Set 1

Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits
and Systems
Dr K.J. Vinoy
Associate Professor
ECE Dept, IISc, Bangalore
All right reserved. Non-academic use of information contained here requires permission. As far as possible all external sources are acknowledged. Pl. report any errors.
Brief Outline
Overview/Scope
Challenges to be addressed
Course schedule
Important issues
Importance of Home/Lab works
Software tools
Final Project
Final Exam
Grading Policy
Text books
Other useful references
1
Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits and Systems
Overview
There is a demand for a course on the present technology for Telecommunications.
Course on Microwave Systems Engineering was introduced in 2005.
Topics covered included
microwave engineering fundamentals
basic concepts of passive and active circuits
antennas
numerical electromagnetic techniques.
Reasons for change of title (2008)

Software tool
Since 2006 we started using ADS for this course
New licenses are now available (total of 7)
IC-CAP available for device modeling
Earlier offerings had stress on computational techniques
New research in RF CMOS circuits
New courses on MEMS, micro systems fabrication etc.
New topics added

A systems perspective to circuit design
Topics on RF CMOS circuit design
Why study Electromagnetics

Electromagnetics explain why electrons and protons behave as they do, and
thus why resistors, capacitors, inductors, transistors and ultimately all
electrical gadgets work.
Electromagnetics is relevant in a wide range of topics taught under

electrical, electronics, telecommunication, and computer engineering.
Radio, TV, Cellular telephones, Computers, Electric Machinery, Particle

Accelerators, Electrostatic precipitators, Magnets, Superconductors
Lightning, Magnets, Light, Radiowaves
Bottom line: It is wise to be fundamentally sound across the breadth of

your profession
2
Why study Electromagnetics
Opportunity to study things that vary in space AND time
We learn a lot of phenomenon with ordinary differential equations.
Maxwell's equations are fascinating because they account for variation in space as well as
time.
Many of us study/research because of a burning curiosity about the physical world.
The study of electromagnetics is vibrant enough to keep you going for a lifetime.
Where is this relevant

To better understand modern communications and computer systems.
To be able to design and analyze electromagnetics-based devices such as antenna systems,

fiber optics systems and microwave systems
If you Master Electromagnetics

You can solve a lot of issues your colleagues are eager to avoid
Address a lot research problems of todays world
Technology Impact
Raw Materials
Process Computational Techniques Device

Technologies for design & Modeling Concepts
Components & subsystems
Computers Systems Smaller

IT gadgets Cheaper
Mobile phones Widespread
Benefits to the Society

3
Relevant Electromagnetic Spectrum
Radio Frequency Spectrum
HF 3-30 MHz 100m-10m |
VHF 30-300 MHz 10m - 1m |
UHF 300-1000 MHz 1m-30cm | Presently called RF
|
L-Band 1-2 GHz 30cm-15cm | |
S-Band 2-4 GHz 15cm-7.5cm
C-Band 4-8 GHz 7.5cm-4.5cm
|
|
X Band 8-12 GHz 4.5cm-2.5cm | Microwave bands
Ku-Band 12-18 GHz 2.5cm-1.67cm |
K-Band 18-26.5 GHz 1.67cm-1.13cm |
Ka-band 26.5-40 GHz 1.13cm-7.5mm | |
Q band 30 - 50 GHz 1 cm 6mm
|
U band 40 - 60 GHz 7.5mm 5mm
| (30-300 GHz)
V band 50 - 75 GHz 6 mm 4mm
E band 60 - 90 GHz 5 mm 3.33 mm | Millimeter bands
W band 75 - 110 GHz 4 mm 2.7 mm |
F band 90 - 140 GHz 3.33mm 2.14 mm |
D band 110 - 170 GHz 2.7mm 1.76 mm |
|
Sub-millimeter: >300GHz < 1mm 1 MHz = 106 Hz
wave bands
1 GHz = 109 Hz = 1000 MHz
Frequency Spectra for Radio

Communications
The most POPULAR frequency bands during the last 50+ years
The primary bands jump 10x in every ten years
?? 10s GHz
WiFi/WLAN
Mobile phones 1000s MHz
Television 100s MHz
Radios ~MHz
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
4
Perspective: What is Microwave Engineering?
Microwave engineering is a study of wave-material interactions at microwave
frequencies
Size of component is of the order of a wavelength
Unlike audio or optical frequencies
At microwave frequencies
Many materials (or, material systems) behave differently
Most devices do not perform as good
Different/ new approaches are required for circuit design
New components are required for miniaturization and/or multi-function capabilities
There can be significant interaction between elements in a system
Typical Design Specifications

Early microwave engineering: Low volume, high specs
Present: High volume, less critical/agile specs
There is a distinctive trend towards multidisciplinary approaches to research
Emerging Areas
Device Technology
Materials technologies
Design Approaches
Computational techniques
5
New Opportunities / Challenges
Wireless communications systems require antennas.
Small, multifunctional antennas
Space based communications
Optical communications
High speed circuits in modern PCs

PCs are fast becoming microwave devices.
Many chips are already operating at GHz
Semiconductor Technology leveraging on Mechanical Microsystems

RF MEMS
Sub-millimeterwave systems
Advancements in Theoretical Studies

Metamaterials in circuits, antennas, and other components
Electromagnetic interference and compatibility EMI/EMC

Interaction with human tissues is yet to be completely understood
http://www.who.int/peh-emf/about/WhatisEMF/en/
All right reserved. Non-academic use of information contained here requires permission. As far asWith
possible all from
ideas external sources are acknowledged. Pl. report any errors.
www.eas.asu.edu/~holbert/wise/EE-program-2001.ppt
Local Challenges
Inadequate preparation at UG level
Familiarization of new text books and software tools
Tricks of the technology & thumb rules
Use of Greeks, often for different purposes
General skepticism
6
Course Objectives
Understand why RF Design is different
Learn RF circuit Design softwares and characterization systems
Revise EM fundamentals
Explore New/emerging possibilities
Try out some things
Course Schedule
Week Topic Points
Introduction to wireless systems, personal communication systems, High frequency effects in
11-Jan circuits and systems.
Introduction to Maxwell Eqn, Wave eqn, Wave propagation
Practice Exercise 1: Use Maxwell Equations to derive the wave impedance of free space. 1
18-Jan Review of Transmission line Theory, terminated transmission lines
smith chart, impedance matching
Practice Exercise 2: Use Smith Chart to design Single stub tuning circuit 2
25-Jan Microstrip and Coplanar waveguide implementations
microwave network analysis, ABCD-, S-, X-parameters

Practice Exercise 3: Learn ADS/AWR; Use this to analyze a simple circuit; design a transission
line for 50 ohm 1
1-Feb Passive microwave circuits; power dividers
Analysis of 3 and 4 port circuits, couplers etc.

