*Baryonic matter ordinary matter consisting of pain and then vomited the star, sun, and moon. protons, electrons, and neutrons. India- gods sacrificed Purusha, the primal man *Dark matter matter that has gravity but does not whose feet, head, eyes, and mind became the emit light. earth, sky, sun, and moon respectively. *Dark energy a source of anti-gravity; force that Monotheists (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) counteracts gravity and causes universe to expand a Supreme Being created the universe, including *Protostar- an early stage in the formation of the star man and other organisms. *Thermonuclear reaction a nuclear fusion reaction responsible for the energy produced by stars. STEADY STATE MODEL *Main sequence stars stars that fuse hydrogen atoms (1948) by Bondi and Gould and by Hoyle. to form helium atoms in their core. Maintains that new matter is created as the *Light years the distance light can travel in a year universe expands thereby maintaining its density. Universe 13.8 billions of years old Eventually rejected because of the cosmic earth/ solar system- 4.5-4.6 billions of years old microwave background discovery.
UNIVERSE BIG BANG THEORY
made of 4.6% baryonic matter, 24% cold dark matter, Postulates that 13.8 billions of years ago, the & 71.4% dark energy universe expanded from a tiny, dense, and hot dark matter explains what holds galaxies together for mass to its present size and much cooler state. a reason that the low total mass is insufficient for Sets on two ideas: GENERAL RELATIVITY & gravity alone to do so COSMOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE. dark energy explains the observed accelerating This has withstood the tests of expansion 1) expansion of the universe redshift 2) abundance of hydrogen, helium, and hydrogen, helium, lithium = 3 most abundant lithium 3) uniformly pervasive cosmic elements microwave background radiation the remnant STARS are the building blocks of galaxy; instability heat from the bang. results to gravitational collapse, rotation, heating up and transformation to protostar the core of a future star as thermonuclear reaction sets in. SUN belongs to the so-called main sequence stars. LESSON 2 remaining dust and gas may end up as planets, asteroids or other planetary bodies. MILKY WAY Galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars and clusters of a huge disc and spiral shaped aggregation galaxies from superclusters; in between the galaxies is a Spiral arms rotate around a globular cluster or practically an empty space. bulge of many, many stars. At the center lies a diameter = at least 91 billion light years (1 light year = supermassive blackhole 9.46067 x 10^12 ) ; density = 4.5 x 10^-31 g/cm^3) is about 100 million light years across revolves around galactic center once in 240 REDSHIFT million years explains that galaxies are moving away from each Part of the Local Group of Galaxies, which in other turn is part of the Virgo supercluster of galaxies theory by Edwin Hubble (1929) He observed that spectral lines of starlight made to Large Scale Features of the Solar System pass through a prism are shifted toward the red light of Much of the mass is concentrated at the center the electromagnetic spectrum; Doppler effect is (Sun) while angular momentum is held by the associated with the inference of this. outer planets this evidence for expansion contradicted the previously held view of a static and unchanging universe Orbits of the planets are elliptical All planets revolve around the sun Cosmic microwave background Period of revolution increase with increasing -Pervasive cosmic microwave background discovered by distance from the sun; the innermost planet Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964 revolves fastest, the outermost, the slowest - a strikingly uniform faint glow can be observed in the All planets are located at regular intervals from microwave band coming from all directions. the Sun
Origin of the universe Small Scale Features of the Solar System
Most planets rotate prograde Non-scientific thought Inner planets: made of high melting point Ancient Egyptians world arose from an infinite materials, rotate slower, have thin or no sea from the first rising of the sun. atmosphere, higher densities, and lower contents of volatiles Four outer planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Lesson 3 and Neptune are called gas giants because of the dominance of gases and their sizes; rotate Ecosystem faster, have thick atmosphere, lower densities, Biological community of interacting organisms and fluid interiors rich in hydrogen, helium, and and their physical environment; complex network ices (water, ammonia, methane) or interconnected system.
