworthiness) cho mnh. Nu xy ra trng hp khng tr
n th ton b nhm khng p ng c ngha v v khng cn ng tin cy v mt tn
dng na.
Hnh thc t chc cc nhm ngi vay cng c tc dng nh mt c ch trao i thng
tin quan trng v bin mt hp ng cho vay mt ln (once-off loan contract) thnh mt
tr chi m din ra lin tc [open-ended, ongoing game] (a ra nhng con tin). Ngi
vay hc cch ghi chp s sch v nhng g phi lm thanh ton ng hn. Mi ngi
qua hnh thnh thi quen tit kim trong bi cnh c s h tr ca cng ng. Nhiu
ngi vay cng tr thnh c ng nh trong Ngn hng Grameen.
240
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Mt khc, khi s phn cng lao ng tin ho v bt u phc tp hn, nhiu nhu
cu mi v vai tr trung gian xut hin v ko theo cc kiu nh mi gii mi
p ng. V d, h thng th tn dng hin i cho php ngi mua mua hng ho
v dch v tr chm (on credit) m khng phi to dng danh ting trc vi ca
hng thng lng iu kin tr chm. V d th hai l s gia tng mnh m
ca hot ng mi gii ti chnh trn cc th trng ti chnh ton cu. Hot ng
giao dch thanh ton quc t c th dng nh l hon ton phi cm tnh i vi
nh quan st bn ngoi, song trn thc t, mng li th trng m rng ny li
c cng c bng c ch mi gii mang nhiu c trng ca mi quan h c
nhn, gip gim bt ri ro v chi ph giao dch. Hot ng thanh ton quc t ph
thuc vo cc mng li nh trung gian, h thng xuyn gi lin lc v m bo
cho vic hon thnh hp ng ca nhau.
Nh vy, mt th gii thu nh da trn cc mi quan c nhn pht trin mnh
m trong phm vi trt t m rng (extended order) ca th trng cnh tranh, v
mi thng nhn thng giao dch vi nhng i tc m h quen bit, tin tng
v l nhng ngi sn sng p li vi mt thin , nu cn thit.
241
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
(d) t chc hot ng bn hng: pht trin cc knh phn phi (distribution
channel) vi hy vng nh bi cc nh cung cp khc v thu ht ngi mua
trung thnh (chng hn, cc mng li hu cn v im bn s mi, cc ca
hng bn l mi ca chnh nh cung cp, hnh thc bn qua th t hng), li
mt thm chi ph;
(e) h tr ti chnh dnh cho khch hng, chng hn thng qua hnh thc tr chm
hay thanh ton tng t;
(f) dch v sau bn hng chng hn t vn lin tc v cch s dng sn phm,
m bo sa cha v cung cp ph tng nhanh chng cng c th c tc
dng rng buc khch hng vi mt nh cung cp c th bi iu lm gim
chi ph thng tin v cc chi ph giao dch khc khi s dng sn phm; i vi
nhng sn phm v dch v phc tp hoc kh s dng v sa cha, c trng
ca nhiu th trng hin i, dch v sau bn hng tr thnh mt cng c
cnh tranh rt quan trng. Nhng dn xp cn thit t pha ngi bn c th
gy tn km, song chng li c thc hin vi hy vng nh bi cc nh
cung cp cnh tranh khc;
(g) ngi bn cng c th tm cch ginh u th bng phng thc vn ng cho
nhng hn ch chnh tr (political restrictions) i vi cnh tranh, iu ny li
gy hao tn ngun lc, song li c th hu ch t quan im ca ngi bn.
T trng hp (a) n trng hp (f) l cnh tranh kinh t, n lc ca nh cung
cp nhm thu ht s quan tm ca ngi mua t nguyn. Trong nhm , chng
ta phn bit gia cnh tranh gi c (trng hp [a]) v cnh tranh phi gi c
(trng hp [b]-[f], xem Hnh 8.2). Tri ngc vi cnh tranh kinh t, s vn
ng hnh lang trn v i chnh tr (trng hp [g]) li tm kim s can thip
nhm p buc hay hn ch ngi mua. Trong trng hp ny, nh cung cp cu
kt vi i din chnh ph hng ginh u th kinh t bng cch tc ng n cc
th ch bn ngoi chi phi th trng nhm a vo nhng yu t bt buc hay
hn ch, thay v cnh tranh v li ch ca pha bn kia th trng. Nh vy, cnh
tranh kinh t bao hm s ganh ua gia cc nh cung cp nhm thu ht ngi
mua nh hiu qu vn hnh (performance) tt hn. Th no l hiu qu vn hnh
tt s do ngi mua phn quyt. S dn xp l v li ch ca ngi mua. Vn
ng hnh lang (lobbying) l hnh thc cnh tranh nhm ginh s thin v chnh
tr, cng nh s bo tr chnh tr cho php ngi bn hn ch la chn ca
ngi mua.3
Ti a s th trng, mt s t nh cung cp bit nhau cnh tranh vi nhau hng
chim s ng h ca ngi mua. Tnh trng ny ph bin hn rt nhiu so vi
nhng th trng m c v s ngi bn v danh (ni cch khc, trng thi
cnh tranh thng thng l cnh tranh nhm oligopolistic competition, ch
khng phi cnh tranh c lp atomistic competition). Hn th, c trng ca
nhiu th trng hin i v hng ho v dch v cng nghip l hng ho tri
nghim (experience good), hp ng quan h m (open-ended relational contract)
v cc mi quan h cung - cu di hn gia nhng i tc kinh doanh quen bit
nhau, thay v ch l nhng v mua bn mt ln (once-off) gia nhng ch th v
danh.
242
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
243
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Trong kinh t hc, rent-seeking din ra khi mt c nhn, t chc hay doanh nghip tm cch kim tin
thng qua hnh vi thao tng mi trng kinh t v/hoc php l thay v hot ng thng mi hay sn xut.
Rent: thu nhp khng phi nh n lc cnh tranh trn th trng m l nh hnh vi thao tng mi trng
kinh t v php l, chng hn thng qua cc quan chc chnh tr. (ND)
244
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
HNH NG
Cu co gin CHNH TR
S iu tit c th
ca chnh ph theo
Cu khng co gin Ngch th trng sn phm hay theo
(khc cu khng co ngnh ngh m bo
gin, c to ra an ton cho ngch th
hoc m rng bng trng (v lm suy
cch i mi sn
yu ng c ct gim
phm, qung co,
dch v hu mi) chi ph).
S bt an v vic nm gi Cu co gin
ngch th trng dn n hot
ng i mi quy trnh sn
xut (ct gim chi ph), y
ng th cung i xung Khi lng bn d kin
245
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
246
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
nhng cng c cnh tranh phi gi c (non-price rivalry) gia cc nh cung cp hay
nh s can thip chnh tr.
i mi (innovation) l s p dng tri thc mi mt cch thit thc, em n
nhng hnh thc kt hp mi ca cc quyn ti sn, chng hn nhm to ra mt
sn phm mi hay thc hin mt quy trnh sn xut (tit kim chi ph) mi.
Nhng ngi dm mo him vi hot ng i mi v t chc nhiu ngun lc
v tng cn thit cho mt s i mi c gi l doanh nhn kinh t
(economic entrepreneur). Tinh thn doanh nhn (entrepreneurship) tm cch vt
qua nhng rng buc hin hu bng nhng hnh thc kt hp quyn ti sn mi
v s nghin cu v th nghim hot ng tm kim hoc tri thc mi hoc tri
thc hin hu m vn cn cha khai thc t nhng ngun mi.
S i mi sn phm (product innovation) din ra khi cc nh sn xut tin hnh
bin i sn phm hin hu hoc tung ra nhng sn phm hon ton mi nh mt
cch m bo cho ngch th trng, vi hy vng thu c li nhun tin phong.
S i mi quy trnh (process innovation) c thc y bi s bt trc v quy
m ngch th trng v mong mun h thp chi ph sn xut bng cch thc hin
quy trnh sn xut mi. i mi sn phm v i mi quy trnh thng xuyn lin
quan vi nhau trong thc tin.
Nh i mi (innovator) no nhn c s ng h ca ngi mua n mc h tr
mc gi vt qu chi ph i mi v sng to th thu c li nhun tin phong
[pioneer profit] (Joseph Schumpeter). Li nhun tin phong c xu hng tm
thi, v s i mi thnh cng hoc l b bt chc hoc l b thch thc bi
nhng bc i mi xa hn m cc i th cnh tranh a vo hng chim th
phn. iu ny n lt li c xu hng chm ngi cho nhng n lc mi nhm
tin hnh i mi hn na vi hy vng thu c li nhun tin phong mi, cho d
li l tm thi; nh vy m qu trnh cnh tranh nng ng tip tc din ra, ng
thi thc y s tm kim v s dng tri thc mt cch sng to.
247
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
248
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
khc; v (c) phn ng d kin t ngi mua tim nng. S cnh tranh gay gt c
khuynh hng to ra nhiu i mi hn. Mt khi ngch th trng c cm nhn
l an ton, ng c i mi d nh mt xung lc. V vy, nhng h thng th ch
khc nhau th khc bit mnh m v nng lc i mi. Tuy cc doanh nhn vn
lun hin hu trong x hi, song cc th ch li hng nng lng ca h hoc
vo hot ng kinh t sng to hoc vo nhng li thot phi sn xut khc nh
cnh tranh trong qun i, chnh tr hay th thao (Baumol, 1990). Thm ch,
nhng ngi c tinh thn doanh nghip i khi cn di c ti nhng mi trng
th ch m vic s dng tri thc ca h trong hot ng cnh tranh kinh t
din ra d dng hn. Do vy, nhng khu vc lc hu v, mc thm ch cn
ln hn, cc nc ang pht trin thng nh mt nhng nh cch tn kinh t v
k thut sng lng nht bi khun kh th ch y khng em ti cho h s tin
tng cn thit vo kinh doanh nh cc nn kinh t th trng pht trin.
249
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Chui s kin m mt s kin vi kt qu tt li dn n nhng s kin khc vi nhng kt qu ngy
cng tt hn. (ND)
250
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Nhng ngi lm nhng cng vic nh pht trin mng (web developer), pht trin ngn ng lp trnh
Java (Java developer), pht trin ngn ng lp trnh C++, v.v. (ND)
251
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
ngi khc khi h tm cch trnh hoc gim bt p lc cnh tranh. Trong trng
hp cc ch th kinh t kh d p t quyn lc kinh t hay chnh tr, h c th s
dng quyn lc bo v ngch th trng ca mnh bng nhng tr ngi nhn
to. iu ny tng thm sc mnh cho h trong cc cuc thng lng hp ng
v gim bt ni lo (kim sot chi ph) m thng thng h phi sng cng. Minh
chng r rng y l s hnh thnh carteli, tho thun gia nhng ngi bn vi
nhau nhm cung cp hng ho theo nhng iu kin bn hng thng nht. Thot
nhn, ngi ta c th coi y l vic s dng hp php quyn t do hp ng;
song mt tho thun cartel nh vy li cn tr quyn t do ca ngi mua. Quyn
t do la chn ngi bn ca h tr nn v ngha do hnh ng chung ca cc
nh cung cp. Do quyn t do la chn v t do hp ng l phm cht ng
c thc y v bo v nn ngi bn phi b khc t quyn t do thnh lp
cartel bng mt quy tc ngn cm cartel.
Vic loi tr s hn ch c ngun gc t nhn (private restriction) ng vai tr
then cht i vi tng trng, t do v s kim sot quyn lc. Nhng thng l
kinh doanh t nhn gy cn tr cho cnh tranh c th l kt qu ca qu trnh tp
trung ho hot ng kinh doanh theo chiu ngang v chiu dc: mua i th c
(sp nhp) hay hp nht ngi bn hoc ngi mua vo cng t chc kinh doanh.
Bng chng thc nghim cho thy, cc t chc sp nhp thng xuyn b km
hm do hin tng chi ph t chc ni b tng dn, s phi hp quy tc bn trong
ngy cng kh khn, v kh nng thch ng ca cc t chc khng l b suy yu v
nhim v qun tr ni b gia tng. C th l gii iu ny qua vn thn ch -
i din trong nhng t chc ln v khng phi chu khun php ca cnh tranh.
Xem xt vn t gc y, ngi ta c th lp lun rng vic ni b ho ton
b li ch v chi ph ca hnh ng sp nhp l thuc trch nhim ca nhng
ngi sp nhp. Tuy nhin, y c th vn c nhng trng hp ng phi
iu tra xem liu mt v sp nhp c th no c xm phm quyn t do hp
ng ca cc ch ti sn khc hay khng. Tuy nhin, mt cuc iu tra nh th
lun t ra bi ton tri thc h trng, ng thi gy ra nhng vn lin quan n
nh ngha php l: quy m no ca mt v sp nhp th phi chu iu tra trc
hoc sau khi sp nhp?
Nh chng ta cp, s hn ch t nhn i vi cnh tranh cng c th bt
ngun t tho thun hp tc gia cc doanh nghip thay v cnh tranh (cu kt),
t thi sn sng nh bi i th ca cc doanh nghip hng mnh bng cch
h thp gi bn hng y h ra khi thng trng, cho n cch i x cng p
hay gian ln trc cc i th hay i tc hp ng. Trong nhng tnh hung nh
th, cnh tranh c th cn c bo v, u tin l bng cc quy tc ra ch ti
chng li quyn lc v hin tng gian ln. Cn xy dng cc th ch nhm quy
nh nhng hn ch t nhn no i vi cnh tranh th khng c php v nhng
hnh vi no cn phi c phn x, v chng c th cho thy s lm dng sc
mnh th trng. nhiu nc, cc quy tc c t ra trong cc lut v thng l
thng mi (trade practices legislation), chng i hi cc c quan qun l cnh
tranh chuyn ngnh phi gim st hin tng quyn lc th trng thi qu. Tuy
nhin, iu ny thng khng em li kt qu mong mun do cc c quan ny d
i
T hp cng ty c hnh thnh nhm kim sot hot ng sn xut, cnh tranh v gi c. (ND)
252
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
253
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Trong kinh t hc, rent-seeking din ra khi mt c nhn, t chc hay doanh nghip tm cch kim tin
thng qua hnh vi thao tng mi trng kinh t v/hoc php l thay v hot ng thng mi hay sn xut.
Rent: thu nhp khng phi nh n lc cnh tranh trn th trng m l nh hnh vi thao tng mi trng
kinh t v php l, chng hn thng qua cc quan chc chnh tr. (ND)
254
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
255
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
William Fairbairn, mt trong nhng nh k ngh tin phong ni ting nht ca cuc cch
mng cng nghip Anh, vit trong tc phm Cm nang dnh cho cc k s (Useful
information for Engineers, 1860) v tui tr ca mnh, khi Lin minh K s C kh
(Engineer Mechanics Union) phn i quyn php l c tham gia ngh t chn ca
ng:
Fairbairn buc phi ri khi v tm kim cng vic vi nhng ngi pht minh ra my
sn xut inh mang tnh t ph Dublini: Hot ng ch to st Dublin tan r ...
khng phi do bt k bt li no ca a phng, m hon ton l do nhng quy nh cm
on c p t bi cng nhn ca cc nghip on (Johnson, 1991, trang 574).
i
Th ca Ireland. (ND)
256
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
II
i
Cc cuc chin gia Php (di triu i Napoleon Bonaparte) v mt s nc Chu u t 1799-1815.
(ND)
ii
Ch lm vic m ch lao ng ng ch tuyn dng thnh vin ca mt cng on c th. (ND)
iii
Ch lm vic m hp ng gia ch lao ng v mt cng on i hi ngi lm cng phi l
thnh vin hoc tr thnh thnh vin cng on trong mt thi gian nht nh. (ND)
257
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
cc khon ph tip nhn (entry fee), ph thu bt buc trn lng (forced
levies on wages), v hnh ng lin nghip on, hay khi nim m nay
ngi ta gi l hin tng ty chay th sinh (secondary boycotti) ... Hnh
thc hot ng mi, t tp phn i bn ngoi (picketing), thng l
bo lc, bt u din ra ngoi ni lm vic ... Ch ngha khng b xut
hin nhiu ni, ... mt nghip on thng qua mc n t hnh dnh
cho bn ngi ... , mt trong s h thc s b st hi. (Sd, trang 868-
869).
i
Hot ng nh cng hay ty chay nhm chng li mt cng ty l nh cung cp hay khch hng ca mt
cng ty ang c tranh chp lao ng. (ND)
ii
Kh nng chuyn sang hnh thc s dng khc hay a im khc ca lao ng, ngun vn v cc ngun
lc khc. (ND)
258
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
chm, v th nhng ngi mt vic lm thng phi chu cnh tht nghip
tng i lu, l do nhng iu chnh v c cu (structural adjustments).
Lc , nhng tri nghim nh th thng khi dy thi phn khng rng
ri hn i vi s thay i c cu.
(b) Mt li ch quan trng khc ca cc h thng cnh tranh gay gt l quyn lc
kinh t b kim sot. Cc cng ty c quyn hay cc ngch th trng ch
mang tnh nht thi v b hn ch, do cc quyn ti sn khng tp trung
qu mc. Hot ng cnh tranh thng xuyn i hi cc ch ti sn phi
khng nh gi tr ti sn v tm kim nhng hnh thc th nghim mi
xem ti sn ca mnh c cn c pha bn kia th trng nh gi cao na
hay khng (s thch bc l - revealed preferencei). Khi cc i th c gng
khm ph nhng phng n mi nhm thu ht hp ng t pha bn kia th
trng, cc quyn ti sn c c th nh mt gi tr th trng khi nim m
Joseph Schumpeter t cho mt ci tn tht xc ng l s o thi sng to
(creative destructionii) v nhng ti sn khc c th gia tng gi tr. y l
mt cuc chi mang bn cht tin ho, v th kinh t v x hi khng
phi l bt kh xm phm m lun phi i mt vi thch thc.
(c) Mt li ch khc ca cng cnh tranh cao li lin quan n s phn phi
thu nhp. Trong cc h thng kinh t cnh tranh, s phn phi thu nhp c xu
hng thng xuyn thay i. Li nhun tin phong (pioneer profit) ca cc
ch ti sn lc thng lc trm cng s thay i ca vn may trn th trng.
Hin tng chnh lch ko di tng i lu v thu nhp v ca ci m ngi
ta nhn thy cc nn kinh t pht trin thng c mi quan h su sc vi s
can thip chnh tr v cc quy nh chng cnh tranh (Friedman, 1962, trang
119-132). Chng hn, nhng hn ch trn th trng lao ng v cc bin
php kim sot gi nh cho thu li thng cng c hin tng bt bnh ng
ngoi mong mun, tnh trng m sau cc chnh sch ti phn phi thu nhp
cng ng li tm cch thu hp. iu ng lu y l mt s x hi cng
nghip mi ni mang tnh cnh tranh nht ng nh i Loan chng
hn cng c s phn phi thu nhp rt ng u, d khng quc gia no thi
hnh cc chnh sch phc li mang bn cht ti phn phi c (Riedel, 1988,
trang 18-21).
(d) Trn bnh din x hi rng ln hn, cnh tranh kinh t gip m bo rng
nhng ngi c th lc trong x hi cng nghip s thn trng vi vic s
dng ca ci mua nh hng chnh tr khng thch ng. Chng no m
cnh tranh kinh t cn din ra si ng v ph bin, chng ch ngha t
bn c quyn (monopoly capitalism) cn b ngn chn. Nhng cng dn
bnh thng v th s c thm c may thot khi nhng h lu ca s phn
bit i x trong chnh tr (Friedman, 1962, trang 119-132).
i
L thuyt s thch bc l (revealed preference theory), do nh kinh t hc ngi M Paul Samuelson
(1915 - ) xng, l mt phng php m qua ngi ta c th nhn thc c la chn kh d ti u
da trn cch ng x ca ngi tiu dng. V c bn, iu ny c ngha l s thch ca ngi tiu dng c
th bc l qua thi quen mua sm ca h. (ND)
ii
Thut ng do Joseph Schumpeter sng to trong tc phm Ch ngha t bn, ch ngha x hi v dn
ch (Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy - 1942) nhm ch mt qu trnh chuyn ho cng nghip,
khng ngng cch mng ho cu trc kinh t t bn trong, lin tc o thi ci c v to ra ci mi. (ND)
259
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
260
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
bi hnh ng chnh tr xut pht t s thc y ca cnh tranh chnh tr. V th,
iu ng lm y l gn gi tr o c cao cho nhim v bo v quyn s
dng t hu t do trong hot ng cnh tranh. Quyn t do hp ng v s bo
m cho cc quyn ti sn cn c nng ln thnh nhng nguyn l vi v th
hin nh cao, thnh nhng th ch ph thng ti thng chi phi s hnh thnh
v thc thi nhng quy tc cp thp hn, ng thi khng th b o ngc bi
nhng phn quyt to n n gin, bi khi a s n gin (simple majority) ca
quc hi, hay bi hnh ng qun l hnh chnh n thun p ng nhng
trng hp c th. Nu cc th ch c bn ca mt nn kinh t cnh tranh nhn
c s bo h php l cao, iu s gip to lp nim tin vo mt h thng
kinh t t iu tit, t t chc, chnh sch can thip c s dng d dt v
nhng ngi dn bnh thng c th tm thy con ng thnh cng cho mnh.
Trong Chng 10, chng ta s quay li vi tng ny khi bn v kiu cch v
ni dung ca chnh sch cng. Song trc ht, vic chuyn sang cc t chc kinh
t nh doanh nghip dng nh l cn thit.
Cu hi n tp
261
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ghi ch:
1. Quan nim v qu trnh cnh tranh ny chu nhiu nh hng t khi nim gi l l thuyt
qu trnh th trng theo trng phi c [German market process theory] (v bi kho lun,
xem Kerber, trong tc phm do Boettke ch bin, 1994, trang 500-507; Streit & Wegner,
1992).
2. V cc tc phm nghin cu nhng phng php tip cn khc nhau m hnh ho qu trnh
cnh tranh: xem M. Addleson, bi Cnh tranh (Competition), trong tc phm do Boettke ch
bin, 1994, trang 96-102; v tc phm ca Kirzner (1985).
3. Nhn y cng cn lu l phn ln cc cun sch gio khoa tn c in u b qua hnh
thc cnh tranh phi gi c, vn c chiu hng quan trng hn rt nhiu trong a s th trng
sn phm v dch v phc tp. Phn tch ca sch gio khoa chun tc cng bt u vi gi
thuyt l khng c chi ph giao dch no xen vo gia bn mua v bn bn trn th trng.
262
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
263
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Khng th k vng cc gim c ca ... cc cng ty ... , vi t cch ngi qun l tin
bc ca ngi khc ch khng phi ca mnh, s mt n n vi thi thn trng lo
lng ta nh cc i tc trong mt hp doanh t nhn (private copartnery) vn thng
xuyn trng nom tin bc ca mnh. Ging nh nhng qun gia ca mt ph ng, h c
thin hng coi chuyn lu tm n nhng iu nh nht l khng em li cht g tt p
cho ting tm ca ng ch, v rt d t min cho mnh iu . Tnh trng l l v lng
ph, bi vy, hu nh lun ph bin trong chuyn qun l s v ca mt cng ty nh th.
(Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations [Ca ci ca cc quc gia], [1776] 1931, trang 229)
Trong hot ng kinh doanh hin i, chng ta tng chng kin s chm khut ca c
nhn trong phm vi t chc, v cui cng l s gia tng quyn lc mc khc thng
ca c nhn, ca chnh c nhn ang ngu nhin kim sot t chc .
(Woodrow Wilson, 31/8/1910)
264
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
nh ngha v t chc
Chng ta nh ngha t chc l s dn xp bi bn, tng i bn vng, nhm gp
chung cc ngun lc sn xut theo ui mt hay mt s mc ch chung.
Nhng ngun lc ny c phi hp trong khun kh mt kiu trt t th bc
(hierarchical order) no bng mt hn hp th ch v mnh lnh. Qu trnh vn
hnh ca t chc chu s gim st v s c chnh n nu n khng t mc
tiu nh. Cc t chc da trn mt tp hp quy tc, mt b lut c bn bt
ngun hoc t hp ng t nguyn hoc t quyn lc chnh tr (Vanberg, 1992).
V d v t chc t nguyn t nhn l cc hp tc x, cu lc b v doanh nghip
(business firm). V d v s to lp mt t chc bng quyn lc chnh tr l mt
c quan qun l hnh chnh. Ti a s cng ng, cc t chc c php hnh x
nh nhng n v c lp (cc ch th tp th corporate actor); chng c th k
kt hp ng v li ch ca mnh (firm: bt ngun t firma, c ngha l signature
[ch k] trong ting Latin). Cc t chc thng x l nhng hot ng tng tc
phc tp, vn khng th quy nh r rng v thng lng hon chnh (cc hp
ng quan h relational contract).
Vic b tr cc ngun lc cnh nhau mt cch n thun, m cc ch ti sn
vn gi quyn nh ot hon ton c lp v khng chu s chi phi ca bt k
ch th no, s khng cu thnh nn mt t chc, ngay c khi tt c cc ch ngun
lc u cng chia s mt li ch chung. Chng hn, vic khn gi t tp xem
mt trn u bng , nhng ngi cng chia s mc ch gii tr, khng to
thnh mt t chc. Ch khi cc ch th kinh t gp chung mt s ngun lc ca
mnh v t b mt phn quyn s dng nhng ngun lc ny mt cch c lp, h
mi hnh thnh nn mt t chc mt ch th tp th (collective actor)
(Coleman, 1990). V d, iu ny xy ra khi mt s khn gi thnh lp mt cu
lc b, cam kt ng l ph hi vin, v chu tun th nhng quy tc chung di
s gim st ca mt u ban thuc cu lc b. Trong chng ny, chng ta s ch
tm hiu cc t chc kinh t t nhn, vn da trn nhng cam kt hp ng t
nguyn, cn cc t chc chnh tr s c nghin cu chng k tip. Cc t
chc kinh t theo ui vic huy ng v khai thc cc ngun lc v mc ch vt
cht. Cc t chc cho php cc thnh vin kt hp cc yu t sn xut thuc s
hu ca mnh v vn hnh chng trong mt bi cnh trt t, d tin on. Cc t
chc to ra mt mi trng m c nhn c th tng tc gn gi vi ngi
khc, mi trng ny cn gip tit kim chi ph tm kim thng tin v chi ph phi
265
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
T chc kinh t mang nhiu hnh thc khc nhau. V d quen thuc nht c l l
doanh nghip hp nht (incorporated firm), m ngy nay thng l mt dn xp
tng i bn vng nhm theo ui mt mc tiu m no y, chng hn tm
kim li nhun. Tuy vy, cc t chc kinh t tm thi cng kh ph bin. Chng
hn, chng c th c thnh lp nhm mc ch duy nht l xy dng mt cy
cu hay pht trin h tng mt khu t; chng b gii th sau khi hon thnh
nhim v. Nhng hnh thc khc ca t chc kinh t m, t nguyn l cc doanh
nghip gia nh (family firm), hip hi thng mi (trade association), cu lc b
(club), hp tc x (cooperative), nghip on (trade union), t chc tn thc (trust)
v hi tng thn tng i (mutual benefit societyi). Chng cng chia s c im
chung l chng tp hp mt s ngun lc li nhm theo ui mt mc ch chung
v hnh thnh nn mt b iu l, chng hn nhng quy nh v nhim v ca ch
tch v th k.
i
Hi tng thn tng i l mt t chc hay hip hi t nguyn, c thnh lp nhm h tr ln nhau hay
cung cp phc li cho cc thnh vin. (ND)
266
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
267
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Tnh c th ca ti sn
Oliver Williamson (1985) hng s ch vo mt kha cnh lin quan n s tn
ti ca doanh nghip: ch s hu ngun vn, tri thc cng cc ngun lc khc v
nhng l do k thut thng buc phi giao ph ngun lc ca mnh mt cch lu
di v khng th o ngc di nhng hnh thi c th (tnh c th ca ti sn
asset specificity). Ch s hu ngun vn ti chnh qua bin ti sn ca mnh
thnh hng ho t bn c th, ging nh bt h chuyn ho sang mt hnh th
c nh khi nng thnh bnh. Cc ch s hu ca mt cng ty sau khi u t
ngun vn ca mnh vo nh ca v thit b th khng th d dng rt ra khi
nhng hng mc u t ny. H cng thu nhn nhng tri thc c th gi tr m
h ch c th s dng khi vn tip tc hot ng trong nhng lnh vc c th
(tnh c th ca ngun vn con ngi human capital specificity). Cc khon
u t ny s ch to ra li nhun k vng nu nhng ti sn c th vn hnh
bnh thng trong mt khong thi gian di. Tuy nhin, ch s hu ca nhng
ngun lc b tr khc, chng hn nh lc lng lao ng lnh ngh, c th li
mun khai thc tnh trng thiu kh nng linh hot (inflexibility) ca ch s hu
ngun vn cng nhng ngi nm tri thc c th bng cch gy ch tc (hold-
up) cho qu trnh vn hnh v p buc h phi chi nhiu tin hn. y l trng
hp m nhng ngi nm quyn lc tm cch khai thc quyn lc v i tc ca
mnh khng c kh nng thay th hay trn trnh (ri b, xem mc 5.4). Bt c
u m hin tng tp trung quyn lc nh th tr nn ph bin v khng th b
loi tr mt cch ng tin cy bng cc th ch bn trong v bn ngoi, ngi ta
cng u c l do rng buc ch s hu ca nhng ngun lc b tr vo t
chc. Trong nhiu trng hp, y thm ch cn l iu kin tin quyt tin
hnh mt phi v u t c th. Chng hn, cc ch s hu t bn c th ch u t
vo mt nh my luyn nhm hay thp nu h c th m bo cc dng u vo
bng cch ginh s kim sot trc tip v mt t chc i vi cc ngun nng
lng v qung th. Trong nhng trng hp nh th, l do kt hp cc quyn
ti sn trong mt t chc l nhm trnh ri ro, hay ni cch khc, mong mun
gim bt bt trc v tit kim chi ph thng tin bng cch to ra mt trt t c t
chc v ng tin cy hn.