Practice Exercise 4: Use ADS/AWR to design a simple 2-way equal power divider; fabricate &
test 2
8-Feb Test 1 15
7
Course Schedule-2
8-Feb
Series and parallel RLC circuits

Practice Exercise 5: Learn netlist & EM modeling in ADS/AWR to design tuning circuits for a
given frequency 1
resonant structures using distributed transmission lines, components and interconnects at high
15-Feb frequencies
Design of microwave filters: insertion loss method

Practice Exercise 6: Use ADS/AWR to design a passive RF filter; implement using realistic
lumped and distributed components 2
22-Feb Microwave filters with Periodic structures
Theory of microwave metamaterials, CRLH Transmission lines; Applications
Practice Exercise 7: Use ADS/AWR to analyze a filter with periodic structure; obtain its k-beta
diagram using Matlab/script programs OR Transmissionline component using CRLH concepts 2
1-Mar Switching devices and circuits
MEMS technologies and components for RF applications: RF MEMS switches
8-Mar Micromachined varactors, inductors and filters
Test 2 15
Course Schedule-3
Practice Exercise 8: Expt with RF Lab Kit 1
Basics of high frequency amplifier design, device technologiesbiasing techniques,
15-Mar simultaneous tuning of 2 port circuits
Power amplifier design, Various classes of power amplifiers
Practice Exercise 9: Use ADS/AWR to design/analyze a LNA 2
22-Mar CMOS circuit design for RF applications; Feedback systems, phase locked loops
LNA design, designs based on impedance match noise performance, linearity, noise
and large signal performance; noise and distortion,
Practice Exercise 10: Test and anlysis of LNA 2
29-Mar Oscillators, linear oscillators, tuned oscillators, negative resistance oscillators
Introduction to microwave antennas, definitions and basic principles
5-Apr Design of typical Wire and Planar antennas for Wireless systems
Systems aspects in wireless trans-receiver design

Practice Exercise 11: Use ADS/AWR to design a microstrip antenna; Fabricate &
test
All right reserved. Non-academic use of information contained here requires permission. As far as possible all external sources are acknowledged. Pl. report any errors. 4
8
Why is this course 2:1
Microwave engineering is about designing circuits that work!
Many conventional theories fail at high frequencies
More of it next week!
Learn from experience
Todays software tools are highly pervasive
Yet real experience comes by burning your own fingers
All are expected to be able to design, fabricate and test some circuit component by the end of
this course
By the end of the course you will be asked to take an example from published recent literature
and
Redesign with materials available in the Lab.
Study the effects of various parameters
Fabricate by self or outside (if time permits)
Measure in the Lab
All cost will be born by the Lab.
As a training towards this several home/lab work experiments are planned during the semester
Grading Policy
Home/Lab work
All practice Exercises should be submitted as soft copies.
Scope, objectives, screen grab of project schematics, simulation results and conclusions are required in all
reports
Last date for valid submission is the Wednesday after it is announced
Penalty for late submission: 1st day 25%; 2nd day 60%; 3rd day 90%; no credits if submitted later than
Saturday; Negative marks (2x) if not submitted or proved to be copied.
Exercises have a total credit of 20 points
Tests
2 tests have a total of 30 points
Final Project
The final project is based on a recent paper relevant to the course and/or research
Fabrication and test is compulsory for this. Active circuits are not usually preferred due to unavailability of
components.
The report should briefly explain the original work, and highlight modifications/extensions attempted during
the present work
Total of 20 points Marks Grade
Novelty/technical content etc: 5
91-100 S
Presentation & report 15
81-90 A
Final Exam
66-80 B
Has 30 points
51-65 C
Relative grading is not feasible in a small class 40-50 D
9
Course Material
Text books
DM Pozar Microwave and RF Wireless Systems
TH Lee The design of CMOS Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits* * Indian reprint editions are
available to many of these
D.M. Pozar, Microwave Engineering, John Wiley*
books.
VK Varadan, K.J. Vinoy, K.A. Jose, RF MEMS and Their Applications
Other reference books

MNO Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 3rd Ed., Oxford Univ. Press*
R.E. Collin Foundations for Microwave Engineering John Wiley*
C.A. Balanis, Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, John Wiley*
JD Kraus, MJ Marhefka , Antennas for all Applications, Tata McGraw Hill*
I Bahl, Lumped Elements for RF and Microwave Circuits, Artech House
I. Bahl & P. Bartia, Microwave Solid State Circuit Design, Wiley Inter Science, 2003.
K Chang Radio Frequency Circuit design Wiley Inter Science, 2003
Websites
To be updated
Volunteer needed
There is a request to bring out a set of lecture notes for several courses at IISc during the centenary
year.
I request participation from 1 or 2 of you in this regard.
10
Introduction to Wireless Systems
GPS
GSM/CDMA
Bluetooth
WiFi
WLAN
RFID
DBS
Dr Vijay Nair, Intel Corp., IEEE MTT-DML
Wireless Personal Area Network

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for
communication among computer devices (including telephones and PDAs)
close to one person.
The reach of a PAN is typically a few meters.
PANs can be used for communication among the personal devices

themselves (intrapersonal communication), or for connecting to a higher
level network and the Internet (an uplink).
Personal area networks may be wired with computer buses such as USB
and FireWire.
A wireless personal area network (WPAN) can also be made possible with
network technologies such as IrDA, Bluetooth, or UWB.
Note: Most information in this and the following ~10 slides are from Wikipedia
11
Bluetooth
Bluetooth is an industrial specification for wireless personal area
networks (PANs).
The specification is based on frequency-hopping spread spectrum

technology.
Provides a way to connect and exchange information between devices

such as mobile phones, laptops, PCs, printers, digital cameras, and
video game consoles over a secure, globally unlicensed short-range
radio frequency.
The Bluetooth specifications are developed and licensed by the

Bluetooth Special Interest Group.
Max. Power Range
Bluetooth vs. Wi-Fi in networking Class
(mW/dBm) (approx.)
Both are versions of unlicensed spread spectrum technology. Class 1 100 mW (20 dBm) ~100 m.
Use the same frequency range, but employ different multiplexing schemes. Class 2 2.5 mW (4 dBm) ~10 m.
For different applications
Class 3 1 mW (0 dBm) ~1 m.
Wi-Fi provides higher throughput and covers greater distances, but requires
more expensive hardware and higher power consumption. Data Rate
Version
Bluetooth is often thought of as wireless USB, whereas Wi-Fi is wireless
Ethernet (both with much lower bandwidth than the cable systems).
Version 1.2 1 Mbit/s
Recent development: Wibree Version 2.0 + 3 Mbit/s
EDR
Wibree is a digital radio technology (open standard) designed for ultra low
power consumption (button cell batteries) within a short range (10 meters) WiMedia Alliance 53 - 480
based around low-cost transceiver microchips in each device.
(proposed) Mbit/s
Expected use cases include watches displaying Caller ID information, sports
sensors monitoring heart rate during exercise, as well as medical devices
Zigbee
ZigBee is the name of a specification for a suite of high level communication
protocols using small, low-power digital radios based on the IEEE 802.15.4
standard for wireless personal area networks (WPANs), such as wireless headphones
connecting with cell phones via short-range radio.
The technology is intended to be simpler and cheaper than other WPANs, such as
Bluetooth.
ZigBee operates in ISM radio bands: 868 MHz in Europe, 915 MHz in countries
such as USA and Australia, and 2.4 GHz in most jurisdictions worldwide.
Targets RF applications requiring a low data rate, long battery life, and secure
networking.
ZigBee defines a general-purpose, inexpensive, self-organizing, mesh network that