Element abundance on earth, meteorites, and El Nino (1980s)
universe Starts with unusual warming of the Central Sun and large planets have enough gravity to Pacific; results of hydrosphere-atmosphere retain hydrogen and helium. Rare inert gases interactions are too light for earths gravity to retain, thus low abundance. Water Cycle Earth and solar system could be derived from 1) Water storage 2) evaporation materials with composition similar to that of 3) cloud storage 4) transpiration 5) precipitation the universe. 6) Groundwater 7) percolation Presence of heavy elements on earth suggests that it was derived from remnants of a System supernova and the sun is a second generation set of interconnected components that are star made by recycling materials. interacting to form a unified whole
RIVAL THEORIES Subsystems of the Earth
Lithosphere 1)Nebular Hypothesis (1700s) by Swedenborg, Hydrosphere Kant, and Laplace. Atmosphere Rotating gaseous cloud that cools and contracts Biosphere in the middle to form the sun and the rest into a disc that becomes the planets Lesson 4 2)Encounter Hypothesis Buffons Sun-comet encounter that sent matter Venus, earth, and mars are part of the inner to from planets terrestrial or rocky planets; compositions and James Jeans sun-star encounter that would densities are not too different from each other. have drawn from the sun matter that would Venus is considered as earths twin planet; size condense to planets and mass are similar with earths; Mars is about Chamberlain and Moultons planetesimal earths half size hypothesis involving a star much bigger than Orbital period and velocity are related to the the sun passing by the sun and draws gaseous planets distance from the sun. filaments where planetesimal were formed. Rotational speed of earth and mars are very Lyttletons suns companion star colliding with similar; rotational speed of Venus is very slow. another proto-planet that breaks up to form Abundance of liquid on earth, hence the blue Jupiter and Saturn. color. Earth is a habitable planet. Schmidts accretion theory that the sun passed through a dense interstellar cloud and emerged with a dusty, gaseous envelop that eventually Lesson 5 became the planets. Luster the quality and intensity of reflected 3)Protoplanet Hypothesis Current hypothesis light by the mineral a slowly rotating gas and dust cloud contracted a) Metallic generally opaque and exhibit a due to gravity resplendent shine like a polished metal most of the mass move to center to eventually b) Non-metallic - vitreous (glassy), become a proto-sun, the remaining materials adamantine (brilliant/diamond-like), form a disc that became planets and resinous, silky, pearly, dull (earthy), greasy, momentum is transferred outwards etc. proto-planets accretion happened; collision formed larger bodies Hardness measure of resistance to abrasion; high speed collisions put Venus in retrograde TALC is the softest mineral while DIAMOND is rotation the hardest mineral. collision of earth with large objects produces Color and streak the moon STREAK is the color of mineral in powdered form Crystal Form / Habit external shape of a crystal is observed as these crystals grow in spaces; the natural shape of the mineral before the development of any cleavage or fracture; It is possible for a mineral to have a prismatic any mineral that do not have a crystal structure habit without any cleavage. Prismatic habit is is defined as amorphous simultaneously developed while the mineral is Cleavage the property of minerals to break growing. During the process there is no along parallel repetitive planes of weakness to repetitive plane or weakness being created form smooth, flat surfaces; a weak plane that which makes the mineral break only by developed after the crystal is formed fracturing (e.g. quartz) Fracture broken surfaces that are irregular and non-planar. Examples of fracture are LESSON 6 conchoidal, fibrous, hackly, and uneven among others Approximately 85% of the earths crust is made Specific Gravity the ratio of weight of a up of oxygen and silicon. Together they form mineral to the weight of an equal volume of the silicon oxygen tetrahedron, which is the water; it is numerically equal to density basic building block of silicate materials. Others certain unique properties that actually Silicates are also termed as rock forming help in their identification (e.g. magnetism, materials. odor, taste, tenacity, reaction to acid, etc.) IGNEOUS ROCKS Rocks that are derived from cooling and MINERAL GROUPS solidification of magma or lava; from solidified Silicates minerals containing 2 of the most molten rock materials, usually hard and abundant element one earths crust namely, crystalline; silicon and oxygen Magma is a molten rock material beneath the Oxides minerals containing oxygen anion surface of the earth. combined with one or more metal ions Lava is molten rock material extruded to the Sulfates- minerals containing sulfur and oxygen surface of the earth through a central vent anion combined with other ions (volcano) or a fissure eruption. Sulfides- minerals containing sulfur anion Pyroclastic rocks: fragmental rocks usually combined with two or more ions associated with violent or explosive type of Carbonates- minerals containing the carbonate eruption. anion combined with other elements Igneous rocks can be classified according to Native elements- minerals that form as silica content and relative amounts of K, Na, Fe, individual elements Mg, and Ca; can be classified as