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LESSON 1 Kuba people of South Africa a creator

Mbombo (or Bumba) felt an intense stomach


*Baryonic matter ordinary matter consisting of pain and then vomited the star, sun, and moon.
protons, electrons, and neutrons. India- gods sacrificed Purusha, the primal man
*Dark matter matter that has gravity but does not whose feet, head, eyes, and mind became the
emit light. earth, sky, sun, and moon respectively.
*Dark energy a source of anti-gravity; force that Monotheists (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam)
counteracts gravity and causes universe to expand a Supreme Being created the universe, including
*Protostar- an early stage in the formation of the star man and other organisms.
*Thermonuclear reaction a nuclear fusion reaction
responsible for the energy produced by stars. STEADY STATE MODEL
*Main sequence stars stars that fuse hydrogen atoms (1948) by Bondi and Gould and by Hoyle.
to form helium atoms in their core. Maintains that new matter is created as the
*Light years the distance light can travel in a year universe expands thereby maintaining its
density.
Universe 13.8 billions of years old Eventually rejected because of the cosmic
earth/ solar system- 4.5-4.6 billions of years old microwave background discovery.

UNIVERSE BIG BANG THEORY


made of 4.6% baryonic matter, 24% cold dark matter, Postulates that 13.8 billions of years ago, the
& 71.4% dark energy universe expanded from a tiny, dense, and hot
dark matter explains what holds galaxies together for mass to its present size and much cooler state.
a reason that the low total mass is insufficient for Sets on two ideas: GENERAL RELATIVITY &
gravity alone to do so COSMOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE.
dark energy explains the observed accelerating This has withstood the tests of expansion 1)
expansion of the universe redshift 2) abundance of hydrogen, helium, and
hydrogen, helium, lithium = 3 most abundant lithium 3) uniformly pervasive cosmic
elements microwave background radiation the remnant
STARS are the building blocks of galaxy; instability heat from the bang.
results to gravitational collapse, rotation, heating up
and transformation to protostar the core of a future
star as thermonuclear reaction sets in.
SUN belongs to the so-called main sequence stars. LESSON 2
remaining dust and gas may end up as planets,
asteroids or other planetary bodies. MILKY WAY
Galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars and clusters of
a huge disc and spiral shaped aggregation
galaxies from superclusters; in between the galaxies is a
Spiral arms rotate around a globular cluster or
practically an empty space.
bulge of many, many stars. At the center lies a
diameter = at least 91 billion light years (1 light year =
supermassive blackhole
9.46067 x 10^12 ) ; density = 4.5 x 10^-31 g/cm^3)
is about 100 million light years across
revolves around galactic center once in 240
REDSHIFT
million years
explains that galaxies are moving away from each
Part of the Local Group of Galaxies, which in
other
turn is part of the Virgo supercluster of galaxies
theory by Edwin Hubble (1929)
He observed that spectral lines of starlight made to
Large Scale Features of the Solar System
pass through a prism are shifted toward the red light of
Much of the mass is concentrated at the center
the electromagnetic spectrum; Doppler effect is
(Sun) while angular momentum is held by the
associated with the inference of this.
outer planets
this evidence for expansion contradicted the
previously held view of a static and unchanging universe Orbits of the planets are elliptical
All planets revolve around the sun
Cosmic microwave background Period of revolution increase with increasing
-Pervasive cosmic microwave background discovered by distance from the sun; the innermost planet
Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964 revolves fastest, the outermost, the slowest
- a strikingly uniform faint glow can be observed in the All planets are located at regular intervals from
microwave band coming from all directions. the Sun

Origin of the universe Small Scale Features of the Solar System


Most planets rotate prograde
Non-scientific thought Inner planets: made of high melting point
Ancient Egyptians world arose from an infinite materials, rotate slower, have thin or no
sea from the first rising of the sun. atmosphere, higher densities, and lower
contents of volatiles
Four outer planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Lesson 3
and Neptune are called gas giants because of
the dominance of gases and their sizes; rotate Ecosystem
faster, have thick atmosphere, lower densities, Biological community of interacting organisms
and fluid interiors rich in hydrogen, helium, and and their physical environment; complex network
ices (water, ammonia, methane) or interconnected system.