S cn thit phi xem xt tnh c th ca ti sn da trn ba iu kin gn vi
nhau (Williamson, 1985):
(a) mi ngi ch c thng tin hu hn, kht vng hu hn, v do vy hnh x
vi tnh duy l b buc (bounded rationality);
(b) con ngi mang bn cht c hi, tr phi b ngn chn bng cc th ch;
(c) mt s ngi nm gi nhng ti sn vi tnh c th ni bt.
Trong ba iu kin ny, nhng l hng trong cc hp ng quan h c th b
nhng c nhn c hi ch ngha khai thc, gy phng hi cho ch s hu ca
nhng ti sn c th, nhng ngi khng c la chn ng gi no khc thay
i hnh thc s dng ti sn ca mnh.
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KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Oliver Eaton Williamson (1932 - ) nh kinh t hc ngi M. Nm 2009, ng c trao gii Nobel Kinh
t nh phn tch v qun l kinh t, c bit l v nhng gii hn ca doanh nghip.
ii
Trong kinh t hc v m v qun l, thut ng tch hp dc ch vic sp nhp cc cng ty sn xut nhng
sn phm khc nhau m chng li kt hp vi nhau tho mn mt nhu cu no ; phn bit vi tch hp
ngang (horizontal integration), l vic sp nhp cc cng ty cng sn xut mt loi sn phm. (ND)
iii
Putty: mat-tt; clay: t st. (ND)
269
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
H thng th bc v s lnh o
nh ngha v t chc lun cha ng mt yu t cu thnh l n c mt hoc
mt s mc ch (mc tiu) gip on kt cc thnh vin li. Mc tiu c th l do
cc nh lnh o ch ng thit lp hoc bt ngun t s tham vn v quyt nh
tp th ca cc thnh vin. Trn phng din , s phi hp trong t chc lun
khc vi s phi hp gia cc ch th c lp trn th trng. Trn th trng,
khng mt mc tiu no c thit lp t trc (ex ante) v t bn ngoi cho cc
thnh vin; nhng con ngi vi ng c t thn phi hp c vi nhau nh ci
qu trnh th trng mang tnh tin ho gi l th sai (trial and error). L li t
chc (organisational behaviour) c to ra theo ui t nht l mc no
mt hoc mt s mc tiu tin nh.
nh ngha v t chc kinh t t nhn cn cha ng yu t tnh bn vng
(durability) qua thi gian: y c s chung sc lu di ca cc quyn ti sn v
ngun vn, lao ng, b quyt v t ai (Vanberg, 1992). Cc cng ty c phn
u tin Chu u thi k Phc hng c dng ln trong mt khong thi gian
hu hn bi cc thng nhn cng gp chung vn v, c th, c tri thc ln lao
ng ca chnh h. Cc quyn ti sn i vi nhng ngun lc b tr th mua trn
th trng; chng hn, thu th th thu, cn cc mt hng bun bn th mua.
Ging nh cc d n c thi hn trong lnh vc bt ng sn ngy nay, h tham
gia vo nhng hp ng thiu hon chnh nhm mc ch khai thc mt thng
v c th, chng hn vn chuyn mt tu gia v t Phng ng. Sau chuyn hi
trnh, h chia s li nhun (hay thua l) nh thng nht trong iu l cng ty v
gii th cng ty c phn. V th, nhiu trong s nhng cng ty c phn u tin li
ch tn ti trong khong thi gian ca mt d n c th. Ngy nay, a s t chc
kinh t u d nh l tn ti lu di.
Khi nim t chc cng bao hm nim v hot ng phi hp theo mt k
hoch phn giao nhim v c th. iu ny i hi mt quyt nh no lin
quan n chuyn ai l ngi nm quyn ti cao trong cng tc hoch nh, ch
huy v kim sot ti thiu mt s mt hot ng ca t chc, ng thi n hm
mt kiu h thng th bc no . Kha cnh h thng th bc c th ni bt (s
l thuc mnh m [strong subordination]: t chc a tng phc tp [complex
multilevel organisation]) hoc m nht (trch nhim t gic cao ca cc thnh
vin: t chc phng [flat organisationi]). Trong bt k trng hp no, khng phi
mt hot ng no ca t chc cng u c th tr nh v iu khin c, v th
cc quy tc ng vai tr quan trng trong khu phi hp ni b. Do , khi bn v
cc t chc, chng ta li cn phn bit gia nhng ch th (hay hng dn, mnh
lnh, quy nh) gip to ra trt t ni v bng cch phn giao nhim v, mc tiu
v chc nng c th cho nhng ngi i din (agent), vi cc quy tc ng x
chung gip to dng trt t t pht (Vanberg, 1992, trang 244-245; xem thm
mc 5.1). Vic ng gp cc ngun lc di s kim sot chung phi da trn
mt bn iu l c bn (tp hp nhng quy tc khi qut v cch thc tin hnh
i
Cn gi l t chc theo chiu ngang (horizontal organisation), cp n kiu c cu t chc vi t hoc
khng c nc qun l trung gian no gia nhn vin v ban gim c. tng y l nhng cng nhn
qua o to bi bn s lm vic nng sut hn khi h c tham gia trc tip hn vo qu trnh ra quyt
nh, thay v chu s gim st cht ch ca nhiu tng nc qun l. (ND)
270
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
cng vic v thay i quy tc) nhm rng buc tng ch ngun lc hnh thnh
nn t chc (sd, trang 239-241).
Nhng quy tc khi qut khch l cc thnh vin a ra nhn nh v sng kin
c lp trong t chc, trong khi mnh lnh li da trn quyn lc v s l thuc.
Cc quy tc ni b t chc thng chu s rng buc ca iu l t chc, chng
dn dt vic s dng cc ngun lc chung cng nh vic phn phi thnh qu
chung cho cc ch s hu khc nhau, nhng ngi ng gp ngun lc. u
m cc quy tc khng rng buc nhng ngi lnh o t chc, cn c ch
cho nhng quyt nh tu . Nu thiu s thc hnh thn trng, iu ny c th s
ph v trt t trong u ca cc thnh vin t chc, ng thi lm xi mn nng
sut v lng trung thnh ca h.
Tnh trng ni bt hay m nht ca cc yu t mnh lnh theo kiu th bc
(hierarchical command elements) trong mt t chc kinh doanh c nh hng to
ln n hiu qu hot ng v kh nng linh hot ca n (xem mc 9.3 di y).
Vic da nhiu vo mnh lnh theo th bc c th cao tm quan trng ca tnh
c kt v s phi hp cht ch, song n li thng mu thun vi gii hn tri thc
t pha nhng ngi lnh o v gii hn nhn thc t pha cc thuc cp. Cc c
cu mnh lnh thng i hi c ch kim sot, o lng v gim st tn km. S
da dm nhiu vo mnh lnh cn c th lm xi mn lng nhit tnh v sc sng
to ca cc thnh vin t chc trong cng vic. Nhng vn ny c chiu hng
tr nn nng n hn trong mt th gii phc tp v hay thay i; v th, vic h
thp tm quan trng ca mnh lnh v h thng th bc ng thi pht huy cc
bin php gip to dng trt t bn trong thng em li li th cnh tranh.
Nhng nh lnh o kinh doanh no phi xoay x trong mt mi trng thay i
nhanh thng khm ph ra rng c ch kim sot s tr nn hu hiu hn khi n
c thc hin bng nhng quy tc ph thng, em n cho cc thnh vin v cc
nhm trc thuc nhng ch dn khi qut. Hn th, chng cho php cc thnh
vin thc y mc ch chung ca cng ty. V vy, cc t chc kinh doanh hin
i thng ch trng cng tc o to k nng phn xt v c gng khch l cc
thnh vin bng cch lm cho h thm nhun vn ho kinh doanh (business
culture), tc l, nhng mc tiu v quy tc chung ca t chc (Kreps, 1990).
Chng khuyn khch h thng th bc theo chiu ngang (flat hierarchy), s chung
sc (teamwork) v s tng thng cho thnh tch cnh tranh ni b. Ngy nay,
phong cch qun l ny thng c xem l ph hp hn so vi cc h thng th
bc, b my t chc hnh chp (pyramid-climbingi), s phc tng mnh lnh v
tnh trng ph thuc vo cc bin php kim sot cht ch.
Cc t chc kinh t (doanh nghip) c xu hng c c cu, phi hp v lnh
o bi cc ch s hu ca chnh yu t sn xut gy cn tr cho tng trng. H
c thng thit k t chc, thu np quyn (right) i vi cc ngun lc khc v
kim sot vic s dng ton b cc yu t sn xut. Nhng g cu thnh nn yu
t gy cn tr cho tng trng li thay i cng vi thi gian v hon cnh. Nu
s an ton ca tnh mng v ti sn l iu gy cn tr cho tng trng kinh t do
s bt cp ca cc th ch c bn, cc t chc kinh t s c xu hng chu s lnh
i
T chc hay h thng m cp cng cao th cng t ngi. (ND)
271
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
272
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
273
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Tch hp v out-sourcing
Mt phn ng k trong khu phi hp cc yu t sn xut c th thc hin hoc
trc hoc sau khi hot ng sn xut din ra. Cc t chc vn da vo vic lp
k hoch t trc (ex ante planning) nhiu hn mc m s phi hp thng qua
qu trnh th trng din ra trong thc t. V vy, ngi lnh o t chc thng
xuyn phi nh gi l cng vic no s c phi hp nh mt phn thit yu
trong t chc v cng vic no th nn thu thu ph (subcontracting). Nguyn tc
chung y l so snh chi ph giao dch d kin trn th trng vi chi ph t
chc d kin. T l so snh ny l mt hm (function), trong s nhng hm khc,
v cht lng ca cc th ch th trng v v cng ngh. u m cc th ch
th trng yu km v gy ra chi ph giao dch cao, chng hn do khu iu tit,
lp php v t php yu km, ngi ta c th nhn ra xu hng tch hp
nhiu hot ng di s kim sot ca t chc. Chng hn, mc tch hp dc
(vertical integration) cao l c trng ca cc nn kinh t chu s iu tit nng
n, th trng ca nhiu u vo khng c php pht trin v cc mc gi
ch thc khng c thit lp, do vy nhiu thng tin gi tr khng bao gi c
thng t (communiacate). Tri li, nhng nn kinh t vn hnh tt li to ra
nhiu nh thu ph chuyn mn ho (specialised subcontractori) m cc nh sn
xut c th ph thc cho h nhng nhim v c th, m mt nhim v khng
km quan trng y l thu thp thng tin. Chng hn, ngnh ti chnh hnh
thnh cc nh thu ph chuyn mn ho cho cc ngn hng tit kim v u t
ln nhng t chc lin quan n ri ro ngoi hi (foreign-exchange risk), tin
i
Nh thu ph: Mt c nhn hay t chc kinh doanh k kt hp ng thc hin mt phn hay ton b ngha
v ca mt hp ng khc. (ND)
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KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
275
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
276
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
bin i (variable cost) nhm phc v cho hot ng ca t chc. Chi ph bin i
bao gm cc chi ph nhm gim st hot ng ca nhng ngi cng tc theo
ngha v hp ng, thng bo nhng bt cp v phn x xung t ni b, v, nu
cn thit, p t nhng tiu chun tc nghip thng nht.
Hp ng quan h ngm nh (implicit relational contract) l s hiu bit ln
nhau v s cho v nhn (give & take) gia cc thnh vin ca mt t chc hay
mt nhm. Chng bao hm nhng dn xp th ch bn trong theo hng m, vn
nh hng nhiu mi quan h trao i dc (vertical exchange relationship) gia
cc ch s hu, ban lnh o v nhng ngi cng tc trong t chc, cng nh
mt s hot ng trao i ngang (horizontal exchange) gia nhng ngi cng tc
v gia cc nhm.
277
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
278
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
279
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
(c) cc th trng thng tin chuyn mn ho mi cc chuyn gia phn tch cho
cc nh u t ln nh v bo ch kinh doanh cng gip tit gim chi ph
gim st cho cc thn ch, min l cc tp on phi bo co tnh hnh kinh
doanh ca mnh u n v y theo quy nh ca php lut (trch nhim
gii trnh accountability);
(d) cc th trng cnh tranh chuyn cung cp i ng gim c v qun l.
Chng c xu hng tng thng chc v v lng bng cao cho nhng
ngi i din no c ting l qun l trung thc v hiu qu. Nhng th
trng ny thng nhn c s h tr t cc th trng thng tin chuyn su
(specialist information market) v cc cng ty i din mi gii (agency),
chng hn di hnh thc cc cng ty sn tm nhn s cao cp cho cc tp
on;
(e) cc th trng dnh cho nhu cu kim sot tp on (i vi nhng doanh
nghip thnh t) tn ti phn ln cc nn kinh t t bn ch ngha: khi i
ng qun l ng nhim r rng l lm vic di chun mc th trng,
nhng ng ch mi s tip cn, cho gi tip qun (takeover bid) v ngh
sp nhp (vi thi thin ch hoc o p), ri dng ln i ng qun l mi
vi k vng l h s lm vic hiu qu hn. Cc gim c cng c th tm
cch mua s lng c phn chi phi (buy-out) nhm ti lp quyn kim
sot v quyn s hu. Chuyn tranh ginh quyn tip qun c th gy tn
km, song iu li c xu hng tng cng s kim sot ca ch s hu v
gim bt tn tht tim tng do b my qun l t li gy ra;4
(f) th trng sn phm cng phn nh hiu qu ca i ng qun l. Khi th
trng sn phm cha b c quyn ho, i ng qun l no hnh x c hi
ch ngha th sm mun g cng s nh mt th phn v y s l du hiu v
ch ngha c hi ca ban gim c. Cnh tranh trn th trng sn phm b
sung hon ho cho cnh tranh trn th trng vn v th trng nhn s qun
l nhm m bo rng li ch ca cc thn ch s c bo v.
Cnh tranh v nhng quy tc m bo cho thng tin minh bch s gip ci thin
s kim sot ca cc c ng bng cch n gin l tr thnh mt mi e do
tim tng v mt th khun php i vi cc gim c c thin hng c hi ch
ngha. Nh vy, p lc thng xuyn trong cuc chin tranh ginh th phn (m
chng ta bn ti trong Chng 8) gp phn tng thm quyn lc cho ch
doanh nghip v gim bt chi ph gim st cho h. Lc , cc bin php kim
sot trc tip tn km, km theo hnh pht dnh cho cc gim c c hi ch
ngha, vn cn phi thc hin song ch l ho hon thi. Vn thn ch - i
din trong cc cng ty c phn c xu hng tr nn nguy hi ch khi cc gim c
nhn c s bo tr chnh tr trc nhng thch thc kiu i vi a v ca
h, chng hn khi quc hi ban hnh lut nhm cn tr cc v cho gi tip qun
(takeover bid) hoc hn ch u t nc ngoi.
Trong cc n phm kinh t hc, nhng h qu t bi ton tri thc ca cc thn ch
lin quan n hnh vi ca ngi i din c hi ch ngha i khi c tho lun
di ci tn X-inefficiency. Leibenstein (1966)i tng cho rng nhng t chc kinh
i
Ngha l trong tc phm xut bn nm 1966 ca Leibenstein, chi tit phn Th mc Kho cu. (ND)
280
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
281
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Phng thc qun l theo ngi lao ng ng vai tr to ln trong qu trnh ra quyt nh, bt ngun
t vic cc gim c ch ng tm kim mi quan h hp tc bn cht vi ngi lao ng. (ND)
282
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Phng thc Kim sot theo th bc, thng Dnh khng gian ra quyt nh v
hot ng v tin lin lc theo chiu dc; qun kim sot cht lng t gic; da
i
Hin tng kinh t m chi ph sn xut gim xung nh gia tng s lng sn phm khc nhau c
sn xut cng nhau. (ND)
283
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
kim sot l cht lng t trn xung; vo ng c t thn v thng tin lin
hnh pht dnh cho hiu sut lc t pht theo chiu ngang, c
cng vic thp (cy gy) hu thun bng cc bin php khuyn
khch (c c rt) v hnh pht (cy
gy)
Nguyn l Mnh lnh v s kim sot, s Cc bin php khuyn khch thng
khch l ch thit k s lm vic chi tit; qua cc hp ng ngm nh; cc
yu quyn hnh da trn v tr, s mc tiu khi qut chung; cc hnh
n trnh hnh pht ca cc thuc pht dnh cho vic thc hin chc
cp nng chuch choc hay ch ngha c
hi, cc bin php khuyn khch
lng thng phn bit dnh cho
thnh tch hon thnh mc tiu; s
o to a nng (multiskilling)
284
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Thng 6 nm 1996, nh sn xut v phn phi qun o Levi Strauss & Co. ca M ha s
phn pht 750 triu USD tin thng cho ton b 75.000 nhn vin trn ton th gii vi
iu kin Cng ty phi t mc tiu tng trng doanh thu 2,1% hng nm cho n nm
2001.
K hoch chia s thnh cng ton cu ny da trn nim tin m Cng ty khng nh:
nhng nhn vin nhit huyt l ngun sng to v u th cnh tranh ca chng ti. N
mang c trng ca mt mc tiu khi qut, d hiu, ng thi trnh mnh lnh v nhng
bin php kim sot c th, thay v th n da vo nhng hiu bit ngm nh v theo
hng m (tc cc th ch) gia ngi s dng lao ng v ngi lao ng. M hnh
khuyn khch y da vo s sng to v s hp tc ca ngi lao ng v cc nhm
lao ng a ra nhng gii php sng to ring ca mnh nhm thc y mc tiu bn
hng chung ca cng ty, v n nu r iu kin thng ph thuc vo thnh tch c th
xc nh.
(Ngun: Bo ch, 6/1996)
285
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Nhng khc bit quan trng trn bnh din quc t cng tn ti. Khng phi ngu
nhin m phong cch qun l hp tc li c thi thc mnh m bi kinh
nghim ca Nht Bn v cc nc ng khc. Nhng x hi tn Khng gio
ny ph thuc nhiu vo cc th ch n v phi chnh thc, vn khuyn khch con
ngi t kim ch bn nng c hi ch ngha. V vy, cnh tranh nhm (team
competition) v phng thc qun l phi p t (non-prescriptive management)
c th khai thc c nhng c im vn ho chung, trong khi nhng x hi
mang bn sc vn ho c nhn ch ngha v t li mnh m, chng hn cc
nc M Latin, c l li i hi phi da nhiu hn vo s kim sot t trn
xung v phi trng pht nng hn ch ngha c hi ngi i din. Hin nay, khi
m cc nh phn tch qun l ang ni ti hin tng cnh tranh ton cu gia
cc mi trng vn ho ti ni lm vic, thng thng h cp n s thun li
hay kh khn trong vic thc thi nhng t chc linh hot v t tn km
nhng x hi khc nhau, cng nh trong vic thc y nhng ngi cng tc
phng s mc tiu ca doanh nghip mt cch trung thnh.
i
Incentives within a network of often implicit, open-ended contracts.
286
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
287
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cu hi n tp
288
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
289
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
290
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ghi ch
1. Cu hi tng ng y, ti sao th trng li tn ti, c th tr li bng cch cp n mc
phc tp ngy cng tng ca nhim v phi hp khi cc t chc pht trin. S gia tng
nhanh chng ca chi ph t chc t ra gii hn cho s pht trin ca cc t chc v a th
trng vo cuc.
2. Nhng im ny chng ti hon ton rt ra t bi vit ca Daniel Kiwit, Zur
Leistungsfhigkeit neoklassisch orientierter Transaktionskostenanstze, tp ch Ordo, s 45
(1994), trang 105-136.
3. V quyn t chc hot ng kinh doanh em li nhng li ch vt cht v phi vt cht cao nn
cc ch s hu ca nhng yu t sn xut khc nhau thng tham gia vo nhng hot ng
chnh tr, tp th nhm nh hnh nn cc th ch bn ngoi gip nng cao c hi thnh lp t
chc ca h hay cn tr ch s hu ca cc yu t sn xut cnh tranh thnh lp t chc. C
nhin, hnh ng tp th nh th c th lm suy yu tng trng kinh t ton cc v, vi n,
c hi to ra li nhun cao cho ton b yu t sn xut.
4. Cc cuc tip qun (takeover) hn khng phi lc no cng gip nng cao tri thc. Trong
trng hp cc thng gia tip qun tham gia vo cuc chinh phc lnh th thun tu,
chng hn bng cch vay tht nhiu tin hng mua cc cng ty ri li cho chng nhng
khon n ln, h c th khuyn khch th vn ho qun l vn theo ui nhng gi tr ca
kiu chinh phc b lc m khng phi l nhng gi tr ca th vn ho thng mi - i mi
(commercial-innovative culture) nh m t trong Chng 6. Lc ny, cc gim c ca
doanh nghip va thc hin v tip qun c th li tp trung vo nhng cuc tip qun mi
hay vic thanh l hng ng ti sn, thay v ch trng n cnh tranh bng cch nng cao hiu
qu ca hot ng phc v nhu cu. Tuy nhin, hnh thc chuyn i nh th khng sm th
mun ri cng chm dt. Nhng cng ty trung thnh vi chin lc chinh phc mang mu sc
b lc thng xuyn i n ch ph sn v li nhng khon n tri phiu u t hp dn
(junk bondi) ngay sau y, nh tng xy ra trong cn st tip qun M thp nin 1980
chng hn.
i
Tri phiu u t vo tp on vi kh nng thu li nhun cao song mc ri ro li ln. (ND)
291
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
292
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Nh nc [ng mt vai tr] trong lnh vc kinh t. Hot ng kinh t, c bit l hot
ng ca nn kinh t th trng, khng th din ra trong mt mi trng thiu vng th
ch, php lut v chnh tr. Tri li, n gi nh trc mt s m bo chc chn cho
quyn t do c nhn v t hu, cng nh mt ng tin n nh v cc dch v cng hiu
qu. V vy, nhim v chnh ca nh nc l m bo cho tnh trng an ninh y, nh
ngi lao ng c th hng thnh qu lao ng ca mnh v qua h cm thy c
khch l lm vic hiu qu v thnh thc.
(Gio hong John Paul II, Centesimus annus [Bch nin], 1991)
293
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Xem phn Khi nim Then cht trong mc 7.2. (ND)
ii
X hi ho l hnh vi chuyn cc quyn ti sn t hu sang cng hu, i lp vi t nhn ho. (ND)
294
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
295
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Loi hng ho m vic ngn mt ngi khng tr tin khi hnh vi s dng n l kh, nhng vic mt
ngi s dng n li c th ngn cn hnh vi s dng ca ngi khc. (ND)
296
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Mt t trng dn s ng k quyt nh khng by t quan im, thng l do thi h hng hoc do h
khng tin quan im ca mnh li ng vai tr quan trng. (ND)
297
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
cng nh bng cch khai tr k phn bi ra khi ng. Ngy nay, cng vic qun
l cc chnh ng i hi ngn qu khng l nhm trang tri cho chi ph i din
v hot ng qung b. Mi quan tm chnh tr y l lm th no c bu
li, ng thi ginh a s gh trong quc hi v chi phi chnh quyn. Hot ng
quyn gp (fund raising) v ng c ti bu (re-election motive) c th thng
dn ti nhng hnh ng tp th gy phng hi cho cc cng dn.
Vn li cn b cc nhm li ch c t chc lm cho thm trm trng; chng
thng i din cho nhng li ch tp trung ca cc nh cung cp v ra i t do
trn c s quyn t do lp hi (freedom of association), mt quyn c bn. Nh
chng ta nhn thy trong mc 8.2 v mc 8.3, cc nh cung cp thng ra sc
cng c ngch th trng ca mnh v n trnh hot ng cnh tranh tn km
bng cch tm kim nhng bin php hn ch cnh tranh t b my chnh tr sau
khi h t t chc thnh cc nhm vn ng hnh lang (lobby group). Li ch t
s can thip chnh tr thng l rt ln i vi s t nh cung cp, trong khi bt li
i vi ngi mua li dn tri mng manh v v vy khng ng b ra nhiu chi
ph c nh vn ng ngc (counter-lobbying).
Nhm nh sn xut c quyn s thy c li khi u t mt phn li ch nh s
can thip chnh tr vo vic vn ng hnh lang v hi l cc ng phi cng gii
cng chc, cng nh khi u t vo vic ti gio dc cng chng h i n
suy ngh s can thip l v li ch quc gia. Ngy nay, s tng tc gia cc nhm
lobby v cc chnh ng nh hng ln n la chn cng. N lin tc to ra
nhng cn c chnh tr hng can thip vo vic s dng cc quyn t hu (Hayek,
1979a, trang 17-55). Phm vi ca nhng g c nh ot trong nn kinh t
thng qua c ch la chn cng khng hon ho (second-best mechanism), vi
nguy c a ra nhng quyt nh c on v lm xi mn quy tc ca n, ang
c m rng v phm vi la chn t b thu hp tng ng.
Ngoi cc t chc ca cc nh sn xut, tnh trng cc nhm lobby x hi (social
lobby) vn ng dnh nhng khon thanh ton tr cp (transfer paymenti) ln cho
nhng ngi m chng i din cng l hin tng in hnh cc nn dn ch
hin i. Cc nhm li ch x hi ny vn ng c tri phn i vic ct gim ngn
sch, mc d chng thng do cc nh cung cp dch v phc li nh nc t
chc nn v trn phng din chng cng i din cho nhm vn ng hnh
lang ca cc nh sn xut khc.
Tnh trng thin v la chn cng (public-choice bias) gia tng trong cc nh nc
hin i cng cn do mt nhm khc, vn khng hin din trong m hnh truyn
thng ca chnh ph dn ch: gii cng chc (bureaucracy). Cc cng chc
thng t li trong hot ng iu tit th trng, v th nhng la chn t t do
(free private choice) b che khut hoc thay th bi nhng la chn cng. H to
ra cc th ch c th v nhng th ch nh vy em li quyn lc v nh hng
cho h. Li nhn xt chi ph giao dch ca ngi ny thng l thu nhp ca
ngi kia hon ton ph hp y. iu ny dn ti tnh trng b my cng chc
lm mo m cc th ch v dn ti s thay th cc th ch bn trong.
i
Transfer payment (hay transfer): Khon thanh ton phi bi hon ca chnh ph cho cc c nhn, v mc
ch phc li hay an sinh x hi, hay cho mt s doanh nghip nht nh. (ND)
298
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Lut trao cho cc quan chc ph hp quyn thc thi hay p t php lut. (ND)
ii
S dng min ph: Xem phn Khi nim Then cht th hai trong mc 5.3. (ND)
299
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Qua thi gian, quy m chnh ph v t trng ngun lc quc gia m chnh ph
kim sot gia tng ng k. T l chi tiu chnh ph (government spending)
trong tng sn phm quc ni (GDP) ti nm nn kinh t cng nghip ln hin
nay M, Nht, c, Php v Vng quc Anh bnh qun ch khong 10%
qung nm 1870 (Tanzi & Schuknecht, 1995); con s ny tng ln chng 25%
i
Trong kinh t hc, rent-seeking din ra khi mt c nhn, t chc hay doanh nghip tm cch kim tin
thng qua hnh vi thao tng mi trng kinh t v/hoc php l thay v hot ng thng mi hay sn xut.
Rent: thu nhp khng phi nh n lc cnh tranh trn th trng m l nh hnh vi thao tng mi trng
kinh t v php l, chng hn thng qua cc quan chc chnh tr. (ND)
ii
S dng min ph: Xem phn Khi nim Then cht th hai trong mc 5.3. (ND)
300
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
vo gia thp nin 1930, v trn 40% gia thp nin 1990. Vo nm 1995, t
trng chi tiu chnh ph trong tng cu Lin minh Chu u (EU) l 54%, cc
nc cng nghip ch to ng (tr Trung Quc) l 39% (World Economic
Forum, 1996, trang 21). Mc d xu hng chung l chnh ph c quy m ngy
mt ln, mc chi phi ca cc quyt nh tp th i khi vn gim bt, ng
ch nht l c v Nht sau Th Chin II, ri thng tng tr li sau .
Chc nng bo v
Cng cuc bo v trt t v nn php tr bng hnh ng tp th l truyn thng
c t lu i. Ngun gc ca n c l ch t cng bt u t khi cc lng mc
v thnh th lu i phi chu mt hnh thc lnh o no . Cc v vua cha, cc
bc cao tng v cc quan to xut hin trong nhng cng ng nh th phn x
tranh chp v bo v hay t ra nhng nguyn tc m da theo tranh chp gia
cc thnh vin cng ng s c gii quyt hoc phng trnh (cc th ch bn
ngoi). u tin, vai tr ca bn phn x th ba nh th c l c trao cho cc
bc trng lo hay linh mc ng knh v tng tri, song sau nhng dn xp
chnh thc mang tnh hin nh xut hin, gip dng ln cc nh cai tr (Benson,
1995). Cc khi nim hnh ng tp th (collective action), quyn lc chnh tr
(political power) v chnh ph theo ra i: mt s hnh vi no y c thc
thi v li ch cng ng, v mt s quan chc v t chc chnh thc no y c
trao quyn lc (authority) v sc mnh cng bch (coercive powers) i vi cc
thng dn v t chc dn s. Trong tt c cc trng hp ny, nhng dn xp
hin nh (constitutional arrangement) phi quyt nh nhng nguyn tc c bn
ca hnh ng tp th: cch thc b nhim nhng ngi i din (representative)
v phng thc phn b chi ph v li ch ca hnh ng tp th (xem mc 10.1
trn).