felsic: granitic a) Metals and inter-metals minerals (>65% silica, generally light colored), with high thermal and electrical intermediate: andesitic (55-65% silica, conductivity, typically with metallic generally medium colored (medium gray), luster, low hardness (Au,Pb) mafic: basaltic (45-55% silica, usually dark b) Semi metals- minerals that are more colored), ultramafic (<45% silica, generally very fragile and have lower conductivity dark colored) (As,Bi) c) Nonmetals- nonconductive (S, SEDIMENTARY ROCKS diamond) a) rocks that are formed at or near the surface of the earth Halides minerals containing halogen elements b) sedimentary processes include: weathering of combined with one or more elements rocks, erosion, sediment transport, and deposition (compaction and cementation) Summary c) common sedimentary feature: fossil assemblage Characteristics of a mineral: inorganic, naturally and stratification occurring, crystalline, solid, and must have d) fossil assemblages remains and traces of plants consistent chemical composition and animals that are preserved in rocks Halides,carbonates,sulfides are non-silicates e) Stratification or layering- layering is the result of change in grain size and composition; each layer Silicates are more abundant than any other represents a distinct period of deposition minerals combined. metallic minerals are opaque , usually heavy Classic sedimentary rocks and with dark streaks a) Compositions: grains, matrix, and cements Streak is the color of mineral in powdered form. b) Commonly classified according to particle size It is more reliable because it is inherent to most c) Volcanic origin (e.g. pyroclastic) may undergo in minerals. Color is not reliable because mineral some sedimentary processes could be classified can be formed with varieties of color, an effect as sedimentary rocks ( e.g. volcanoclastic rocks) of impurities and weathering. d) Presence of variable grain sizes indicates Habit is the external shape of a crystal that is sedimentary differentiation developed during the formation of the mineral. Cleavage plane is a plane of weakness that maybe formed after the crystal formation. NON-CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS SUMMARY a) Evaporation and precipitation from solution or Vesicular texture develop as magma rises up to lithification of organic matter the surface, it is subjected to decreasing b) Classified as evaporates (halite, gypsum, and pressure, allowing dissolved gases to come out dolostone), precipitates (limestone), and of the solution forming gas bubbles. When the bioclastics (coal, coquina) magma reaches the surface (as lava) and cools, the rock solidifies around the gas bubbles. The METAMORPHIC ROCKS bubbles are then preserved as holes or vesicles. Formed below the surface of the earth through Also, the texture can be also formed thru the the process of metamorphism with the rapid escape of gases. recrystallization of minerals in rocks due to Vesicular texture is not associated with change in pressure and temperature conditions; peridotites. Peridotites are intrusive rocks contact and regional atmosphere formed beneath the earths surface and the high pressure conditions prevent gases from a) Contact metamorphism forming and escaping. heat and reactive fluids as main factors: occurs Clastic rocks differ from non-clastic rocks in when pre-existing rocks get in contact with terms of process of formation. Clastic rocks magma form from rock fragments transported away creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks from their source by wind, water, gravity or ice example: hornfels rather than by chemical processes such as precipitation or evaporation. b) Regional metamorphism Physical features of sediments change during Pressure as main factor: occurs in areas that transport. The farther the sediment is have undergone considerable amount of transported, the longer the transportation mechanical deformation and chemical takes, and the smaller, more rounded and recrystallization during orogenic event which smoother the sediment becomes. are commonly associated with mountain belts Difference between foliated and non-foliated Occurs in regional/large scale rocks. Foliated rocks has a texture in which the Creates foliated metamorphic rocks mineral grains are arranged in bands or grains Examples: schist, gneiss which is absent in non-foliated rock. Non-foliated rocks like marble also form Heat is a major agent in metamorphism and through regional metamorphism, where igneous rock formation but not in sedimentary pressure is not intense , far from geologic event rocks. Sedimentary process occur in surface conditions low temperature and pressure THE ROCK CYCLE conditions. Rocks dont have to go through the complete MINERALS -> building blocks of ROCKS rock cycle. Rocks can change into any type of Classified on how theyre formed rock or even form as the same kind of rock for IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC several cycles. -formed from -generally -rocks change cooling and form from due to pressure LESSON 7 solidification compaction change and Mineral Occurrence- concentration of mineral of lava and and temperature Mineral Deposit- mineral occurrence of magma cementation sufficient size of sediments Ore Deposit- mineral deposit which is tested INTRUSIVE CLASTIC CONTACT -magma -compacted -heat and economically profitable cools slowly sediments Aggregate- rock or mineral used in -large crystal -classified by cement,asphalt,plaster (fillers) forms size