Specifications for Design of Highway Subgrades (JTG D30-2004

53
JTG
Trade Standard of the Peoples Republic of China JTG D30-2004
Specifications for Design of

Highway Subgrades
Issued on 4th September, 2004 Implemented on 1st January, 2005
Issued by the Ministry of Communications of

the Peoples Republic of China
53
Trade Standard of the Peoples Republic of China
Specifications for Design of

Highway Subgrades
JTG D30-2004
Compiled by: The Second Highway Survey and Design Institute of the
Ministry of Communications
Approved by: The Ministry of Communications of the Peoples
Republic of China
Date of Implementation: January 1, 2005
The Peoples Communications Press
Year of 2004 Beijing

53
Contents
CONTENTS
1General Rules ...................................................................................................................... 1
2. Technical Terms ................................................................................................................. 3
3. General Subgrade .............................................................................................................. 6
3.1. General Provisions .................................................................................................... 6
3.2. Roadbed .................................................................................................................... 6
3.3. Fill Subgrade ............................................................................................................. 7
3.4. Excavation Subgrade............................................................................................... 11
3.5. Intersection Treatment of Fill and Excavation for Subgrade .................................. 14
3.6. Embankment of High Side Slope and Steep Slope ................................................. 14
3.7. Excavation in High Side Slope ............................................................................... 21
3.8. Rock Fill Embankment ........................................................................................... 26
3.9. Fly Ash Embankment .............................................................................................. 29
3.10. Earth Borrow for Subgrade ..................................................................................... 31
3.11. Subgrade Spoil ........................................................................................................ 31

4. Drainage for Subgrade .................................................................................................... 33
4.1. General Provisions .................................................................................................. 33
4.2. Drainage for Earths Surface ................................................................................... 33
4.3. Underground Drainage ............................................................................................ 36

5. Subgrade Protection and Retaining Structure .............................................................. 39
5.2. Protection for Slope Face ........................................................................................ 40
5.3. Subgrade Protection along Rivers ........................................................................... 44
5.4. Retaining Walls ....................................................................................................... 47
5.5. Side slope Anchoring .............................................................................................. 83

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5.6. Soil Nailing Supporting .......................................................................................... 93
5.7. Slide-resistant Pile................................................................................................... 96

6. Widening and Reconstructing of Highway Subgrade .................................................. 99
6.2. Survey and Evaluation on Existing Subgrade ......................................................... 99
6.3. Widening and Reconstructing of Class 2 and Below Highway Subgrade ............ 101
6.4. Widening and Reconstructing of Existing Subgrade of Expressway and Class 1

Highway .......................................................................................................................... 103
7. Special Subgrade ........................................................................................................... 105
7.1. General Provisions ................................................................................................ 105
7.2. Subgrade in Landslide Region .............................................................................. 105
7.3. Subgrade in Rock Fall and Rock Deposit Regions ............................................... 111
7.4. Subgrade in Debris Flow Area .............................................................................. 113
7.5. Subgrade in Karst Area ......................................................................................... 115
7.6. Subgrade in Soft Soil Area .................................................................................... 118
7.7. Subgrade in Laterite and High Liquid Limit Soil Area ......................................... 127
7.8. Subgrade in Expansive Soil Area .......................................................................... 130
7.9. Subgrade in Loess Area......................................................................................... 134
7.10. Subgrade in Saline Soil Area ................................................................................ 139
7.11. Subgrade in Permafrost Area ................................................................................ 144
7.12. Subgrade in Sand Storm Area ............................................................................... 148
7.13. Subgrades in Snow Hazard Zone .......................................................................... 152
7.14. Subgrade of Saliva Drift-ice Zone ........................................................................ 157
7.15. Subgrade in Goaf Area .......................................................................................... 159
7.16. Subgrade in Coastal Area ...................................................................................... 162
7.17. Subgrade in Reservoir Area .................................................................................. 164

Appendix A Rock Mass Classification of Rocky Side Slope ...................................... 167
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Appendix B Monitoring Contents and Items .............................................................. 170

Appendix C Highway Engineering Classification in Perennially Frozen Soil .......... 172
Appendix D Loess Zoning Map .................................................................................... 174
Appendix E Description of Words in the Specifications: ........................................... 175
Appendix Article Description of Specifications for Design of Highway Subgrade 176
1 General Rules ................................................................................................................. 177
3 General Subgrade .......................................................................................................... 179
4 Drainage for Subgrade .................................................................................................. 199
5 Subgrade Protection and Supporting .......................................................................... 205
6 Extension and Rebuilding of Subgrade ....................................................................... 225
7 Special subgrade ............................................................................................................ 227
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General Rules
1General Rules
1.0.1. The Specifications are made for the aim of unifying the technical standards of
subgrade design in highway engineering and meeting the requirements of safety and
applicability, and economic and reasonable technology in highway subgrade engineering
design.
1.0.2. The Specifications are applicable for the design of newly-built and reconstructed
highway subgrade in various classes.
1.0.3. The subgrade engineering should be with enough strength, stability and durability.
1.0.4. The subgrade design should be carried out in accordance with the requirements on
environmental protection in order to avoid causing geologic hazard and reduce the influence
on ecology environment.
1.0.5. In subgrade design, the engineering geological survey work should be done well,
such as ascertaining the conditions of hydrogeology and engineering geology so as to obtain
the physical mechanics parameters of rock soil required for design.
1.0.6. Comprehensive design should be performed for the subgrade design from some
respects of foundation treatment, filler selection of subgrade, strength and stability of
subgrade, protective engineering, drainage system, and constructive technology in key parts
of subgrade, etc.
1.0.7. The high embankment and deep cutting is suitable to be avoided in the design of
subgrade. When the center fill of subgrade is higher than 20m and the center excavation is
deeper than 30m, the comparison and selection of schemes is suitable to be carried out
preferably combined with the route scheme, the structures such as bridges and tunnels, etc. or
the separated subgrade.
1.0.8. The elevation of subgrade edge in the section immersed or submerged by water
shouldnt be lower than the total height of the water level under the flood frequency designed
for subgrade plus the height of back-water, the wave-affected height and the safe height of
0.5m. The flood frequency designed for subgrade of various-class highways should be in
conformity with the rule in Table 1.0.8.
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Table 1.0.8 Flood Frequency Designed for Subgrade
Highway Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4