can be used for industrial control, embedded sensing, medical data collection, smoke
and intruder warning, building automation, home automation, etc.
The resulting network will use very small amounts of power so individual devices
might run for a year or two using the originally installed battery.
12
Competition: EnOcean
EnOcean GmbH is a spin-off company of Siemens AG founded in 2001,
It is a technology supplier of self-powered modules (transmitters, receivers, transceivers, energy

converter) to several companies which develop and manufacture products used in building
automation (light, shading, hvac), industrial automation, and automotive industry (replacement of
the conventional battery in tyre pressure sensors).
The technology is based on the efficient exploitation of slightest changes in the environmental
energy using the principles of energy harvesting. In order to transform such energy fluctuations
into usable electrical energy, electromagnetic, piezogenerators, solar cells, thermocouples, and
other energy converters are used.
Products (such as sensors and radio switches) are battery-less

and are engineered to operate maintenance-free.
RF energy is only transmitted for the 1's on the data
The frequency used is 868.3 MHz
Packets of data are transmitted at 120 kbit/s with the packet

being 14 bytes long with a four byte data payload.
The signals of these sensors and switches can be transmitted across a distance up to 300 m.
Three packets are sent at pseudo-random intervals reducing the possibility of packet collisions to
a very low figure.
Every device has a unique 32-bit serial number, so local interference is avoided by 'training in'
receivers to the transmitters required to operate them.
WiFi
A wireless technology brand-owned by the Wi-Fi Alliance intended to improve the
interoperability of wireless local area network products based on the IEEE 802.11
standards.
Wi-Fi also allows connectivity in peer-to-peer (wireless ad-hoc network) mode,

which enables devices to connect directly with each other.
Applications
Internet and VoIP phone access,
gaming
network connectivity for televisions, DVD players, and digital cameras.
Wi-Fi allows LANs to be deployed without cabling for client devices, typically
reducing the costs of network deployment and expansion. Useful in spaces where
cables cannot be run, such as outdoor areas and historical buildings.
A typical Wi-Fi home router using 802.11b or 802.11g with a stock antenna might
have a range of 32 m (120 ft) indoors and 95 m (300 ft) outdoors.
13
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
Links two or more computers without using wires.
WLAN utilizes spread-spectrum or OFDM modulation technology based on

radio waves to enable communication between devices in a limited area,
also known as the basic service set.
Advantages
This gives users the mobility to move around within a broad coverage area and
still be connected to the network.
The wireless nature allows users to access network resources from nearly any
convenient location within their primary networking environment (home or
office).
With the emergence of public wireless networks, users can access the internet
even outside their normal work environment.
Users connected to a wireless network can maintain a nearly constant affiliation

with their desired network as they move from place to place.
Key Disadvantages in WLAN

Security:
For proper reception with these antennas within reasonable range, the WLAN transceiver utilizes a fairly
considerable amount of power.
To combat this consideration, wireless networks users usually choose to utilize various encryption
technologies available such as Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA).
Range:
The typical range of a common 802.11g network with standard equipment is ~10s m.
To obtain additional range, repeaters or additional access points required.
Reliability:
Subject to a wide variety of interference, as well as complex propagation effects (such as multipath, or
especially in this case Rician fading).
Usually, modulation is achieved by phase-shift keying (PSK) or quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM),
causing interference and other propagation effects.
Important network resources such as servers are rarely connected wirelessly.
Speed:
The speed on most wireless networks (~ 1-108 Mbit/s) is slow compared to the slowest common wired
networks (100 Mbit/s - several Gbit/s).
Additionally, there are performance issues caused by TCP and its built-in congestion avoidance.
Newer standards such as 802.11n are addressing this limitation and will support peak throughputs in the
range of 100-200 Mbit/s.
14
WiMAX
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
WiMAX is a technology aimed at providing wireless data over long

distances in a variety of ways, from point-to-point links to full mobile
cellular type access.
It is based on the IEEE 802.16 standard, which is also called

WirelessMAN.
Comparison with Wi-Fi
The WiMAX forum describes WiMAX as a standards-based technology WiMAX is a long-
enabling the range system
delivery of last mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable (kms) uses
and DSL. (un)licensed
spectrum Different
The bandwidth and reach of WiMAX make it suitable for the following 802.16 standards
potential applications: provide different
types of access,
Connecting Wi-Fi hotspots with each other and to other parts of the Internet. from mobile
(analogous to
Providing a wireless alternative to cable and DSL for last mile broadband access. access via a
cellphone) to fixed
Providing high-speed data and telecommunications services.
(an alternative to
Providing a diverse source of Internet connectivity as part of a business continuity wired access,
plan. where the end
user's wireless
Frequencies termination point is
fixed in location.)
In the USA, the biggest segment available is around 2.5 GHz. Elsewhere in the
world, with 2.3 GHz probably being most important in Asia. Wi-Fi is a shorter range system, typically
hundreds of meters, that uses unlicensed
Some countries in Asia like India, Vietnam and Indonesia will use a mix of 3.3 GHz spectrum to provide access to a network,
and other frequencies.
typicall. Typically Wi-Fi is used by an end
user to access their own network, which
may or may not be connected to the
Internet.
QoS mechanisms: WiMAX uses a

mechanism based on setting up
Global System for Mobile communications

GSM: originally from Groupe Spcial Mobile
GSM / UMTS (3GPP) Family
Most popular standard for mobile phones in the world (~82%) 2G
* GSM
international roaming * GPRS
* EDGE (EGPRS)
considered a second generation (2G) mobile phone system o EDGE Evolution
* HSCSD
GSM also pioneered SMS (now supported on other mobile standards) 3G
* UMTS (3GSM)
Frequency bands
* HSPA
Mostly 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. o HSDPA
Canada and USA use 850 and 1900 MHz bands o HSUPA
o HSPA+
400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some Scandinavian countries
* UMTS-TDD
900/1800 Band: o TD-CDMA
o TD-SCDMA
uplink frequency: 890915 MHz, * FOMA
downlink frequency: 935960 MHz. Pre-4G
This 25 MHz bandwidth is subdivided into 124 carrier frequency channels
* UMTS Revision 8
o LTE
Time division multiplexing is used to allow eight full-rate or o HSOPA (Super 3G)
sixteen half-rate speech channels per RF channel.
There are eight radio timeslots (giving eight burst periods) grouped into a TDMA frame.
Half rate channels use alternate frames in the same timeslot. The channel data rate is 270.833
kbit/s, and the frame duration is 4.615 ms.
The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 1 watt in GSM1800/1900.
GSM has used a variety of voice codecs (usually based on linear predictive coding (LPC)) to squeeze
3.1 kHz audio into between 5.6 (half rate) and 13 (full rate) kbit/s.
The modulation used in GSM is Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK). In GMSK, the signal is first
smoothed with a Gaussian low-pass filter prior to being fed to a frequency modulator, which
greatly reduces the interference to neighboring channels (adjacent channel interference).
15
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Application
Maps on the go
Key facts
Global Positioning System (GPS) a fully
functional Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS).
Uses a constellation of at least 24 Medium

Earth Orbit satellites that transmit precise
microwave signals, the system enables a GPS
receiver to determine its location, speed,
direction, and time.
Other similar systems are the Russian