Chc nng bo v d thy nht ca chnh ph l ngn chn tnh trng ngi dn
cng bch ln nhau. Ngi ta cho rng vic chnh ph tip qun chc nng bo
v ng ngha vi mt kiu hip c gii tr qun b (gi nh) gia ton th
cng dn vi nhau (Buchanan, 1975). Nu chng ta ri vo tnh trng v chnh
ph, nu s cng bch ch b hn ch nh tim nng bo lc ca cc bn khc
v nu mi cng dn u phi bo v ti sn ca mnh trc s xm hi ca ngi
khc, chi ph s v cng tn km (chi ph loi tr v chi ph p t cao). Nhng
chi ph ny s ngn cn nhiu s phn cng lao ng hu ch v cn tr s pht
trin thnh vng. V th, vic s dng mt t chc i din (agent) vi nhim v
gn gi ho bnh l nhu cu thit thc. Mun cho n hot ng hu hiu, t chc
i din phi c trao quyn lc cng bch. ng thi, ngi ta phi m
bo rng t chc i din chnh ph khng s dng quyn lc ca n
chng li cc thn ch, tc cc cng dn. Mt s ngi khc li lp lun, vai tr
ca chnh ph l nhm bo v nhng phm vi t do c nhn (Hayek, 1960).
Chnh ph c th gn gi ho bnh v bo v t do nh th no y? Cu tr li
ch yu nm v pha cc th ch: iu cn thit l phi thit lp v p t mt h
thng quy tc chung cho mi cng dn mt cch bnh ng (php tr); ngoi ra, h
thng quy tc cn ngn nga tnh trng cc cng dn theo ui mc ch ca
301
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
mnh bng v lc, lng gt hay nhng hnh thc cn khc. Nh vy, bo v
c mi lin h mt thit vi vic gi gn t do c nhn. Nu thiu nhng rng
buc th ch nh th, t do s tr thnh phng tng v v trt t. cc nh nc
hin i, trong s nhng quy tc m chnh ph c yu cu thc thi theo chc
nng bo v th nhiu quy tc c quy nh chnh thc qua cc b lut hnh s v
dn s. Ngoi ra, s bo v cng cp n vic ngn chn cc mi e do t bn
ngoi; tc l, bo v t do hin ti v t do tng lai (an ninh) ca cng dn trc
s cng bch t bn ngoi.
Gii hn bo v
Mt phn ng k trong chc nng bo v ca chnh ph c thc thi thng qua
cc quy nh, chng hn nhm m bo cho sc kho v an ton. Nhng quy nh
nh th thng l hp l v mt kinh t v chng lin quan n cc hiu ng
ngoi lai. Chng hn, khi ngi ta s dng mt ti sn t nhn c th trong mt
ngnh ngh no y m khng phi chu mt s hn ch no, iu c th gy
nguy him cho s an ton ca ngi cng nhn. Cch thc bo v h l chnh
n vic s dng ti sn cng nghip v t ra nhng quy tc v an ton. Nhng
hiu ng ngoi lai lin quan n mi trng v sc kho cng c th xy ra. Mt
mc ch ca cc quy nh y t cng ng l nhm tit gim chi ph thng tin v
cc chi ph khc. Chng hn, ngi ta cho rng vi mt dc phm do chnh ph
cp giy chng nhn th c th an tm s dng trong phm vi nhng gii hn
quy nh m khng cn phi t nghin cu hu qu ca vic s dng sn phm
. Hay quy tc hn ch tc trong mt s khu vc nht nh gip mi ngi
khi phi tin hnh phng thc khm ph tn km di dng tai nn. Tuy
nhin, mc ch ti thng ca quy nh th phi lun ghi nh trong u: cc th
ch l nhm phc v ngi dn. nhiu nc, rt nhiu quy nh hin hnh v
sc kho, an ton v mi trng khng p ng c tiu chun . S gia tng
nhanh chng ca chng khin cho chi ph giao dch tng ln, ng thi lm suy
yu chc nng phi hp v kim sot (coordination and control function) ca th
trng cnh tranh. Vn khng phi l s tn ti ca bn thn nhng hnh vi
can thip c th nh th, m chnh l tn sut xut hin cao ca chng. V vy,
mi mt quy nh nh th cn phi c nh gi v chi ph v li ch kh d cho
ton b h thng.
Chi ph ca cc quy nh, k c chi ph tun th m ngi dn phi chu (xem
phn ng khung di y), lun cn c tnh n khi quyt nh chnh ph nn
hay khng nn tham gia iu tit bo v ngi dn khi mt s ri ro no .
Quan im cho rng chng chi ph no l qu cao nu chng ta bo v mt s mc
tiu nht nh chng hn sinh mng con ngi, sc kho tr em, hay uy th quc
gia l mt quan im thng thy, c bit l nhng ngi vn ng h nhng
s nghip c th. Song ngi dn bnh thng li phi chu chi ph c hi do cc
quy nh gy ra v h li c xu hng theo ui hng lot mc tiu khc nhau.
Chi ph iu tit ca ton b h thng khng c nh gi thng xuyn khi m
s rng buc t gic ca c nhn (private self-constraint) c thay th bng hnh
thc qun l tp th, t nht l nu chi ph tun th c phn b rng ri v
302
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
khng d nhn thy ngay. Chng hn, khi vn lin quan n nhim v bo v
sc kho, an ton hay mi trng, quc hi i khi li ban hnh nhng quy nh
gy ra chi ph tun th v cc chi ph khc qu cao, thng l trc p lc ca cc
nhm theo ui mt ch cng ng no (single-issue group), m thnh vin
ca chng th khng phi chu chi ph iu tit. Ngi ta phi t cu hi, chng
hn, l cc quy nh v an ton ca M liu c hp l hay khng nu chng gy ra
chi ph cho vic cu sng mt mng ngi l 168 triu USD khi cc tiu chun v
cht thi benzene c tht cht vo nm 1990, hay chi ph cho vic cu sng
mt mng ngi l 920 triu USD khi cc tiu chun nc ung mi c ban
hnh nm 1991, y l cn cha k chi ph cu thm mt mng ngi thp nht
cng phi 5.700 t USD khi ngi ta lit k nhng cht thi c hi cho cng tc
bo v rng nm 1990 (Breyer, 1995; Viscusi, 1993; xem phn ng khung di
y). C nhin, s cn thit phi so snh li ch x hi di hn vi chi ph x hi
di hn ca mi quy nh cng c th p dng cho cng tc bo tn mi trng.
Nhng s liu ny gip minh ho mt xu hng trong chc nng bo v ca chnh
ph l n ch trng thi qu s an ton m sao nhng vic thc y kh nng phi
hp v kim sot ca h thng cnh tranh, v do sao nhng vic thc y thnh
vng. Khi nhng chi ph ny khng c tnh n, nhng phng n thay th
cho s qun l cng ng (public regulation) s khng c cn nhc v li ch
ca mt cng dn bnh thng s dng cc ngun lc khan him sao cho c li
nht s b b qua. Khi m vic ngn chn mt ci cht yu li tn km n hng
t dollar th y tn ti kh nng l nu c s dng theo cch khc chng
hn, sn xut thit b lc thn nhng ngun lc ny c th s cu hoc ko di
s sng cho v s ngi. Nu c quan lp php v gii cng chc c chiu theo
nhng quan nim thin cn v an ton nh th, h s cho chi ph ca cc quy
nh bo v tng dn ln v hn ch quyn t do ca ngi dn trong vic th
nghim v quyt nh cho bn thn. Hu qu l tng trng thp, nhng nguy c
ln hn cho sinh mng v s an ton ca con ngi, ng thi cm gic b tc
mt quyn bu c tr nn ph bin.
303
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
ro v cng thp Canada th vic khai t c mt ngnh ngh xem ra l mt phng sch
kh quyt lit... Vic iu tit mc ri ro ti thiu s lm tng chi ph ca nhng th
hng ho m chng ta mua. Trong trng hp ny, ... n hn s trit ph c mt ngnh
ngh mi m, ang n nn lm ra v l k sinh nhai ca nhiu ngi. Lut php kiu nh
th cho thy rng ngi Canada thiu mt kh nng nm bt v nh gi ri ro. Qu thc,
chnh ph dng nh t cho php mnh hnh x nh mt bc ph mu chi dn.
(Ngun: K. Morrison & L. Miljan, Cheese, Politics, and Human Health: How the Media
Failed to Critique Recent Government Policy [Pho-mt, Chnh tr v Sc kho Con
ngi: Cc phng tin thng tin i chng tht bi trong vic ch trch chnh sch
gn y ca chnh ph nh th no], tp ch On Balance, tp 9, s 5, thng 5/1996; trch
dn trong tp ch Fraser Forum, thng 9/1996, trang 38)
Ghi ch: Khuyn ngh c th ca mt nhm khoa hc gia ny cui cng khng c
thng qua.
Chc nng bo v
Vic chnh ph to c hi tip cn mt s loi hng ho no cho ngi dn c
th nhn c s ng h. Nh chng ta nhn thy, hng ho cng cng thun
tu l nhng hng ho v dch v m vic ngn chn nhng ngi khng tr tin
h khi s dng chng l rt tn km, nu khng mun ni l bt kh thi, v
mt khi cung cp th chng li khng khan him v khng c s cnh tranh no
v nhu cu trong phm vi nhng gii hn nht nh (mc 7.2). Do cc ch s hu
t nhn trong trng hp ny s phi chp nhn hin tng free-ridingi m nhng
ngi khng ng gp vo chi ph mua sm v bo qun nhng hng ho gy
ra, y c l do r rng ng h hot ng cung cp v ti tr ca chnh ph
thng qua ch thu kho bt buc. Trong tnh th , cc ch s hu t nhn
khng th s dng quyn ti sn ca mnh mt cch thch ng, k c quyn ngn
chn ngi khc. y l biu hin ca mt s bt cp th ch. Mt v d kinh in
l n chiu sng ng ph: nu mt thnh vin x hi ti tr cho h thng chiu
i
S dng min ph: Xem phn Khi nim Then cht th hai trong mc 5.3. (ND)
304
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Ch thanh ton tr cp (transfer payment) hay tr cp (grant) qua chnh ph lin bang chia s thu
nhp ngn sch (revenue) ca mnh vi cc cp chnh quyn thp hn. (ND)
ii
X hi ho l hnh vi chuyn cc quyn ti sn t hu sang cng hu, i lp vi t nhn ho. (ND)
305
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Indivisibility: quy m u vo ti thiu cho hot ng sn xut mt loi hng ho hay dch v no .
(ND)
306
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
307
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
308
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ci t hot ng sn xut x hi ho
Cc nguyn tc hch ton kinh doanh cn c p dng cho cc d n sn xut
hng ho cng cng nhm cung cp y thng tin v chng, cho php cc nh
lnh o chnh ph kim sot c vn thn ch - i din. iu ny c ngha
l khng ch cc khon thu chi lp i lp li (trong ngn sch) mi cn c nh
gi v cng b, m k c nh hng ca mi mt hot ng nh th n ti sn v
cng n ca chnh ph (phng php k ton pht sinh accrual accounting).
Hng nm, hot ng ca cc tp on nh nc cn c th hin qua cc bng
cn i k ton dnh cho khu vc cng, do cc c quan kim ton c lp thm
nh, v nhng kt qu lin quan n ti sn rng ca chnh ph cn phi bch
ho. Tuy nhin, cc chnh ph trn th gii li t khi cung cp nhng thng tin m
h vn i hi i vi cc cng ty t nhn. Hot ng sn xut thuc khu vc
cng dng nh i khi mang li li th ch bi mt l do duy nht l khng phi
mi khon thu chi u c cu xt v u tch bch rch ri khi cng vic
chung ca chnh ph. iu ny cho php cc giao dch chuyn nhng ngm din
ra. Khi cc doanh nghip cng c h thng ti khon minh bch, chng c che
chn phn no khi s can thip chnh tr hng ngy, vn c xu hng ph v k
hoch sn xut v m ng cho hin tng rent-seeking chnh tr (political rent-
seeking).
Cc bin php ci cch c th gip gim bt vn cho hot ng sn xut thuc
khu vc cng. Chng hn, hot ng sn xut x hi ho (socialised production)
c th phn cp cho cc cp chnh quyn a phng cnh tranh, chuyn i ti
sn x hi ho thnh mt loi hng ho cu lc b no (Foldvary, 1994, trang
62-78, 86-112), hoc n c th c t nhn ho vi s m bo rng c hi tip
cn nhng hng ho v dch v s tip tc gi nguyn trong khu vc cng
ng (public domain). Ngoi ra, h thng k ton c th c sa i nhm bt
kp nhng doanh nghip t nhn vi thng l hiu qu nht. K thut qun l hin
i c th gip pht huy hiu qu sn xut nhm phc v ngi ng thu. t
mc ch y, cc gim c phi c cc ng ch chnh tr giao cho nhng ch
tiu u ra r rng, kh d nh lng, song h cng phi c chu trch nhim
la chn phng thc sn xut v cch thc huy ng nhng u vo cn thit.
H thng trch nhim nh th ch c th thnh cng khi cc gim c thuc khu
vc cng c nhim k hu hn v c tr lng theo hiu qu cng vic: mt
kiu dn xp v c bn khc bit vi cch tip cn cng v truyn thng
(traditional public-service approach) vi nhim k sut i. Trong trng hp
nhng ci cch nh th khng kh thi, cn a hot ng sn xut hng ho v
dch v ra khi khu vc cng v tin hnh t nhn ho nhm p dng khun php
ca hot ng kinh doanh t nhn cnh tranh.
Chng ta s quay tr li vi nhng ch ny trong Chng 13 v Chng 14
khi bn v t nhn ho, qu trnh chuyn i ca cc nn kinh t x hi ch ngha
v cng cuc ci t cc nn kinh t hn hp.
309
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
310
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Fabian: Hip hi x hi ch ngha, tro lu tr tu Anh ch trng ci cch x hi tng bc (phn i
thay i c tnh cch mng, trit ) trong khun kh php lut nhm dn ti ch ngha x hi dn ch. N
ra i ngy 4/1/1884 ti London, bt ngun t mt t chc c tn The Fellowship of the New Life (thnh
lp nm 1883 v gii tn u nhng nm 1890). (ND)
ii
Transfer (hay transfer payment): Khon thanh ton phi bi hon ca chnh ph cho cc c nhn, v mc
ch phc li hay an sinh x hi, hay cho mt s doanh nghip nht nh. (ND)
311
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
312
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
313
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
314
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
315
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
316
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
New Zealand, phng php qun l da trn thnh tch mang li nhng khon tit
kim cng qu ln, gip gim thu thu nhp v thot khi tnh trng n nc ngoi.
Khi bn bit ci g phi do thu kho ti tr, bn phi m bo rng iu c thc
hin vi h thng thu kho t mo m nht m mnh c th thit k nn. Ngi dn phi
theo ui cc c hi th trng m khng b nhng l do thu kho nhn to lm sao
nhng s ch dnh cho nhng l do kinh doanh chnh ng. V th, h thng thu kho
phi dn tri vi t sut thu thp. Ti c l s ng h s pha trn gia thu thu nhp v
thu gi tr gia tng mt mc thu thu nhp c nh 15%, ti a l 20%, vi mc thu
thu nhp m v pha nhng ngi thu nhp thp, v mt mc thu gi tr gia tng chung
10%. Nu t l nh thu cao hn, n s tr nn mo m.
Mt ch thu kho dn tri vi t sut thp s gia tng mc tit kim ca chnh ph v
h gia nh; n s h thp chi ph vn. Thi tun th ca ngi dn s cao v chng ta
s tit kim c lng chi ph giao dch khng l ... Mt h thng thu kho thng minh
nh th s v s cng bng v tin cy phi i km theo nhng ch ti mnh m v
hnh pht nghim khc dnh cho hnh vi gian ln thu. y khng c ch cho s gi
mo v thi qun np thu nh th s tha th cho bo lc hay hnh vi vi phm php
lut v o l v hnh s l s khoan hng sai lm, t chuc ly ho.
(Ngun: W. Kasper, Responsibility and Reform: a Conversation with Ruth Richardson
[Trch nhim v ci cch: i thoi vi Ruth Richardson], tp ch Policy, tp 12, s 3,
(1996), trang 25-31)
Chi ph tun th
Hnh ng tp th khng ch p t cc chi ph ngun lc m ngi dn phi
trang tri bng cch ng thu v cc khon l ph bt buc khc, m cn c chi
ph tun th. y l nhng khon tiu hao ngun lc m nhng ngi dn bnh
thng (private citizen) phi b ra khi h tun th php lut v quy nh ca
chnh ph (cc th ch bn ngoi). Chng hn, ngi ng thu phi lu gi bo
co thu m nu khng ng thu th h chng phi lm th; phi in vo cc
biu mu cho chnh ph; phi tin hnh cc hot ng ca mnh theo nhng cch
thc khc vi ci cch m h s lm nu khng ng thu. H c th phi chm
dt mt s hot ng nht nh v tham gia vo cc hot ng khc mt cch
317
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
min cng, i khi vi chi ph rt ln. Ngi dn v doanh nghip thng buc
phi thu nhn vin gii quyt cc cng vic giy t. Ti a s quc gia, chnh
ph to ra c mt ngnh cng nghip tun th php lut (compliance
industry) vi cc vin chc thu v, cc chuyn gia quan h chnh ph, cc lut s
v cc nhm lobby.
Chi ph tun th do chnh ph to ra khc nhau ng k gia cc h thng php l
(jurisdiction). Thng thng, qu trnh hp l ho cc thng l hnh chnh v, dn
dn, cc h thng lp php v iu tit (legislative & regulatory systems), vn c
th t c trong khi mc ch iu tit vn khng chu nhiu nh hng. Mt s
kt qu y t v an ton c th t c theo nhiu cch khc nhau, song li tit
kim c rt nhiu chi ph tun th (Chng 14). Cc h thng thu kho nh
nc khc nhau cng p t nhng mc chi ph tun th khc nhau rt ln. Chng
hn, h thng thu thu nhp v thu doanh nghip no cha ng v s trng
hp min gim km theo nhng quy nh nhm mc ch ti phn phi th u c
xu hng gy ra nhiu chi ph tun th tn km hn (lin quan n giy t, vic
s dng chuyn gia t vn thu v vic kin tng) so vi nhng h thng thu thu
nhp thp v phi min gim hoc so vi cc mc thu chung gin tip thp (xem
phn ng khung trn). Chi ph tun th cng b y ln cao do vic thng
xuyn thay i hng dn v th tc hnh chnh nhm mc ch hp l ho hay
ti thit k cc lut l v quy nh. Cui cng, cn lu rng nhiu chi ph tun
th l chi ph c nh, v th cc doanh nghip nh phi i mt vi nhng ro cn
chi ph tng i cao hn so vi cc tp on ln, nhng t chc kh d c kh
nng tt hn qun l cc phng ban chuyn mn v php l v quan h chnh
ph. Do vy, chi ph tun th l mt ro cn i vi cc doanh nghip nh mi
hnh thnh trong cuc cnh tranh khng cn sc, cng nh trong chuyn to vic
lm v i mi.
318
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
319
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Mt nhm ngi tm cch gy p lc ln cc nh lp php, cng lun v.v. nhm thc y nhng tng
hay li ch ca mnh. (ND)
320
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
S ph hp th trng
Mi quan tm chnh ca cc nh t do ch ngha ordo l cnh tranh ch yu l
trong ton b h thng cnh tranh ch khng ch trong cc th trng n l. H
thuyt ging, cc h thng cnh tranh xng ng c bo v v nng bi
chng c nhng chc nng thit yu, to ra tri thc v kim sot, m cc h thng
tp th khc khng th b kp trong bi cnh ca mt nn kinh t hin i phc
hp. V th, h i hi ton b cc bin php ca chnh sch cng cn phi ph
hp vi th trng (market conform), ngha l chng khng c php lm suy
yu vai tr ph bin ca cnh tranh. Mi bin php ca chnh sch, cng nh
chung ca hnh ng tp th, cn phi c nh gi xem n c nh hng
n kh nng cnh tranh (competitiveness) hay khng. Nh vy, cc bin php ti
phn phi thuc loi m chng ta tho lun trong mc 10.1 trn ch ginh
c cht t thin cm t cc nh t do ch ngha ordo tr phi chng ci thin
c xut pht im ca cc nh cnh tranh sao cho iu khng lm mo m
tn hiu cnh tranh. Nhng th ch ph thng v p dng cho mi i tng s
c a chung hn so vi nhng ch th c th v hnh vi can thip c on
vo cc qu trnh.
t hu (private property);
quyn t do hp ng (freedom of contract);
i
Ch ngha hnh ng (activism) l s thc hnh hnh ng ch nhm to ra s thay i v chnh tr,
kinh t, x hi, hay mi trng. (ND)
ii
Trng phi ch trng xy dng cc m hnh kinh t v m (macroeconomic model) da trn nhng k
vng ca ngi lao ng, ngi tiu dng v doanh nghip v tnh hnh kinh t tng lai. (ND)
321
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Hc thuyt kinh t phn i s iu tit hay can thip ca chnh ph vo nn kinh t vt qu mc ti
thiu cn thit cho h thng t do kinh doanh vn hnh theo cc quy lut kinh t ca n. (ND)
322
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
323
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Vic ban hnh php lut mt cch t ng, thiu suy ngh chn chn. (ND)
324
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
325
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
326
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Ton b gi tr ti sn v thu nhp c th nh thu trong mt cng ng. (ND)
327
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
328
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
nhiu hot ng ti phn phi nh th. Tnh trng phn nhm y c bit din
ra thng xuyn trn nhng th trng m mt s t nh cung cp (vn
quan tm n gi c cao) i mt vi v s ngi mua (vn quan tm n gi
c thp v cht lng tt). H qu l chnh sch ti phn phi c xu hng b
chi phi bi thin hng u i nh cung cp (supplier bias), nht l khi tnh
hnh t lu khng b xo trn, v th cc nhm li ch trc tip (vested
interest) v cc lin minh chnh tr c thi gian cng c v th chc chn
ca mnh (Olson, 1982).
(k) Cc chng trnh u i m ngi ta vn coi l mang tnh nht thi li khng
ch ko di m cn c m rng v l do chnh tr, ngay c khi chng ho ra
u tht bi v mt kinh t.
(l) Ti cc nn dn ch bu c, c quan lp php v chnh ph c xu hng tranh
ginh l phiu ca khi c tri trung dung, tc l tng lp trung lu. Nhiu
khon tr cp phc li ca chnh ph v th nhm mc ch ginh l phiu ca
tng lp trung lu, tng lp ng thu ln nht. Bi vy, mc ch kh d l
ti phn phi ho ra li ch l kiu m n rn n (churning) nh Anthony de
Jasay tng t tn mt cch xc ng: s cho v nhn din ra vi cng mt
nhm ngi (de Jasay, 1985). Hin tng m n rn n kiu ny gy ra chi
ph i din ng k (hay, t gc ca nhng k b rn, tn tht thu nhp
ng k).
(m) Hot ng ti phn phi khng ngng gia tng di bn tay ca chnh ph c
xu hng gy ra nhng vn kinh t v m h trng: thm ht ti kho; gia
tng n cng, thng l c n nc ngoi; tit kim c nhn gim st; thi
chng i ca ngi ng thu; v v th cnh tranh quc t ca t nc b
suy yu. Cui cng, nhng vn ny li khin cho vic iu chnh chnh
sch l khng trnh khi v gy ra gnh nng iu chnh cho nhng c nhn
vn t nim tin vo s bn vng ca h thng phc li nh nc.
(n) Mt vn c bn hn m nh nc phc li gy ra, nh chng ta lu
qua trn, l n mu thun trc tip vi nguyn l php tr v chc nng bo
v ca chnh ph. Nu chc nng ch o ca chnh ph l bo v t do c
nhn v tng ng vi iu t hu m khng c s phn bit gia cc
cng dn th iu ny li mu thun vi vic ti phn b ti sn c nhn thng
qua hnh ng tp th. Hot ng ti phn phi lm xi mn tn hiu th
trng, vn dn dt cc ch th kinh t v l ng c ca hnh ng. Nh
nc mang bn cht ti phn phi khin cho ngi dn khng th ni b ho
ton b li ch t vic s dng ti sn, lao ng v tri thc ca mnh. Hin
php ca ch ngha t bn khi s tr nn thiu r rng v trt t b xi mn.
Hu qu kh d l n lc, thi chp nhn ri ro v s i mi ca c nhn
b gim st. Ngoi ra, nhiu cng dn s cm thy bt cng khi m thu nhp
ca h b ly i bng sc lnh ca nh nc. Thi bt bnh ngy mt lan
rng vi tin trnh chnh tr c th, chng chng th chy, s vt qu li ch
t lng trung thnh v s ng h m cng ng dnh cho chnh ph (bt
ngun t vic tm cch to ra s bnh ng hn v kt qu). Lc , ch ngha
hoi nghi (cynicism) v s ng h ngy cng sa st dnh cho tin trnh chnh
tr c th lm xi mn tnh hp php ca quyn lc chnh tr, s n nh ca
ch v trin vng di hn v mt trt t ng tin cy.
329
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Ton b thu nhp v ca ci trong x hi. (ND)
ii
Danh sch 500 cng ty hng u M do tp ch Fortune lp ra hng nm. (ND)
iii
Xem phn Khi nim Then cht trong mc 4.3. (ND)
330
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
331
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Cc chng trnh v chnh sch thc y qu trnh phc hi kinh t v ci cch x hi ca tng thng M
Frank D. Roosevelt nhng nm 1930. (ND)
332
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Xut pht t mt tp qun c M l nhng ngi hng xm h tr nhau trong vic ln g cht thnh
ng ri t. (ND)
ii
Mt nhm ngi tm cch gy p lc ln cc nh lp php, cng lun v.v. nhm thc y nhng tng
hay li ch ca mnh. (ND)
333
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
10.6 Kim sot nhng ngi i din chnh tr: Quyn lc, quy tc, tnh m
Tri qua bao th k, rt nhiu cng c chnh sch c pht minh ra nhm
kim sot vn hc ba l ch ngha c hi ngi i din (agent opportunism)
trong hnh ng tp th ng thi nng cao kh nng thnh cng ca chnh sch
cng trong vic p ng nhng khao kht ca ngi dn:
(a) Ngi lnh o chnh ph cp cao nht c giao nhim v bo v nhng th
ch bn vng, bt phn bit i x. iu ny d nhin i hi nh lnh o
vua, tng thng phi nm thng tin y v hot ng ca thuc cp v
nhng iu khon ca lut hnh chnh phi c p t v tun th. Trong
trng hp mt x hi i chng hin i, y l mt gi nh kh ngy th
bi l cc nh cai tri cng c gii hn v nhn thc. Cc nh qun l c th b
cho l s cu kt vi nhau nhm bng bt vic vi phm nhng nguyn tc hnh
334
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
H thng chnh ph ngh vin dn ch m phng theo h thng ca Vng quc Anh - in Westminster
l tr s ca Quc hi Vng quc Anh. (ND)
335
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Phng thc ny c s dng sau tnh trng nguy ngp ca cuc chin tranh th gii ln
th hai, khi chnh ph t ra min cng trong vic t b nhng quyn lc khng hn ch
m n ginh c trong thi chin. Mt nhm nh ngi Thy S gc Php pht ng
chin dch i nhanh chng quay tr li hon ton vi nn dn ch trc tip bng cch
lng mt iu khon vo trong hin php nhm mc ch m bo rng chnh ph lin
bang khng th lm dng nhng quyn lc khn cp (emergency powers) ca n. Cuc
b phiu i chng vo ngy 11/9/1949 bi b cc quyn lc thi chin ca chnh ph
trung ng; ngc li, nhiu nn dn ch khc vn tip tc c ph thc nhng di sn
ton tr thi chin mt cch lu bn. Ph bin hn, cc cuc trng cu dn Thy S
thng bc b sng kin ca chnh ph v dp b nhng d n v qun l hnh chnh.
Mt bin c n tng v s kim sot hu hiu ca quc hi din ra sau v mua my bay
chin u phn lc mi cho qun i u thp nin 1960. V vic ny li mt ln na c
tc dng cnh bo cc ngh s, b trng v gii cng chc ca Lin bang Thy S rng
nh cm quyn ti cao, nhn dn Thy S, s khng dung th cho vic a thng tin sai
lc v tnh trng chi tiu vt mc. Bin c bt u c bit n vi ci tn v
Mirage. B t lnh qun s ti cao xut vic mua mt s my bay phn lc Mirage
do Php sn xut, v ni cc cng quc hi lng vin thng qua khon chi 870 triu
Franc Thy S (SFr). Tnh trng chi ph vt mc (v c th l do vic c tnh chi ph
qu thp ban u) khin ngi ta cn phi yu cu quc hi tng khon chi c duyt
ln 1 t 350 triu SFr (tng 55%). iu ny li dn n nguy c l ngi dn c th pht
ng chin dch nhm bc b ton b d n. Nhiu cuc iu tra ca cc c quan cng
quyn bt u din ra. Chng cho thy rng cc quan chc chnh ph tin tng l v sau
h s c kh nng huy ng c s ng h cho vic b sung chi tiu, v cc chuyn gia
qun s yu cu v s trng hp nng cp tn km i vi c tnh k thut ca my
bay. V c bn, chic my bay ang c t mua khc vi chic m quc hi cho
php. Cc bin php kim sot chi ph th lng lo, cc nh lnh o th khng nm c
thng tin y , cn B Quc phng th vn tin hnh bt chp vic thc r v nhng
khon chi ph gia tng khng c php. Nu quy trnh ny khng b nh li, mc chi
ph cho ton b h thng my bay s cn tng thm, ln ti khong 2 t SFr. Trc nguy
c ngi dn c th ch ng ra tay, ngi ta quyt nh gim gn mt na s my
bay cng kch phn lc m gii qun s c php mua (t 100 xung cn 57 chic)
ng thi t ra mc trn 1 t 750 triu SFr cho ton b d n.