Expressway
classification highway highway highway highway
Flood To be
frequency determined
1/100 1/100 1/50 1/25
designed for according to
subgrade actual situation
1.0.9. For the subgrade in the section with poor hydrology and hydrogeology condition, the
minimum designed height of subgrade should not be lower than the critical height of roadbed
in moderate humid state; when the designed elevation of subgrade is limited, the treatment
should be done for the subgrade in humid and over-humid states and the resilience modulus of
earth foundation after treatment shouldnt be less than the requirements in the Specifications
for pavement design.
1.0.10. The method of dynamic design should be applied for design of the embankments
with high side slope in expressway and class 1 highway, steep slope embankment, deep
cutting, landslide and mollisoil subgrade. The dynamic design should be based on the
completed construction drawings and it is applicable for the stage of subgrade construction.
Put forward particular requirements and detective requirements in construction scheme and
grasp the feedback information about the geological status, construction situation &
deformation and detection of stress. The check, modification and supplement should be
performed in the original design if necessary.
1.0.11. The adoption of mature advanced technology, advanced structure, new material and
advanced process should be advocated in the design of subgrade engineering.
1.0.12. In addition to be in conformity with the provisions of the Specifications, the design
of subgrade should comply with the provisions specified in the current concerned national
standards and specifications.
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Technical Terms
2. Technical Terms
2. 1. Subgrade
A ribbon structure, built as per route location and certain technical requirements, is the
foundation of pavement and withstands the traffic load transferred from the pavement.
2.2. Roadbed
It means the part of subgrade within 0.80m under the bottom of the pavement. Its structure
is divided into two layers of upper roadbed (0~0.30m) and lower roadbed (0.30~0.80m).
2.3. Embankment
It means the fill subgrade higher than the existing ground. Its structure is divided into two
parts of upper embankment and lower embankment. The up one is the fill part within
0.80m~1.50m under the bottom of pavement, the lower one is the fill part under the upper
one.
2.4. Cutting
It is the excavation subgrade lower than the existing ground.
2.5. Rock Fill Embankment
It is an embankment filled with the stone material whose grain size is more than 40mm and
content more than 70%.
2.6. California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
It is a kind of index representing the strength of subgrade soil, granular material and
stabilized soil. That is a ratio (expressed as a percentage) of the test load applied onto the
standard test pieces with 2.5mm penetration value to the load applied onto the standard
crushed stone with the same penetration value.
2.7. Degree of Compaction
It is a ratio (expressed as a percentage) of the dry density after compaction of building

material to the maximum standard dry density.
2.8. Height for Design of Subgrade
The height for design of subgrade of newly-built highway is the elevation of the edge of
subgrade. In the section to be super-elevated and widened, that is the elevation of the edge of
subgrade before doing so. The height for design of subgrade of reconstructed highway can be
the same as that of newly-built highway and also can be the height of center line of highway.
For the expressway and class 1 highway where the median separator is set, the height for
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design of subgrade is the height of edge outside the median separator.
2.9. Special Subgrade

It is the subgrade located in the sections with special soil (rock) and unfavorable geology,
or sections greatly affected by natural factors such as water and climate, etc.
2.10. Collapsibility Loess

It is the loess of which the structure of soil mass is damaged so rapidly as to sink after
being soaked with water under dead weight or certain pressure.
2.11. Laterite
It is the maroon silty soil or the clay soil formed by weathering of the carbonic acid rock
under warm and moisture climate conditions.
2.12. High Liquid Limit Soil
It is the fine-grained soil with liquid limit (100g cone test) more than 50%.
2.13. Expansive Soil
It is the clay with high plasticity, which contains hydrophilic mineral and has such
significant characters as expansion after sopping and shrinkage after desiccation.
2.14. Saline Soil
It is the soil that the content of diffluent salt is more than the specified value.
2.15. Permafrost Soil
It is the soil in such frozen situation as the temperature in successive years is less than 0
and ice contained.
2.16. Landslide
It is a phenomenon that the rock mass or the soil mass on the slope slides along terrain or
surface under the influence of nature or human factor.
2.17. Rock Fall
It is a phenomenon that the rock mass or the soil mass on the high-steep slope will break
down, collapse or fall down under the influence of gravity.
2.18. Debris Flow
It is the intermittent torrent with a lot of sediment and stone blocks.
2.19. Karst
It is various geological phenomena and status formed from long-term corrosion of the
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Technical Terms
dissoluble rock stratum by water.
2.20. Retaining Wall
It is a wall type structure to withstand the side pressure of soil mass.
2.21. Slide-resistant Pile
It is a transverse stress pile against the soil pressure or the down-sliding force from
landslide.
2.22. Soil Nailing
It is a support and protective structure to maintain stability of the side slope through setting
the steel bar nail in the side slope with soil or broken and soft rock.
2.23. Prestressed Anchor
It is a support and protective structure that consists of anchor head, prestressed tendon and
anchor body and apply the tensile force to the tendon to reinforce rock and soil mass so as to
get stable status.
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General Subgrade
3. General Subgrade
3.1. General Provisions
3.1.1. Before the design of subgrade, the overall survey should be made and design data
such as geology, hydrology, terrain, topographic feature, meteorology and seism, etc. along
the line collected fully. In design of reconstructed highway, the references on road conditions
in past years and experience on prevention and control the disaster such as frost boiling,
collapse, flood damage, settlement and deformation, etc. for the subgrade also should be
collected.
3.1.2. Depending on local conditions of natural and engineering geological conditions, the
cross section form of subgrade and the gradient of side slope should be selected properly in
design of subgrade. In the section of river valley, the riverbed is occupied unsuitably,
construction and protection engineering can be set up based on the actual situation.
3.1.3. For the fill-and-cut subgrade on steep slope, the protective shoulder, stone masonry
or retaining wall can be applied depending on the terrain and geological conditions; if it isnt
suitable for much excavation because of high and steep hillside or poor stability, the structures
such as bridge and suspended-out platform, etc. can be applied; for the cliff section of class 3
and 4 highways, the half cave can be applied if the rock of mass is in good integrity.
3.1.4. The elevation of subgrade edge along river should comply with the stipulations in
Article 1.0.8 of the Specifications; in addition, the necessary protective facilities according to
the scouring condition are set up. The subgrade spoil earthwork along the river can be
properly treated to avoid the poor results of re-channeling of river or damaging the structure,
farmland and houses, etc. along the line.
3.2. Roadbed
3.2.1. The filler for roadbed should be uniform, compact and in conformity with the
requirements in Table 3.2.1.
Table 3.2.1 Requirements on Minimum Strength and Compaction Degree of