GLONASS (incomplete as of 2007), the
upcoming European Galileo positioning system,
the proposed COMPASS navigation system of
China, and IRNSS of India.
Following the shoot-down of Korean Air Lines

Flight 007 in 1983, GPS has been made
available for public use, become a widely used
aid to navigation worldwide, and a useful tool
for map-making, land surveying, commerce,
and scientific uses.
GPS also provides a precise time reference

used in many applications including scientific
study of earthquakes, and synchronization of
telecommunications networks.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System
GPS
Frequencies used by GPS include
L1 (1575.42 MHz):
Mix of Navigation Message, coarse-acquisition (C/A) code and encrypted precision P(Y) code, plus the new
L1C on future Block III satellites.
L2 (1227.60 MHz):
P(Y) code, plus the new L2C code on the Block IIR-M and newer satellites.
L3 (1381.05 MHz):
Used by the Nuclear Detonation (NUDET) Detection System Payload (NDS) to signal detection of nuclear
detonations and other high-energy infrared events. Used to enforce nuclear test ban treaties.
L4 (1379.913 MHz):
Being studied for additional ionospheric correction.
L5 (1176.45 MHz):
Proposed for use as a civilian safety-of-life (SoL) signal (planned for 2008)
16
Direct broadcast satellite (DBS)
DBS refers to satellite television broadcasts intended for home reception, also
referred to as direct-to-home signals.
DTH refers to services carried by lower power satellites which required larger
dishes (1.7m diameter or greater) for reception.
DBS typically requires smaller (0.9m dishes). Uses higher powered satellites
The term DBS now covers both analog and digital television and radio reception, and
is often extended to other services provided by modern digital television systems,
including video-on-demand and interactive features.
Modern satellite providers in the United States use high power Ku-band
transmissions using circular polarization, which result in small dishes, and digital
compression (hence bringing in an alternative term, Digital Satellite System)
European Ku band DBS systems operate > 10.7 GHz.
DD Direct Plus is a free Direct to Home (DTH) service that provides satellite
television and audio programming, owned by Doordarshan.
Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS)

LMDS is a broadband wireless access technology governed by the IEEE and is
outlined by the 802 LAN/MAN Standards Committee through the efforts of the
IEEE 802.16.1 Task Group.
LMDS commonly operates on microwave frequencies across the 26GHz and 29GHz
bands. In the United States, frequencies from 31.0 through 31.3 GHz are also
considered LMDS frequencies.
LMDS was conceived as a broadband, fixed wireless, point-to-multipoint technology

for utilization in the last mile.
Throughput capacity and reliable distance of the link depends on common radio link
constraints and the modulation method used - either phase-shift keying or
amplitude modulation. In general deployment links of up to 5 miles (8 km) from the
base station are possible, but distance is typically limited to about 1.5 miles due to
rain fading attenuation constraints.
Point-to-point systems are also capable of using the LMDS frequencies and can
reach slightly farther distances due to increased antenna gain.
17
RF ID
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is an automatic identification method, relying on storing and remotely retrieving data using devices
called RFID tags or transponders.
An RFID tag is an object that can be applied to or incorporated into a product, animal, or person for the purpose of identification using
radio waves.
Some tags can be read from several meters away and beyond the line of sight of the reader.
Most RFID tags contain at least two parts.

One is an integrated circuit for storing and processing information, modulating and demodulating a (RF) signal and can also be used for other
specialized functions.
The second is an antenna for receiving and transmitting the signal.
A technology called chipless RFID allows for discrete identification of tags without an integrated circuit,
thereby allowing tags to be printed directly onto assets at lower cost than traditional tags.
RFID use is in
enterprise supply chain management,
improving the efficiency of inventory tracking and management.
Types
Passive tags require no internal power source, thus being pure passive devices (they are only active when a reader is nearby to power them). To
communicate, tags respond to queries generating signals that must not create interference with the readers, as arriving signals can be very weak
and must be told apart. Backscattering (far field) or load modulation (near field) techniques can be used to manipulate the reader's field.
Active RFID tags have their own internal power source, which is used to power IC and broadcast the signal to the reader. Active tags are
typically much more reliable than passive tags due to their ability to conduct a "session" with a reader. Active tags transmit at higher power
levels than passive tags, allowing them to be more effective in "RF challenged" environments like water, metal or at longer distances, generating
strong responses from weak requests. They are generally bigger and more expensive to manufacture, and their potential shelf life is much
shorter. Many active tags have practical ranges of hundreds of meters, and a battery life of up to 10 years.
Semi-passive tags are similar to active tags in that they have their own power source, but the battery only powers the microchip and does not
broadcast a signal. The RF energy is reflected back to the reader like a passive tag. An alternative use for the battery is to store energy from
the reader to emit a response in the future, usually by means of backscattering. The battery-assisted receive circuitry of semi-passive tags
lead to greater sensitivity than passive tags, typically 100 times more. Semi-passive tags have three main advantages 1) Greater sensitivity than
passive tags 2) Better battery life than active tags. 3) Can perform active functions (such as temperature logging) under its own power, even
when no reader is present
Typical Communication System
Nguen et al, 1998 IEEE
18
Selection of frequencies:
Atmospheric attenuation
http://www.microwaves101.com/encyclopedia/frequency.cfm
Some useful bands

System Frequency range
RFID systems 125 to 134 kHz
13.56 MHz
UHF (400 to 930 MHz)
2.45 GHz 5.8 GHz
FM radio 88 to 108 MHz
Broadcast television, channels 7-13 174 to 220 MHz
Remote keyless entry (RKE) systems, tire 315 or 433 MHz
pressure monitoring systems (TPMS)
UHF television (channels 14-83) 470 to 890 MHz
Cell phones (GSM) 824 to 960 MHz
1710 to 1990 MHz
Industrial, medical & scientific (ISM) band 902 to 928 MHz
2400 to 2483.5 MHz
5.725 to 5.85 GHz
Global positioning system (GPS) 1227.6 MHz (L2 band, 20 MHz wide) 1575.42
MHz (L1 band, 20 MHz wide)
Shared wireless data protocols (Bluetooth, 2402 to 2495 MHz
802.11b):
Microwave ovens 2450 MHz
Satellite radio downlink 2330 to 2345 MHz
802.11a wireless local area network (WLAN) 5.15 to 5.25 GHz (lower band) 5.25 to 5.35
GHz (middle band) 5.725 to 5.825 (upper
band)
Direct broadcast satellite TV downlink 11.7 to 12.5 GHz
(Europe)
Automotive radar, distance sensors 24 GHz
4G (fourth generation wireless) 59 to 64 GHz (U.S. general wireless)
65 to 66 GHz (Europe, mobile broadband)
Automotive radar, adaptive cruise control 76 to 77 GHz E-band
76 GHz, 81 to 86 GHz and 92 to 95 GHz
http://www.microwaves101.com/encyclopedia/frequency.cfm
19
Overview
What is electromagnetics
A bit of history
Early Indian contributions
Electromagnetic field theory