Nh vy, chnh s tn ti ca kh nng vin ti 1 cuc trng cu dn khin cho cc
ngh s p t s kim sot ca h i vi chi tiu qun l. Nhng quyn lc thng l
kh ng k ca ni cc v cc b thuc chnh ph b kim sot. Quc hi ti p t
quyn kim sot ca n i vi chnh ph. Tht kh m hnh dung ra ni hnh ng qu
quyt nhm kim sot chnh ph v quyn li ca ngi dn nh vy nu khng c sn
cht chn cui cng l cuc trng cu dn do ngi dn khi xng.
(Ngun: Da trn tc phm ca W. Martin & P. Bguin 1980, Historie de la Suisse [Lch
s Thy S], trang 350-353)
336
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
337
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
im, bng cch bo co cho quc hi, v bng cch thm tra h thng ti
khon nh mt c quan chuyn mn c lp, v d mt tng kim ton. Mt
nn bo ch c lp v s kim im hot ng ca chnh ph bi cc chuyn
gia thm tra, nh cc nh nghin cu hc thut, cc t chc xp hng tn dng
hay cc t chc quc t, s gip nng cao trch nhim gii trnh v kim sot
ch ngha c hi trong cng s tt hn.
(g) Mt bin php kim sot hin nh khc i vi ch ngha c hi ngi i
din trong chnh ph l vic t nht mt s i din chnh ph phi nh k i
mt vi s kim im ca c tri, bt k l ban lnh o ca b my chnh
quyn (ch dn ch) hay nhng quan chc khc thuc c quan hnh php
v c quan t php (vic bu cc quan chc hay quan ta ca thnh ph).
iu ny chc chn s khin cho nhim v lnh o chnh ph mang tnh cnh
tranh, song kh nng n c kim sot c ch ngha c hi ngi i din
hay khng th li cn ph thuc vo thng tin chun xc v s tham gia ca
ngi dn.
(h) Trong nhiu dn xp hin nh, nhng cuc tranh ginh l phiu gia cc
chnh ng li tr thnh nhng v u gi (auction) v cc bin php ti phn
phi phn bit i x nhm thu ht s c tri trung dung. V vy, nhiu nh
quan st khuyn ngh nhng quy tc hin nh khng ch ch ngha c hi
chnh tr v hn ch quyn lc ti cao (sovereignty) ca quc hi c bu
trong vic tham gia vo hot ng can thip mang tnh phn bit i x
(Hayek, 1960; Buchanan, 1987, 1991; Brenza & Buchanan [1980] 1985,
McKenzie, 1984). Nhng quy tc kh d p t cho chnh ph c th lin quan
n trnh t (th tc) v kt qu ca s la chn tp th (collective choice).
Dn chng v rng buc th tc l quy nh khi a s ln (big majority),
hoc thm ch s ng thun (unanimity), khi tng thu hay chi tiu cng, nh
cc khi thiu s (minority) c bo v. Nhng khon thu nht nh cng
c th phi gn vi nhng mc ch chi tiu nht nh (nguyn tc i ng
equivalence) v cc iu khon t ng chm dt (automatic sunset clause) c
th c p t cho hnh ng tp th. Nhng quy tc quy nh kt qu ca
hnh ng tp th th c th i hi mt ngn sch cn bng hoc hn ch n
chnh ph. Vic gii hn tc gia tng ngn sch hay cp ca mt s
chng trnh chi tiu nht nh cng kh thi. Chng hn, nhng quy tc cp
cao hn c th quy nh mc thu sut ti a, nh tng thc hin qua xut
13 (Proposition 13) California nm 1978, khi thu ti sn ca bang c
gii hn mc 1% gi tr ti sn. Thm mt rng buc nh hng kt qu
(result-oriented constraint) nh th na l quy nh buc chnh ph phi iu
chnh vic thu thu thu nhp do lm pht hoc khng ch mc chi tiu cng
mt mc trn tuyt i hay tng i. Mt rng buc th tc lin quan l gii
hn nhim k, mc ch ca n l nhm ngn chn hin tng cc chnh tr
gia c bu nh mt mi lin h vi cc thn ch, khin cho cc lin minh
rent-seekingi kh hnh thnh hn, v ngn nga tnh trng cn kit tng
sng to ca nhng ngh ko di sut i trong lnh vc chnh tr.
i
Trong kinh t hc, rent-seeking din ra khi mt c nhn, t chc hay doanh nghip tm cch kim tin
thng qua hnh vi thao tng mi trng kinh t v/hoc php l thay v hot ng thng mi hay sn xut.
338
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
(i) Mt cng c kim sot khc l hnh thc trng cu dn do ngi dn khi
xng, qua cc thn ch (principal) c trao cho mt cng c thay i
hay gt b nhng sng kin ca chnh ph m h khng thch.
(j) Mt cng c khc kim sot nhng i din c hi ch ngha ca chnh
ph, vn c a chung hn mt s h thng php l ti Bc M, l hnh
thc bi min (recall, hoc lun ti impeachment) i vi ngi i din
c bu: nu mt ngh s, quan ta hay nh qun l c bu ln m li
hnh x khng th chp nhn c i vi i a s ngi dn th h c
quyn bi min ngi thng qua mt cuc b phiu c ni li vo bt c
thi im no trong nhim k chc v. Mt th tc nh th ng nhin l
tn km v v th him khi c s dng; song chnh ci kh nng thun ty
li c tc dng kim ch ch ngha c hi ngi i din v cng c th
khin cho c tri chu b ra nhng ph tn thng tin cn thit c c mt
chnh ph hu hiu. Lin quan n quy nh ny l kh nng (possibility) cc
ta n hay y ban kt ti cc quan chc khi nhng hnh vi sai tri c th c
th chng minh c.
(k) Bi cnh chung ca x hi c th gip tng cng hiu lc cho s kim sot
ca ngi dn. Cc bin php kim sot hu hiu i vi quyn lc chnh ph
s c li nh mt trnh gio dc kh tin tin, gip cho ngi dn thot
m v mt kinh t v chnh tr, v nh mt mc giu c kh cao, cho php
ngi dn b chi ph thng tin v gim st cn thit c c mt chnh ph
Rent: thu nhp khng phi nh n lc cnh tranh trn th trng m l nh hnh vi thao tng mi trng
kinh t v php l, chng hn thng qua cc quan chc chnh tr. (ND)
339
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
340
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Chnh ph
hp hin
Php tr Nn dn ch bu c
341
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Bn v thuyt kh c
Quan nim v mt bn hin php da trn nim mt ch tp th (collective
will) tng b cc l thuyt gia theo trng phi la chn cng cng kch (Downs,
1957a, 1957b; Buchanan & Tullock, 1962; Buchanan, 1975, 1978, 1987, 1991;
McKenzie, 1984). H cng hng s ch ti kh nng xy ra (likelihood) cng
nh mi e do ca ch ngha c hi n t nhng i din ch k ca chnh ph,
k c cc nn dn ch bu c. Trng phi la chn cng (public choice school)
bt u bng cch nhn thc x hi nh mt hin thc thiu cu trc t chc, mt
s hn lon m cc c nhn sng trong cnh chin tranh gia mi ngi vi
nhau. N coi hin php nh mt bn kh c chung, gip ci thin iu kin
sng cho tt c mi ngi; y l nim m trit gia ngi Anh Thomas Hobbes
(1588-1679) l ngi u tin truyn b. L thuyt la chn cng vn dng quan
im ca nh kinh t hc ngi Thy S Knut Wicksell (1851-1926), theo mt
bn kh c hin nh (constitutional contract) i hi s ng thun (unanimous
acceptance) m bo rng khng mt thnh vin no ca x hi b ri vo tnh
th ti t hn. Ch t l trn phng din gi thuyt, mt s ng thun theo kiu
i
Constitution nn hiu l iu l khi p dng cho mt t chc. (ND)
342
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Xem mc 5.1. (ND)
ii
Xem mc 5.1. (ND)
343
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
344
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Nhng iu khon hin php chnh thc c th, tt lm, cng ch l mt s rng
buc hn ch (limited constraint) kim sot ch ngha c hi ngi i din
trong chnh sch cng. Cc iu khon hin php cn nhn c s b tr t
nhng cng c khc m chng ta bn ti trn (t do bo ch, trch nhim gii
trnh, ch ngha lin bang, tnh m trc hot ng thng mi v cc dng yu
t sn xut, v.v.) Vic kim sot quyn lc chnh tr v li ch ca t do v thnh
vng ca cc cng dn - thn ch (citizen-principal) chc chn vn l mt nhim
v y thch thc v khng bao gi kt thc i vi bt k cng ng no. y l
345
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
346
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cu hi n tp
347
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ghi ch
1. Mt s bn hin php cp c th n cc chnh ng (v d, hin php ca Cng ho Lin
bang c), qua nng cao thm v th ca chng trong mi tng quan vi cc cng dn -
c tri.
348
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
2. Ngi ta cng lp lun rng vic duy tr s n nh qua thi gian theo nhng ch s c th,
trn nhng th trng c th hay trong ton b nn kinh t quc dn, cng l mt chc nng
ca chnh ph. Tuy nhin, s tt hu v nhn thc, nhng kh khn trong vic phn ng
nhanh nhy, v xung t chnh tr v nhng bin php can thip c tc dng bnh n, khin
cho iu ny tr thnh mt s phn giao nhim v chnh ph gy tranh ci. Trong bt k
trng hp no, kha cnh n l quan trng nht ca s bnh n (stabilisation), tc l vic
cung cp mt ng tin n nh, cng c th bao hm trong chc nng bo v.
3. Nhng n phm v ti chnh cng (public finance) thng nh ng thiu chnh xc vic
cung cp c hi tip cn mt s hng ho v dch v nht nh vi hot ng sn xut ni b
(in-house production) nhng hng ho v dch v . iu ny dn ti thut ng chc
nng sn xut ca chnh ph. Chng ti min cng gi khi nim ny trong cun sch nhm
duy tr s nht qun vi cc tc gi khc (chng hn nh Buchanan, 1975). D vy, chc
nng cung cp (provision function) c th l thut ng thch ng hn.
4. Trong di hn, nhng ngun thu ngn sch d dng, vn thng nm ngoi s thm tra ca
quc hi c bu, c xu hng m ng cho nhng nhm c t chc, chng hn ngi lao
ng ca cc doanh nghip nh nc, chim ot nhng khon thu ngn sch ny. Thay v
ng gp vo ngn sch chung, li nhun thu c t hot ng sn xut ca nh nc li
thng xuyn c dng ti tr cho nhng mc lng cao, nhng v tr ngi mt n bt
vng cho cc quan chc, tnh trng b tr nhn s qu ng v tiu dng ti ni lm vic cao
(hin tng rent-seeking c hi ch ngha ca nhng ngi i din chnh ph). Nhng hnh
thc lm dng ny hin l l do khin cng lun nhiu nc ng h vic t nhn ho doanh
nghip nh nc (Chng 13 & 14).
5. Ordo l t Latin dng m t trng thi x hi m nhng ngi La M t do c th
cm thy t do v tho sc pht trin. Euken ging nh tt c cc nh t do ch ngha ordo
khc cng dng t Ordnung (order) t u n cui cc trc tc ca mnh mi khi ng ng
h chnh sch ordo (ordo policy). Tuy nhin, ngi dch nhng cun sch u tin ca Euken,
T. W. Hutchison, li trnh t order (trt t) v s dng t system (h thng), vn mang t
ngha quy chun hn v khng chuyn ti c ngha y ca order (trt t) nh s
dng trong cun sch ny. Cun sch trng tm th hai ca Euken v chnh sch ordo
(Grundstze der Wirtschaftspolitik [C s ca chnh sch kinh t], xut bn ln u tin nm
1952), d c in li nhiu ln c song cho n nay vn cha c n hnh qua bn
dch ting Anh.
349
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
350
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ngay t khonh khc m anh ta xut hin, hot ng bn hng ca chng ti ngng tr,
ton b khch hng quay sang vi anh ta, v mt nhnh ca nn cng nghip Php vi s
phn nhnh khng sao m xu ngay lp tc b ri vo trng thi hon ton nh n. i
th ny, m khng ai khc ngoi mt tri, ang gy chin vi chng ti. Chng ti thnh
cu qu ngi hy thng qua mt o lut yu cu ng ton b ca s ... cng nhng mi
che bn ngoi ca s m qua mt tri vn thng xuyn i vo nh hng gy hi cho
nhng ngnh ngh y ha hn m vi chng, chng ti t ho l to ra thu nhp v
ca ci cho t nc ...
(Frdric Bastiat, Letter from the Manufacturers of Candles, Tapers, Lanterns, ... and
Generally Everything Connected with Lighting [Th ca cc nh sn xut n cy, nn,
n lng ... v ni chung l mi th lin quan n vic chiu sng], Le Libre change,
1846)
351
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
352
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
La chn a im
S a im tim nng dnh cho hot ng sn xut nh vy nhn rng cho
nhiu loi hnh doanh nghip. Trn thc t, cc nh my sn xut m nhiu sn
phm ch to i qua li thng thuc v cng mt cng ty a quc gia. Qu thc,
khong 33% hot ng thng mi th gii vo u thp nin 1990 li din ra
gia cc chi nhnh ca cng mt tp on a quc gia, v thm 1/3 na c mt
tp on a quc gia l mt trong hai i tc hp ng (United Nations, 1995,
trang 193). V vy, cc nh my khc nhau trong cng mt chui gi tr gia tng
c t nhng a im v quc gia khc nhau nhm m bo mc li nhun
k vng (expected profit) cao nht c th. Li nhun k vng c nh ngha l
khon chnh lnh gia gi bn d tnh v tng chi ph n v d tnh ( iu
353
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Xem phn Khi nim Then cht trong mc 7.2. (ND)
354
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
355
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
356
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Bn v cung cu ca ch ngha bo h
Hot ng thng mi t do cng nh cc dng yu t sn xut t do trn trng
quc t thng b li cho s cn thit phi iu chnh v v th tr thnh mc
tiu ca hnh ng chnh tr nhm loi b cnh tranh kinh t. Cc doanh nhn
chnh tr c th hi vng ginh c nh hng v li th chnh tr bng cch i
x phn bit vi cc nh cung cp v nh u t nc ngoi, nhng ngi khng
nm l phiu trong tay. Ngi mua trong nc, nhng i tng l ra phi c
hng li t hot ng cnh tranh thng mi quc t t do, li thng vn v
minh duy l (rationally ignorant) trc nh hng m h b p t t cch i x
bt bnh ng nh th.
Lun im trn c th c minh ho qua v d v thu sut nhp khu xe hi
nhm bo v cc nh ch to xe hi trong nc. Hy hnh dung mt quc gia c
quy m trung bnh, chng hn, vi 5 nh sn xut xe hi trong nc v thu sut
nhp khu lm tng gi xe hi ln bnh qun 3.000USD/nm. Nu chng ta gi
nh vic tng gi khng lm gim s lng 750.000 xe bn mi nm th li ch
ti phn phi (rent) i vi nh sn xut xe hi trung bnh trong nc l:
357
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
3.000USD/8 = 375USD/nm.
Thay v gia nhp mt t chc vn ng hnh lang (lobby) ca nhng ngi mua
xe hi, iu c l duy l hn i vi cc h gia nh l hy tiu ho thit hi k
trn v tp trung vo vic b p cho tn tht do hot ng ti phn phi mang
bn cht chnh tr gy ra t nhng th trng m h nm quyn lc ca nh cung
cp, chng hn bng cch tham gia vo mt nghip on hng kim c mc
lng cao hn.
Trc thc trng chi ph cao ca vic t chc mt nhm vn ng hnh lang, tht
d hiu khi cc nh sn xut xe hi li quan tm su sc n thu sut nhp khu
v c nhiu kh nng u t mt phn li nhun phi cnh tranh (rent) m thu
quan mang li vo hot ng lobby chnh tr hng duy tr hin trng hay thm ch
tng thu nhp khu ln mc cao hn na. Nh vy, tnh cht bt i xng
(asymmetry) thng thy trn th trng em li li ch cho cc doanh nhn chnh
tr (political entrepreneurs), nhng ngi mong mun i x phn bit vi cc
nh cnh tranh nc ngoi v chuyn cc quyn ti sn t tng lp ngi ngho
thiu t chc sang nhm ngi giu t chc tt. Nhng ng c chnh tr tng t
cng gy ra nh hng khi cc nh su xut nc ngoi (cc cng ty a quc gia)
mong mun thit lp dy chuyn sn xut ti mt quc gia v cc nh chnh tr c
thu ht h bng cch m bo cho h mt th trng bo h trong nc (Streit &
Voigt, 1993, trang 54-58).
Kinh t chnh tr hc (political economy) v ch ngha bo h (protectionism) li
n gin. Cc nhm li ch cnh tranh vi hng nhp khu th t chc vn ng
c bo h, cn cc chnh ng li sn sng bo h chng no h vn tin
tng l vic em li c li cho mt s nhm s gip ci thin c hi ti c ca
mnh. Cc ng phi i lp sn lng chp nhn ngh bo h bi h ang tm
cch tranh th s ng h c bu. Nhng nhm li ch tim tng trong nc
c th vn ng cho thng mi t do chng hn, ngi tiu dng, cc nh sn
xut s dng u vo nhp khu, cc nh xut khu phi chu gnh nng u vo
t , cc nh bn bun v bn l vn da nhiu vo hng nhp khu li c xu
hng gp kh khn hn trong vic tp hp s ng h. V th, cc nhm ngnh
(industry group) vn ng chnh sch bo h thng c t thnh vin, v chng
dnh cho cc thnh vin nhng u i tu chn (so snh vi phn ng khung
di y).
358
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
359
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Xem phn Khi nim Then cht ca mc 10.5. (ND)
ii
Mt mng li khng chnh thc kt ni cc thnh vin ca mt tng lp x hi, mt ngnh ngh, hay
mt t chc nhm to ra cc mi lin h, cung cp thng tin v ng h ln nhau. (ND)
360
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cc nh lnh o Trung Quc lo lng ... ang nho nho tm cch chng li mi e do
m h khng th hiu v khng hiu Internet.
... By thng sau khi c php tin vo t nc ny, Internet ang dn dn hin l nh
mt mi e do kh x l nht v c tnh cch mng nht i vi ni m nh mang tn
kim sot thng tin ca nh nc cng sn t trc ti nay.
c tnh khong 100.000 ngi Trung Quc phn ln l ca ci gi l tng lp tr
thc c tip cn vi nhng thng tin khng b kim duyt t khp ni trn th gii
qua Internet. n lt, nhng thng tin t bn di m chnh quyn mun bng bt
trong nc li ang b r r ra ngoi.
Trong khi Internet vn c coi l cn thit cho cng cuc hin i ho ca Trung Quc,
cc nh lnh o k t Ch tch Giang Trch Dn v Th tng L Bng tr xung u
ang cnh gic v bt u x l nhng mi nguy him cho s n nh m h nhn thy l
ch ang phi i mt.
... c bit [mt] u ban thuc Hi ng Nh nc yu cu tt c cc thu bao
Internet ng k phi ng k li v k vo mt bn cam kt l s khng tham gia vo
nhng hot ng gy bt n. Nhng thu bao tng lai s phi k vo bn cam kt .
Song y l cuc chin chng li quyn t do thng tin m khng ai k vng l chnh
quyn s ginh chin thng.
Nhng n lc nhm hn ch cng nng c th d dng b vt qua, v mc d ni dung
truyn ti trn mng c th b gim st, n vn khng th b ngn chn.
Nhng h lu t Internet i vi tng lai ca Trung Quc khng th b nh gi thp ...
[Mt] ngun tin Phng Ty cho bit: Chnh ph thc s khng hiu mng Internet. L
Bng v Giang Trch Dn vn lun bn v n vi cc doanh nhn nc ngoi, t ra
nhng cu hi v cch thc kim sot ... T gc mt ch ton tr ang tht cht
kim sot, h c l do lo lng.
... Internet s khng to ra mt dng thc (consciousness), song cui cng, n c th
khin cho thc tr nn ti t ... L l mu thun y l nu ch ny khng thnh
cng v mt kinh t m t nc ny khng th hin i ho c nu thiu Internet
n cng b sp . Theo ngha , chnh quyn s khn kh nu n thnh cng v kinh t
v cng khn kh nu n tht bi.
Khng c cch thc hu hiu no kim duyt Internet. y l l do v sao n c
bit n nh l c n cui cui cng trc khi xa nha ranh gii quc gia.
Trong nm 1996, c bit chnh ph Trung Quc cho php thng dn c s hu
kt ni Internet, song li bo m rng ton b lung thng tin quc t phi i qua hai
cng thng tin do nh nc kim sot (qua , mt s hnh thc trao i thng tin nht
nh s b lc b). Cng c thng tin cho bit l mt s ca hiu bt hp php ang bn
cc thit b cho php cc thu bao Internet Trung Quc i vng qua hai cng ca chnh
ph v kt ni trc tip vo mng li ca Hng Kng.
(Ngun: Tng trnh ca AAP, 29/1/1996, v cc bi tng trnh bo ch sau )
361
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
362
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Mt thnh ph nm pha Nam bang Kansas, M. (ND)
363
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
364
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
T php quc t
Mt cch tip cn x l nhng bt trc cng cc vn v ch ti trong trng
hp lin quan n lnh th bn ngoi (extraterritoriality) l vin ti t php quc
t (international private lawi), tc l, nhng o lut c xy dng ti cc h
thng php l c th x l cc giao dch quc t. N bao hm nhng nguyn l
php l vn quyt nh t php ca nc no s c p dng trong tng tnh
hung c th. Theo ng ngha, n l php lut ca mt quc gia c th, tm cch
thu hp phm vi tranh chp gia nhng chun mc php l mu thun nhau. T
php quc t qua c th gip gim bt xung t. D vy, mt s bt trc ng
k vn tn ti: Cc to n quc gia s din gii mt s lut l no nh th no?
Liu cc to n c kh nng ng ph vi lut php nc ngoi hay khng, hay
li ch ti din gii lut php nc ngoi di nh sng ca truyn thng t php
trong nc? i khi, nhng vn lin quan c th c din gii trn c s
nhng quy chun hoc ca trong nc hoc ca nc ngoi. Ngoi ra, nu t
php (private law) nc ngoi li mu thun vi nhng nguyn l php l chi
phi trong nc th sao? Lc , li ch quc gia v trt t cng ng c th c
cu xt bin h cho quyt nh gt b lut php nc ngoi v phn quyt ca
t php quc t.
Bt chp nhng tr ngi c bn ny, mt b lut thng nht nhm iu chnh hot
ng giao dch hng ho quc t c thng qua di s bo tr ca Lin Hp
Quc nm 1980 ti Vienna. Nhn chung, n lut ho cc tp qun thng mi.
Cng c Vienna (Vienna convention) hin c tha nhn ti khong 40 h
thng php l. Mc d vy, vic p dng cng c Vienna khng nht thit l s
to ra s chc chn v cc th ch hu hiu, bi iu ny ph thuc vo cc to n
quc gia vn hot ng trong khun kh nhng quy c t php khc nhau. Kt
i
Private law: nhnh lut lin quan n cc quyn v ngha v ca c nhn. trnh nhm ln vi khi nim
t php theo cch hiu thng thng l mt nhnh ca quyn lc nh nc, chng ti s b sung t ting
Anh bn cnh.(ND)
365
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Forum shopping l mt t khng chnh thc ch thi quen ca mt s bn t tng hng tm cch c
to cho rng lp lun ca mnh l ng tin nht, qua ginh c mt phn quyt c li. (ND)
366
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ti phn quc t
Nhng th ch nh th rng buc hnh vi ca cc thng gia v nh ti chnh
quc t. Trong trng hp pht sinh xung t v hnh vi hoc cch din gii quy
tc c th, a s doanh nhn quc t u g ca cc ban ti phn quc t
(international arbitration tribunal). iu ny th hin mt s nguyn l th ch l
th.
Nh ti phn c th c th c tho thun trong hp ng. Trong trng hp
iu ny khng c quy nh, cc bn c th nh n s phn x ca nh ti
phn thng qua tho thun tip theo. Cc ban ti phn quc t thng thuc v t
nhn v do cc phng thng mi iu hnh, chng hn Zurich, London,
Stockholm v Paris. Ngoi ra cn c Hip hi Ti phn Chu M (American
Arbitration Association) v cc phng thng mi quc t cng cung cp dch v
ti phn. Cc t chc ny thng cng khai quy tc phn x ca mnh v cung
cp dch v ti phn cng cc dch v hnh chnh lin quan. Chng c xu hng
trao quyn nng cho cc tp qun thng mi, lm sng t cc th ch bn trong
ca thng mi quc t v to ra s tin tng khi cc bn hp ng ri khi phm
vi iu chnh ca cc th ch bn ngoi ti nc mnh.
i
Giao hng trn tu (ngi mua khng phi tr cc ph xp hng). (ND)
ii
Gi thnh, bo him v cc. Khi gi c c nu l CIF, c ngha l gi ca bn bn hng bao gm
gi thnh ca sn phm, cc vn chuyn v ph bo him. (ND)
367
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
368
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cc nh mi gii quc t
Cc nh mi gii (intermediary) cng tham gia vo cuc chi. Cc ngn hng
quc t, chng hn, pht hnh tn dng th. H c li ch khi c nhn nhn l
ng vai tr hp tc v h tr.
Cc t chc thng mi quc t chuyn mn ho khng t gii hn vo hot ng
chuyn ti thng tin n thun m cn tr thnh nhng nh trung gian nng ng,
tin hnh nhng giao dch ni tip nhau v li ch ca chnh mnh, ct gim chi
369
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Nhng chi ph b ra v khng th thu hi c bt k mc ng k no. (ND)
ii
Xem phn Khi nim Then cht mc 7.3. (ND)
370
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
371
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Mi gii ti chnh
Mt trng hp ht sc n tng rt gn vi gy sng st v s tun th quy
tc t pht c th tm thy trn th trng tin t th gii. Thnh vin ca cc th
trng tin t ton cu pht trin nhng dn xp tinh vi cho php ngi mua v
ngi bn quc t giao dch nhng khi lng doanh thng khng l m hu
nh khng cn ti bt k vn bn ti liu no, v iu ny li cn din ra tc
cao vi chi ph giao dch thp v s trng hp s sut ti thiu. c tnh, doanh
thu hng ngy trn th trng tin t ton cu nm 1992 t ti con s ng kinh
ngc 880 triu USD, vi mc tng trng hng nm t 25-30% (tp ch The
Economist, 7/10/1995, trang 6). Ngoi nhng li ch khc, cc th trng ny cn
372
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
cho php gii doanh nhn quc t bo him cho ri ro t gi, chng hn bng cch
tham gia vo th trng tin t k hni (currency futures market). Chng em li
nhng thng tin qu gi (Streit, 1984). Cc th trng tin t c xoay vng khng
ngh quanh hnh tinh ca chng ta, vi mc li nhun nh v hng chc ngn
thnh vin c lp, nhng ngi cha bao gi gp g ring t song li vn giao
dch vi nhau ch thng qua in thoi v email.
Cc th trng tin t quc t vn hnh trn tru m khng cn n mt c quan
quyn lc trung ng n c th trng pht nhng k vi phm. Gii thng gia
trn th trng tin t th gii pht trin mt h tng th ch t pht rt hu
hiu. N c iu chnh cho thch ng vi nhng cng ngh ang thay i
nhanh v s m rng th trng mau chng, c bit l k t khi cc ng tin
quan trng c th ni vo cui thp nin 1960 v u thp nin 1970. Cc th
ch ca th trng hi oi th gii sc ng vng trc nhng c sc v du
m, chin tranh, cc v tht n (default) ca chnh ph, hay s tn li ca ch
ngha x hi ton tr thy u din ra m khng h gy ra mt s hong lon hay
v ln no trn mng li th trng. Thnh thong, cc chnh ph vn ra tay
can thip vi mc ch l nhm n nh s dao ng ca t gi hi oi. Song
nhng ng thi nh th li thng cho thy l chng gy bt n hn l gip xy
dng lng tin, v cc th trng vn vt qua nhng cn chn ng chnh tr.
Lm th no m ci php mu mang tn th trng tin t ton cu li c th din
ra hng ngy nh vy c? Ch ti th ch ch cht y l hnh pht ty chay
(ostracism, hay loi tr exclusion). Nu mt doanh nhn tin t vi phm nhng
quy tc bt thnh vn ca gii ngh nghip, chng hn bng cch t chi hon tt
hp ng hoc gnh chu mt phn tn tht do s hiu lm gy ra, anh ta s sm
nhn ra rng khng ai cn chp nhn ngh ca mnh na. Uy tn l iu kin
thit yu, v li hnh x c hi ch ngha lp i lp li s hu hoi uy tn ng
thi ko theo s ty chay thc s. Cc mng li thng tin phi chnh thc trn
ton th gii li hu hiu n mc kh tin v hnh pht a ra c th l chng
vnh. y l iu kin thit yu cho php cc doanh nhn tin t tin hnh giao
dch hot ng kinh doanh ri ro ca mnh vi mc chi ph giao dch thp, tin
tng vo s hon thnh ng hn t cc i tc kinh doanh nhng t nc xa
xi, v cho php h lm vy m khng cn ti nhng vn bn php l tn km.
i
Th trng k hn: Hot ng mua bn nhng hng ho m vic giao hng c thc hin vo mt thi
im xc nh trong tng lai. (ND)
ii
Giai on n nh ko di di ch La M. (ND)
373
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
374
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
375
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
376
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
377
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Hi nhp kinh t:
Cc khu vc thng mi t do, lin minh thu quan v lin minh kinh t
S pht trin v thng mi, giao thng vn ti, thng tin lin lc v ti chnh
ngy cng vt ra ngoi bin gii quc gia. Hot ng giao dch xuyn bin gii
gia tng v kt ni cc th trng quc gia hay khu vc li gn nhau hn. Qu
trnh ny c gi l s hi nhp kinh t t di, v c thc y nh hnh
ng t pht ca cc ch th t nhn t ch (Kasper, 1970; Streit & Mussler,
1994). Mt phn ca hnh thc hi nhp ny l s xut hin ca cc th ch bn
trong nhm tit kim chi ph giao dch, nh m t trn. Hi nhp cng c th
c thc y t trn xung thng qua vic p dng nhng quy tc v chnh sch
chung trn c s tho c lin chnh ph v nhng ch th chi tit t trn xung.