Roadbed Soil
Depth from Minimum strength of filler(CBR)(%) Degree of compaction (%)

bottom of
Item Expressway, Expressway,
pavement Class 2 Class 3 and Class 2 Class 3 and
class1 class1
(m) highway 4 highways highway 4 highways
highway highway
Fill 0~0.3 8 6 5 96 95 94
subgrade 0.3~0.8 5 4 3 96 95 94
Zero fill and 0~0.3 8 6 5 96 95 94
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Specifications for Design of Highway Subgrade (JTG D30-2004)
Depth from Minimum strength of filler(CBR)(%) Degree of compaction (%)

bottom of
Item Expressway, Expressway,
pavement Class 2 Class 3 and Class 2 Class 3 and
class1 class1
(m) highway 4 highways highway 4 highways
highway highway
excavation
0.3~0.8 5 4 3 96 95 /
subgrade
Notes:
The degree of compaction listed in the table is that of maximum dry density
calculated by the method of heavy-duty compaction test stated in Regulations for
Highway Geotechnical Test (JTJ 051).
The degree of compaction in class 3 and 4 highways should comply with the
specified value for class 2 highway when class 3 and 4 highways will be paved and
built with asphalt concrete and cement concrete for the pavement.
3.2.2. The maximum grain size of roadbed filler should be less than 100mm, the cross slope
on the top face of roadbed should comply with that of crown.
3.2.3. According to soil property, precipitation, groundwater type and embedment depth,
resource of reinforcing material, etc., take the reinforcing measures for roadbed consolidation
such as local rolling, replacement of earth or improvement of soil, progressing groundwater
drainage, setting geotechnical composite material, etc. through comparison and selection.
3.3. Fill Subgrade

3.3.1. Selection of Filler
1. It is preferable for the fill subgrade to select and apply coarse-grained soil (such as gravel
and sandy soils with better grade), with maximum grain size less than 150mm.
2. Peat soil, silt, frozen soil, high expansive soil, organic soil and the soil which contain
diffuent salt more than the allowed etc.should not be used directly for filling of subgrade. The
roadbed in frost region and the embankment in the waterlogged part shouldnt be filled with
silty clay directly.
3. For filling with fine-grained soil, the minimum strength of the filler for embankment
should meet the requirements in Table 3.3.1.
Table 3.3.1 Requirements on Minimum Strength of Embankment Filler
Depth below bottom Min. strength of filler(CBR)

Item
of pavement (m) (%)
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General Subgrade
Expressway, Class 2 Class 3 and 4

class 1 highway highway highway
Upper embankment 0.8~1.5 4 3 3
Lower embankment Below 1.5 3 2 2
Notes:
When CBR value of subgrade filler doesnt reach the table requirements, lime or
other stabilizing material can be mixed.
The stipulations applicable for class 2 highway should be applied for paving asphalt
concrete and cement concrete pavement of class 3 and 4 highways.
4The fine-grained soil with liquid limit more than 50% and plasticity index more than 26
couldnt be directly applied as embankment filler.
5. The material with good water-penetration property should be adopted for filling of the
waterlogged embankment. The effect of vibration liquidation should be considered when fine
sand and silty sand adopted as filler.
6. For the abutment back of bridge and culvert as well as the back of retaining wall, the
filler with good water-penetration property should be selected preferably. In the region short
of water-penetration material, the inorganic binders such as lime, cement, fly ash, etc. are
suitable for application and treatment when the fine-grained soil is applied for filling.
3.3.2. Degree of Compaction
The embankment should be paved in layers and uniformly, the degree of compaction
should meet the requirements in Table 3.3.2.
Table 3.3.2 Degree of Compaction for Embankment
Depth below
Degree of compaction (%)
Type of bottom of
Subgrade pavement Expressway,class1 Class 3 and 4
Class 2 highway
(m) highway highway
Upper
0.8~1.5 94 94 93
embankment
Lower
Below 1.50 93 92 90
embankment
Notes:
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The degree of compaction listed in the table is that of maximum dry density
calculated by the method of heavy-duty compaction test stated in the Regulations
for Highway Geotechnical Test (JTJ 051).
The specified value applicable for class 2 highway should be applied for paving
asphalt concrete and cement concrete pavement of class 3 and 4 highways.
If the embankment adopts special filler or in the region with special climate, the
degree of compaction can be lowered properly depending on the tested road
conditions and under the prerequisite to guarantee the requirements of subgrade
strength.
3.3.3. When adopting the fine-grained soil as filler, the water content of soil should be close
to the optimum water content; if the water content is over high, make a treatment through
drying or mixing some lime, cement and fly ash, etc.
3.3.4. The form and gradient of side slope of embankment should be determined according
to the physical and mechanical properties of filler, the height of side slope and engineering
geology conditions.
1When the geological conditions are good and the height of side slope is not more than
20m, the allowable gradient of side slope is not steeper than that stipulated in Table 3.3.4.
Table 3.3.4 Ratio for Side Slope of Embankment
Ratio of side slop