Maxwell Equations
In the beginning
Electromagnetics started with the experimental observations of
(i) forces between electric charges;
(ii) forces between conductors carrying electric currents
www.eie.polyu.edu.hk/~em/em05pdf/1%20Transmission%20Line.pdf
20
What is Electromagnetics
An electromagnetic (EM) field is generated when charged particles, such
as electrons, are accelerated.
All electrically charged particles are surrounded by electric fields.
Charged particles in motion produce magnetic fields.
When the velocity of a charged particle changes, an EM field is produced.
EM fields are typically generated by an AC current in electrical conductors.
Electromagnetic fields were first discovered in the 19th century
Physicists noticed that electric arcs (sparks) could be reproduced at a

distance, with no connecting wires in between.
to communicate over long distances without wires.
The first radio transmitters made use of electric arcs.
The beginning of WIRELESS COMMUNICATION.
http://searchsmb.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid44_gci212055,00.html
Electromagnetic Radiations
Electromagnetic radiation is a stream of photons (massless particles traveling in a
wave-like pattern) moving at the speed of light.
Each photon contains a certain amount (or bundle) of energy.
The only difference between the various types of electromagnetic radiation is the
amount of energy found in the photons.
Radio waves have photons with low energies, and gamma-rays are the most energetic.
http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/emspectrum.html
21
Representation of EM Radiations
The electromagnetic spectrum can be expressed in terms of energy,
wavelength, or frequency.
Frequency is measured in cycles per second (which is called a Hertz),
Wavelength is measured in meters,
Energy is measured in electron volts
Each way of thinking about the EM spectrum is related to the others in a

precise mathematical way.
Use whichever units are easiest

Radio/microwave: use wavelengths [m/cm/mm] or frequencies [kHz/MHz/GHz]
Infrared/optical: use wavelength [um/nm]
ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma-ray: energies [eV]

lengths have become too tiny to think about any more.
Ultraviolet radiation: a few electron volts (eV) to a about 100 eV.
X-ray photons have energies in the range 100 eV to 100,000 eV (or 100 keV).
Gamma-rays: photons with energies greater than 100 keV
Bit of History
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) Boston. In the 1740's electricity was a fashionable
subject, Franklin began to investigate electrical phenomena. Franklin invented
many terms still used in discussing electricity (positive, negative, battery,
conductor, etc.)
This triboelectric machine is based on a rotating glass sphere rubbing against a
silk cloth. Charge is the transferred to a metallic sphere on the other side.
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806), French military civil engineer. He discovered that

the torsion characteristics of long fibers made them ideal for the sensitive measurement of
magnetic and electric forces. He was familiar with Newton's inverse-square law and in the
period 1785-1791 he showed that electrostatic forces obey the same rule.
Luigi Galvani (1737-1798) Italian physician who, in the 1770's, began to investigate the
nature and effects of electricity in animal tissue and of muscular stimulation by electrical
means. In 1786, he obtained muscular contractions in a frog by touching its nerves with a
pair of scissors during an electrical storm.
Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta (1745-1827) a professor at the University of
Pisa. Volta began experimenting in 1794 with metals and found that currnet can be produced
using. His invention and demonstration of the electric battery in 1800 provided the first
continuous electric power source
These history pages and photos are from http://www.ece.umd.edu/~taylor/frame1.htm

22
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827) A letter on the principles of mechanics written to d'Alembert gained him
a professorship at the cole Militaire. His discovery that the attractive force of a mass upon a particle
could be obtained directly by differentiating a single potential function laid the mathematical foundation
for the analysis of heat, magnetism, and electricity.
Simon-Denis Poisson (1781-1849) In Paris at the cole Polytechnique, Laplace and Lagrange were his
instructors, and lifelong friends. Poisson's work concerned the application of mathematics to electricity
and magnetism, and other areas of physics.
Hans Christian rsted (1777-1851), a professor at the University of Copenhagen. In 1820 he was
performing a classroom demonstration of the heating effect of electric currents when he observed the
deflection of a nearby compass. He discovered a connection between electricity and magnetism.
Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854) German physicist. Discovered the law that the
current flow through a conductor is proportional to the voltage and inversely
proportional to the resistance.
Current flowing through the metal bar in the center cylinder deflects a magnetized
needle suspended above it. The deflection angle is proportional to the current. The
source of electric potential is a thermocouple. The ends of the thermocouple are
heated by steam and cooled by ice-water in the small containers on the tripods.
George Green (1793-1841) In 1828 he privately published "An Essay on the Application of Mathematical
Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism" in which he extended the work of Poisson to obtain
a general method of solution for the potential.

Andr-Marie Ampre (1775-1836) He had flashes of inspiration which he would pursue to

their conclusion. After rsted's discovery in 1820 that a magnetic needle is deflected by a
varying nearby current, he worked on the theory of this phenomenon, formulating the law of
electromagnetism (Ampre's law) that describes mathematically the magnetic force between
two circuits.
Jean-Baptiste Biot (1774-1862) along with Flix Savart formulated the Biot-Savart law of
magnetic fields. In 1804 he took part in the first balloon ascension for scientific research
and showed that the terrestrial magnetic field does not vary appreciably with altitude.
Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1788-1827) He became involved in optics and pioneered in

establishing the wave theory of light.
The wave theory of light led Fresnel into the Fresnel mirrors (canted to produce an interference pattern),
the Fresnel rhomb (produces elliptical polarization using internal reflection), and the Fresnel lens, which
uses a stepped geometry to produce focussing.
Fresnel lenses are used in automobile headlights and large glass Fresnel lenses are used in lighthouses
and have been instrumental in the prevention of shipwrecks.

23
Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) overturned the theories and methods of 18th-century
mathematics. Beginning in 1830, Gauss worked closely with Weber. They organized a
worldwide system of stations for systematic observations of terrestrial magnetism. The
most important result of their work in electromagnetism was the development, by others, of
telegraphy.
Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804-1891), a German physicist, who with his friend Gauss
investigated terrestrial magnetism, also established a system of absolute electrical units.
His work on the ratio between the electrodynamic and electrostatic units was crucial to
Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light.
Michael Faraday (1791-1867) London. Faraday began as Davy's laboratory

assistant. Faraday became the greatest experimentalist in electricity and
magnetism of the 19th century. He produced an apparatus that was the
first electric motor and in 1831 he succeeded in showing that a magnet
could induce electricity.
The first transformer: The voltage induced in a coil moving

Two coils wound on an iron toroid. through a non-uniform magnetic field
was demonstrated by this apparatus.
As the coil is removed from the field
of the bar magnets, the coil circuit is
broken and a spark is observed at the
gap.
Joseph Henry (1799-1878) Albany, New York. He worked to improve

electromagnets and was the first to superimpose coils of wire
wrapped on an iron core. In 1830 he observed electromagnetic
induction, a year before Faraday.
Heinrich F.E. Lenz (1804-1865), Estonia (then in Russia). He was a professor at the
University of St. Petersburg who carried out many experiments following the initiatives of
Faraday. He is memorialized by the law which bears his name - the electrodynamic action of
an induced current equally opposes the machanical inducing action- which was later
recognized to be an expression of the conservation of energy.
Samuel F.B. Morse (1791-1872), He conceived the electric telegraph and made the first
working model in 1835.
Ernst Werner von Siemens (1816-1892) Prussia. He began chemistry experiments that led to
his invention of the first electroplating system. In 1837 he invented improvements in the
development of early telegraphic systems.
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1824-1907), at the University of Glasgow. Thomson is most
famous for his work in thermodynamics, but his theoretical analysis of cable transmission
and his inventions (1854-1858) made the transatlantic cable possible.