Mt dn chng v cch thc c th to iu kin thun li cho hi nhp t pht
t di ln l GATT v t chc k tha n, WTO, m chng ta va cp trn.
Mt s dn chng khc l cc khu vc thng mi t do, lin minh thu quan v
lin minh kinh t. Khi mt s h thng php l tham gia vo mt khu vc thng
mi t do, chng ng d b ton b ro cn thng mi nhn to dc bin gii
chung (d b thu quan v hn ngch). iu ny cho php hi nhp kinh t din
ra mnh m hn t di ln, tc l, s hi nhp th trng t nguyn ca nhng
ch th t nhn t ch. Cc quc gia thuc khu vc thng mi t do bo lu
quyn kim sot bin gii ca mnh i vi nc th ba, nh ch thu quan
chng hn. Nu thu sut chnh lch ln, cc thng gia s xut khu t quc gia
thuc khu vc thng mi t do vi ro cn thng mi thp nht v s nhp
khu t cc nc th ba qua nhng ng bin vi biu thu quan thp. Hin
tng ny c th lm chch hng thng mi quc t (v ngun thu thu quan)
v c th chnh n bng nhng quy nh th cp, chng hn bng cch ban hnh
quy nh v xut x, theo giao dch thng mi quc t phi bt ngun t ni
m phn ln cu kin ca sn phm hay dch v c sn xut. Chi ph gim
st v p t nhng dn xp nh th l kh ng k.
Mt phng thc khc phc nhng vn th ch nh th l to ra lin minh
thu quan, mt lin minh gia nhiu h thng php l vi mt tp hp quy nh
thng mi chung, m c th l mt biu thu sut xut nhp khu chung, hot
ng thng mi th din ra t do trong phm vi lin minh thu quan. Khi cc lin
minh thu quan gn kt ni khi thng qua cc mi lin h thng mi mnh m,
cnh tranh gia cc h thng php l c xu hng gia tng v cc doanh nhn a
ra la chn a im da trn cc yu t lin quan n kh nng cnh tranh, bao
gm cc th ch ca chnh quyn v ca nn vn ho, mc chnh lch lng, gi
t, v mc cn k vi cc th trng (xem mc 11.1 trn). V th, cc i
din chnh ph, cng nh cc doanh nhn t nhn vng mnh, nhng ngi thy
mnh phi i mt vi p lc cnh tranh nh vy, thng ln ting ng h lin
minh kinh t, tc l mt lin minh thu quan m ton b yu t sn xut,
chng hn nh lao ng, c th t do di chuyn. V d v mt lin minh nh th
l Lin minh Chu u (European Union), ra i nm 1957 vi 6 quc gia thnh
vin. Trong nhng nm u tin, qu trnh hi nhp t trn xung v t di ln
378
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
379
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
380
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
381
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
382
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
nc th h thng trn thc t (de facto) vn hnh theo nhng cch thc tng t
nh ch bn v vng, v t gi hi oi vn tip tc kh d tin on.
383
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
la xem ng tin no phc v mnh tt nht trong vai tr phng tin thanh ton
(means of payment), lu tr gi tr (store of value) v n v tnh ton (unit of
account). Do , vn quan trng nht i vi li ch ca ngi dn chnh l
quy tc t do chuyn i, n em li cho h quyn la chn, trao quyn lc cho
h v kim sot cc nh pht hnh tin, bt k h l nh nc hay t nhn.
i
Vic vn chuyn cht thi (cht thi gia nh, cht thi cng nghip hay ht nhn v.v.) t nc ny sang
nc khc. (ND)
384
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
tranh lun ti cc nn cng nghip pht trin v hin tng phi cng nghip ho
(deindustrialisation), trong mt s ngi cho rng cc ngnh cng nghip ni
a ang di c sang nhng khu vc c mc lng thp v to ra hin tng tht
nghip c cu (structural unemployment). Ngi ta i hi phi hn ch cc dng
vn chy ra ngoi phc hi tnh trng hu nghip cao trong nc, bt chp
mc chi ph lao ng ni a. nh tng t nhm bo v quyn lc chnh tr
li l ra khi cc nh bo v mi trng ln ting yu cu bo h thng mi v
ngun vn, doanh nghip v vic lm sn sng tm n nhng khu vc t b iu
tit nng n v mi trng. Khi qut hn, cc nhm li ch c th nh mt nh
hng trong nn kinh t m th thng ku gi tinh thn quc gia ch ngha trong
dn chng hng hn ch ni h thn v tnh m. Ti Nht Bn v nhiu quc gia
ng , cc nhm lobby cng tm cch gy p lc chnh tr chng li nn
thng mi m v cc dng vn t do hng duy tr nh hng chnh tr. Tuy
nhin, t gia nhng nm 1990, chnh sch ng ca cc th trng trong nc
him khi cn kh thi. Cng ngh thay i, v nhiu ch ngun vn v doanh
nghip c kh nng lu ng trn trng quc t. y l l do gii thch ti sao
nhng ai mong mun thot khi khun php ca tnh m ang ngy cng vin ti
gii php hnh thnh lin minh kinh t: Lin minh Chu u, Khu vc Thng mi
T do Bc M (North American Free Trade Area), v nhng n lc nhm to ra
mt lin minh kinh t ng ha hn em li cho cc chnh tr gia ch t l mt
mc uy th chnh tr i vi i sng kinh t.
Song cuc chin v tnh m li khng din ra trong mt th gii tnh ti. Cuc
cch mng thng tin lin lc v chi ph vn ti vn ang din ra. N khin cho cc
lin minh theo ch ngha bo h kh t chc v duy tr hn: trong k nguyn ca
Internet, ngi ta hin hu nh khng th ngn ni dng chy t do ca ngun
vn v tng thng qua cc mng li ton cu. y l l do gii thch ti sao
trt t kinh t quc t m v c bn l m vn c c hi tip tc tn ti.
Cc quc gia c ch quyn khng th cng bch nhau thc hin ngha v theo
hip c quc t (khng s dng sc mnh qun s). V th, vic nng cao nhng
c tnh t thc thi (self-fulfilling qualities) cho nhng hip c gip duy tr tnh
m ca cc nn kinh t quc gia c th s hu ch. Vi mc ch y, Jan Tumlir,
chuyn gia trng kinh t k cu ca GATT, xut vic nng cao tnh m
ca nn kinh t bng cch p dng cc iu khon hip c t thc thi (self-
executing treaty provision). ng ng h vic trao cho nhng cng dn b nh
hng cc quyn php l m vi chng h c th khi kin chng li nhng
chnh ph vi phm tnh m v nguyn tc bt phn bit i x vi ngi nc
ngoi (Tumlir, 1979, trang 71-83). Theo xut ny, nhng thng dn trong
nc v cng dn nc ngoi s c trao quyn php l a cc c quan
chnh ph ra to trong cc v kin tng i bi thng thit hi ca t nhn nu
cc bin php kim sot bin gii lm suy gim cc quyn ti sn ca h. Quy tc
ny s to hiu lc cho nguyn tc bnh ng gia cng dn trong nc v cng
dn nc ngoi. Quan nim trn c p dng trong phm vi Lin minh Chu u
trong mt s tnh hung nht nh, tuy nhin li khng p dng cho cc nc th
ba. N rt ph hp vi k nguyn m s pht trin cng ngh ngy cng h
thp khi nim bin gii quc gia ng thi cao cc quan nim v phng thc
ng x theo ch ngha th gii (cosmopolitanism).
385
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cu hi n tp
386
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ghi ch:
1. D nhin, mt s dch v li khng th t do di chuyn (nh vic ct tc chng hn) v s tip
tc c sn xut ti ni m nhu cu c nh v.
2. w phn nh tm quan trng ca cc yu t chi ph khc nhau. N s khc nhau gia cc hot
ng kinh t khc nhau. V vy, nhng a im khc nhau th c sc hp dn khc nhau i
vi cc hot ng kinh t c th.
3. Nu loi b gi thuyt l cc mc gi cao hn khng lm gim lng hng bn th h qu c
th ch i l lng hng bn gim, chi ph sn xut n v cao hn v do mt mc li
nhun phi cnh tranh (rent) thp hn ri vo ti cc nh sn xut t. D vy, iu ny vn
khng lm thay i logic c s ca lp lun.
4. Nhiu quy c v quy tc to thun li cho thng mi v u t quc t li tng tin ho
thm ch trc c s xut hin ca cc nh nc dn tc (nation state) hin i Chu u (lex
mercatoria hay Custom of Merchants Lut Thng nhn) v trong th gii Hi gio
(Rosenberg & Birdzell, 1986). c pht trin trong khu vc t nhn, Lut Thng nhn ln
u tin thit lp nguyn l php l v hp ng gia cc i tc bnh ng v s bnh ng
trc php lut, tt c mi ngi u c quyn t ch php l (legal autonomy). Nguyn l
quan trng ny c ra nh hot ng thng mi m khng phi nh gii cai tr hay cc
trit gia php l (Jacobs, 1992, trang 38-40). Lex mercatoria cho php mt h thng pht
trin, h thng y l kt qu t hnh ng ca con ngi song li khng do bt k ai thit k
nn.
5. Chng ti vit ngy nay v gii php cng bch qun s (ngoi giao sng ng, s xm
chim qun s sau nhng v vi phm thng mi hay hnh thc tch thu ti sn nc ngoi) b
loi tr y.
6. Trn thc t, vn b phc tp ho bi cc mc li sut danh ngha bin thin v nhng k
vng v s dao ng t gi trong tng lai.
387
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Meta rule: quy tc ca quy tc. (ND)
388
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Mi th lun thay i.
(Thnh ng Hi Lp c i)
Tht sai lm khi li mng tng rng qu trnh tin ho biu th mt xu hng lin tc
hng ti s hon ho. Qu trnh chc chn lin quan n s thay hnh i dng lin
tc ca sinh vt nhm thch ng vi iu kin mi, song tu thuc vo bn cht ca
nhng iu kin nh th m chiu hng ca nhng i thay ny s i ln hay i xung.
(T. H. Huxley, The Struggle for Existence in Human Society [Cuc u tranh sinh tn
trong x hi loi ngi], 1888)
12.1 Hi c lch s:
im li qu trnh thay i th ch theo chiu di lch s
Php mu Chu u
Hong Charles (1500-1558) ca triu i Habsburgi (ngi m b h ca mnh
vn huynh hoang l mt tri khng bao gi ln trn ch ca ng ta) tng c
ln cay ng phn nn rng cc nh ngn hng v thng nhn Do Thi, nhng
ngi lun tm ng tin cho ng song li ang phi tho chy v v To n D
gio (Inquisitionii), bng hnh ng nhm mi tn thng vo tri tim quyn
lc ca ta.
i
Gia tc hong gia c cai tr ch La M Thn thnh (Holy Roman Empire) giai on 1440-1806. (ND)
ii
To n ca Nh th Cng gio La M (1232-1820) nhm pht hin v n p d gio. (ND)
389
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Mt khu vc thuc pha Bc nc c. (ND)
ii
Ton b gi tr ti sn v thu nhp c th nh thu trong mt cng ng. (ND)
390
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Chu u li khc bit nhau. Mt s khu vc, m nhng phm cht thng
mi th yu (commercial secondary virtue) c trau di, c u th v a im.
Kinh nghim sm cho thy rng s m bo cho cc quyn ti sn v quyn t
ch c nhn, cng nh mt chnh quyn tun theo quy tc, ng gp nhiu vo
vic thu ht cc ngun lc lu ng. Quyn t do dn s v kinh t cng khi dy
tinh thn doanh nghip trong nc; thay v b cun vo cuc cnh tranh chnh tr
trong triu, nhng con ngi ti nng nhng h thng php l c hng cc
quyn t do ny li chuyn hng ngy cng nhiu sang khai ph hot ng kinh
t trong cc lnh vc thng mi, ti chnh v sn xut. H thng kt hp ti sn
v lao ng ca mnh vi nhng ngi nhp c mi n v ngun vn ang chy
vo. Tng trng kinh t cc h thng php l thn thin vi doanh nghip
nh Venice, Genoa, Florence, Antwerp, Nuremberg, H Lan, Anh (England) v
Ph th hin phn thng vt cht cho li ng x theo quy tc ca gii cai
tr; trong khi , cc nn qun ch c ti v tu tin cai tr nhng khu vc rng
ln v khp kn hn nh Ty Ban Nha, Nga v o li bt u tt hu v pht
trin kinh t (Weber, [1927] 1995; Jones, [1981] 1987; Giersch, 1993). Nh vy,
cc doanh nhn biu quyt vi i chn ca mnh: h ra i v tham gia vo
hin tng m chng ta c th gi l s thay th a im (locational
substitution). iu ny dn n s khc bit v nng sut, hot ng i mi, mc
sng v nn tng kinh t ca quyn lc chnh tr.
Th hai, n ng thi i hi h thng chnh tr phi ng ph vi cnh tranh
chnh tr v tham gia vo hot ng . Cnh tranh chnh tr gip khi ng cc
qu trnh pht trin th ch. i mt vi la chn ri b (exit option) ca ngun
vn lu ng cng nhng con ngi giu k nng, gii cai tr khng cn cm thy
thoi mi khi hnh ng tu tin v c hi ch ngha nh trc (chc nng kim
sot ca hnh ng ri b) m rt ra rng vic lm hu ch l pht trin mt s th
ch nht nh, chng hn nh cc quyn ti sn an ton, quyn t ch c nhn v
quy tc u t khng cn xin php, cng nh cc quyn t do ni chung. Mc
ch ca gii cai tr l nhm duy tr v gia tng quyn lc, song hiu ng ph
y l h c gio dc hnh ng v li ch ca ngi dn. Cng lc, cng
chng hc c cch p dng nhng quy tc thc y hot ng giao thng v
i mi. Nh vy, tn hiu phn hi t s thnh cng hay tht bi vt cht khi
mo cho qu trnh hc hi, gip ti nh hnh cc th ch bn trong v bn ngoi.
Gii thng nhn th trau di nhng phm cht dn s, nh ng gi, trung thc
v lch lm, v ch chnh tr rt cuc chuyn i t triu i phong kin v, sau
, triu i c tr (absolutist) sang nn qun ch lp hin (constitutional
monarchy) v nn dn ch bu c (electorial democracy). Trong qu trnh lu di
, cc chnh ph nh mt quyn kim sot nhng mu cu c nhn, mt s b
my cai tr cn t lt xc thnh nhng t chc h tr phc v cho qu trnh
pht trin kinh t, v ch ngha t bn hin i bt u kh thi.
Khi hong Charles V cn sng, gii cai tr Chu u vn c nhn thc l
nm nhng quyn lc cai tr to ln nh s ban n ca Cha Tri, mc d theo
cch no trn l thuyt, h chu s rng buc ca o l Thin Cha gio
(Christian morality) v lut t nhin (natural law). Hai th k ri sau, khi
Friedrich Schiller vit ra nhng dng trn y, cc chnh ph ngy cng c coi
l phi i mt vi p lc cnh tranh gia cc h thng php l, iu gip hn
391
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Nhng s kin trong hai nm 1688-1689 dn n vic lt vua James II Anh (England) v s ln ngi
ca vua William III. (ND)
ii
Khi nim v mt x hi l tng vi mt h thng x hi - chnh tr - php l hon ho. (ND)
392
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
393
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Tr v vi trt t m
Qu trnh tri nghim vi cc h thng quy tc c pht trin mt cch khoa
hc (vn ra i trn c s cc h t tng tp th ch ngha nhm bp nght
nhiu trong s cc th ch bn trong v cc t chc x hi dn s) a n
nhn thc y hn v nng lc ca ch ngha t bn v tnh m trong vic
phi hp cc nn kinh t hin i v to thun li cho qu trnh tin ho th ch
nhm theo kp nhng i thay lin tc. ng thi, n cng hng s ch vo s
cn thit ca qu trnh tng tc gia cc th ch bn trong v bn ngoi duy
tr trt t kinh t - x hi trc nhng i thay lin tc v k thut, dn s, kinh t
v x hi. Trn thc t, kinh t hc v trit hc trng phi o hin i (modern
Austrian economics & philosophy) li pht trin t cuc tranh lun gia cc nh
kinh t hc vi nhng ngi ng h ch k hoch ho tp trung (Hayek, 1937,
1944; Mises [1920] 1994, 1949); v chnh l t s tri nghim thc t vi ch
ngha tp th ton tr (totalitarian collectivism) cng cc ch khp kn m cc
trit gia hin i nh Karl Popper mi c tip thm nhiu ng lc i n
nghin cu ch ngha c nhn v ch ngha tp th.
Kinh nghim trn ton th gii v tng trng kinh t cc nn kinh t m v do
th trng phi hp t thp nin 1960 cho thy u th ca quyn t ch, cc
quyn t hu bo m v quyn nng phi hp ca cc th trng cnh tranh,
trong cc chnh ph tp trung vo nhim v bo v trt t trn v trnh can
thip theo kiu phn bit i x vo cc qu trnh. Ch no ng ca nn kinh
t ca mnh vi hot ng thng mi v cc dng yu t sn xut trn trng
quc t th c xu hng tng trng chm hn (Sachs & Warner, 1995; Gwartney
& Lawson, 1997). Cc nn kinh t khp kn t phi i mt vi thch thc ci
cch cu trc th ch, chng thu c t kinh nghim trong vic iu chnh cc th
ch truyn thng cho ph hp. Tuy nhin, thnh cng kinh t ca cc quc gia
lng ging (nhng nc to iu kin thu ht ngun vn, doanh nghip, tri
thc, ng thi cho thy li ch ca ci cch kinh t) c tc dng gio dc
mnh m. S thnh cng d thy nng cao c hi ci cch th ch nhng
quc gia tt hu. Mt v d y thuyt phc l chui s kin din ra Malaysia
vo thp nin 1970 v u thp nin 1980, khi chnh ph do ngi Malay chi phi
bt tay vo mt k hoch ti phn phi thu nhp quan trng nhm thc y nhng
ngi Malay ngho kh ng thi y thit hi v pha nhng ngi Malay gc
Hoa giu c v cc nh u t nc ngoi. Chnh ph hn ch quyn t ch v
cc quyn ti sn ca cc nh u t nc ngoi v ngi Malay gc Hoa. Hot
ng u t t nhn nhanh chng chng li bt chp mc chi tiu cng ln t
ngun du m v kh t, trong khi cc nn kinh t lng ging vi mt ch
t phn bit i x hn li vn pht trin. Thc t trn a n s ti nh
hng thc dng trong cc chnh sch ca Malaysia: cc bin php kim sot
mang mu sc phn bit i x gim bt hoc b d b; cc qu nh nc b loi
ra khi lnh vc cng nghip; c s h tng c t nhn ho. Nn kinh t
Malaysia sau tng trng nhanh tr li. Nhng trng hp cnh tranh lng
ging tng t gip m rng qu trnh t do ho kinh t sang nhng khu vc
khc ca th gii th ba, thm ch n cn lan ti c nhng quc gia cng sn nh
Trung Quc, ni m gi y hn mt na tng sn lng l do doanh nghip t
nhn sn xut, Vit Nam v cc quc gia mang mu sc phong kin Chu M
394
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Latin. Ti nhng ni ny, cc nhm chuyn quyn vn cai tr cho n khi chng
phi nm tri nhng kh khn kinh t vo nhng nm 1980 v 1990. Nh s cnh
tranh gia cc h thng php l nh vy m hin nay cc cuc ci cch nhm
chuyn dch cc th ch bn ngoi theo chiu hng ca h thng t bn ch
ngha tr thnh hin tng ton cu (Scobie & Lim, 1992; Gwartney &
Lawson, 1997). Chng ta s quay tr li vi ch ny trong Chng 13 v
Chng 14.
i
Nghip v kinh doanh lin quan n hot ng mua tin, vng, chng khon ti chnh, hay hng ho mt
th trng v bn gn nh ng thi mt th trng khc nhm thu li nhun t s chnh lch gi c vn
tn ti gia cc th trng. (ND)
ii
Hin tng nhng ngi c k nng buc phi lm nhng ngh khng s dng n k nng ca mnh.
(ND)
395
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
cao nh cc doanh nhn chnh tr sng to trong lnh vc chnh tr, trong b my
chnh quyn v trong cc hip hi ngnh (industry associationi), h m phng
nhng quy tc chng t gi tr khi to thun li cho thnh cng kinh t ni
khc. Mt nhn t quan trng y c l l kinh nghim t nhng nm 1930, khi
m s phn bit i x chnh tr khng ngng lan rng ng vai tr ch cht
trong vic y cuc suy thoi ln su hn thnh cuc i Suy Thoi (Great
Depression) v, cui cng, bin thnh thm ho chin tranh ton cu. Nh chng
ta nhn thy trong chng trc, iu ny dn ti nguyn tc bt phn bit i
x gia cc quc gia, vn c bo v trong iu khon ti hu quc (MFN)
ca GATT v nay l WTO. Quan trng khng km, thnh cng kinh t gp
phn to ln vo tht bi ca cc chnh sch phn bit i x. Nh la chn ri b
d thc hin hn nn nhn t quan im t do v thnh vng, cc th ch kinh t
cng nh cc th ch khc c ci thin nhiu.
i
T chc c thnh lp v ti tr nh cc doanh nghip hot ng trong mt ngnh ngh c th. (ND)
396
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
397
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Qu trnh tin ho ca cc th ch
S xut hin ca cc th ch bn trong v nhng thay i tin ho ca chng c
thc y nh nhng khm ph to bo v rng ri: cc c nhn v t chc pht
hin ra li ch khi vi phm nhng quy tc bn trong lu nm v ri h vi phm m
khng b trng pht. H nh gi li hi ca nhng hnh pht kh d. Nhng do
cc hnh pht thng l mm nn mt s ngi kh sn sng nh cc th
vt ra ngoi nhng quy tc c tha nhn. C th h hy vng l s c kh
i
Xem phn Khi nim Then cht mc 2.2. (ND)
398
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
nng gii thch v chuyn vi phm quy tc cho nhng ngi b nh hng v
c chp nhn hoc ch t cng c tha th cho th nghim ca mnh. V d,
con trai v con gi mt tui nht nh thng vi phm cc th ch ca gia
nh, chng hn s phc tng quyn lc ca cha m. C th chng hy vng t
c mt li ch no y v kh d gii thch cho cha m l ti sao chng li ph
v quy tc. Nhng th nghim nh th c dn ti cc th ch mi hay khng tu
thuc vo kh nng l nhng thi quen mi c c truyn sang nhng ngi
khc v c chp nhn, nh vy chng ginh c s ng quyt nh (critical
mass) cn thit cho s xut hin ca th ch mi hay khng. S th nghim nh
th khng trnh khi xung t, song xung t li c xu hng c gii quyt
cp c nhn, phi tp trung (decentralised, personal level), ni m thng tin tt,
s ng cm v tinh thn on kt c tn dng.
Qu trnh m qua cc quy tc bn trong thay i c y c im ca tt c
cc trt t phi tp trung: c s th nghim phi tp trung vi vic vi phm quy tc
hin hnh (s i mi th ch institutional innovation); c qu trnh chn lc t
pht, phi tp trung m s i mi c chp thun cho n khi n ginh
c s ng quyt nh (critical mass) tr thnh chun mc mi hoc b phn
i; v nhng qu trnh ny thng din ra trong khun kh cc siu quy tc
(meta rules) vn c xu hng duy tr s tin ho theo mt l trnh lin tc v
tng i d tin on. H thng quy tc vn gi nguyn trt t (trt t cc quy
tc), v th n vn duy tr kh nng nh hng n trt t hnh ng (Chng 6).
S tin ho nh vy th hin c minh trit (wisdom) v s phn xt
(judgement) ca s ng v a n mt tp hp th ch vn mang nhiu du n
ca kinh nghim qu kh song li khng hon ton cng nhc trc s thay i
ca iu kin xung quanh.
Cch thc m cc th ch bn trong c iu chnh thng to nn s khc bit
gia x hi a vn ho (multicultural) thnh cng v x hi a vn ho tht bi.
iu ny th hin qua trng hp ca M v Australia, ni m tri thc n
(implicit knowledge) cng nhng quy tc c th ca cc nn vn ho khc nhau
li ho trn vi nhau hoc c iu chnh hnh thnh nn mt tp hp th ch
chung mi v tng i ph bin, hin tng giao ho vn ho sng to (creative
cross-fertilisationi) c khi mo v tri thc c a vo khai thc. Song u
m cc th ch n hin hu t trc ca x hi ch (host society) c bo v mt
cch cng nhc v mi nhm u tip tc tn ti mt cch kh un nn vi nhng
th ch ring ca mnh, qu trnh hi nhp din ra kh khn v nhng xung
t x hi t gi c th ny sinh (Sowell, 1994, 1996, 1998).
Thch thc i vi quy tc bn trong no th ginh c s ng quyt nh, nh
n c chp nhn ngay, v thch thc no th b phn i rng ri? Cu tr li
ph thuc mt phn vo mi lin h gia nhng bin thi th nghim
(experimental variations) vi cc gi tr nn tng ca con ngi. Chng ta nhn
thy trong Chng 4 l nhng gi tr ny thm m vo cc th ch v thng
ng vai tr l nhng u tin chi phi, lm c s cho vic nh gi nhng dn xp
i
Cross-fertilisation: s trao i ln nhau gia cc nn vn ho khc nhau hay li t duy khc nhau, c li
cho c hai bn. (ND)
399
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
400
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Vic ban hnh php lut mt cch t ng, thiu suy ngh chn chn. (ND)
ii
Byzantine Empire (330-1453): ch pha ng v v sau tr thnh mt phn ca ch La M. (ND)
401
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
402
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Xem mc 10.5. (ND)
403
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
404
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
405
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
406
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
407
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
408
Hnh 12.1 Cnh tranh th ch: S tng tc c bn ca cc qu trnh kinh t v chnh tr
CP vn ti
& TTLL
thp hn La chn cng: cnh
Thay i v m Thay i trong
tranh chnh tr
ca nn KT vic ban hnh cc
th ch nh l mt
nhn t a im
Cc siu quy tc ca trnh tranh th
ch: t do thng mi, t do di Cc i din
chuyn, t do chuyn i chnh tr
409
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Phn cp
T quan im ca ngi dn v doanh nghip, vic ng h nguyn tc phn cp
(subsidiarity) tc l, mi nhim v thuc lnh vc hnh ng tp th nn c
t cp chnh quyn thp nht c th l hu ch. V s nhim v qun l c
th phi tp trung ho v c cung cp bi cc c quan chnh quyn cnh tranh.
Chng hn, cc chnh quyn bang hoc a phng cnh tranh c th thc thi, ti
410
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
tr hoc iu tit hot ng cung cp phc li cng ng, duy tu nhiu hng mc
h tng v phn ln dch v gio dc v y t. Trong mt s trng hp nht nh,
ngi ta nhn thy li th ca s tp trung ho nhim v chnh quyn, chng hn
khi cc th chung nh lut thng mi v lut giao thng thng nht cho php tit
kim nhiu chi ph giao dch, hay trong trng hp c li th quy m v phm vi,
nh lnh vc quc phng chng hn. Do s tin ho th ch v vic khm ph cc
gii php qun l hnh chnh mi c th c li t s th nghim cc chnh
quyn bang hay a phng cnh tranh nn nguyn l quy chun v phn cp
(normative principle of subsidiarity) c th chuyn thnh mt nguyn l hin nh
cp cao, v nhng trng hp ngoi l ch nn thc hin khi ngi ta c th a
ra l do r rng.
Nhng ngi ng h chnh ph tp quyn li thng xuyn phn i s phn cp
vi lp lun l cn phi m bo s gn kt v hi ho quc gia bng cch thc
y nhng c hi thu nhp v vic lm bnh ng gia cc khu vc khc nhau, v
bng cch m bo cung cp hng ho cng cng thng nht cho mi cng dn,
bt k ni h sinh sng v cc chnh tr gia m h bu ln. Tuy nhin, thnh tu
trn ton th gii ca chnh sch bnh ng ho khu vc (equalising regional
policy) tht kh m thuyt phc hn so vi thnh tu ca chnh sch bnh ng
ho phc li x hi (social welfare equalisation), v vic n lm suy yu nhng
phn ng t iu chnh t pht (spontaneous, self-correcting response) trc s
chnh lch v thu nhp gia cc khu vc l mt l do quan trng. Nhng khu vc
kh khn v d dng tip cn vi vin tr ca chnh ph trung ng c th t chi
a ra mc lng thp, vn hp dn cc nh u t. Hn th, vic cung cp hng
ho cng cng thng nht, tp trung c th i ngc li nhng la chn v u tin
khc nhau ca khu vc. Do cc nh hoch nh chnh sch cng xa ngi dn
nn s tp trung ho (centralisation) s dung dng ch ngha c hi thn ch -
i din (principal-agent opportunism) cng nh ri ro o c (moral hazardi) t
pha cng ng c tri. Tnh a dng lin bang trong cng tc hoch nh chnh
sch cho php la chn ca c tri v b my qun l to nn s khc bit trong
hot ng cung cp hng ho cng cng. Lc , ngi dn s quan tm nhiu
hn n vic thc y kinh t a phng v khu vc pht trin.
cng c nguyn l phn cp, cc h thng lin bang cnh tranh cn p dng ba
cng c th ch khi qut sau (Kasper, 1996b):
(a) cc lin bang cn trung thnh vi quy tc v ngun gc (rule of origin), n
quy nh rng nhng sn phm c sn xut hp php ti mt khu vc thuc
lin bang th vic bn chng trn ton lin bang s t ng hp php; ni cch
khc, s phn bit i x gia cc a im sn xut khc nhau b loi tr;
(b) hin php lin bang cn phn giao cc nhim v qun l cho duy nht mt cp
chnh quyn: cn loi tr hin tng trng hp v lp li nhim v, vn ch
khin cho c tri bi ri khng hiu ai l ngi chu trch nhim thc hin.