Filler type
Height of upper part (H8m) Height of lower part (H12m)
Fine-grained soil 1:1.5 1:1.75
Coarse-grained soil 1:1.5 1:1.75
Huge-grained soil 1:1.3 1:1.5
2For the embankment whose height of side slope is more than 20m, the form of side slope
is suitable to be the stair type, the ratio of side slope is suitable to be calculated and
determined through analysis of stability according to Section 3.6 in the Specifications.
3For the waterlogged embankment, the ratio of side slope below the designed water level
is not suitable to be steeper than 1:1.75.
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General Subgrade
3.3.5. Treatment for Foundations Surface Course
1. The surface course of foundation on stable slope should be treated as follows:
1) When the cross slope on ground is less than 1:5, the embankment can be filled directly
on natural ground after the turf and muck on the earths surface have been removed.
2) When the cross slope on ground is within 1:5~1:2.5, the existing ground should be
excavated in steps of which the width shouldnt be less than 2m. If there is thin covering layer
on the surface of bedrock, it is suitable to remove the covering layer before excavation of
steps; the thicker and stable overburden layer can be maintained.
2. For the embankment of steep slope where the cross slope on ground is steeper than 1:2.5,
check and calculate the stability for overall embankment to slide along the foundation base
and the soft layer under the foundation base, the coefficient of stability for antiskid couldnt
less than the specified value in Table 3.6.8 of the Specifications. Otherwise, take antiskid
measures such as improving foundation base conditions or setting up retaining structures, etc.
3. In the case of groundwater to affect the stability of embankment, take measures such as
intercepting and draining the groundwater or filling the material with good water-penetration
property on the bottom of embankment.
4. The surface layer of foundation should be well rolled. In general soil section, the degree
of compaction (heavy-duty) of subgrade for expressway, class 1 and 2 highways shouldnt be
less than 90% and that for class 3 and 4 highways shouldnt be less than 85%. When the
height of earth fill for subgrade is less than the total thickness of pavement and roadbed,
over-excavate the soil of surface layer of foundation and backfill it in layers and compact it,
its treated depth shouldnt less than the depth of operating area under the influence of load by
heavy automobile
5. According to the actual situation, for the sections of paddy field, lake and pond, etc., the
measures should be taken for treatment, such as drainage, dredging, drying, replacement of
fill, adding reinforcing bar, mixing with inorganic binder, etc. The treatment measure for soft
soil foundation should be taken as specified in Section 7.6 of the Specifications.
3.3.6. The transitional section should be set in the connection area between embankment
and abutment or transverse structures (culvert and passage) of expressway, class1 and 2
highways, the degree of compaction of subgrade shouldnt be less than 96% while paying
attention to the comprehensive design of filler strength, foundation treatment, protective and
drainage system for abutment back, etc. The length of the transitional section is suitably for
determination as 2~3 times of height for earth fill on subgrade.
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3.3.7. Protective Shoulder Subgrade
Height of protective shoulder isnt more than 2m preferably and the width of top surface
shouldnt occupy the pavement range of hard shoulder or carriageway and marginal strip.
3.3.8. Masonry Stone Subgrade
1Select local rubble and block stone difficult to be weathered for masonry and inside rock
fill; the masonry stone subgrade is not suitable for the section of seriously weathered rock or
soft rock.
2For the masonry stone, the top width isnt less than 0.8m and height not more than 15m
while the bottom of subgrade inclines to the inside. The ratio inside and outside the masonry
stone should not be steeper than the value as specified in Table 3.3.8.
Table 3.3.8 Ratio for Side Slope of Masonry Stone
Height of masonry
No Ratio of inner slope Ratio of outer slope
stone (m)
1 5 1:0.3 1:0.5
2 10 1:0.5 1:0.67
3 15 1:0.6 1:0.75
3.3.9. Toe Protection Subgrade
The toe protection subgrade can be used when fill subgrade is limited by terrain and
structure or the subgrade has short stability. Height of toe protection isnt more than 5m, the
toe protection of embankment immersed by water should be protected or reinforced.
3.4. Excavation Subgrade
3.4.1. Soil Cutting
1According to the engineering geology and hydrology geological conditions, the height of
side slope, drainage measure and construction method, the form and ratio of side slope of soil
cutting are comprehensively determined, combined with survey on stable naturally-stabilized
hillside and man-made side slope and mechanical analysis,.
If the height of side slope isnt more than 20m, the form and ratio of the side slope isnt
more than the value as specified in Table 3.4.1.
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General Subgrade
2When the height of side slope for cutting is more than 20m, the form and ratio of its side
slope should be determined as specified in Section 3.7 of the Specifications.
Table 3.4.1 Ratio of Side Slope for Soil Cutting
Classification of soil Ratio of side slope

Clayey soil, powdery clay, powdery soil with plasticity index more
1:1
than 3
Medium sand, coarse sand and gravel sand, above medium density 1:1.5
Cobble soil, soil aggregate, round Cementation and denseness 1:0.75

gravel soil, angular gravel soil Medium density 1:1
Note: For special soil such as loess, laterite, high liquid limit soil and expansive soil, the
form and gradient of excavation side slope should be determined as relevant requirements in
Chapter 7 of the Specifications.
3.4.2. Rocky Cutting
1According to the engineering geology and hydrology geological conditions, the height of
side slope, construction method, combined with survey on naturally-stabilized side slope and
man-made side slope, comprehensively determine the form and gradient of side slope of
rocky cutting. Checking and calculation can be done by the method of stable analysis if
necessary.
If the height of side slope isnt more than 30m, for the side slope without extroversive and
soft structural plane, the type of rock mass should be determined according to Appendix A,
while the ratio of side slope can be determined as Table 3.4.2.
Table 3.4.2 Ratio of Side Slope for Rocky Cutting
Type of rock mass for Ratio of side slope