24
James Prescott Joule (1818-1889), studied at Manchester under Dalton. At age twenty-one
he published the "I2R" law. Two years later, he published the first determination of the
mechanical equivalent of heat. He became a collaborator with Thomson and they discovered
that the temperature of an expanding gas falls. The "Joule-Thomson effect" was the basis
for the large refrigeration plants constructed in the 19th century.
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887), German, At the age of 21, he presented laws which
allow calculation of the currents, voltages, and resistances of electrical networks. In further
studies he demonstrated that current flows through a conductor at the speed of light. His
other work established the technique of spectrum analysis which he applied to determine
the composition of the Sun.
George Gabriel Stokes (1819-1903) British physicist and mathematician famous for a basic
theorem of vector analysis. Stokes was the first to suggest the reason for the Fraunhofer
lines.
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) Edinburgh. He is ranked with Newton and Einstein for the
fundamental nature of his many contributions to physics. Most importantly, he originated
the concept of electromagnetic radiation and his field equations (1873) led to Einstein's
special theory of relativity.
John William Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) (1842-1919), He is most famous for his discovery of
Argon and his work in acoustics. He worked on the precision determination of electrical
standards and his work on the scattering of light explained the blue color of the sky.

John Henry Poynting (1852-1914), one of Maxwell's students, He published papers which
showed that energy flow can be expressed in a simple formula using the electric and
magnetic fields.
Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) was a Scottish-born American audiologist. He is famous

for his invention of the telephone.
Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) came to the U.S. from Austria-Hungary. Tesla held more than 700
patents. His inventions included the principle of the rotating magnetic field machine, the
induction motor, polyphase alternating-current systems, the Tesla coil transformer, wireless
communication, radio, and fluorescent lights.
George Westinghouse (1846-1914) was the inventor and industrialist who fought for the
adoption of ac electric power in the U. S. Westinghouse purchased transformers and an ac
generator in Europe and set up an ac power system in Pittsburgh. He bought Tesla's ac
motor patents and hired Tesla to adapt the motor for use in his power system.
Charles Proteus Steinmetz (1865-1923) His work at GE on hysteresis loss, ac circuit theory,
and high power discharges provided the basis for the progress in ac circuits at the turn of
the century.
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1847-1894) was the first to broadcast and receive radio waves. He
produced electromagnetic waves in the laboratory and measured their wavelength and
velocity. He showed that the nature of their reflection and refraction was the same as those
of light, confirming that light waves are electromagnetic radiation obeying the Maxwell
equations.
25
Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) Italian physicist who obtained a patent for a successful
system of radio telegraphy (1896) and remained a leader in radio technology for four
decades. In 1909 he received the Nobel Prize for Physics. Marconi succeeded in receiving
signals transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean despite the curvature of the Earth. This was
the start of the vast development of radio communication and broadcasting.
Aleksandr Stepanovich Popov (1859-1906) is acclaimed in Russia as the inventor of radio.

Learning of Hertz's work, in 1895 Popov constructed an apparatus that could register
electrical disturbances due to lightning, and then suggested that it could be used for
receiving man-made signals. In 1896, he demonstrated the transmission of radio wave
signals between different parts of the University of St. Petersburg.
Albert Abraham Michelson (1852-1931) German-born U.S. physicist who established the
speed of light as a fundamental constant. He received the 1907 Nobel Prize for Physics.
Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925), He introduced the operational calculus (Laplace transforms) to

study transient currents in networks and theoretical aspects of problems in electrical
transmission. In 1902, Heaviside theorized that a conducting layer of the atmosphere existed
that allows radio waves to follow the Earth's curvature.
Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1853-1928), University of Leiden, sought to explain the origin of
light by the oscillations of charged particles inside atoms. Under this assumption, a strong
magnetic field would affect the wavelength. Lorentz arrived at the formulas known as the
Lorentz transformations to describe the relation of mass, length and time for a moving body.
These equations form the basis for Einstein's special theory of relativity.
http://www.webindia123.com/personal/scientist/bose.htm
Jagadish Chandra Bose was one of the pioneers of modern science in

India. His research was on the properties of electro-magnetic waves.
His major achievement was to demonstrate the similarity of responses
to stimulation among the living and the nonliving as well as the
fundamental similarity of responses in plant and animal tissues.
Bose believed that by focusing on the boundaries between different

physical and biological sciences, he would be able to demonstrate the
underlying unity of all things. Bose's biological researches were
founded initially by the discovery that an electric receiver seems to
show science of fatigue after continued use. He can rightly be called
the inventor of wireless telegraphy. Bose was the first in the world to
fabricate and demonstrate in public (1895) the device that generated
microwaves-radio waves of very short wave length. But his invention
was not patented before Guglielmo Marconi (1896) who became
internationally recognised as the inventor.
An appreciation of J.C. Bose's pioneering work in millimeter waves
Sarkar, T.K.; Sengupta, D.L.; IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, IEEE
Vol 39, Oct. 1997 pp 55 - 62
26
Electrostatic Fields
Produced by static charge distribution
Common example: Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
Other examples
Electric power transmission, X-ray machines, lightning protection
Components and active devices in solid state electronics
Touchpads, LCDs, printers
Electrodeposition, electrochemical machining,
Vacuum tubes
ECG, EEG, ..
Electrostatic Fields
Produced by static charge distribution
Common example: Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
Other examples
Electric power transmission, X-ray machines, lightning protection
Components and active devices in solid state electronics
Touchpads, LCDs, printers
Electrodeposition, electrochemical machining,
Vacuum tubes
ECG, EEG, ..
27
Coulombs Law
Based experimental studies
Formulated by Charles Augustin de Coulomb in 1785
Deals with the force a point charge exerts on another point charge
Point charge means the dimensions of the body are infinitesimal
Units for measuring charge is Coulomb
1 Coulomb is equivalent to approximately 6x1018 electrons

(i.e., electron charge e=-1.6019x10-19C)
Coulombs law states that the force between two point charges Q1 and Q2
is
Along the line joining them
Directly proportional to the product Q1Q2 of the charges
Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them

Q1Q2
F =k
r2
Coulombs Law
Mathematical representation of Coulombs Law
Q1Q2
F =k Q1 Q2
where r2
1
k= Q1 Q2
4 0
As the radius increases, the force is spread over the surface of the sphere
0 is permittivity of free space =8.854x10-12F/m
To include directions:
Q1Q2
F12 = aR
4 0 R 2 12
When more than one charge is present, we use Q0
the principle of superposition to find the net force
Q1
Can be used to calculate the electric field at a point

Q2
In special (symmetrical) situations Gauss law may be easier to apply
Q3
28
Electric Field Intensity
aka Electric field Strength, E
This is the force per unit charge when placed in the electric field
F
E =
Q
Direction of E is along F
Units Newtons/Coulomb or Volts/meter
When multiple point charges are present, the net electric field is the vector sum of individual
contributions
Q0
1 Q1 (r0 r1 ) 1 Q2 (r0 r2 ) 1 Q3 (r0 r3 )
E0 = + +
Q1
4 0 r0 r1 3 4 0 r0 r2 3 4 0 r0 r3 3
Q2
Q3
In many practical problems, charges may be considered distributed continuously along a line,
surface, or volume. The total charge is obtained by integration.
Distributed charge--Line
Line charge distribution
Recall earlier discussion was about point charges
When distributed over a line, we should talk of its density
Typically, is used in charge distribution Similarly one can think of charge