Tnh duy nht (exclusivity) lm gim phm vi trn trnh nhim v ca cc
chnh tr gia v nh qun l;
i
Xem phn Khi nim Then cht trong mc 3.4. (ND)
411
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
412
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
413
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cu hi n tp
414
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ghi ch:
1. Trong chng cui cng ca tc phm Hin php ca t do (Constitution of Liberty), mang
tiu Ti sao ti khng phi l nh bo th, Hayek cho thy l c mt ng chia ct gia
cc nh bo th v cc nh t do ch ngha (liberal, hoc libertarian theo thut ng M). Cc
nh t do ch ngha lun a ra cu hi iu g l tt hn. i khi h nhn thy cc th ch
mi phc v li ch con ngi tt hn, trong khi cc nh bo th li lun bo v nhng th
ch c v a thch cc c quan quyn lc vng mnh (Hayek, 1960).
2. C nhin, s tin ho vn ho vt ra ngoi h thng th ch. Ni dung ca vn ho phi i
mt vi cc qu trnh tin ho lin tc l i mi (innovation), bt chc (imitation), chn lc
(selection) v phn i (rejection). Mt dn chng y l khi m nhng g vn c coi l
m nhc v hi ho tt theo nhng quy c vn ho thi by gi b lt bi cc nh cch
tn ngh thut nh Ludwig van Beethoven hay Gustav Mahler hay cc ho s theo trng
phi n tng ca Php. Vic ph v cc quy c vn ho ca h em li cho h thi th
ch ca cc vin hn lm lu i v mt cng chng bo th, song dn d h vn thu ht
c mt s lng ngi chuyn gu ngh thut va thit lp nn nhng chun mc vn
ho mi.
Tng t, gii kinh t hc p dng nhng quy c chung gi l khung mu tn c in
(neoclassical paradigm). iu ny to thun li cho s tung tc ca cc nh kinh t hc
chuyn nghip. Khi nhng quy c kh d thay th khc (m chng, chng hn, li i hi
phi xem xt cc th ch mt cch dt khot ng thi phn i gi thuyt ngm v tri thc
hon ho) ang c th nghim th cc trng phi t tng lu i v nhng ngi trung
thnh vi khung mu quy c b thch thc. Phn ng ca h c th c thi thc bi thi
bo th theo thi quen, t chi suy ngm v nhng quy c mi, vn c hiu l nhng
iu kin phc tp khng ng hoan nghnh, nhng th ch t cn tr s phi hp v trao i
tng gia cc hc gi. Thch thc tr tu i vi ci khung mu lu i cng c th dn ti
nhng n lc nhm bo v s vn ling tr tu tch cp c trc kh nng mt gi tim
tng. V th, nhng ngi ng h khung mu tn c in c th chng li s thay i, chng
hn l bng cch phn i vic cng b nhng bi vit phi chnh thng trn cc chuyn san
hay ph quyt s thng tin trong ngh ca nhng ngi chuyn hng. Nhng i thay trong
t tng kinh t tng bc c thc y nh n lc tch hp nhng phn hp l ca khung
mu kinh t hc th ch vo trng phi t tng chi phi, qua dng nn nhng m hnh
lai ghp (Furubotn, 1994). Nu cc m hnh ny li cho thy s thiu nht qun c hu hoc
khng gii thch ni nhng hin tng th gii thc quan trng, ngi ta s cm thy s thi
thc tip theo xem xt li khung mu ch o. S ng thnh vin ca cuc tho lun kinh
t hc s ch da trn kinh nghim m nh gi, theo nhng cch thc dn d v phi tp trung,
l vic thay i nhng gi thuyt quy c ph bin th c kh d v hu ch hay khng.
3. Trc khi Weber tp trung vo s tin ho th ch kh lu th cc nh phn tch ngi Anh
(Britain) vit v n ri. Trit gia kim s gia ngi Scotland Adam Ferguson (1723-1816),
vi Essay on the History of Civil Society (Tiu lun v lch s ca x hi dn s, 1767), v s
gia ngi Anh (England) Edward Gibbon (1737-1794), tc gi ca cun sch ni ting
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (S suy thoi v sp ca ch La M), xng
ng c ghi nhn l cc nh tin phong trong vic phn tch v s tin ho th ch.
4. Tnh m trc nhng thch thc quc t khng phi l s cnh tranh duy nht m cc th ch
x cng phi i mt: ngi ta c th quyt nh t b cc th ch chung bn ngoi nu h
nhn thy chng bt li v s vn hnh cc th trng ch en. Nn kinh t ngm ph thuc
vo cc quy tc bn trong v hin tng lan rng ca n c th c din gii l s cnh tranh
gia nhng quy tc chnh thc v nhng quy tc t pht phi chnh thc.
5. Nh kinh t hc ngi M Paul Krugman (1994, trang 34) tng cng kch kin l cc quc
gia cnh tranh vi nhau: Cc quc gia khng cnh tranh vi nhau nh cc cng ty vn cnh
415
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
416
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
417
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Laissez faire: Hc thuyt kinh t phn i s iu tit hay can thip ca chnh ph vo nn kinh t vt
qu mc ti thiu cn thit cho s vn hnh ca mt h thng t do kinh doanh theo cc quy lut kinh t
ca n. (ND)
418
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Central Intelligence Agency: C quan Tnh bo Trung ng M. (ND)
419
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
So snh
TN u ngi nm 1995
(bnh gi sc mua)
Ghi ch:
1. S liu c tnh v thu nhp u ngi (nh du trn trc ng) c xc
nh vi mc bnh gi sc mua theo ng dollar quc t nm 1995, y dng
420
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
421
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
422
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
423
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
424
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
chia nh thnh k hoch hng nm cho cc ngnh ngh khc nhau thuc cc b c
th. Cc b ny thng iu hnh cc vn phng khu vc. Quy trnh k hoch ho
thng bt u vi vic ban gim c ca cc nh my sn xut pht tn hiu v
nng lc sn xut hin ti km theo mong mun u t b sung. Tip theo, cc c
quan qun l k hoch tp hp nhng thng tin v tm cch dung ho nng lc
sn xut theo k hoch vi cc ch tiu chnh tr c giao (vn phn nh nhu cu
tp th). Ton b quy trnh lp k hoch c thc hin theo khi lng u ra
(nhng cn i vt cht). iu ny i hi thng tin v lng yu cu u vo,
da trn hiu bit v cc hm sn xut. duy tr kh nng qun l quy trnh,
hng triu sn phm khc nhau v cc c tnh ca sn phm phi c quy gp
thnh cc chng loi hng ho. Tnh cht a dng ca cc u vo nhanh chng
tr thnh mt vn hc ba; chng hn, khi c k hoch sn xut mt my bay
ch khch c ln gm 500.000 cu kin nhng cc quan chc k hoch li ch
quen vi li t duy theo hng tn cu kin my bay. Do cc ch tiu c lp
theo khi lng u ra nn cc gim c nh my thng c ng c sn xut
nhng sn phm u ra nng n m t quan tm n cht lng. V th, nhng yu
cu v thng tin trung ng, ngay c khi ch lp li mc sn lng ca nm
ngoi thi, l rt ln. Mi quan h u vo - u ra phi c n gin ho,
nhng c tnh cht lng khc nhau nhm p ng nhng mc ch c th
thng phi b qun bnh ho v vic khc bit ho sn phm nhiu khi phi b
dp b. C ch cung cp v x l thng tin ca th trng qua b thay th bng
mt h thng phi hp vn vn hnh t hi hn nhiu (Winiecki, 1988).
Sau cuc chin tranh th gii ln th hai, h thng kinh t ny c xut khu
sang c cc nc ng u, ni qun i Soviet ang chim ng, ln Trung
Quc sau nm 1949, ni n nhanh chng b pht hin l thiu hiu qu v b t
b. n v cc nc thuc th gii th ba khc m phng k hoch ho theo
kiu Soviet, song khng mt nc no c bt k thnh cng no lu bn.
425
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Trong kinh t hc, rent-seeking din ra khi mt c nhn, t chc hay doanh nghip tm cch kim tin
thng qua hnh vi thao tng mi trng kinh t v/hoc php l thay v hot ng thng mi hay sn xut.
Rent: thu nhp khng phi nh n lc cnh tranh trn th trng m l nh hnh vi thao tng mi trng
kinh t v php l, chng hn thng qua cc quan chc chnh tr. (ND)
426
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Dynamic efficiency l mt thut ng trong kinh t hc, ch mt nn kinh t c s cn bng thch ng gia
cc mi quan tm trong ngn hn (hiu sut tnh static efficiency) vi cc mi quan tm di hn (ch
trng vic khuyn khch hot ng nghin cu v pht trin). (ND)
427
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
428
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
hoc dnh cho vic nng cp v m rng t liu sn xut (capital stock), cho
nhng li ch tp th, chng hn nh nng cp nh cng ty v phng khm sc
kho do nh my iu hnh, hoc dnh cho vic tng thm ngy ngh v lng.
Cc cng nhn hu nh lun b phiu ng h vic tng lng, tc l, h mun
chim hu thnh qu t n lc ca mnh. Trn thc t, vic h tng lng khin
ngi ta khng th nng cp hay thm ch l bo tr cc t liu sn xut, nhng
th thc s khng thuc v ai. M hnh Yugoslavia v th dn ti tnh trng
xung cp ca t liu sn xut v s vn hnh kinh t ngho nn do thiu u t
(Pejovich, 1966; Prychitko, 1991; Burkett, trong tc phm ca Bornstein, [1965]
1989, trang 234-258).
429
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
430
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
T nhn ho cng x
Cng cuc t nhn ho ln nht trn thc t (de facto) i vi ti sn thuc s
hu tp th t trc ti nay din ra vo cui thp nin 1970 v u thp nin
1980 khi cc c quan qun l nh nc ca Trung Quc tin hnh phi tp th ho
(decollectivisation) lnh vc nng nghip. t ai v ngun vn s dng trong
nn nng nghip Trung Quc b tc ot khi s hu t nhn trong thp nin
1950. Ton b t ai thuc s hu tp th c dn vo cc cng x nhn dn
(peoples commune) cui thp nin 1950 v u thp nin 1960. Hng chc ngn,
nu khng phi l hng trm ngn, cng nhn nng nghip c phi hp trong
mt c cu ch huy v c nhng ngi lnh o chnh tr ca t chc cng x
ch th vic phi trng cy g, trng v thu hoch vo lc no, cng nh ton b
cng vic hng ngy ca h. Trong na sau ca thp nin 1950, cc mnh lnh l
do Trung ng Bc Kinh ban hnh nhm tng tc sn xut la go v xy dng
cc ngnh ngh nng thn trong mt chin dch mang tn i Nhy Vt. V ng
Cng sn t mc tiu vt qua Anh v sn lng st thp nn cc l nung quy
m nh c dng ln sau vn nh trn khp Trung Quc. Dao v dt ging
bng st thng xuyn b bin thnh st thp cht lng thp nhm p ng cc
ch tiu sn xut dao v dt ging mi. Rng b tn ph nng n cung cp
cht t cho chin dch. Cng cuc i Nhy Vt do trung ng iu hnh
nhm tp th ho nng nghip gy ra tnh trng hn lon v s phi hp o ut,
t dn n nn i trn quy m ln.
c tnh khong 30 triu ngi Trung Quc b cht i do h lu ca cuc th
nghim v k ngh x hi [social engineeringi] y (Becker, 1996), n lp li v
vt qua nhng h lu t cuc tp th ho bt buc Lin bang Soviet trong
nhng nm 1930. u thp nin 1960, nn nng nghip Trung Quc phc hi,
nhng vic phn phi lng thc nhanh chng b v nghim trng do cuc
Cch mng Vn ho, mt chin dch chnh tr do trung ng pht ng v
gy ra tnh trng hn lon cho hot ng sn xut, trao i v cuc sng hng
ngy ca nhn dn.
n cui thp nin 1970, sau ci cht ca Mao, n ra nhng cuc bo lon v
lng thc ti T Xuyn, mt tnh nm su trong lc a thuc pha Ty Trung
Quc. Cc nh lnh o ng y khng cn bit n gii php g hn ngoi
vic gii tn cc cng x v phn t cho nng dn. Cc gia nh khng c trao
cc quyn ti sn r rng v mt php l, nhng mi ngi hiu chc chn rng t
nay v sau cc n v h gia nh (household unit) s c kh nng canh tc, vi
quy m t nhiu tu mnh, trn phn t c phn, v h c th chuyn giao t
ai cho con ci hay em bn. H c php t do bn sn phm ca mnh trn th
i
Xem mc 6.3. (ND)
431
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
trng sau khi hon thnh ch tiu k hoch chnh thc cho chnh quyn mt
mc gi (thp) c nh. Nhng sn phm do ngi nng dn giao theo ch tiu k
hoch c tun vo h thng thng mi ca nh nc nhm cung cp lng
thc khi lng ln v chi ph thp cho cc thnh ph.
Thnh qu t cuc ci cch T Xuyn l thc s n tng. Cc ngun cung ng
lng thc tng ln 50% ch trong vng hai nm v rt nhiu loi lng thc
thc, phm ti bt u sn c (Kasper, 1981). Thm ch hoa qu ti cng xut
hin tr li ti cc thnh ph. Ngi nng dn li mt ln na cm thy c tr
cng xng ng t vic thu hoch v vn chuyn qu anh o ra th trng thnh
ph, trong khi trc h cho ln n hoc nu ru dng v nh my khng
t ra ch tiu thu mua qu anh o. n gin l h thng k hoch ho tp trung
khng th quy nh vic phn phi nhng loi hoa qu chng hng mt cch
thun tin. Thay vo , ngi ta tp trung n lc vo nhng loi lng thc, thc
phm c th lu v x l d dng hn thng qua h thng k hoch ho v
phn phi tp trung.
Kinh nghim tch cc t cuc ci cch T Xuyn nhanh chng gip ph bin
nhng quan nim mi ti ton th nng dn cng nh ti mt b phn thuc lnh
vc ch to trn khp Trung Quc. H thng cng x, tng mt thi l hnh thc
i mi trong nng nghip c nhc n nhiu, nhanh chng bin mt vi t li
bnh lun t cc nh kinh t hc Phng Ty. Cuc chuyn i h thng ln nht
t trc ti nay v nh hng n hn 500 triu nng dn Trung Quc hon tt
m khng gp phi vn ln no v m ra mt thp k gia tng rt nhanh chng
v mc sng nng thn.2
Gia nhng nm 1990, vai tr ca nh nc trong nn kinh t suy gim nhiu,
v khu vc ngoi nh nc nng ng hin to ra 2/3 tng sn phm quc dn.
Nn kinh t ang ngy cng m ca vi thng mi v u t nc ngoi, ng
thi nhim v qun l kinh t v m c chuyn giao mc ng k cho
mt ngn hng trung ng ang ngy cng c lp hn.
Nhng thay i v th ch ny song hnh vi s tng trng kinh t ngon mc
(giai on 1979-1997: 9,4%/nm, GDP tng ln gp 5 ln). Cc th ch c
ci thin khng ch gip huy ng nhiu ngun u t t bn m cn gp phn
quan trng vo vic nng cao nng sut ca ngun vn, lao ng v k nng
(IMF, 1997, trang 123), mt thc t nu bt tm quan trng quyt nh ca cc th
ch ph hp i vi tng trng kinh t (mc 1.3).
432
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Chuyn i mt ngnh hay mt doanh nghip do nh nc kim sot thnh mt cng ty c lp. (ND)
433
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
[Trong k nguyn ca ng, 1978-1992] thu nhp bnh qun u ngi ca Trung Quc
... tng khong 4 ln ... li ch tri rng khp cc tng lp dn c ... Trung Quc n
nh c tnh hnh trong nc ... v t c tin b cng ngh nhanh chng ...
... gia thp nin 1970, ngi dn Trung Quc khng th t chn kiu tc, qun o v
ngh nghip cho mnh. H b gim st n tng pht thng qua nhng hip hi ln cn.
H n cc lp gio dc chnh tr lin min v b cht vn lin tc v nim tin chnh tr
ca mnh ...
Ngy nay, ngi dn Trung Quc chn nhng loi qun o nhiu mu sc v u tc kiu
cch cho mnh. H di chuyn ngy cng nhiu trn khp t nc v thay i cng vic
tu theo mong mun ca mnh. H nghe khng ch kin ca cc nh lnh o, m cn
c nhng ngi nc ngoi thng qua radio, TV, v hnh thc giao thip trc tip vi
ngi nc ngoi ... Ngi Trung Quc ngy nay c nhng quan im a dng m h th
hin mt cch mnh m, k c nhng kin ph phn chnh ph su sc ...
Trong nhng nm 1990, chnh ph Trung Quc tha nhn quyn ca ngi dn trong
vic kin tng chnh ph v ng Cng sn. Cho d vic thc thi c bt cp n u ...
s xut hin ca quyn kin tng chnh ph mt nc Trung Quc ton tr trc kia ...
cng l mt du mc cho s pht trin ton cu v nhn quyn ... nhng nm gn y
chng kin ... nhng hn ch i vi quyn giam gi t nhn v hn nh m khng truy
t ca cnh st, nhng hn ch i vi s kim sot ca B T php dnh cho gii lut s
... v s tn trng i vi quan nim php tr ... V Trung Quc hin c khong 4 triu
quan chc a phng c bu ln qua cc cuc bu c cnh tranh ...
Khi thng mi, du lch v truyn hnh gip m ca t nc, t tng ngi dn c
gii phng. Khi nn kinh t Trung Quc thay i t ch 100% ngi lao ng c chnh
ph tuyn dng sang ch ch cn cha y 20%, chnh ph nh mt mt trong nhng
phng tin chnh ca ch kim sot ton tr ... Khi hot ng kinh doanh t ti ...
quy m [ln] ... cc doanh nghip i hi s m bo ca th lut php th ch ho. Khi
nh nc tm kim tin b khoa hc ... [n] phi tha nhn tnh hp php ca s tho
434
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
lun cng khai trn nhiu lnh vc ... Trung Quc ... gi ... nhng sinh vin u t [ra
nc ngoi], ... khng mt bin php kim sot t tng ton tr no li c th tn ti ni
vi quyt nh .
Quyt tm t c nhng mc tiu kinh t ca mnh, [ng] ... min cng nhng b
cc quyn t do ngoi mun t lnh vc ny sang lnh vc khc.
(William H. Overholt, One Mans Legacy for One Billion [Di sn ca mt ngi dnh
cho mt t ngi], Asian Wall Street Journal, 26/2/1997)
435
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
436
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
437
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Khi nim v mt x hi l tng vi mt h thng x hi - chnh tr - php l hon ho. (ND)
ii
Th gii Th ba (Third World): Thut ng trong thi k chin tranh lnh, ch cc nc khng lin kt vi
ch ngha t bn v khi NATO (cng vi cc ng minh ca n hnh thnh nn Th gii Th nht First
World) hay ch ngha x hi v Lin bang Soviet (cng vi cc ng minh ca n hnh thnh nn Th gii
Th hai Second World). (ND)
438
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Xem phn Khi nim Then cht trong mc 4.3. (ND)
439
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Bng 13.1 Danh mc kim tra v nhng yu t then cht ca qu trnh chuyn i
h thng sang mt nn kinh t th trng
Doanh nghip Nh trn; quyn t Cng ty ho; t nhn ho; b lut thng
ch khi ra quyt nh; mi; cc to n; cc chun mc k ton; th
quyn t do hp trng vn, th trng lao ng; lut ngn
ng; trch nhim hng v c ch gim st thn trng
php l
440
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
441
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
nhiu iu gip gim thiu chi ph thng tin v y nhanh qu trnh tip thu,
hc hi.
iu khng hon ton cn thit y l cc th ch h tr th trng yu t sn
xut v th trng sn phm phi c thit lp bng hnh ng tp th. Nu xt
thnh tu thc t ca cc chnh ph ni chung v lu rng cc th ch nn tng
ca nn kinh t th trng Phng Ty phn ln l kt qu ca qu trnh tin
ho lu di, ngi ta c th hoi nghi trc kh nng thit lp ch ngha t bn
bng hnh ng tp th (de Jasay, 1995). Mc hoi nghi c th thay i t
nc ny sang nc khc, tu theo kinh nghim lch s, cc gi tr v quy chun
chung (Voigt, 1993). Trn nguyn tc, mt chnh ph bo v (protective
government) c th gp phn to ln vo vic thc y v h tr cc th ch bn
trong ca nn kinh t th trng mi pht trin. N c th lm nhiu vic hn
ch chi ph thng tin v giao dch cao bt tng xng trong qu trnh chuyn i.
Hnh ng tp th hn ch, nh hng tt v nht qun c th to ra mt s im
mu cht t cc quy tc mi kh d hnh thnh. Trong trng hp chuyn
i ton b h thng, chnh ph c th khai thc hin tng kinh t quy m (scale
economiesi) to ra ci mng nhn (gossamer veil) th ch then cht m chng
ta cp Chng 1. iu ny dng nh c bit bc thit trong lnh vc tn
dng v ngn hng cng nh trong khu t chc gim st cc chun mc thn
trng nhm trnh hin tng v ngn hng v gian ln thng mi. S xut
hin chm tr ca mt trt t ti chnh s phi tr gi t, bi tin t v tn dng
ph thuc vo nhng th ch ng tin cy v ng vai tr then cht trong mt nn
kinh t vn hnh tt.
Nhim v u tin trong qu trnh chuyn i sang h thng t bn ch ngha c
l l vic gii tn b my quan chc khng l vn nm gi quyn lc to ln di
ch x hi ch ngha, mt nhim v tng t nh vic gii th cc i qun
sau chin tranh. y l iu cn thit, khng ch nhm ct gim chi ph chnh ph
cho nn kinh t t nhn m cn nhm vt qua s khng c ca cc nhm p lc
c t chc ca gii cng chc (organised bureaucratic pressure group), vn c li
ch trong vic duy tr s can thip rng khp. Mt cch ct gim chi tiu cng
khc l nhanh chng chm dt ton b tr cp cho cc nh sn xut. Mt iu
dng nh cng cn thit na l vic a vo p dng nhng chun mc v trch
nhim gii trnh trong chnh ph tng t nh nhng chun mc trong lnh vc
kinh doanh, tt nht l bng cch a vo p dng khng ch loi ngn sch thu
nhp - chi ph (income-expenditure budget) m, xt ti s thay i ln v ti sn
v n cng, c bng cn i k ton ca chnh ph (government balance sheet),
trong th hin nhng gi tr ti sn v n c nh gi c lp cng cc
khon d phng cho tng lai (future contingencies). Nhng thng tin nh th s
gip xc nh hot ng no l hu ch, hot ng no gy thua l. S tin thu
c t qu trnh t nhn ho chc chn phi khng c xem l khon thu dnh
sn ti tr cho cc khon chi tiu thng xuyn, v t nhn ho ch l mt s
sp xp li cc quyn ti sn m thi. Mt mc tiu quan trng y l xc nh
cc nhim v ca mt chnh ph ti thiu v cch thc qun l chng, ng thi
thit k mt h thng thu kho hu hiu, vi c s thu (tax base) rng ti tr
i
Hin tng chi ph n v sn phm gim i khi quy m sn xut tng ln. (ND)
442
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
cho nhng nhim v nh th. Khi m s thu thu c vn cch xa mc chi tiu
cng, y l mt trng hp quan trng th hin tht bi ca chnh ph.
Vn m ngi ta cn cha ng ng y l liu cc chnh ph chuyn i c
nn cung cp ton b h tng cng hay khng, nu xt kh nng rt hn ch ca
b my qun l mi cng s thiu kinh nghim ca n trong vic tnh ton v
phi hp kinh t. Do s xut hin ca cng ngh o lng in t mi nn ngi
ta c l do ng h cc nh sn xut t nhn tc l, cc ch s hu ca cc
cng ty cung cp tin ch cng cng va mi t nhn ho hoc cc nh u t
cnh tranh mi trong lnh vc h tng khu vc cng ng (public-domain
infrustructure) nhy vo cung cp cnh tranh cc dch v khu vc cng ng
nh in, nc, ng s, vn ti hng lot v thng tin lin lc.
Mt nhim v tp th then cht trong vic to dng trt t mi hu ch ngha x
hi l vic m bo cho mt ng tin n nh (Sachs, 1995). Khi c rt nhiu
bin s (variable) thay i, vn khng th trnh khi trong qu trnh chuyn i,
iu cn thit y l cc mc gi th trng phi pht i nhng tn hiu r rng
nht c th nhm phn nh s thay i ca hin tng khan him v cc c hi.
S bin ng gi c tng i v th khng nn b che khut bi nhng nhiu
ng lm pht kh din gii. Trong qu trnh chuyn i, cc c nhn v doanh
nghip gp phi mt vn thng tin vt xa nhng g m ngi ta vn thng
i mt. Nhim v cung cp mt ng tin n nh i hi phi to ra mt h
thng ngn hng hai tng: tng u tin gm mt ngn hng trung ng vi chc
nng gim st cc chun mc tin t (fiduciary standard) ca cc ngn hng
thng mi v bn thn n tch khi hot ng kinh doanh ngn hng thuc tng
th hai. V vy, mt ngn hng trung ng mnh v c lp l mt bc ci cch
v th ch v t chc cn thit. Trong bt k trng hp no, ngi dn cng cn
c c hi tip cn cc ng ngoi t thay th (kh nng chuyn i t do free
convertibility) v cn c kh nng tnh gi theo cc ng ngoi t. Nu nng lc
qun l hnh chnh b hn ch, cc chnh ph d nhin c th dt khot t b vai
tr ngn hng trung ng. Trn thc t, ngoi t c th c php lu thng. Vi
mt s hn ch, iu ny ang din ra Nga v Vit Nam, nhng nc m cng
tc qun l tin t yu km gy ra t l lm pht cao. Phng n khc y l
cc chnh ph chuyn i c th thit lp ch ban tin t (currency board
systemi) hoc cho php mt s ngn hng thng mi uy tn trong nc cung cp
ng tin giy ring cnh tranh vi cc ng ngoi t.
443
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
444
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
V n ln nh du s khi u ca v tr theo l thuyt v n ln (big bang theory). (ND)
ii
Trong kinh t hc, rent-seeking din ra khi mt c nhn, t chc hay doanh nghip tm cch kim tin
thng qua hnh vi thao tng mi trng kinh t v/hoc php l thay v hot ng thng mi hay sn xut.
Rent: thu nhp khng phi nh n lc cnh tranh trn th trng m l nh hnh vi thao tng mi trng
kinh t v php l, chng hn thng qua cc quan chc chnh tr. (ND)
445
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cc vn chnh tr
Xt v bn cht, nhng vn ca qu trnh chuyn i cng tng t nh nhng
vn ca cng cuc ci cch th ch ti cc nn kinh t hn hp (mix economy)
v cc nn dn ch pht trin (s bn trong chng k tip). Tuy vy, hin tng
khng c trc s thay i c l ln hn mt cch bt tng xng khi ton b h
thng cai tr b chuyn i. Nhng c quyn c li ln hn v su xa hn b
tc ot khi cc nhm li ch vi t chc tt gii qu tc (nomenklaturai),
cc gim c ca t hp cng nghip qun s v cc nhm cng nhn c u i,
cng nh gii cng chc ni chung. Nhng c quyn c li ny phi b tc b
m ng cho t do c nhn v trch nhim t thn (self-responsibilty). H
thng an sinh x hi do nh nc cung cp cng cn ti nh hnh, thu gn bt v
nh hng mc tiu tt hn. y khng phi l nhim v d dng i vi cc
nh ci cch chnh tr trong bi cnh dn ch mi thiu n nh.
Vic tc b c quyn c li v ct gim hot ng cung cp an sinh x hi ca
nh nc th cm nhn c ngay tc thi trong khi nhng li ch ca ci cch li
phi mt mt thi gian mi tr thnh hin thc. Chng li dn tri v mng manh.
V th, thnh qu gt hi c th khng d dng c quy cho nhng bin php ci
cch c th. Tht khng d g khin cho cc c nhn nhn ra rng s chp nhn
ri ro v trch nhim t thn chnh l mt bn kia ca t do v rng an ninh vt
cht (material security) trong hon cnh li mu thun vi t do (Chng 4).
Trc hin tng mt phng hng khng trnh khi ca qu trnh chuyn i,
ngi ta tht d b che mt trc thc t l ci gi cho ngha cm nhn c ca
an ninh chnh l tnh trng n l, l s s hi, l mc sng thp vi t i la chn
i
Qu tc (nomenklatura gn nh ch bin ch trong ting Vit) c nh ngha l mt cng ng
nh trong dn c Lin bang Soviet v khi Warsaw, nm gi cc chc v ch cht cc cp ca b my
hnh chnh ca mi lnh vc thuc nc . H c tn trong danh sch ca Ban B th TW ng Cng sn
Lin X. S lng quan chc c tn trong nomenklatura ca nc Nga Soviet ban u l 300.000, i
Stalin ln n 1.837.000 ngi. (ND)
446
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
cho ngi tiu dng, l tnh trng xung cp ca mi trng t nhin. Ngi dn
ni chung thng kh c th rt ra kt lun t s sp ca ch ngha x hi
rng rt cuc h thng y khng kh nng m bo cho an ninh vt cht.