Degree of weathering
side slope H<15m 15mH<30m
Fresh, Slightly weathered 1:0.1~1:0.3 1:0.1~1:0.3
Type I
Moderately weathered 1:0.1~1:0.3 1:0.3~1:0.5
Fresh, Slightly weathered 1:0.1~1:0.3 1:0.3~1:0.5
Type II
Moderately weathered 1:0.3~1:0.5 1:0.5~1:0.75
Fresh, Slightly weathered 1:0.3~1:0.5
Type III
Moderately weathered 1:0.5~1:0.75
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Moderately weathered 1:0.5~1:1

Type IV
Extremely weathered 1:0.75~1:1
Notes:
It will not be limited by this table when there are reliable references and experiences;
Type IV Extremely weathered includes extreme soft rock of various degrees of
weathering.
2For the rock side slope with extroversive and soft structural plane, the side slope where
larger load is near the edge of top slope and the side slope height exceeds the range specified
in Table 3.4.2, the gradients of them should be calculated and determined through analysis on
stability according to relevant stipulations in Section 3.7 of the Specifications.
3It is suitable for excavation subgrade of hard rock to apply the technology of smooth
plane, pre-split blasting.
4It is suitable for the soft and loose rocky cutting with side slope height more than 20m to
apply the technology of excavation in layers, protection in layers and pre-reinforcing of toe of
slope.
3.4.3. The higher excavation side slope can be excavated as fold type or step type side slope
according to various soils, rock properties and requirements on stability, for the outside of
side ditch, a debris-dropping platform should be set, its width isnt less than 1.0m; a side slope
platform should be set in the middle of step type slope and its width isnt less than 2m.
3.4.4. The surface drainage system should be set on the top, face and toe of side slope, as well
as the mid platform of side slope, the structural dimension of various drainage facilities on
ground surface should be determined according to Section 4.2 in the Specifications.
3.4.5. In case there is water collection wetland on side slope, groundwater seeped or emerged,
according to actual situation, set the underground seepage ditch and side slope seepage ditch
or set oblique-upward type drainage holes, or set such draining and leading facilities as
drainage tunnel to hold up the groundwater along the direction perpendicular to the flow
direction of groundwater in the upper reaches.
3.4.6. The protection form for the surface of side slope should be determined according to the
stability of side slope and the surrounding environment. Side slope protection should be in
combination of engineering protection and plant protection, set up the comprehensive support
and retaining works for the side slope with poor stability. It should be preferable to take the
protection measure beneficial to ecological environment conservation if possible.
3.4.7. When the height of soil excavation side slope is more than 20m, the height of rock one
is more than 30m and the cutting side slope is in the section with poor geology, individual
design for treatment of the side slope with high subgrade should be performed according to
53
General Subgrade
the relevant stipulations in Section 3.7 of the Specifications.
3.5. Intersection Treatment of Fill and Excavation for Subgrade
3.5.1. The fill area in fill-and-cut subgrade should comply with the relevant stipulations in
Sections 3.3 and 3.6 in the Specifications. If necessary, apply impact rolling or strong
compacting, etc. for reinforcing pressure in order to eliminate the different deformation
between fill and excavation for subgrade.
3.5.2. The excavation area in fill-and-cut subgrade should comply with the relevant
stipulations in Sections 3.4 and 3.7 of the Specifications.
3.5.3. The filler for fill-and-cut subgrade should be designed comprehensively. For the soil
excavation area, preferably apply the material with good water penetration for filling,
meanwhile, the soil mass within 0.80m of roadbed in excavation area should be over
excavated and backfilled and rolled, and the geogrid should be laid down in the range of
roadbed at the intersection area of fill and excavation; for the excavation area with hard rock,
apply rock fill embankment suitably.
3.5.4. When the slope on the earths surface is steeper than 1:2.5, analyze the stability of
subgrade between fill and excavation, with minimum stability safety coefficient not less than
the value specified in Table 3.6.8. For the subgrade without enough stability, set the retaining
works below the side slope of embankment according to the terrain and geological conditions.
3.5.5. According to the exposure of groundwater and properties of rock soil, set a perfect
underground drainage system, the transverse or longitudinal seepage ditches between fill and
excavation should be also arranged besides the longitudinal seepage ditch under side slope.
3.5.6. For the intersection area of longitudinal fill and excavation, a transitional section should
be set up. For the transitional section with soil, apply gravel soil, sandy soil and broken stone
with better grade for filling; for the transitional section with rock, apply the rock fill
embankment.
3.6. Embankment of High Side Slope and Steep Slope
3.6.1. The principle of comprehensive design and dynamic design should be carried out in
design for embankments of high side slope and steep slope. Based on full knowing of the
hydrogeological conditions on site, the filler resource and properties, comprehensively design
embankment section, drainage facilities, protection of side slope, treatment of foundation and
embankment body, etc. Adjust the design in time to ensure the stability of embankment when
the actual situation has changed.
3.6.2. For the embankments where side slope is higher than 20m, the ratio of slope in the
53
ground is steeper than 1:2.5, and poor geology and special section exist, the individual survey
and design should be made. Monitor the stability of the important embankment.
3.6.3. Through survey on the foundation of embankment of high side slope and steep slope,
find soil classification, layer position, thickness, distribution character, physical and
mechanics property of foundation soil, confirm the covered depth and distribution character of
groundwater, load capacity of foundation soil, and obtain physical and mechanics index
required by design. The geological survey for the works should be conducted according to
Specifications for Geological Survey on Highway Engineering (JTJ 064).
3.6.4. The subgrade filler should be complied with Sections 3.2.1 and 3.3.1 in the
Specifications, the degree of compaction for embankment should be complied with Sections
3.2.1 and 3.3.2. If necessary, apply impact rolling or forced ramming for reinforcing pressure
in order to eliminate the different deformation of high embankment.
3.6.5. The high embankment side slope form and ratio should be determined via stable
calculation and engineering experience analysis according to the physical mechanical
property of filler, height of side slope, vehicle load and engineering geologic condition, etc.
The high embankment section form properly adopts the step type. Additionally set up
intercepting ditch on the platform in the area with more precipitation.
3.6.6. For the strength data of stability analysis of high embankment, select and take typical
soil sample for indoor test according to filler site and ascertain it with the site situation.
1The strength data c and of embankment earth fill should be obtained through straight
shear and rapid shear or triaxial shear test without drainage. For the requirements on sample
preparation and test methods applied for stability analysis in separate stage, refer to Table
3.6.6. The embankment filler served by coarse-grained soil or rock material should be tested
by large size triaxial test device.
Table 3.6.6 Strength Index for Embankment Earth Fill
Period Calculation Applied