Being a linear distribution; L is used [Coulomb/meter] distributions over a surface or a volume.
L =constant for uniform distribution surface charge density s [C/m2]
In general, L can be a mathematical function volume charge density v [C/m3]
Examples of Line charge distribution
The net charge in these cases may be
Uniform charge distribution obtained by integrating over the surface
z=b area or the volume, as the case may
Let the linear density be L.
be.
Elemental charge is
dQ = L dl As an example, for a surface
distribution in the xy plane, we use
Net charge dS=dxdy
z z=a
Q = L dl In the Cartesian coordinate system
L
b
= L dz BTW, in the cylindrical coordinate
z =a system, the equivalent is
y
dS = d d
xAll right reserved. Non-academic use of information contained here requires permission. As far as possible all external sources are acknowledged. Pl. report any errors.
29
Review of Coordinate Systems
The convention used to define a location in some space.
Defined by an origin and a number of unit vectors.
These unit vectors are usually orthogonal and span the entire space.
This is a system for assigning an n-tuple of numbers or scalars to each

point in an n-dimensional space.
"Scalars", depending on context, can mean real numbers, complex numbers or
elements of some other commutative ring.
Examples of coordinate systems

The Cartesian coordinate system (also called the "rectangular coordinate
system"), which, for three-dimensional flat space, uses three numbers
representing distances.
The polar coordinate systems:

Circular coordinate system (commonly referred to as the polar coordinate system)
represents a point in the plane by an angle and a distance from the origin.
Cylindrical coordinate system represents a point in space by an angle, a distance from the
origin and a height.
Spherical coordinate system represents a point in space with two angles and a distance
from the origin. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_systems
Example for 2-Dimensional Space

Cartesian coordinate System (Rectangular) Polar coordinate System
Coordinates:
P1: (2.6,6.6)
P2: (-5.6,2.3)
P1 P1
P3: (-3.6,-3.6)
P4: (4,-7)
P2 P2
P3 Coordinates: P3
P1: (7,67.5)
P4 P2: (6,157.5) P4
P3: (5,225)
P4: (8,300)
Usual notation: (x, y) Usual notation: (,)
Space: (-<x< , -<y< ) Space: (0 < , 0 <360)
30
Coordinate Transformations
Polar :
Polar to Rectangular Rectangular:
P1: (2.7,6.5) P1: (7,67.5)
x = cos; y = sin P2: (-5.5,2.3) P2: (6,157.5)
P3: (-3.5,-3.5) P3: (5,225)
P4: (4,-6.9)
Rectangular to Polar P4: (8,300)
Polar : Rectangular:
= sqrt(x2+y2); = tan-1(y/x)
P1: (7.1,68.4) P1: (2.6,6.6)
Signs of x and y may be considered to P2: (6,157.7) P2: (-5.6,2.3)
P3: (-3.6,-3.6)
extend to all quadrants P3: (5.1,225) P4: (4,-7)
P4: (8,300)
Without much effort now we can extend these to Cartesian and Cylindrical
coordinate systems for 3D space
z-coordinate has the same meaning in both
Cartesian System notation: (x, y, z) Cylindrical System notation: (,, z)

Space: (-<x< , -<y< , -<z< ) Space: (0 < , 0 <360, -<z< )
Cylindrical Coordinate System

z
When do you use cylindrical systems?
Several problems can have a line symmetry.
For example radiations from a wire (heat,
P (x,y,z)=P(,,z) EM, etc.) In such cases we orient the
coordinate system such that z-axis coincides
with the wire.
z The magnitude radiated energy is
independent of and z. Hence the problem
is easier to solve in the cylindrical system.
This explains why we kept the line charge
distribution along z-axis!
y
x= cos
y= sin
If you assume for a moment that the line charge is distributed along the entire
z axis, the force on a charge or electric field (E) at P would be radial.
x
How do we resolve this (force/field) in terms of rectangular system?
So, to understand the components of the E field at P due to such a charge
distribution, we should know how unit vectors along coordinate directions get
transformed
31
Transformation of Vectors
Since the z-axis has the same
meaning, the unit vector along z is the
same for both systems a
y a

a = ax cos+ ay sin
a = (-)ax sin+ ay cos
We can therefore use the following matrix

approach for transformation of vectors

x
A cos sin 0 Ax
A = sin cos 0 Ay

A z 0 0 1 Az
Or, conversely,
Ax cos sin 0 A
A = sin cos 0 A
y
Az 0 0 1 A z
Spherical coordinate System

Useful in problems having three dimensional symmetry; e.g., radiations from a
point source.
Note that, for a point charge at the origin, the force acting on another such
charge on the surface of a sphere (anywhere) is radial
In such problems spherical coordinate system would be the most useful
z x2 + y2 y
r = x2 + y2 + z2 = tan 1 = tan 1
z x
x = r sin cos y = r sin sin x = r cos
ar
a Ax sin cos cos cos sin Ar
A = sin sin
a y cos sin cos A
Az cos sin 0 A

Ar sin cos sin sin cos Ax

y A = cos cos cos sin sin Ay
A sin cos 0 Az

Coordinate of a point: (r, , )

xAll right reserved.
Space: (0 use
Non-academic r <of , 0 contained
information <180, 0 permission.
here requires <360) As far as possible all external sources are acknowledged. Pl. report any errors.
32
Constant Coordinate Surfaces
Cartesian Cylindrical
x=constant =constant
Y=constant =constant
z=constant z=constant
z
x
Differential elements for Vector Calculus

In Cartesian coordinate System In Cylindrical coordinate System
Differential displacement Differential displacement
d l = dx ax + dy ay + dz az d l = d a + d a + dz az
Differential normal area Differential normal area
dS = dydz ax dS = d dz a
dxdz ay d dz a
dxdy az d d az
Differential volume Differential volume
dv = dxdydz dv = dddz
33
Distributed charge--Line
Line charge distribution
Recall earlier discussion was about point charges
When distributed over a line, we should talk of its density
Typically, is used in charge distribution Similarly one can think of charge

Being a linear distribution; L is used [Coulomb/meter] distributions over a surface or a volume.
L =constant for uniform distribution surface charge density s [C/m2]
In general, L can be a mathematical function volume charge density v [C/m3]
Examples of Line charge distribution
The net charge in these cases may be
Uniform charge distribution obtained by integrating over the surface
z=b area or the volume, as the case may
Let the linear density be L.
be.
Elemental charge is
dQ = L dl As an example, for a surface
distribution in the xy plane, we use
Net charge dS=dxdy
z z=a
Q = L dl In the Cartesian coordinate system
L
b
= L dz BTW, in the cylindrical coordinate
z =a system, the equivalent is
y
dS = d d
xAll right reserved. Non-academic use of information contained here requires permission. As far as possible all external sources are acknowledged. Pl. report any errors.
Electric Potential
We have already used the Coulombs law to determine the force on a charge and hence the
Electric field intensity
This can also be used to determine the Work done in displacing a charge from point A to B
To move this by a small elemental distance d l is

dW = -F.d l = -Q E.d l
Total work done
B
W = Q E d l
A
Potential difference between points A and B is Due to a point
W B charge located at
Solving VAB = = E dl the origin
B Q A
Q
Q E= aR
VAB = a r dra r 4 0 r 2
A
4 0 r 2
Q 1 1
=
4 0 rB rA
= VB VA VA and VB are potentials at A and B
If we start from infinity, Q