Nhng nhn thc sai lm ph bin, c sc trc s sp ca ch v nhng
i thay khng trnh khi trong chnh sch, thy u khin cho cc nhm li ch
dn tu (populist interest group) d dng tp hp c s ng h nhm chng li
ci cch v quay tr v vi ch ngha tp th. Thc t ny m ng cho hin
tng o chiu trong bu c v s thiu nht qun v thi gian trong chin lc
ci cch, ri n lt chng li lm tng gnh nng nhn thc cho mi ngi khi
m cc th ch t h tr cho nhn thc v khi m cc doanh nhn rt kh khm
ph ra con ng dn ti thnh vng.
Bt k s o chiu no trong tin trnh ci cch cng khin cho ngi dn gp
nhiu kh khn hn trong vic nhn thc r rng v trt t ang ni ln. N gy
ra nhng chi ph ln qua hin tng mt phng hng v nhng gnh nng kinh
t. V vy, tt c cc nn kinh t chuyn i u cho thy s suy gim v mc
sng. Cc nh lnh o chnh ph v cc nh lp php tht bi trong vic to ra s
h tr th ch ti thiu cho cc th ch ca th trng. Trn thc t, h li thng
khin cho tnh hnh thm ri ren, chng hn bng cch cho lm pht vt ra
ngoi tm kim sot. Do , khi gi c c th ni, cc c nhn v nh sn xut
tim nng thng khng r l liu s gia tng gi c m h quan st thy c phi
l tn hiu v mt s khan him hay mt c hi sn xut hay khng, hay n l mt
phn ca hin tng lm pht chung vn khng th on nh. Trong tnh trng
hn mang ca qu trnh chuyn tip c th d hiu l ti sao nhiu c tri li ao
c tr v vi trt t quen thuc trc kia.
Nhng ni dung trnh by v nhng quan im c bn di u m thc
ng x thng mi (commercial syndrome) v m thc ng x ngi bo h
(guardian syndrome) trong mc 6.2 cng lin quan n qu trnh chuyn i h
thng. Ch ngha Marx (Marxism) l s m rng ca o l b tc (tribal
morality) sang x hi v m (macro society). N to ra sc thu ht i chng
ngay tc thi. S trung thnh (loyalty), phc tng (obedience), s chia (sharing)
v quyn lc (authority) l nhng phm cht m ngi ta vn thuyt ging trong
cc x hi x hi ch ngha vn c cu trc nh nhng t chc theo kiu th
bc (hierarchical organisation). Tri li, nhng phm cht ca th gii thng mi
khng s chia m l tch lu (accumulating), cnh tranh (competing) v ng vc
quyn lc v.v. ch c th bm r sau mt thi gian thc hnh lu di v thng
xuyn. Chng cha ng nhng b quyt vn khng d g lm cho hin
(explicit) v cn tip thu thng qua thc hnh. V vy, khng c g ng ngc
nhin khi nhiu ngi than vn v s bin mt ca tnh c kt x hi m ch
ngha tp th tng to ra. Ngi ta s phi mt nhiu thi gian cng s thc hnh
lin tc tip thu chnh nhng th ch bn trong v nhng quy tc o c
thng mi gip m bo cho s vn hnh hiu qu ca h thng kinh t c nhn
ch ngha, ng thi m bo rng cc doanh nhn chnh tr theo ch ngha dn
tu khng th dnh c s ng h chnh tr bng cch ch trng quay v vi h
thng tht bi c hay theo ui mt Con ng Th ba.
447
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Mt s kinh nghim c th ca cc nc
Nhng khng nh trn y s tr nn r rng hn khi chng ta xem xt mt s
kinh nghim c th ca cc nc. Tc , tnh nht qun v ni dung ca s thay
i gia cc h thng c s khc bit ng k. Mt ch s thch hp v qu trnh
chuyn i cho n nay c l l t l hnh thnh cc doanh nghip t nhn mi
(Bng 13.2).
Trong s cc quc gia chuyn tip c ch quyn, Cng ho Sc c l l quc gia
ngay t u n lc thnh cng tin gn nht n danh mc iu kin ti
thiu nh trn Bng 13.1, vi Ba Lan cch khng xa pha sau. Ti Cng ho
Sc, qu trnh t nhn ho bng hnh thc pht phiu v s ch trng n cc iu
kin c bn cho php mi ngi cm nhn c nhng nt khi qut ca trt t
mi tng i nhanh sau cuc Cch mng Nhung (Velvet Revolution): mt nn
kinh t th trng khng km theo tnh t, nh Th tng Vclav Klaus tng gi.
Trt t mi y c th c nm bt nhanh hn so vi cc x hi chuyn tip
448
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Bng 13.2: S doanh nghip mi hnh thnh trn 1.000 dn, 1989-1995,
Cng ho Sc 68,4
Hungary 50,7
Slovania 36,3
Slovakia 35
Bulgaria 34,3
Ba Lan 27,6
Estonia 19,7
Romania 16
Lithuania 15,4
Albania 12,1
Latvia 9,9
449
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
450
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Sn lng
cng nghip
Tng mc u
t vo thit b
Gi tiu dng
thang bn phi
Gi tiu
dng
451
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
u thp nin 1990, nhng th ch bt cp v thiu h thng xut hin: ngi ta nhn xt
l phn ln cc bn hin php c son tho cho cc nc v khu vc thuc Lin bang
u vi phm cc iu khon ca Hip c Lin bang (Federation Treaty) nm 1992. Vn
phng tng thng c u n ban hnh hng lot sc lnh (ukase) c on vi nh
hng khng r rng v thi hiu thiu chc chn. u thp nin 1990, lm pht c th
ln n mc nh cao 2.500%/nm song t b y lui. Cc khon thanh ton theo
hp ng th khng c thc hin v ngi vi phm khng th b buc phi thanh ton.
Th trng th khng tn ti nn, chng hn, mt na tng sn lng lng thc, thc
phm c sn xut trn nhng mnh t gia nh nh b, v 40% sn lng cng nghip
c trao i theo hnh thc hin vt i ly hin vt. Trong mi trng bo lc v v
php lut, cc th ch bn trong u yu km v khng ng tin cy. Cc gim c th
khng chu trch nhim gii trnh trc cc ch s hu v t chi np thu, mt phn l
do lut thu phc tp v thiu chc chn. Cc doanh nghip ln, cc ngn hng v cc
dng tc knh ch c th ginh c nhng n sng chnh tr gip y li cnh tranh.
u t nc ngoi hu nh khng tn ti v ngun vn t chy ra nc ngoi: ngi
Nga nm gi cc danh mc u t nc ngoi vt qu s ti sn nc ngoi ca ngi
Mexico (tp ch The Economist, 17/7/1997, Survey of Russia [Kho st nc Nga]).
Nh th hin trn Hnh 13.2, tng sn phm quc ni (GDP) gim 40% trong 6 nm u
tin sau s sp ca ch ngha cng sn, sn lng cng nghip gim 50% v tng u
t gim t nht 70%. Tn tht v s phi hp hiu qu ni ln r rt qua s v ca h
thng tin t. Qu trnh ny bt u vi hnh ng c on ca Ngn hng Nh nc l
tch thu nhng t tin ngn hng c trong nhng ngy cui cng ca Lin bang Soviet.
Tnh hnh cng tr nn ti t bi vic ti tr cho thm ht ngn sch cng thng qua my
in tin. Nm 1992, lm pht ln ti nh im, v mc lm pht lu k t nm 1989
n 1995 l hn 1.000.000% (hay khong 360% mi nm).
Nm 1997, khong 20% dn s sng di mc tn ti ti thiu (subsistence level), nhng
t l ang t t gim xung. Ti mt s ni, cc th ch bt u tr nn r rng hn,
do cc ch ngun vn i gy nh hng ln cc doanh nghip, do cc i tc hp ng
phm ph ra li ch ca s tin tng v tnh ng tin cy, v do c tri i la chn nhng
quan chc mi. Lm pht gim xung v mc gim st ln ca GDP thc t dng
nh chm dt (tp ch The Economist, 17/7/1997, Survey of Russia). Qu trnh tin
ho ca nhng th ch chc chn, ph thng s mt nhiu thi gian Nga, v kinh
nghim y ha hn tr thnh mt bi hc trc quan cho kinh t hc th ch.
452
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Ch ngha tp on (corporatism): s kim sot mt nh nc hay mt t chc bi cc nhm li ch ln.
(ND)
453
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
454
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cu hi n tp
455
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ghi ch:
1. Nhn tin, iu ny cng ng i vi nhng phin bn gn y ca ch ngha x hi th
trng (Roemer, 1994) khi chng vn khng x l c s ph phn y sc thuyt phc
theo truyn thng Mises v Hayek, bt chp nhng khng nh dt khot theo hng ngc
li (Wohlgemuth, 1997).
2. Thu nhp ca ngi nng dn Trung Quc c ci thin mt phn l nh h c th bn sn
phm di danh ngha t nhn cc mc gi cao trn th trng t do trong khi vn tip tc
nhn c nhiu u vo (nh phn bn, in) mc gi thp c iu tit.
3. V mt bn nh gi y i vi giai on hnh thnh ca ch ngha x hi kiu Soviet,
mt hnh thi vn th hin tt c nhng c im v s sp cui cng ca n qua cc
bi phn tch ca von Mises v Hayek, xem tc phm ca Boettke, 1990.
4. nc Nga, chng hn, cc khon n lng vo gia nm 1997 ln n mc 26% GDP
hng thng, cn cc khon phi thu b chm thanh ton ln n mc 120% GDP hng thng
(tp ch The Economist, 12/7/1997), Survey of Russia, trang 5 & 11).
5. Ngun: Bo co Thng nin ca Hi ng C vn Kinh t c (Annual Report of the
Council of Economic Advisers), 1995-1996, Stutgart: Kohlhammer, trang 151.
456
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Tht sai lm khi coi nh nc hin hnh nh mt k bo v ton tr ton nng cho ton b
hot ng kinh t. Song cng tht khng ng khi chp nhn nh nc hin hnh, ci
chnh th vn ang b cc nhm li ch lm cho b rc, nh mt hin thc khng th thay
i v do nh mt hy vng chinh phc bi ton xy dng mt trt t chnh tr - kinh
t thch ng. S ph thuc ln nhau ca trt t chnh tr v trt t kinh t buc chng ta
phi tm cch x l c hai cng lc. C hai u l nhng b phn ca cng mt trt t
hon chnh. Nu thiu mt trt t cnh tranh s khng tn ti mt chnh ph c kh nng
hnh ng; v nu thiu mt chnh ph nh th th s khng c trt t cnh tranh no c.
(Walter Eucken, Grundstze der Wirtschaftspolitik [Nhng nguyn l v chnh sch kinh
t], 1952)
457
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ngy nay, chng ta vin ti ngy cng nhiu bin php kim sot hnh chnh v i li
chng ta nhn c ngy mt t. Thc trng ng bun hm rng y c mt c
hi chnh tr to ln v rng m dnh cho bt k chnh ng no nu n nhn ra rng bng
cch lm t hn, chnh ph s t c nhiu hn.
(Richard Epstein, Simple Rules for a Complex World [Nhng quy tc n gin cho mt
th gii phc tp], 1995)
458
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Khi ngun thu thu tng ln trong giai on pht trin thnh vng ca thp nin 1820,
chnh ph Anh bt u ct gim hng lot loi thu v l ph nhp khu, xo b nhng
th thu vn vt (chng hn nh thu nh vo ca s, xe c, nga, ngi hu, lng cu
nhp khu, ngnh than). Khi cc loi l ph, hn ngch v phn thng ca chnh ph
(bounties) trong nc b bi b, th trng ni a ca Anh tr thnh mt khu vc thng
i
Cc cuc chin gia Php (di triu i Napoleon Bonaparte) v mt s nc Chu u t 1799-1815.
(ND)
ii
Thi gian cai tr ca N hong Victoria, bt u t nm 1837 v kt thc vo nm 1901. (ND)
iii
Hnh vi phm ti c th b x pht theo lut thnh vn thay v thng lut (common law). (ND)
459
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
mi t do trn ton quc. B trng Ti chnh Anh (Chancellor of the Exchequer), ngi
ph trch cng vic ct gim thu v l ph, Fred Robinson (T tc Goderich), c
mi ngi gn cho bit danh ni ting Prosperity Robinson [ngi Robinson Thnh
vng] (sd, trang 878-879) t nht l cho n v v do u c trong giai on
1825-1826.
V sau, khi tr thnh th tng Anh, Peel hin thc ho nhng tng v t do
thng mi, u tin l gim thu sut bo h i vi ng cc (1842) v n nm 1846
th xo b Lut Ng cc (Corn Laws). L mt nh bo th c thin hng phn i s
khch ng dn tu, Peel bc b nhng i hi tip tc bo h t cc nhm li ch
nng nghip n trong Quc hi, vi li khng nh rng ng c s dng cm dm lm
iu m trong lng tm chng ta c th tin tng l cng bng v ng n, bt chp
mi s phn i kh d km theo nhng i hi ny (sd, trang 903). T do thng mi
khin cho lng thc v cc loi hng ho tiu dng khc r hn i vi ngi cng
nhn. iu ny nh du thng li thc s ca t do thng mi ni chung. Peel cng
phn i cc khon tr cp v nhng bin php can thip trc tip ca chnh ph nhm h
tr cc ngnh ngh ang lao ao, ng gi y l phng thc lang bm (sd, trang 902).
Tuy nhin, chnh sch t do thng mi ca ng cui cng khin ng phi tr gi bng
chnh chic gh th tng.
Cng cuc ci cch th ch ca k nguyn Victoria kt hp vic n gin ho, t do
ho v tng cng hiu lc php lut vi vic p t cc quy tc mt cch hu hiu.
Nhng ci cch v th ch ny m ng cho hin tng bng n cha tng c v sc
sng to trong cng nghip v s pht trin thnh vng, bin nc Anh tr thnh quc
gia cng nghip ho u tin v bt u qu trnh tng trng kinh t di hn bn vng.1
Nhng g vn l xa x phm ca gii nh giu lc ny tr thnh nhng tin ch v tin
nghi bnh thng ca tng lp trung lu ri nhanh chng lan sang gii cng nhn. Tnh
trng ngho i bin mt khi nc Anh, v cuc chin v s tn ti thun tu nhng
ch cho kht vng ph bin v mc sng cao hn.
460
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Khi nim do nh kinh t hc trng phi o Ludwig von Mises (1881-1973) ra, ch hnh thc ct
gim chi tiu thiu t nguyn, vn xut hin khi nn kinh t trng thi hu nghip ton phn [full
employment] v khi n c ngun cho vay thng d. Mc thng d ko li sut xung thp v kch thch
nhu cu ti chnh dnh cho u t, lng ti chnh s chm ngi cho lm pht ni chung. Khi gi c gia
tng, nhng ngi c mc thu nhp c nh s tiu dng t i, lc h bt buc phi tit kim. Hnh
thc tit kim b sung ny gip ti tr cho hot ng u t m rng. (ND)
461
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Xem mc 6.3. (ND)
462
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
bin thin ca
cc quyn t do kinh t
t
Ghi ch:
(a) D liu thu nhp bnh qun u ngi l nhng s liu cp nht t
Penn World Tablesi, c chuyn i sang USD theo phng php
bnh gi sc mua (purchasing power parity).
(b) Thu nhp bnh qun u ngi ca mi nhm (c phn nhm theo
quyn t do kinh t).
i
Tp hp d liu v cc ti khon quc gia do cc hc gi ti trng i hc Pennsylvania pht trin v
duy tr nhm o lng GDP thc t t cc mc gi tng i gia cc nc v qua thi gian. (ND)
463
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
464
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Xung lc theo thuyt kin dng (constructivist impulse), da trn quan nim l
mt nhm tinh hoa no bit cn phi lm g nng cao mc pht trin
kinh t, li thng kt hp vi s gia tng quyn s hu i vi ti sn x hi ho
(socialised assets), hoc l v ti sn k tha t thi thuc a c chuyn giao
sang s hu nh nc, hoc l v cc nh my v c s h tng mi c thnh
lp vi danh ngha doanh nghip nh nc.
Cc c vn nc ngoi v gii chc ca cc t chc quc t khng nhn ra y
s cn thit phi kt hp pht trin kinh t vi vic pht trin mt h thng quy
tc to thun li cho s phn cng lao ng hin i v s chuyn ti tn hiu hu
hiu v nhng c hi hay hin tng khan him ang xut hin. Phn nh nhng
gi thuyt tn c in ang thnh hnh, cng ng c vn v pht trin, i din
bi Ngn hng Th gii chng hn, b qua yu t th ch. Cng lm, cc nh
kinh t hc cng ch mi bt u a ra l l ng h vic m ca cc nn kinh t
465
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
466
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Vi s kim sot v can thip t trung ng. (ND)
467
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Cuc ni dy v chin tranh du kch do ng Cng sn Malaysia (MCP) lnh o t nm 1968 n 1989
nhm chng li qun i Malaysia vi mc ch tin ti thnh lp mt nh nc cng sn. (ND)
468
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Trong kinh t hc, rent-seeking din ra khi mt c nhn, t chc hay doanh nghip tm cch kim tin
thng qua hnh vi thao tng mi trng kinh t v/hoc php l thay v hot ng thng mi hay sn xut.
Rent: thu nhp khng phi nh n lc cnh tranh trn th trng m l nh hnh vi thao tng mi trng
kinh t v php l, chng hn thng qua cc quan chc chnh tr. (ND)
469
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
M hnh ng
Ti ng , ni m cuc chin tranh th gii ln th hai v cuc cch mng cng
sn ca Trung Quc gy ra tnh trng bin ng hn lon, phng php chnh
sch pht trin kinh t t trn xung ca thp nin 1950, c bit l cc chnh sch
thay th hng nhp khu, khng c m phng rng ri hay lu di. Song y
vn c mt s ngoi l, ng ch l cc nc cng sn, Indonesia di thi
tng thng Sukarno, Nam Vit Nam v Philippines. Thay v th, chnh ph ca
cc quc gia vn thng ngho ti nguyn v ng dn c ng li quyt
nh da ch yu vo nh hng xut khu v, quan trng hn, vo vic thu ht
doanh nghip nc ngoi (Kasper, 1994a; World Bank, 1993). Quyt nh c bn
lin quan nhiu n tnh trng bt an (mi e do cm nhn c t qun i
Soviet v Trung Quc, cc cuc ni dy mang mu sc cng sn, chin tranh) v
nhn thc su sc rng thnh vng kinh t s l ngun sc mnh ch thc nhm
chng li s gy hn ca nc ngoi v hot ng lt trong nc. Tng trng
nh tnh m (openness) i hi chnh ph phi tn trng cuc sng v ti sn ca
ngi dn; trn thc t, n cn i hi phi bo v hu hiu cc quyn ti sn
trong nhng ngun lc lu ng trn trng quc t m chnh ph mun thu ht.
Khi cc chnh ph thuc khu vc Chu - Thi Bnh Dng hc c cch i
x vi ch s hu ca cc ngun lc lu ng, h bt tay vo cng cuc ci cch
trn phng din php l v qun l ng thi tng cng vai tr bo v ca
mnh. Chng hn, ti phn ln cc quc gia ny, th trng ngoi hi v th trng
vn c t do ho, s gim st thn trng i vi hot ng ngn hng c
ci thin, v cc b lut v xy dng v vn hnh trong lnh vc cng nghip
c minh bch ho. Mc d v s trng hp ngoi l v chch hng trong qu
trnh thc thi c th dn ra y, song xu hng chung trong hot ng ca chnh
ph vn l nhm cng c v lm sng t nhng quy tc ph thng vn cn thit
h tr cho trt t th trng m rng. Ti cc nn kinh t Chu pht trin hn,
so vi mt th h trc y th ngy nay chuyn bn bit ngi no nhn chung
khng cn quan trng bng chuyn bn bit g. Trong bi cnh , tht ng phi
nhc li y rng cuc kho st v cc quyn t do kinh t, m chng ta trch
dn trong mc 14.1, lit nhiu nc thuc khu vc Chu - Thi Bnh Dng
vo s quc gia vi th hng cao nht.
Quyt nh nn tng nhm ng h tnh m ni trn c mt s h qu t t
nhng quan trng v mt th ch:
(a) Ngi ta d dng tip cn c vi nhng tri thc t th gii bn ngoi hn,
ng thi chng c tc ng trc tip v su rng. Tnh hnh gi c th trng
th gii, cng nh tn hiu phn hi trc tip t nhng ngi mua tinh t,
nh hng nhiu cho n lc pht trin.
(b) Cc nh hoch nh chnh sch nhanh chng phi i mt vi qu trnh hc
hi m chng ta m t trong mc 12.4: h thng xuyn n lc mnh m
thu ht ngun vn, nhng ngi giu k nng v doanh nghip t nc
ngoi, v h lm iu theo nhng cch thc thc dng, ln sau tt hn ln
trc (pragmatic-evolutionary ways). Cc nh lnh o chnh tr nng cao sc
thu ht ca t nc mnh bng cch tp trung vo hot ng cung cp lao
ng, t ai v dch v cng vi chi ph thp, v vo nhng phng thc
470
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
gip tng nng sut. Trong qu trnh , h pht trin nhng th ch kh nht
qun v c p t mt cch ng tin cy. Nhng u i chnh tr phc tp,
mang tnh phn bit i x ngy cng c nhn ra l tht bi, trong khi
vic cao cc gi tr c bn li cho thy l mt cch thc tt thu ht cc
nh u t nc ngoi v trnh nhng hiu ng ph ngoi mong mun. y
vn c mt s ngoi l: ng ch nht l mt Hn Quc theo thuyt kin
dng v ch ngha dn tc mnh m vo nhng nm 1960 v 1970; giai on
c cm vi ngi nc ngoi Cng ho Nhn dn Trung Hoa trc nm
1979; v Vit Nam. Song chin lc m ca dn ti thnh cng; v sm
mun g th cc nn kinh t thnh cng, nhn chung, cng u c m phng.
iu ny thm ch cng ng Trung Quc sau nm 1979 v nc Vit
Nam thng nht sau gia thp nin 1980. Cc nhm lobby trong nc nhn ra
rng cc thnh vin ca chng kh t t chc trong mi trng kinh t cnh
tranh rng m, ngay c trong trng hp cc nhm lobby ny da trn nn
tng thc h hay cc c cu t chc, v d nh t cch ng vin cng sn.
V cc chnh ph da vo li tip cn gi khong cch i vi cc nhm li
ch kinh doanh t nhn, m phng mi quan h thy tr trong Nho gio; iu
ny gip duy tr tnh cht kh ph thng ca cc quy tc (Kasper, 1994a).
y khng phi l mun ni rng nhng thng l tham nhng khng din ra
hay nhng khon thu nhp phi cnh tranh (rent) bo bm khng c cc
quan chc to ra v chia s. Song nhn chung, nhng thng l nh th b coi l
gy bt li cho kh nng cnh tranh quc t v tng trng (Mauro, 1995).
(c) Tng phn vi cc nn kinh t km m hn nhng khu vc khc trn th
gii, chnh ph ca cc quc gia theo nh hng xut khu ng thc
hin cc chnh sch tin t v ti kho nhm m bo s n nh v kh nng
cnh tranh quc t (World Bank, 1993).
(d) Mt phn do truyn thng v mt phn do mong mun c kh nng cnh tranh
quc t l u tin cao nn cc chnh ph ng khng tham gia nhiu vo
hot ng ti phn phi thng qua c ch thu - phc li (tax-welfare
mechanism). Thay v th, h tp trung vo vic cao cc quy tc c bn,
thc y tng trng v cnh tranh. iu ny, nh chng ta lu , li
thng xuyn dn ti mc bnh ng thu nhp rt cao. Cc chnh ph thc
y nhng th ch bn ngoi b tr cho cc th ch bn trong, thay v tm cch
thay th chng (ngoi tr cc nc x hi ch ngha). Nhn thc v vn ho
nh mt ti sn th ch tim nng l ph bin. Ngoi ra, chnh ph ca cc
nn kinh t t bn ch ngha vi nh hng xut khu cng theo ui mt s
hot ng sn xut, nhng thng l mc t hn so vi Nam hay
Chu M Latin.
(e) Hin tng tng trng kinh t nhanh nh s thc y ca th trng th gii
m bo rng cc doanh nghip ang trn m rng khng sm th mun s
phi cnh tranh thu ht nhng cng nhn cht lng cao. iu ny c
phn nh, chng hn, qua thc t l cc nn kinh t vi t trng xut khu
ngy cng tng trong nn sn xut quc gia t mc tng bnh qun lng
thc t 3%/nm t nm 1970 n 1990, trong khi cc nn kinh t hng
ni (vi t l xut khu trn GNP ngy cng gim) th mc tng bnh qun
lng thc t li l s m (World Bank, 1995). Thc t ny gip cng c lun
471
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Xem phn Khi nim Then cht trong mc 7.2. (ND)
472
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Xem phn Hng ho tm kim hng ho tri nghim: Ai phi chu chi ph giao dch trong mc 8.1. (ND)
473
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
474
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
S lan to ca ci cch
nhng khu vc khc ca th gii th ba, qu trnh t do ho v ton cu ho
ginh c xung lc trong nhng nm 1980 v 1990 (Scobie & Lim, 1992;
Scully, 1992). Xu th trn ton th gii thi gian qua l hng ti nhng th ch
gip bo v vic s dng t ch quyn t hu cng s khai thc v trao i tri
thc con ngi mt cch t do, bt chp nhng hin tng o chiu. Tuy nhin,
vic hng ti cc th ch chnh tr v kinh t t do hn li khng t ng din ra,
bt chp tnh m ca k nguyn thng tin lin lc. Nhng dn xp th ch ca
mt cng ng gn vi nhng gi tr nn tng su xa, v cc quy tc vn ho li
c thi quen ch thay i chm chp. S ci cch n thun i vi cc th ch
bn ngoi s khng to ra nhiu thay i nu cc th ch bn trong v h thng
nim tin (belief system) khng cng iu chnh. y l mt bi hc lch s m
nhn loi phi rt ra qua nhiu bin c lch s, chng hn ti nc Nga Sa
475
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
476
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
ngha hnh ng (activismi) trong quc hi cng nh cho hin tng rent-seeking
qua hot ng ti phn phi (xem phn ng khung di y). Khp ni trong th
gii ca cc nc pht trin, cc ngh s c bu chun thun nhng chnh sch
can thip c th ngy cng tinh vi. Qua h lm suy yu, thng l khng
ch , h thng quy tc tru tng, ph thng v hn ch cc quyn t do c
nhn. iu ny c th m bo cho h chc v, a v v c hi c bu li,
song n li lm xi mn trt t kinh t, thng din ra theo nhng cch thc t t
v kh cm nhn, v lm suy gim hiu sut ng (dynamic efficiencyii).
i
Ch ngha hnh ng (activism) l s thc hnh hnh ng ch nhm to ra s thay i v chnh tr,
kinh t, x hi, hay mi trng. (ND)
ii
Dynamic efficiency l mt thut ng trong kinh t hc, ch mt nn kinh t c s cn bng thch ng
gia cc mi quan tm trong ngn hn (hiu sut tnh static efficiency) vi cc mi quan tm di hn (ch
trng vic khuyn khch hot ng nghin cu v pht trin). (ND)
477
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Thu nhp:
Nng sut: tng trng thu Khu vc x hi ho: phn ca
tng trng
nhp u ngi trong lc chnh ph trong mc GNP ti
tng thu
lng lao ng hu nghip a [full-capacity GNP]
nhp
(%/nm mc gi c nh) (nm c chn, theo t l %)
(%/nm)
1950-1960 4,9 8,2 1955: 30,3
1960-1973 4,1 4,4 1965: 37,2
1973-1980 2,2 2,2 1977: 47,2
1980-1995 0,9 1,7 1987: 45,3
1995 - - 1995: 57,6 a
Ghi ch:
1950-1989: Ty c; t nm 1990: ton b nc c.
a
Ton b nc c, k c hiu ng mt ln do s tip qun ng c
478
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
pht trin kinh t ca thp nin 1950 v u thp nin 1960 khng ko di lu. Mt
phn, iu ny c ch i. Dn d, nn kinh t t n mc hu nghip ton phn
(full employment) v nn cng nghip bt kp cc chun mc k thut quc t, v th qu
trnh tng trng khng th tip tc khai thc nhng ngun lc cha dng ti v da vo
vic bt kp trnh cng ngh nc ngoi. Song mt mc ng k, qu trnh gim
tc t thp nin 1950 n thp nin 1990 (xem bng trn y) li lin quan n nhng
thay i v th ch. Quc hi li mt ln na tr thnh din n phn pht c quyn c
li, v cc ngnh ngh v cc nhm t t chc thnh nhng lin minh rent-seeking
(Olson, 1982; Chng 4) v ngi ta coi bn hin php kinh t nn tng l mt thc t
ng nhin. Cam kt v mt nn kinh t th trng x hi m ng cho hot ng
ti phn phi quyn ti sn ngy cng tng, thng l cho tng lp trung lu vn mnh v
bu c v cho cc nhm t chc tt.6 Khi chc nng ti phn phi ca chnh ph m rng
v s tham gia ng k ca chnh ph vo hot ng sn xut i hi nhng khon tr
cp thng xuyn, quc hi v chnh ph ngy cng dnh lu vo nhng bin php can
thip hng ti kt qu c th. Gnh nng thu kho v iu tit trn vai cc nh sn xut
li thm chng cht. Trng tm chnh sch v trt t php l - th ch cnh tranh
(competitive legal-institutional order) b sao nhng.