Element abundance on earth, meteorites, and El Nino (1980s)


universe Starts with unusual warming of the Central
Sun and large planets have enough gravity to Pacific; results of hydrosphere-atmosphere
retain hydrogen and helium. Rare inert gases interactions
are too light for earths gravity to retain, thus
low abundance. Water Cycle
Earth and solar system could be derived from 1) Water storage 2) evaporation
materials with composition similar to that of 3) cloud storage 4) transpiration 5) precipitation
the universe. 6) Groundwater 7) percolation
Presence of heavy elements on earth suggests
that it was derived from remnants of a System
supernova and the sun is a second generation set of interconnected components that are
star made by recycling materials. interacting to form a unified whole

RIVAL THEORIES Subsystems of the Earth


Lithosphere
1)Nebular Hypothesis (1700s) by Swedenborg, Hydrosphere
Kant, and Laplace. Atmosphere
Rotating gaseous cloud that cools and contracts Biosphere
in the middle to form the sun and the rest into a
disc that becomes the planets
Lesson 4
2)Encounter Hypothesis
Buffons Sun-comet encounter that sent matter Venus, earth, and mars are part of the inner
to from planets terrestrial or rocky planets; compositions and
James Jeans sun-star encounter that would densities are not too different from each other.
have drawn from the sun matter that would Venus is considered as earths twin planet; size
condense to planets and mass are similar with earths; Mars is about
Chamberlain and Moultons planetesimal earths half size
hypothesis involving a star much bigger than Orbital period and velocity are related to the
the sun passing by the sun and draws gaseous planets distance from the sun.
filaments where planetesimal were formed. Rotational speed of earth and mars are very
Lyttletons suns companion star colliding with similar; rotational speed of Venus is very slow.
another proto-planet that breaks up to form Abundance of liquid on earth, hence the blue
Jupiter and Saturn. color. Earth is a habitable planet.
Schmidts accretion theory that the sun passed
through a dense interstellar cloud and emerged
with a dusty, gaseous envelop that eventually Lesson 5
became the planets.
Luster the quality and intensity of reflected
3)Protoplanet Hypothesis Current hypothesis light by the mineral
a slowly rotating gas and dust cloud contracted a) Metallic generally opaque and exhibit a
due to gravity resplendent shine like a polished metal
most of the mass move to center to eventually b) Non-metallic - vitreous (glassy),
become a proto-sun, the remaining materials adamantine (brilliant/diamond-like),
form a disc that became planets and resinous, silky, pearly, dull (earthy), greasy,
momentum is transferred outwards etc.
proto-planets accretion happened; collision
formed larger bodies Hardness measure of resistance to abrasion;
high speed collisions put Venus in retrograde TALC is the softest mineral while DIAMOND is
rotation the hardest mineral.
collision of earth with large objects produces Color and streak
the moon STREAK is the color of mineral in
powdered form
Crystal Form / Habit external shape of a
crystal is observed as these crystals grow in
spaces; the natural shape of the mineral before
the development of any cleavage or fracture; It is possible for a mineral to have a prismatic
any mineral that do not have a crystal structure habit without any cleavage. Prismatic habit is
is defined as amorphous simultaneously developed while the mineral is
Cleavage the property of minerals to break growing. During the process there is no
along parallel repetitive planes of weakness to repetitive plane or weakness being created
form smooth, flat surfaces; a weak plane that which makes the mineral break only by
developed after the crystal is formed fracturing (e.g. quartz)
Fracture broken surfaces that are irregular
and non-planar. Examples of fracture are LESSON 6
conchoidal, fibrous, hackly, and uneven among
others Approximately 85% of the earths crust is made
Specific Gravity the ratio of weight of a up of oxygen and silicon. Together they form
mineral to the weight of an equal volume of the silicon oxygen tetrahedron, which is the