Start status
of stable method of Soil type Test method strength Remarks
of test sample
control strength index
For water content
and density at
Penetration Straight filling, if its not
coefficient shear easy to get it, or
Period of Total stress less than rapid shearand when carrying
10-7cm/s cu, u
construction method out preliminary
analysis on
stability, the
Any Triaxial density should
penetration shear apply one
53
General Subgrade
Period Calculation Applied

Start status
of stable method of Soil type Test method strength Remarks
of test sample
control strength index
coefficient without required to be
drainage reached, the
water content
should be the
higher water
content
corresponding to
the density
required in the
compaction
curve.
Straight
Penetration shear,
coefficient consolidation
less than and Applied to
rapid
10-7cm/s analysis on
shear
ccu, cu The same as stability for
Triaxial above newly-built
Any consolidation embankment
penetration shear
coefficient without
drainage
Penetration Straight Applied to
coefficient shear analysis on
Period of Total stress less than rapid shearand stability for
10-7cm/s The same as
operation method cu, cu above, but should superficial
be pre-saturated. layer
Triaxial of side
Any slope of
shear
penetration without newly-built
coefficient drainage embankment
Penetration Straight
coefficient shear
less than rapid shearand Applied to
-7
10 cm/s analysis on
Take existing soil stability of
cu, u of embankment built
Triaxial
Any shear embankment
penetration without
coefficient drainage
2When analyzing the stability of high embankment, the strength data c and of
foundation should be obtained through test method of straight shear consolidation, rapid shear
or triaxial consolidation shear without drainage.
3For analysis of foundation of embankment along the slope or slide stability in soft weak
layer, in combination with the site conditions, select the earth layer among the controlled
bedding surface to test and obtain the strength data c and through test method of straight
shear and rapid shear or three-axle shear without consolidation and drainage. When the
groundwater possibly exists, use the water-saturated test piece for test.
3.6.7. Analysis on the embankment stability involves the stability of embankment body,
stability of overall of embankment and foundation, slide stability of embankment along the
53
slopes foundation or soft weak ply zone.
1The stability of embankment body and the integral stability of embankment and
foundation stability of embankment body, the overall stability of embankment and foundation
should be analyzed and calculated by the simplified Bishop method. The safety factor of
stability (Fs) should be calculated by Formula (3.6.7-1), this calculation is shown in Figure
3.6.7-1.
Figure 3.6.7-1 Schematic Diagram for Calculation by Simplified Bishop Method
(3.6.7-1)
In which: Wi -- Weight of No i soil bar;
ai -- Dip angle of the soil slickenside on the bottom of No i soil bar;
Qi -- External force in perpendicularity direction for No i soil bar;
Ki -- Coefficient, calculated respectively as (3.6.7-2) and (3.6.7-3) from the

position of slide arc of soil bar.
When the slide arc of No i soil bar locates in foundation:
(3.6.7-2)
53
General Subgrade
In which: Wdi -- Weight of foundation part of No i soil bar;
Wti -- Weight of embankment part of No i soil bar;
bi -- Width of No i soil bar;
U -- Average consolidation degree for foundation;
cdi, di -- Cohesion and internal friction angle of earth layer in foundation where the
slide arc of No i soil bar locates;
mai -- Coefficient, calculated from Formula (3.6.7-4).
When the slide arc of No i soil bar locates in embankment:
(3.6.7-3)
In which: cti, ti -- Cohesion and internal friction angle of earth layer in embankment where
the slide arc of No i soil bar locates;
For other symbols, the meaning is the same as that above mentioned.
(3.6.7-4)
In which: i -- Internal friction angle of earth layer where the slide arc of No i soil bar
locates, take the internal friction angle of earth layer in foundation when the
slide arc locates in foundation and take that of embankment when it locates
in the embankment.
For other symbols, the meaning is the same as that above mentioned.
2The slide stability of embankment along the slopes foundation or soft weak layer should
be analyzed and calculated by the method of unbalance propulsion force. The safety factor of
stability (Fs) should be calculated with Formulas (3.6.7-5) and (3.6.7-6), this calculation is
shown in Figure 3.6.7-2.
53
Figure 3.6.7-2 Schematic Diagram for Calculation by Method of

Unbalance Propulsion Force
(3.6.7-5)
(3.6.7-6)
In which: WQi -- Total of weight of No i soil bar plus load in vertical direction;
ai-1, ai -- Dip angle of the soil slickenside on the bottom of No i soil bar;
ci, i -- Cohesion and internal friction angle on the bottom of No i soil bar;
li -- Length of the soil slickenside on the bottom of No i soil bar;
Ei-1 -- Down-slide force transferred from No i-1 soil bar to No i soil bar.
The safety factor of stability (Fs) should be determined in the way calculating with
Formulas (3.6.7-5) and (3.6.7-6) soil bar by soil bar until the residual propulsion force of No n
soil bar becomes zero.
3.6.8. The safety factor of stability obtained from calculation and analysis of embankment
stability should not be less than the value listed in Table 3.6.8.
53
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Table 3.6.8 Stability Safety Factor Recommended