Tnh trng xung cp ca h thng quy tc dn n ci gi l hin tng x cng
(sclerosis) v lm suy yu v th cnh tranh ca c. Khi cc ngh s vi nhiu thin
dn nhng ngha v php l mi ln vai ngi s dng lao ng, y cc chi ph ph cp
lng (on-cost) ln v rng buc doanh nghip bng ngy mt nhiu quy nh v sc
kho, an ton v mi trng, nc c nh mt sc thu ht ca n nh l a im hp
dn cho cc nh u t nc ngoi, v ngun vn cng cc doanh nghip chuyn i ni
khc.
Nh mc giu c cao t c trong vng mt th h v vic t nn kinh t c vo
trong mt Lin minh Chu u iu tit nn hin tng suy gim kh nng cnh tranh t
t c th b b qua trong mt khong thi gian no . Cc qu trnh hc hi v s i
mi chnh tr - th ch c th b tr hon. Vic bo dn tip qun mt ng c cng sn
ang lao ao sau nm 1989 lm tng phn chi tiu ca chnh ph trong tng sn phm
quc dn, c tnh t mc 57,6% vo nm 1995 (ngun: OECD); v v t do kinh t,
c xp hng v tr khim tn l 25 trn 115 nc trong nghin cu ca Gwartney v
Lawson (1997, trang 98-99).
(Ngun: Erhard, 1960; Kasper & Streit, 1993; Wolter, trong tc phm ca Harberger,
1984; Giersch v cc tc gi khc, 1992; v German Council of Economic Advisers [Hi
ng C vn Kinh t c], Bo co Hng nm, nhiu bo co khc nhau)
Sau thp nin 1960, cc nc cng nghip lu i ng trc thch thc cnh
tranh t trnh ngy cng tng ca cc nc cng nghip mi ni. Cc quc gia
ny c hng li t cuc cch mng vn ti v thng tin lin lc, ng thi
lun m ca nn kinh t ca mnh. Nhng ng thi tun t di s bo tr ca
GATT k t nm 1945 nhm t do ho thng mi quc t, cng nh qu trnh
tin ho ca cc th ch bn trong nhm to thun li cho s phi hp kinh t,
479
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
gia tng hot ng cnh tranh trn ton th gii. Cc nc cng nghip mi ni,
vn t cung cp phc li cng cng (public welfare), ngy cng t r u th trong
cuc u gia cc h thng php l nhm thu ht doanh nghip v ngun vn lu
ng trn ton cu. iu ny n lt li nng cao ngun vn x hi (social
capital), danh ting l a im hp dn cho ngnh cng nghip, v nng lc i
mi cho chng. Ti mt s nc cng nghip lu i, hin tng ny khin ngi
ta li quan tm n vic sa cha h thng t bn ch ngha bng cch t nhn
ho, phi iu tit ho, n gin ho cc quy nh hin hnh, ci cch thu kho v
h thng phc li cng cng, v t duy li vai tr ca chnh ph (Scobie & Lim,
1992). Tnh m v cnh tranh quc t l nhng l do gii thch ti sao nn vn
minh t bn ch ngha vn cha i n hi kt v ti sao n li th hin kh nng
ci lo hon ng mi thng qua nhng ci cch kinh t nh th.
i
X hi ho l hnh vi chuyn cc quyn ti sn t t hu sang cng hu, i lp vi t nhn ho. (ND)
ii
Bench-marking (chun i snh) l qu trnh so snh quy trnh kinh doanh ca mnh vi nhng chun
mc tt nht ca ngnh v/hoc thng l tt nht ca cc ngnh khc. Cc yu t thng c lng nh
l cht lng, thi gian v chi ph. (ND)
480
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
New Zealand (nm 1995: 3,5 triu ngi, thu nhp u ngi theo sc mua: 14.500USD,
hay 63% mc thu nhp u ngi ca M) l t nc c nn kinh t b iu tit nng n
nht trong t chc OECD vo u nhng nm 1980; gia thp nin 1990, nn kinh t
nc ny li b iu tit t nht. V vy, n l mt nghin cu thc t n tng v (a) cch
thc m cc th ch cc nn kinh t hn hp pht trin (mature mixed economy) c th
c t do ho, v (b) kt qu m nhng ci cch nh th c th em li.
i
Hip hi Fabian (Fabian Society): L mt tro lu x hi ch ngha Anh, ra i nm 1884 ti London,
mc ch ca n l nhm thc y nhng nguyn l ca ch ngha x hi thng qua nhng bin php mang
tnh ci cch tun t thay v c tnh cht cch mng.
481
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
482
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
chnh sch thu chi ngn sch). Nhng ci cch trn em li cho New Zealand mt h
thng quy tc thiu nht qun, vi hu qu l cc mc gi tng i b mo m, s bng
n v lng xy ra v kh nng sinh li ti nhiu doanh nghip b thu hp. Li sut tng
cao ngt ngng (ln ti 40%/nm i vi cc khon vay kinh doanh). Lm pht dn dn
gim xung t mc hai con s, song nhiu doanh nghip vn phi ng ca hoc ct
gim quy m. Tht nghip bt u tng ln (ti hn 11% vo u thp nin 1990). Cuc
ci cch tng khi u vi vi v big bang nhng ri li ui dn. Tt c u khin cho
tng lai tr nn kh on nh hn ng thi gy ra tnh trng thiu nht qun gia cc
trt t con (suborder).
i
Xem phn Khi nim Then cht trong mc 7.2. (ND)
483
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
sn xut t nhn ho gip gim thm 37.000 ngi na. Khu vc doanh nghip nh nc
gim t 12% tng sn phm hng nm xung cn khong 5% vo gia thp nin 1990.
Mc d vy, mc hu nghip chung vn tng ln mnh m.
484
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
T nhn ho
Vic chuyn giao cc quyn ti sn thuc s hu tp th ( cc cp chnh quyn
khc nhau) sang s hu t nhn c thc y ch yu t nh nhm kim sot
ch ngha c hi ngi i din (agent opportunism) v nhm gip cc gim c
v cng nhn doanh nghip c c th tin tng vo nhng rng buc ngn sch
cht ch. Do phi tnh n nguy c ph sn m ch ngha c hi ngi i din b
ngn chn. Nh chng ta nhn thy trong Chng 8, cc doanh nghip b th
trng cnh tranh vy ba, cc gim c phi kim sot thin hng hnh x c
hi ch ngha ca mnh v phi khng ngng khm ph nhng g m khch hng
mong mun. Song chng ta li nhn thy trong Chng 11 rng nhng p lc
cnh tranh tng t vn cn thiu trong khu vc nh nc. K lut hnh chnh
tng i yu v khng em li kt qu, ng thi nh cung cp li thng ri
vo tnh th c quyn nn ng lc p ng khao kht ca ngi tiu dng l
tng i yu. V vy, vic chuyn mt hot ng t c quyn nh nc sang
cnh tranh t nhn ha hn s em li nhng li ch v s kim sot chi ph (cost
control), kh nng i mi (innovative capability) v tnh hiu qu
(effectiveness).
ng c v ti kho cng ng vai tr nht nh trong qu trnh t nhn ho. Cc
chnh ph hy vng c kh nng thanh ton n v thc hin cc sng kin ngn
sch mi t s tin thu c nh bn ti sn. H cng mun gim bt trch nhim
chnh tr v nhng doanh nghip nh nc lm n thua l v km hiu qu, v
vic phng s dn chng bt cp, v v chi ph h tng cao, gy tn hi n kh
nng cnh tranh quc t. Ti nhiu quc gia, nhng vn v doanh nghip nh
nc tng ln theo thi gian, v c hi tip cn cc khon tr cp t ngn sch v
vic khng phi chu khun php ca cnh tranh dn dn khuyn khch s xut
hin ca cc lin minh rent-seekingi; chng hn, khi cc nghip on c nht
i
Trong kinh t hc, rent-seeking din ra khi mt c nhn, t chc hay doanh nghip tm cch kim tin
thng qua hnh vi thao tng mi trng kinh t v/hoc php l thay v hot ng thng mi hay sn xut.
Rent: thu nhp khng phi nh n lc cnh tranh trn th trng m l nh hnh vi thao tng mi trng
kinh t v php l, chng hn thng qua cc quan chc chnh tr. (ND)
485
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
486
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
S dng min ph: Xem phn Khi nim Then cht th hai trong mc 5.3. (ND)
487
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
nhp khng do n lc cnh tranh trn th trng (rent) m nhng ngi i din
c hi ch ngha khng phi chu s kim sot hiu qu ca cc thn ch vn
thng nhn c. Qu vy, qu trnh t nhn ho thng km theo hin tng
mt vic lm, phn nh tnh trng b tr nhn s qu ng trc y. T nhn ho
cng c th gy ra nhiu ph tn cho ch s hu nh nc c hoc ch s hu t
nhn mi trong trng hp ngi lao ng ca doanh nghip nh nc c quyn
c nhn cc khon thanh ton hu tr cao theo hp ng. Trong mt s trng
hp, gi tr th trng ca cc cng ty nh nc, sau khi tr i cc khon lng
hu phi thanh ton, l s m. ngn chn gnh nng do tip tc thua l, nhng
cng ty nh th phi c giao tng, i khi l cho tp th ngi lao ng ca
cng ty.
Kinh nghim cho n nay ch ra rng, nhn chung, bin php cng ty ho
(corporatisation) thng ch to ra s kch thch hot ng mt ln ri thi, cn
vic thng xuyn p t nhng khun php ca s hu t nhn li to ra ng
lc lin tc cho cng tc kim sot chi ph, nng cao cht lng phc v v hiu
qu hot ng. T nhn ho cng gip cho nhim v qun l ca chnh ph tr
nn d dng hn, v ni cc v cc nh lnh o chnh tr vi nng lc ra quyt
nh hu hn gi c th tp trung vo t vn hn trong vic gim st hnh ng
tp th (collective action).
Phi iu tit ho
Cc h thng php l - iu tit (legal-regulatory) tin ho qua thi gian khi cc
quc hi v chnh ph n lc hon thin chc nng bo v ca mnh v theo ui
chnh sch ti phn phi (mc 10.1). Cc th ch ph thng mang tnh cm on
ngy cng c thay th bng nhng quy nh c th mang tnh p t, thng l
do yu cu ca cc nhm p lc c t chc (organised pressure group). Trong qu
trnh , cc th ch bn ngoi mi thng xung khc vi cc th ch bn trong
truyn thng v tr nn mu thun mt cch c hu ng thi gy tn km cho
vic tun th. Khng ai c th nhn thy trc nhiu hiu ng ph kiu t
nhng thay i v th ch ny. Ch ngha can thip ph bin, cng nh cc mc
thu phn bit i x v cc khon ph an sinh x hi (social security charges),
488
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
khin cho cc doanh nhn t nhn chuyn sang khu vc phi chnh thc
[informal sector] (th trng ch en, nn kinh t ngm) v khin dn chng xa l
vi khi nim qun tr (governance) mt mi nguy cho s n nh ca ch
chnh tr v nh nc phc li (Streit, 1984).
Khi nhng hoi nghi v li ch ca s can thip bng hnh thc ti phn phi tng
ln v cnh tranh quc t gia cc h thng nng ln trong nhng nm 1980 v
1990, vic phi iu tit ho c cc doanh nhn chnh tr a vo ngh trnh. H
l nhng ngi n t cc hip hi ngnh ngh (industry association), cc nhm
lobby, chnh ph v quc hi. Nhng bc i mi v th ch din ra sau l
khc nhau, tu thuc vo cc quy nh hin hnh, cng cnh tranh quc t v
s c kt hay ngc li ca cc lin minh rent-seeking c t chc.
Tuy nhin, ngoi nhng im c th xut pht t hon cnh quc gia c th, mt
s ch c bn chung vn xut hin trong cuc tranh lun trn th gii v qu
trnh phi iu tit ho:
(a) Liu cuc ci cch v iu tit c nn i theo mt m thc chin thut l t
tin hnh thay i khi vn tr nn cp bch hoc khi xut hin thi c
chnh tr cho nhng i thay thc dng hay khng? Hay cuc ci cch nn
da trn mt chin lc nht qun v thc thi trit qua mt v big bang?
Phn ln cc doanh nhn chnh tr theo ng li ci cch trc s kim to
ca phe a s trong quc hi, ca lc lng c tri v nhm li ch, v ca cc
lin minh tm kim phiu bu phc tp u la chn phng thc ti thit
k tng bc (piecemeal re-engineering) nhm chuyn dch theo chiu hng
chung ca cc th trng t do hn. Trnh t thc dng ny i khi li a n
nhng mu thun gia cc trt t con, chng hn gia th trng sn phm
mi t do ho v th trng lao ng vn cn b iu tit (xem ni dung ng
khung v New Zealand). S bt nht trong cc trt t con chc chn lm
mo m cc mc gi tng i: chng hn, thu hp li nhun v do lm
mt vic lm v nhng gi tr vn ling c th. Chi ph ci cch th ch chc
chn c th gim bt nu n tc ng n tt c cc th trng quan trng mt
cch ng thi v ng u. Trong trng hp nguyn l ny buc phi b vi
phm v nhng l do chnh tr - chin thut, nhng chi ph r rng c th ch ra
s cn thit phi hon thnh chng trnh ci cch (nh thc t New
Zealand) hoc gp phn xo b ci cch bi chng c cm nhn l qu tn
km. Khi cc bc ci cch b o ngc bi cc doanh nhn chnh tr, nhng
ngi lc ny li quay sang nhng li ch c th trong nguyn trng (status
quo), iu c xu hng gy tn km v n lm ri trt t v y chi ph
thng tin ln cao. Bi vy, trong trng hp xc sut gia hai kh nng l cn
bng th tc v xung lc vt qua s chng i trn phng din chnh
tr - x hi v nng cao s nht qun ton din ca s thay i th ch l
ng mong mun trong a s trng hp. Mt khc, ci cch li khng th bt
u vi nim v mt ngh trnh ci cch bit, mt danh mc hu hn v
nhng hnh ng s thc hin. Khi mt danh mc bin php phi iu tit ho
c thc thi, cc nh ci cch chu nh hng ca bi ton tri thc: nhng
bin php b tr no s tr nn cn thit m bo rng nhng bc ci
cch u tin p ng c k vng. Cc cuc ci cch theo kiu big bang
489
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
490
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
491
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
bnh. Vic chuyn sang thu gin tip tc ng n s phn phi thu nhp v
ca ci ng thi khi dy nhiu ting ni chnh tr (political voice) t c
nhng ngi vn cho rng mnh s b thit ln nhng ngi vn k vng rng
mnh s c li. Khi ch thu kho t gy ra mo m, cc doanh nghip
v c nhn c th da nhiu hn vo nhng k vng kinh t v u tin ca
mnh a ra quyt nh v t hn vo nhng cn nhc nhm ti thiu ho
mc thu phi np.
(h) Nhng ci cch v iu tit thng b ch li bi tnh trng b tc chnh tr.
Cc lin minh trong quc hi v ni cc c th thiu n nh, thng vin v
h vin ca quc hi c th khc khc nhau, cn c quan hnh php v c
quan lp php th c th ghm chn nhau. Vn ny cng tr nn ti t hn
khi gii lnh o chnh tr li tp trung vo chin thut thun tu, hoc
nhng b cc nhm li ch c t chc. Khi cnh tranh gia cc h thng
php l nng ln, ngi ta rt c th s nhn thy r l mt s h thng gi tr
x hi, mt s bn hin php v mt s h thng th ch li t ra yu km hn
v nng lc ci cch theo hng tin ho. Ci gi ca h thng th ch c nh
ca mt quc gia rt c th l tnh trng nh n ko di v s suy thoi
tng i (mc 12.3). T quan im lch s di hn v s thng trm ca cc
nn vn minh, y khng phi l mt pht kin mi m g.
i
In the heat of battle.
492
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
Th hin bn cht ca mt nn kinh t chu s kim sot v can thip t trung ng. (ND)
ii
Ch ngha hnh ng (activism) l s thc hnh hnh ng ch nhm to ra s thay i v chnh tr,
kinh t, x hi, hay mi trng. (ND)
iii
Xem phn Khi nim Then cht trong mc 4.3. (ND)
493
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Cu hi n tp
494
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
495
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ghi ch
1. Tuy nhin, k nguyn ca Peel cng nh du s khi u ca nhng o lut em li cho cc
nghip on nhng c quyn c li, mt din bin m v sau lm xi mn trt t cnh
tranh v nn php tr Anh (nh chng ta nhn thy trong mc 8.1).
2. Mt ngoi l ng ch ca quy lut chung theo t do v tng trng ng hnh vi nhau
l trng hp nc Cng ho Nhn dn Trung Hoa, xp hng 81/115 quc gia nhng li tng
trng vi tc bnh qun 7,8%/nm (1980-1996). D vy, th hng v t do kinh t ca
Trung Quc li vn tng ln u n t nm 1975 cho n gia thp nin 1990. Di nh
sng ca nhng ni dung trnh by trong chng trc, tht th v khi tm hiu xem nhng
ch no trong s nhng nc tng on tuyt vi ch ngha x hi ton tr a ra nhng
m bo v mt th ch tng i tt nht cho quyn t do kinh t c nhn. l Estonia (v
tr th 52), Lithuania (55), Cng ho Sc (62) v Hungary (63); cc ch cn li thuc khi
Soviet c bm ui cng cc nc Chu Phi (thng l nhng nc va c thnh tu kinh t
ngho nn va c quyn t do kinh t t i).
3. T l bo h hu hiu (effective rate of protection) da trn nhng con s c tnh, chng tm
cch tnh ton tc ng ca chnh sch bo h n chi ph v doanh thu ca mt ngnh.
4. Nm 1969, Malaysia c mt s cuc bo lon sc tc, song y vn ch l hin tng nht
thi, v nhn chung ngi dn thuc cc sc tc khc nhau vn tng tc vi nhau trong
khun kh th ch ca th trng t do, vn thiu thc v chng tc. Tri li, chnh sch
kinh t dirigiste ca Sri Lanka th hin s phn bit i x theo sc tc, v th cc vn sc
tc bng n trong mt cuc xung t cng khai v ko di. S so snh ny gip nu bt nhn
thc quan trng rng s hp tc trn th trng c xu hng xo nho nhng khc bit v
nh kin v chng tc, trong khi hnh ng chnh tr li thng khai thc nhng khc bit
ny v lm cho chng thm xu i (Rabushka, 1974).
5. Nm 1995, trong s 20 nc dn u v t do kinh t, Hng Kng xp th nht, Singapore
th hai, Thi Lan th tm, Malaysia ng hng tm, i Loan th 16, Nht Bn v Hn Quc
ng hng 18 (Gwartney & Lawson, 1997, trang 27). Trung Quc xp hng 81.
6. y c hin tng song trng k l gia nhng ci cch ca c thp nin 1950 v nhng
ci cch ca Anh t thp nin 1830 n thp nin 1840 (xem Chng 8): trong c hai trng
hp, vic ci cch cc th ch kinh t u t nn mng cho hin tng bng n v i mi v
thnh vng. Song nghch l thay, cc nh ci cch cng thit lp c s cho nhng quy tc vi
phm cc nguyn tc cnh tranh: vic trao nhng c quyn php l cho lc lng lao ng
c t chc trong trng hp ca Anh th k 19 (Chng 8) v hot ng cung cp phc li x
hi mang bn cht chnh tr trong trng hp ca c thp nin 1950. C hai ngoi l i vi
nguyn tc cnh tranh ny u gieo mm cho s tri dy ca cc nhm li ch trc tip
(vested interest), v cui cng chng lt nho cc th ch h tr cnh tranh cng nhng li
ch m cc th ch ny em li.
7. Ngi ta cn phi i x vi qu trnh t nhn ho cc nn kinh t k hoch ho x hi ch
ngha khc vi cc nn kinh t hn hp. Ti cc nc x hi ch ngha, n chnh ph, nh
mt quy lut, l mt phn ca mt h thng ti chnh m mc ch ca n l nhm kim sot
vic thc hin k hoch. V vy, n chnh ph c th so snh vi cc u mc k ton trn
bng cn i k ton cha tng hp ca mt doanh nghip a cp, trong trng hp ny l
nh nc, ngn hng v cc doanh nghip cng hu. Cc phng tin sn xut, vn hnh
thnh nh hnh ng tp th nhng li nm di s kim sot ca nh nc, c th coi l
thuc v ton th nhn dn (cng nh thuc v nhng ngi gi tit kim nc ngoi cho
cc nc x hi ch ngha vay). Trong hon cnh nh th, hnh thc t nhn ho bng phiu
(voucher privatisation) l mt cch phn b mt s phn ca cc phng tin sn xut cho
cc ch s hu t nhn. Tri li, nhng ngi tit kim t nguyn mt nn kinh t hn hp
khi u t vo tri phiu chnh ph qua mt quyt nh th trng vi nhn thc rng khon
tit kim ca mnh s c u t vo mt d n thuc khu vc cng (public sector) th c th
cho rng n cng s c thanh ton khi d n b t nhn ho.
496
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
PH LC
Ti, ci Bt ch
Leonard E. Read*
V s t tin
V bn khng th ln theo ph h gia nh ca mnh tht xa nn ti cng khng th nu
tn v gii thch ton b s t tin ca mnh c. Nhng ti li mun gi ln v h
hng gy n tng vi bn v s phong ph v phc tp trong lai lch ca ti.
Cy gia nh ca ti bt u vi nhng g m trn thc t l mt ci cy, mt cy tuyt
tng (cedar) th thng sinh trng pha bc bang California v bang Oregon. By gi,
i
G.K. Chesterton (1874-1936): tc gia nh hng ngi Anh u th k 20 trong cc lnh vc bo ch, trit
hc, th ca, tiu s. (ND)
497
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
hy suy ngm v tt c nhng my ca, nhng xe ti, nhng dy cho cng v s thit b
khc dng vo vic khai thc v vn chuyn nhng sc g tuyt tng n t cnh ng
ray nhnh (railroad siding). Hy hnh dung ra bit bao con ngi v v s k nng i
vo hnh hi lp rp ca chng: vic khai thc qung st, vic lm ra thp ri luyn n
thnh ca, thnh ru, thnh m-t; vic trng cy gai du (hemp) ri a n tri qua bao
cng on tr thnh th dy cho nng n m chc chn; nhng xng ca g vi
nhng ging, nhng phng n, ri chuyn nu nng v nui trng loi lng thc
thc phm na. Ti sao, bit bao ngn ngi gp tay vo mi mt tch c ph m
nhng ngi th x vn ung!
Nhng sc g c vn chuyn n mt nh my San Leandroi, California. Bn c th
hnh dung ra ni ton b nhng ngi lm nn nhng toa tu phng (flat car), nhng
ng ray v ng c ng st cng nhng ngi xy dng v lp t cc h thng
thng tin lin lc ph tr cho chng hay khng? Nhng binh on y u nm trong s t
tin ca ti c y.
Hy xt n nh my San Leandro. Nhng sc g tuyt tng c ct thnh nhng
thanh g nh c di bng ci bt ch v dy cha ti 1/4 inchii. Chng c sy
kh qua l ri ph mt lp mu vi l do tng t nh khi ngi ph n nh phn
ln mt mnh vy. Ngi ta mun ti trng xinh xn ch khng phi mang mt mu trng
nht nht. Cc thanh g c nh sp ri sy kh qua l ln na. Bao nhiu k nng
i vo qu trnh lm mu v l sy, vo qu trnh cung cp nhit, nh sng, in nng,
bng ti, m-t, cng tt c nhng th khc m mt nh my vn i hi? Nhng ngi
qut dn ti nh my c nm trong s t tin ca ti khng? C y, v cn c nhng
ngi b tng cho p nc ca nh my thu in thuc Cng ty Pacific Gas &
Electric, n v cung cp in cho nh my trn, na c. V ch c b qua nhng t
tin c hin ti ln xa xi gp tay vo vic vn chuyn 60 toa thanh g bng qua t
nc t California n Wilkes-Barreiii na y nh.
Nhng my mc phc tp
Mt khi trong nh my bt ch tr gi 4.000.000USD v my mc v xy dng,
ton b s vn c tch lu bi nhng ng b b m tn tin v tit kim ca ti mi
thanh c to thnh 8 rnh nh mt c my phc tp, sau mt chic my khc t ch
vo mi mt trong hai thanh, pht keo dn, ri t thanh kia ln trn mt chic bnh
sandwich ch, c th ni nh vy. By anh em v ti c ct ra t chic bnh sandwich
g kp ch .
Bn thn phn ch ca ti n khng h cha cht ch no c li cng phc tp nt.
Graphite c khai thc tn x Ceyloniv. Hy ngh ti nhng ngi th m v nhng
ngi lm ra th dng c cho h, nhng ngi lm ra nhng chic ti giy ng
graphite trn tu, nhng ngi lm ra dy buc ti, nhng ngi vn chuyn ti ln tu,
v nhng ngi lm ra nhng con tu. Ngay c nhng ngi gi n bin dc ng
cng h tr cho vic ra i ca ti ri cn c nhng ngi hng dn tu vo cng na
ch.
i
Mt thnh ph nm qun Alameda, bang California, M. (ND)
ii
1 inch = 2,54cm. (ND)
iii
Mt thnh ph nm ng bc bang Pennsylvania. (ND)
iv
Nay l Sri Lanka. (ND)
498
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
i
NH4OH (ND)
ii
H2SO4 (ND)
iii
1.010 0C (ND).
iv
Mt loi cy bi nhiu nhnh, thng ng, hu nh khng c l Mexico, cho ra loi sp candililla. (ND)
v
Loi carbon v nh hnh thu c t qu trnh t chy khng hon ton ca kh t nhin hoc du m.
(ND)
vi
Vt liu dng cao su mm thu c t phn ng gia sulfur hoc chloride sulfur vi du thc vt. (ND)
vii
Tc Indonesia ngy nay. (ND)
viii
Loi nham thch nh v xp. (ND)
499
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
500
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
V s bng chng
Nu ti, ci Bt ch, l th duy nht kh d a ra bng chng v nhng g m con ngi
c th t ti khi c t do th sc th nhng k vi nim tin t i hn s c c hn h.
Tuy nhin, bng chng li qu di do; tt thy u lin quan n chng ta trn mi
phng din. Hot ng chuyn pht bu phm n gin hn rt nhiu khi so snh,
chng hn, vi vic lm ra mt chic t, hay c my tnh, hay chic my gt p lin
hp, hay chic my xay, hay vi hng chc ngn th khc.
Chuyn pht ? Ti sao vy, trong ci k nguyn m con ngi c t do th sc
ny, ngi ta chuyn pht ging ni con ngi vng quanh tri t trong cha y mt
giy; ngi ta chuyn pht mt s kin bng hnh nh ang chuyn ng n bt k nh
mt ngi no khi n ang din ra; ngi ta chuyn pht 150 hnh khch t Seattlei ti
Baltimoreii trong cha y bn ting ng h; ngi ta chuyn pht gas t Texasiii n
bp l ca mt ngi New York vi mc gi thp khng th tin ni m khng h c tr
cp; ngi ta chuyn pht c mi 4 poundiv du t Vnh Ba T (Persian Gulf) v n b
bin pha ng (Eastern Seaboard) ca chng ta ng na vng tri t c
thanh ton mt s tin cn t hn mc m chnh ph vn tnh cc cho vic chuyn pht
mt bc th nng mt ouncev qua bn kia ng.1
i
Mt thnh ph thuc bang Washington, M. (ND)
ii
Mt thnh ph thuc bang Maryland, M. (ND)
iii
Mt bang nm pha Nam nc M. (ND)
iv
1 pound = 0,4536kg
v
1 ounce = 28,35g
501
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
Ghi ch:
* Xut bn ln u nm 1958. In li vi s cho php ca Qu Gio dc Kinh t (Foundation for
Economic Education) New York, t chc gi bn quyn.
1. Mt s th thay i k t khi bi lun ny c cng b ln u tin vo nm 1958.
502
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
TH MC KHO CU
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MT VI NHN XT V TC PHM
... a path-breaking, systematic text that develops institutional theory from fundamental
tenets about human nature and then applies it to contemporary economic analysis. This
book will therefore allow teachers to introduce evolutionary and institutional economics
without having to rely on dispersed and sometimes hard-to-access literature...
Institutional Economics presents an accessible introduction to one of the hottest areas of
contemporary economic policy analysis and social philosophy ... One does not have to be
an economist to enjoy this important book. I recommend it most warmly to economists
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mt tc phm khai m v bi bn, pht trin l thuyt th ch t nhng tin c bn
v bn cht con ngi ri vn dng vo phn tch kinh t hc ng i. Cun sch v th
s cho php cc gio vin gii thiu v kinh t hc tin ho v kinh t hc th ch m
khng cn phi da vo cc trc tc tn mt v i khi cn kh tip cn. y l mt tc
phm nhp mn d hiu v mt trong nhng lnh vc nng bng nht ca phn tch chnh
sch kinh t v trit hc x hi ng i Khng c phi l mt nh kinh t hc th
mi thy hng th vi cun sch quan trng ny. Ti xin chn thnh khuyn ngh tc
phm ny cho cc nh chuyn mn cng nh nhng k ngoi o, cho cc sinh vin
cng nh nhng ngi ln tui tng tri khc.
Gerard Radnitzky,
Cato Journal
517
KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CNG
an authoritative survey of the present status of the field, and there are few students
today who would not profit from a careful study of this text.
mt tc phm kho lun y uy tn v v th hin hnh ca chuyn ngnh kinh t hc
th ch, v ch t sinh vin ngy nay mi khng thu c li ch g t vic nghin cu k
cun sch ny.
E.G. Furubotn,
Journal of Economics
VI NT V CC TC GI
Wolfgang Kasper
Gio s Kinh t, i hc New South Wales
(University of New South Wales)
Canberra, Australia
Manfred E. Streit
Gim c, Vin Nghin cu cc H thng Kinh t Max-Plank
(Max-Planck Institute for Research into Economic Systems)
Jena, c
518