water; it is numerically equal to density basic building block of silicate materials.
Others certain unique properties that actually Silicates are also termed as rock forming
help in their identification (e.g. magnetism, materials.
odor, taste, tenacity, reaction to acid, etc.) IGNEOUS ROCKS
Rocks that are derived from cooling and
MINERAL GROUPS solidification of magma or lava; from solidified
Silicates minerals containing 2 of the most molten rock materials, usually hard and
abundant element one earths crust namely, crystalline;
silicon and oxygen Magma is a molten rock material beneath the
Oxides minerals containing oxygen anion surface of the earth.
combined with one or more metal ions Lava is molten rock material extruded to the
Sulfates- minerals containing sulfur and oxygen surface of the earth through a central vent
anion combined with other ions (volcano) or a fissure eruption.
Sulfides- minerals containing sulfur anion Pyroclastic rocks: fragmental rocks usually
combined with two or more ions associated with violent or explosive type of
Carbonates- minerals containing the carbonate eruption.
anion combined with other elements Igneous rocks can be classified according to
Native elements- minerals that form as silica content and relative amounts of K, Na, Fe,
individual elements Mg, and Ca; can be classified as felsic: granitic
a) Metals and inter-metals minerals (>65% silica, generally light colored),
with high thermal and electrical intermediate: andesitic (55-65% silica,
conductivity, typically with metallic generally medium colored (medium gray),
luster, low hardness (Au,Pb) mafic: basaltic (45-55% silica, usually dark
b) Semi metals- minerals that are more colored), ultramafic (<45% silica, generally very
fragile and have lower conductivity dark colored)
(As,Bi)
c) Nonmetals- nonconductive (S, SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
diamond) a) rocks that are formed at or near the surface of the
earth
Halides minerals containing halogen elements b) sedimentary processes include: weathering of
combined with one or more elements rocks, erosion, sediment transport, and deposition
(compaction and cementation)
Summary c) common sedimentary feature: fossil assemblage
Characteristics of a mineral: inorganic, naturally and stratification
occurring, crystalline, solid, and must have d) fossil assemblages remains and traces of plants
consistent chemical composition and animals that are preserved in rocks
Halides,carbonates,sulfides are non-silicates e) Stratification or layering- layering is the result of
change in grain size and composition; each layer
Silicates are more abundant than any other
represents a distinct period of deposition
minerals combined.
metallic minerals are opaque , usually heavy
Classic sedimentary rocks
and with dark streaks
a) Compositions: grains, matrix, and cements
Streak is the color of mineral in powdered form.
b) Commonly classified according to particle size
It is more reliable because it is inherent to most
c) Volcanic origin (e.g. pyroclastic) may undergo in
minerals. Color is not reliable because mineral
some sedimentary processes could be classified
can be formed with varieties of color, an effect
as sedimentary rocks ( e.g. volcanoclastic rocks)
of impurities and weathering.
d) Presence of variable grain sizes indicates
Habit is the external shape of a crystal that is
sedimentary differentiation
developed during the formation of the mineral.
Cleavage plane is a plane of weakness that
maybe formed after the crystal formation.
NON-CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS SUMMARY
a) Evaporation and precipitation from solution or Vesicular texture develop as magma rises up to
lithification of organic matter the surface, it is subjected to decreasing
b) Classified as evaporates (halite, gypsum, and pressure, allowing dissolved gases to come out
dolostone), precipitates (limestone), and of the solution forming gas bubbles. When the
bioclastics (coal, coquina) magma reaches the surface (as lava) and cools,
the rock solidifies around the gas bubbles. The
METAMORPHIC ROCKS bubbles are then preserved as holes or vesicles.
Formed below the surface of the earth through Also, the texture can be also formed thru the