Average consolidation
Stability
Calculation Foundation degree and strength index
Analysis content safety
method states of foundation for
factor
calculation
Simplified Bishop
Stability of Determined according to
method (Formula 1.35
embankment body Table 3.6.6
3.6.7-1)
Take U=0 and apply index of
straight shear, consolidation
and rapid shear or three-axle
consolidation shear without
1.20
drainage for foundation soil,
the earth fill of embankment
Worst
should be determined
penetration of
according to Table 3.6.6.
foundation
Apply index of straight shear,
soil, poor
consolidation and rapid shear
drainage
or three-axle consolidation
conditions
Integral stability of Simplified Bishop shear without drainage in
embankment and method compliance with actual 1.40
foundation (formula 3.6.7-1) degree of consolidation, the

earth fill of embankment
should be determined
according to Table 3.6.6.
straight shear, consolidation
Better
and rapid shear or three-axle
penetration of
consolidation shear without
1.45
foundation drainage, the earth fill of
soil, good embankment should be
drainage determined according to
Table 3.6.6.
conditions
1.35
rapid shear for foundation
53
soil, the earth fill of

embankment should be
determined according to
Table 3.6.6.
Stability of Apply index of straight shear
Unbalance
embankment and rapid shear or three-axle
propulsion force shear without drainage and
sliding along 1.30
method determine earth fill for
gradient foundation
(Formula 3.6.7-5) embankment according to
or soft weak layer Table 3.6.6.
3.6.9. Foundation base of embankment should be treated according to Article 3.3.5 in the
Specifications. When the soft soil layer distributes in the foundation, try to carry out the
reinforcing design of foundation according to Section 7.6. When the embankment has safety
factor of stability less than that corresponded in Table 3.6.8, take measures such as improving
the foundation base conditions or setting up retaining structure, etc.
3.6.10. Design for Monitoring Embankment Stability
1 During construction, pay attention to observing and measuring the foundation

deformation during and after filling embankment, dynamically monitor the construction of
embankment, refer to the attached Table B-2 for observation items.
2In design, make sure the observed and measured embankment section, items, quantity
and location of points, etc., confirm the criterion on control of observation and measurement
of stability, notice some matters during construction.
3.7. Excavation in High Side Slope
3.7.1. The individual survey and design should be performed in the soil excavation side
slope whose height is more than 20m, the rock excavation side slope whose height is more
than 30m, as well as the excavation side slope in unfavorable geology and special rocky
section.
3.7.2. The survey for side slope works should be conducted in the way that the boring test
should be combined with the pit test (shaft test, trench test) and geophysical prospecting,
aided by cave exploration if necessary. Geological survey for side slope works should be done
according to the Specifications on Geological Survey for Highway Engineering (JTJ 064)
while the following terms should be ascertained:
1Terrain and topographic features;
2Type, cause, character, weathering extent, completeness, sub-course thickness of rock

53
General Subgrade
and soil mass;
3Physical and mechanics performance (i.e. unit weight , strength data c, , etc.) for rock
and soil mass in natural and water saturated states;
4Character, composite relation, mechanics property of major structure surface (especially

the soft structure surface) as well as the relation of it and free face;
5Meteorology, hydrology and hydrogeological conditions;
6Range, property and distribution rule of unfavorable geology;
7Load, structure, form of foundation, covered depth and stable states for buildings near
the top of slope.
3.7.3. Mechanics Parameters of Rock and Soil Mass for Side Slope
1Index of shear strength for rock mass should be determined according to the in situ test
that should be done according to the current national standard Standards on Test Method for
Rock Mass in Engineering (GB/T 50266). If no conditions are for test, comprehensively
determine by Standards on Classification of Rock Mass in Engineering (GB 50218) and
Table 3.7.3-1 and inverse computation & analysis, etc.
2The combination degree for structural plane of rock mass can be determined according to
Table 3.7.3-2.
3The index standard for performance of side slopes rock mass can be determined
according to the regional experience. The important side slope should be determined by test.
4The internal friction angle for rock mass can be determined by standard value of internal
friction angle for rock block as development degree of rock masss fissure multiply by
reduction coefficient listed in Table 3.7.3-2.
5Mechanics parameter for soil mass should be suitably and comprehensively determined
by the in situ shear test, indoor shear test for original-states soil sample and inverse
computation & analysis.
6When the soil side slope is calculated according to the principle of water & soil
combination, the shear strength index of deadweight consolidation without drainage for soil in
three-axle test should be adopted for the soil below the level of groundwater; when
calculating according to the principle of water & soil separation, the effective shear strength
index should be adopted for the soil below the level of groundwater.
53
Table 3.7.3-1 Index Standard Value for Shear Strength in Structural Plane
Type of Combination degree for Internal friction

Cohesion c (MPa)
structural plane structural plane angle ()
1 Good >35 >0.13
Hard structural
2 General 35 ~ 27 0.13 ~ 0.09
plane
3 Bad 27 ~ 18 0.09 ~ 0.05
4 Very bad 18 ~ 12 0.05 ~ 0.02