V= V is the potential of a point
Note that
4 0 r r
V = E dl

34
Electric Flux Density
For practical reasons, the electric field intensity depends on the medium.
A new quantity is defined which is independent of the medium:

D = 0 E
Electric flux is defined in terms of D:

= D.d S
One line of electric flux emanate from +1C and terminate at -1C
D is called Electric Flux Density
aka Electric Displacement v dv

D= aR
4R 2
Gauss Law
Total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the total charge
enclosed by that surface
= Qenc
LHS : = d = D dS
RHS : Qenc = v dv
D dS = v dv Maxwell Equation
One of the fundamental laws of Electromagnetics
One of Maxwell Equations
Gauss Law is an alternative statement of Coulombs law
Provides easy approach to finding E and D for symmetric charge distributions

r
V = E dl
Also, recalling
for a closed path, E dl = 0

Maxwell Equation for Static EM fields
35
Magnetostatics
Magnetic field is produced by a current, which is a flow of charges.
Fundamental law: Biot-Savarts law
Magnetic field intensity dH produced at a point P by a differential current

element Idl is proportional to the product Idl and the sine of the angle between
the element and the line joining P to the element and is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance R between P and the element.
Idl sin
In terms of distributed current sources, dH =
4R 2
Using vector notation: Idl a R
dH =
4R 2
For distributed current sources Idl a R

such as line current H=
L
4R 2
surface current KdS a R
H=
S
4R 2
volume current Jdv a R
H=
v
4R 2
Analogies in Magnetic Field Quantities
Amperes circuital Law

The line integral of the tangential component of H around a closed path is equal to the
net current enclosed by the path.
H dl = I enc = S J dS Maxwell Equation for Static EM fields

Note that the statement is similar to the Gauss Law in Electrostatics
Similar LHS
Magnetic Flux Density for E field
B = H
= B dS
Magnetic flux S
An isolated magnetic charge does not exist

Maxwell Equation
Therefore, B dS = 0
Similar to
Gauss Law
36
Maxwell Equations
For static fields For time varying fields
s D.dS = v v dv s D.dS = v v dv Gauss Law
s B.dS = 0 s B.dS = 0 No magnetic monopole

L E.dl = 0 L E.dl = t S B.dS Faradays Law
L H.dl = S J.dS D
L H.dl = S J + t .dS Amperes Law (modified)
Maxwell equations summarizes all known laws of electromagnetism, including transient

behaviors
Faradays law to incorporate the electromotive induction
Amperes law to incorporate displacement currents (e.g., during the charging of a capacitor)
Focus on the physical principles rather than the mathematical expressions per se.
Physical Interpretations of MEs

Gauss Law
The net electric flux out of closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed
within the volume
Magnetic analogy
The net magnetic flux out of closed surface is zero, as there are no isolated
magnetic monopoles.
Faradays Law
The electromotive force (emf) induced on a closed loop of conductor is equal to

the negative of the time derivative of the magnetic flux through the area
enclosed by the loop
This equation relates the electric and magnetic fields.
This equation e.g. describes how electric motors and electric generators work.
Amperes Law
The magnetomotive force (mmf) in a closed path is equal to the total of

conduction current and displacement current through the area enclosed by this.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/maxeq.html#c1
37
Constitutive Relations in EM
Constitutive relations for a generalized medium are given by
D = D(E, H, r, , t ) B = B(E, H, r, , t ) J = J (E, r )

Where
P : Dielectric polarization
D: Electric displacement density
M : Magnetic polarization
E: Electric field strength
e : Electric susceptibility
B: Magnetic flux density
m: Magnetic susceptibility
H: Magnetic field strength 0 : Permittivity of free space
r: Position vector of a point in the medium =8.854x10-12 F/m
: angular frequency=2f 0 : Permeability of free space
t: time instant =4x10-7 H/m
For linear, homogeneous isotropic dielectric materials:
D = E = 0 E + P = 0 E + 0 e E = 0 (1 + e ) E
Similarly, for homogeneous linear magnetic materials:

B = H = 0 H + M = 0 H + 0 m H = 0 (1 + m ) H
38

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Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits

ECE Dept, IISc, Bangalore

Other useful references

Reasons for change of title (2008)

New topics added

Why study Electromagnetics

Electromagnetics is relevant in a wide range of topics taught under

Radio, TV, Cellular telephones, Computers, Electric Machinery, Particle

Lightning, Magnets, Light, Radiowaves

Bottom line: It is wise to be fundamentally sound across the breadth of

Many of us study/research because of a burning curiosity about the physical world.

Where is this relevant

To be able to design and analyze electromagnetics-based devices such as antenna systems,

If you Master Electromagnetics

Address a lot research problems of todays world

Process Computational Techniques Device

Components & subsystems

Computers Systems Smaller

Benefits to the Society

Frequency Spectra for Radio

The primary bands jump 10x in every ten years

Mobile phones 1000s MHz

Television 100s MHz

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Unlike audio or optical frequencies

Most devices do not perform as good

Different/ new approaches are required for circuit design

New components are required for miniaturization and/or multi-function capabilities

There can be significant interaction between elements in a system

Typical Design Specifications

Present: High volume, less critical/agile specs

There is a distinctive trend towards multidisciplinary approaches to research

Space based communications

High speed circuits in modern PCs

Many chips are already operating at GHz

Semiconductor Technology leveraging on Mechanical Microsystems

Advancements in Theoretical Studies

Electromagnetic interference and compatibility EMI/EMC

Familiarization of new text books and software tools

Tricks of the technology & thumb rules

Use of Greeks, often for different purposes

Learn RF circuit Design softwares and characterization systems

Explore New/emerging possibilities

Try out some things

Introduction to Maxwell Eqn, Wave eqn, Wave propagation

18-Jan Review of Transmission line Theory, terminated transmission lines

smith chart, impedance matching

25-Jan Microstrip and Coplanar waveguide implementations

microwave network analysis, ABCD-, S-, X-parameters

1-Feb Passive microwave circuits; power dividers

Analysis of 3 and 4 port circuits, couplers etc.

Series and parallel RLC circuits

Design of microwave filters: insertion loss method

22-Feb Microwave filters with Periodic structures

Theory of microwave metamaterials, CRLH Transmission lines; Applications

1-Mar Switching devices and circuits

MEMS technologies and components for RF applications: RF MEMS switches

8-Mar Micromachined varactors, inductors and filters

Power amplifier design, Various classes of power amplifiers

Practice Exercise 9: Use ADS/AWR to design/analyze a LNA 2

Practice Exercise 10: Test and anlysis of LNA 2

29-Mar Oscillators, linear oscillators, tuned oscillators, negative resistance oscillators

Introduction to microwave antennas, definitions and basic principles