the process of metamorphism with the rapid escape of gases.
recrystallization of minerals in rocks due to Vesicular texture is not associated with
change in pressure and temperature conditions; peridotites. Peridotites are intrusive rocks
contact and regional atmosphere formed beneath the earths surface and the
high pressure conditions prevent gases from
a) Contact metamorphism forming and escaping.
heat and reactive fluids as main factors: occurs Clastic rocks differ from non-clastic rocks in
when pre-existing rocks get in contact with terms of process of formation. Clastic rocks
magma form from rock fragments transported away
creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks from their source by wind, water, gravity or ice
example: hornfels rather than by chemical processes such as
precipitation or evaporation.
b) Regional metamorphism Physical features of sediments change during
Pressure as main factor: occurs in areas that transport. The farther the sediment is
have undergone considerable amount of transported, the longer the transportation
mechanical deformation and chemical takes, and the smaller, more rounded and
recrystallization during orogenic event which smoother the sediment becomes.
are commonly associated with mountain belts Difference between foliated and non-foliated
Occurs in regional/large scale rocks. Foliated rocks has a texture in which the
Creates foliated metamorphic rocks mineral grains are arranged in bands or grains
Examples: schist, gneiss which is absent in non-foliated rock.
Non-foliated rocks like marble also form Heat is a major agent in metamorphism and
through regional metamorphism, where igneous rock formation but not in sedimentary
pressure is not intense , far from geologic event rocks. Sedimentary process occur in surface
conditions low temperature and pressure
THE ROCK CYCLE conditions.
Rocks dont have to go through the complete
MINERALS -> building blocks of ROCKS rock cycle. Rocks can change into any type of
Classified on how theyre formed rock or even form as the same kind of rock for
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC several cycles.
-formed from -generally -rocks change
cooling and form from due to pressure LESSON 7
solidification compaction change and Mineral Occurrence- concentration of mineral
of lava and and temperature Mineral Deposit- mineral occurrence of
magma cementation
sufficient size
of sediments
Ore Deposit- mineral deposit which is tested
INTRUSIVE CLASTIC CONTACT
-magma -compacted -heat and economically profitable
cools slowly sediments Aggregate- rock or mineral used in
-large crystal -classified by cement,asphalt,plaster (fillers)
forms size Ore- naturally occurring material in which its
EXTRUSIVE NON-CLASTIC REGIONAL mineral economic value is extracted
-lava cools -Evaporites -Pressure Metallic minerals: Au,Ag,Cu,Pt,Fe
quickly -Precipitates Nonmetallic: talc, fluorite, sulfur,sand,gravel
-small or no -Biological Magmatic ore deposit- involves magmatic
crystal forms matter processes such as crystal fractionation, partial
-maybe
melting, and crystal settling.
vesicular
a) Crystal settling- magma cools down,
(contains air
bubbles heavier minerals tend to crystalize early and
settle at lower portion of magma chamber.
Hydrothermal ore deposit- concentration of
valuable substances by hot aqueous fluids
flowing through fracture and pores
a) Vein deposits- occur in fault, fissure
openings or shear zones w/in country rocks.
b) Disseminated deposits- minute masses Milling Processes (ore & waste materials)- Mineral
through large volumes of rocks separation & recovery
c) Massive sulfite deposit- hot fluids that a) Heavy media separation submersion in liquid
circulated above magma chambers at of crushed rocks; heavier material sinks and
oceanic ridges lighter ones are separated.
d) Stratabound Ore Deposit- dissolved b) Magnetic separation- crushed ore is separated
minerals in a hydrothermal fluid precipitate from waste material using powerful magnets
in the pore spaces c) Flotation- powdered ore placed in agitated &
Sedimentary ore deposit- concentrated by frothy slurry minerals & metals sink