Ore- naturally occurring material in which its EXTRUSIVE NON-CLASTIC REGIONAL mineral economic value is extracted -lava cools -Evaporites -Pressure Metallic minerals: Au,Ag,Cu,Pt,Fe quickly -Precipitates Nonmetallic: talc, fluorite, sulfur,sand,gravel -small or no -Biological Magmatic ore deposit- involves magmatic crystal forms matter processes such as crystal fractionation, partial -maybe melting, and crystal settling. vesicular a) Crystal settling- magma cools down, (contains air bubbles heavier minerals tend to crystalize early and settle at lower portion of magma chamber. Hydrothermal ore deposit- concentration of valuable substances by hot aqueous fluids flowing through fracture and pores a) Vein deposits- occur in fault, fissure openings or shear zones w/in country rocks. b) Disseminated deposits- minute masses Milling Processes (ore & waste materials)- Mineral through large volumes of rocks separation & recovery c) Massive sulfite deposit- hot fluids that a) Heavy media separation submersion in liquid circulated above magma chambers at of crushed rocks; heavier material sinks and oceanic ridges lighter ones are separated. d) Stratabound Ore Deposit- dissolved b) Magnetic separation- crushed ore is separated minerals in a hydrothermal fluid precipitate from waste material using powerful magnets in the pore spaces c) Flotation- powdered ore placed in agitated & Sedimentary ore deposit- concentrated by frothy slurry minerals & metals sink chemical processes such as precipitation from d) Cyanide heap leaching crushed rock placed lakes or seawater on leach pile where cyanide solution is sprayed a) Evaporate deposit- evaporation > greater on top of pile; gold dissolved into solution than water inflow Waste materials are used as backfill or sent to b) Iron formation- made of repetitive layers of tailings pond iron-rich charts and several iron bearing Common frothers: alcohols and glycols mineral Must be strong enough to support material yet Placer Ore Deposit- concentration of valuable weak enough to break down in launders. substances through gravity separation during sedimentary processes Additional notes: Residual Ore deposit- accumulation of valuable The different stages of exploration allows investor materials through chemical weathering to systematically evaluate the potential and processes. marketability of having a mineral project. It is possible to drill an area without any subsurface SUMMARY investigation. Metallic non-metallic After an open pit mine, usually underground mine a)metallic bright, metallic luster; yield new comes after. It is the only way to mine the deeper products when melted. orebody. A mineral can undergo more than one Process of rehabilitation of mined out area processes a) Topsoil replacement (uncontaminated) Gold= wealth, useful in electronics industry b) Reintroduction of flora and fauna Chromite ore = alloying stainless steel; pigment c) Neutralizing acidic water in paint, ink, and dyes. d) Backfilling and sealing underground mines Mineral veins are produced once hydrothermal e) Changing the slope of impacted area to reduce solutions flow through cracks in rocks. erosion Waste materials can be economically mineable in LESSON 8 the future. When the demand is high, low grade ores are being mined then mixed to high grade ores MINERAL EXPLORATION to adhere economically profitable product. 1. Project design- review of available data; initial stage 2. Field exploration- physical activities in project are LESSONS 9 a) Regional reconnaissance regional surface Non-renewable investigation I. Coal b) Detailed exploration- more detailed surface II. Oil with the object of finding targets or mineralized III. Natural gas zones IV. Nuclear c) Prospect evaluation- access market profitability Renewable 3. Pre-production Feasibility Study- determines and I. Solar validates the accuracy of all data & info collected II. Wind from different stages III. Hydroelectric IV. Biomass Mineral deposition- uneven thickness and V. Geothermal deposition Fossil Fuels Cores- representative what is in drilling area -Formed by natural processes (anaerobic More drill holes indicates clearer picture what is decomposition of buried dead organisms) underneath the surface - Carbon, coal, petroleum, natural gas -derivative: kerosene & propane MINING METHODS Coal Surface (open pit) extract ores close to earths -formed 350 million years ago, through transformation surface of organic plant matter TYPES: Pit mining, quarrying, placer mining, strip -metamorphic; black; occur in coal bed/seams mining -composed of carbon, helium,sulfur,oxygen,nitrogen Underground mining- extract ore from orebody Coalification deep under earths surface. -formation of coal from planet by diagenesis and metamorphism -bituminism/ carbonification -carboniferous (coal bearing) 360 million 290 million years
Different Types of Coal (according to carbon and
volatile water content) Anthracite- 86%-98% pure carbon; 3% volatile matter; excellent fuel; used at home Bituminous coal- 70%-86% pure carbon; 31% volatile matter; used to make coke and metallurgy Sub-bituminous coal- 70-76% carbon; 53-42% volatile; burned in industrial boilers Lignite- 65%-70% carbon; 63-53% volatile; low grade fuel with high moisture used in industrial boiler Peat- partially decomposed vegetation; dried briquettes for heating
Dead Living Organism Cycle
1) It is eaten by predator, scavenger, and bacteria 2) Ambient air/ oxygen-rich water breaks down into water, CO2, nitrate, sulfate, phosphate that nourish plants.