chemical processes such as precipitation from d) Cyanide heap leaching crushed rock placed
lakes or seawater on leach pile where cyanide solution is sprayed
a) Evaporate deposit- evaporation > greater on top of pile; gold dissolved into solution
than water inflow Waste materials are used as backfill or sent to
b) Iron formation- made of repetitive layers of tailings pond
iron-rich charts and several iron bearing Common frothers: alcohols and glycols
mineral Must be strong enough to support material yet
Placer Ore Deposit- concentration of valuable weak enough to break down in launders.
substances through gravity separation during
sedimentary processes Additional notes:
Residual Ore deposit- accumulation of valuable The different stages of exploration allows investor
materials through chemical weathering to systematically evaluate the potential and
processes. marketability of having a mineral project.
It is possible to drill an area without any subsurface
SUMMARY investigation.
Metallic non-metallic After an open pit mine, usually underground mine
a)metallic bright, metallic luster; yield new comes after. It is the only way to mine the deeper
products when melted. orebody.
A mineral can undergo more than one Process of rehabilitation of mined out area
processes a) Topsoil replacement (uncontaminated)
Gold= wealth, useful in electronics industry b) Reintroduction of flora and fauna
Chromite ore = alloying stainless steel; pigment c) Neutralizing acidic water
in paint, ink, and dyes. d) Backfilling and sealing underground mines
Mineral veins are produced once hydrothermal e) Changing the slope of impacted area to reduce
solutions flow through cracks in rocks. erosion
Waste materials can be economically mineable in
LESSON 8 the future. When the demand is high, low grade
ores are being mined then mixed to high grade ores
MINERAL EXPLORATION to adhere economically profitable product.
1. Project design- review of available data; initial stage
2. Field exploration- physical activities in project are LESSONS 9
a) Regional reconnaissance regional surface Non-renewable
investigation I. Coal
b) Detailed exploration- more detailed surface II. Oil
with the object of finding targets or mineralized III. Natural gas
zones IV. Nuclear
c) Prospect evaluation- access market profitability Renewable
3. Pre-production Feasibility Study- determines and I. Solar
validates the accuracy of all data & info collected II. Wind
from different stages III. Hydroelectric
IV. Biomass
Mineral deposition- uneven thickness and V. Geothermal
deposition Fossil Fuels
Cores- representative what is in drilling area -Formed by natural processes (anaerobic
More drill holes indicates clearer picture what is decomposition of buried dead organisms)
underneath the surface - Carbon, coal, petroleum, natural gas
-derivative: kerosene & propane
MINING METHODS Coal
Surface (open pit) extract ores close to earths -formed 350 million years ago, through transformation
surface of organic plant matter
TYPES: Pit mining, quarrying, placer mining, strip -metamorphic; black; occur in coal bed/seams
mining -composed of carbon, helium,sulfur,oxygen,nitrogen
Underground mining- extract ore from orebody Coalification
deep under earths surface. -formation of coal from planet by diagenesis and
metamorphism
-bituminism/ carbonification
-carboniferous (coal bearing) 360 million 290
million years

Different Types of Coal (according to carbon and


volatile water content)
Anthracite- 86%-98% pure carbon; 3% volatile
matter; excellent fuel; used at home
Bituminous coal- 70%-86% pure carbon; 31%
volatile matter; used to make coke and metallurgy
Sub-bituminous coal- 70-76% carbon; 53-42%
volatile; burned in industrial boilers
Lignite- 65%-70% carbon; 63-53% volatile; low
grade fuel with high moisture used in industrial
boiler
Peat- partially decomposed vegetation; dried
briquettes for heating

Dead Living Organism Cycle


1) It is eaten by predator, scavenger, and bacteria
2) Ambient air/ oxygen-rich water breaks down
into water, CO2, nitrate, sulfate, phosphate that
nourish plants.

Lesson 10-12 (?) Sayon ra. Water and Soil


Conservation. Hahahaha. God bless guys. LABYU
<3

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