Soft & weak
structural plane Extreme bad Determined according to the regional
5
(Anglicization layer) experience
Notes: For the value in the table, the time effect for structural plane has been
considered.
For extreme soft rock and soft rock, take the small value in the table.
For the structural plane of rock mass, which has poor connectivity, take the big
value in the table.
For the structural plane of rock mass, which is submerged, take the small value
in the table.
3.7.4. Evaluation on Stability of Side Slope
1Evaluation on stability of side slope should be comprehensively conducted by the

methods of engineering geology comparison, graphical analysis, limit balance and numerical
analysis.
2The calculation of side slope stability should be considered possible form of side slope
damage and can be determined in the ways as follows:
1) For the rocky side slope and soil side slope of cataclastic texture in larger scaleapply
the simplified Bishop method;
2) For the side slope where damage is possibly to generate in straight line, apply the plane
and sliding surface analytic method;
53
General Subgrade
Table 3.7.3-2 Combination Degree for Structural Plane
Combination extent Characters of structural plane

Opening less than 1mm, good cementation, no filling; opening 1~3mm,
Good
silicon or iron cementation
Opening 1~3mm, Ca cementation; opening more than 3mm, rough
General
surface, Ca cementation.
Opening 1~3mm, even and straight surface, no cementation; opening
Bad
more than 3mm, filling with detritus or detritus mingling with mud.
Even, straight and smooth, no cementation; filling with mud or mud
Very bad,
mingling with detritus, thickness of filler more than wave difference;
extreme bad
argillaceous interlayer in continuous distribution; small fracture zone of
(argillaceous layer)
fault without cementation or with serious weathering.
Table 3.7.3-3 Reduction Coefficient of Internal Friction Angle for

Rock Mass of Side Slope
Character of rock Reduction coefficient of Character of rock Reduction coefficient of

mass of side slope internal friction angle mass of side slope internal friction angle
No development in Development in
0.90 ~ 0.95 0.80 ~ 0.85
fissure fissure
More development
0.85 ~ 0.90 Cataclastic texture 0.75 ~ 0.80
in fissure
3) For the side slope where damage is possibly to generate in broken line, apply the
unbalance propulsion method;
4) For the rocky side slope with complicated structure, apply the combination of bare plane
projection method, solid proportion projection method and cleat type sliding surface method;
5) When the mechanism of side slope damage is complicated, suitably apply the numerical
analysis method for analysis.
3The stability of side slope should be calculated in three operating conditions as follows:
1) Normal operating condition: The side slope is under natural states;
2) Abnormal operating condition I: The side slope is in the states of rainstorm or continuous
rainfall;
3) Abnormal operating condition II: The side slope is under the load by earthquake.
4For checking and calculation of side slope stability, the safety factor of stability should
comply with that required in Table 3.7.4; otherwise, the side slope should be protected.
53
Table 3.7.4 Stability Safety Factor of Cutting Side Slope
Highway Stability Safety factor of Highway Stability Safety factor of

classification cutting side slope classification cutting side slope
Normal operating Normal operating
1.20 ~ 1.30 1.15 ~ 1.25
condition condition
Expressway Abnormal Abnormal
Class 2 and
& operating 1.10 ~ 1.20 operating condition 1.05 ~ 1.15
below class 2
class 1 condition I I
highways
highway Abnormal Abnormal
operating 1.05 ~ 1.10 operating condition 1.02 ~ 1.05
condition II II
Note: The safety factor taken from the table should be corresponding to the calculation
method.
3.7.5. According to the different characters and stability requirements of rock and soil, the
side slope should be excavated into broken line or step type. The center of step type side slope
should have a platform where the width isnt less than 2m. No platform can be set up on the
side slope in hard rock section; the gradient of this side slope can be confirmed through
survey of man-made side slope and natural hillside near the built engineering and according to
the analysis of side slope stability.
3.7.6. In design of side slope protection, take the comprehensive measure with combination
of engineering protection and plant protection according to the geology and environmental
conditions. For the side slope with poor stability, adopt the retaining structure engineering and
adopt the technology of excavation in layers, stability in layers and pre-reinforcement at toe of
slope.
3.7.7. Set perfect drainage systems on the earths surface and underground of side slope to
drain the surface water and groundwater in time. The drainage systems should be designed
according to Section 3.4 while the structural size for various drainage facilities should be
determined according to Sections 4.2 and 4.3.
3.7.8. For high excavation side slope in expressway and class 1 highway as well as the
excavation side slope in the section with unfavorable geology and special rock soil, it is
suitable to be designed by the methods of construction monitoring and information-based
dynamic design.
1Put forward special requirements and monitoring requirements on construction proposal,

clearly know the geological and construction situation and feedback information on
monitoring deformation and stress for construction site, check, modify and make an addition
for original design in time.
53
General Subgrade
2The monitoring content includes: to obtain quantitative data (concerned unstable range,
displacement direction and speed, and groundwater and blasting vibration) for design and
analysis; measure stress and deformation on reinforcement measure for anchoring system and
retaining wall, etc. and verify if it reaches the desired effect, if it doesnt reach the desired
effect and then, take the remedy measure.
Consider the highway classification, character of retaining structure and deformation

control requirements, geological conditions and according to Attached Tables B-1 and B-3,
select the monitoring items for side slope works.
3The monitoring period should be determined according to highway classification,

character of retaining structure and geological conditions. For the important high side slope in
expressway, the monitoring period should not be less than one year from the excavation of
side slope to operation after completion of building highway.
3.8. Rock Fill Embankment
3.8.1. General Provisions
1Dilatability rock, easily solvable rock, slaking rock and salinization rock, etc. shouldnt
be applied for filling the embankment.
2If the highway embankment should be built with rock fill material, take relevant
technical measure; remarkably carry out section design, structure design and drainage design
to guarantee that the rock fill embankment has enough strength and stability as well as solid
basis for pavement construction.
3 The rock fill embankment should be constructed by large-power bulldozer and

heavy-duty compactor.
4Before construction of rock fill embankment, determine the proper thickness of filling
layer, the technology of compaction and quality control standard through the section for
paving test.
5For the rock fill embankment constructed by force ramming or impact roller, the
thickness of compacted layer and quality control standard can be determined by on-site test or
refer to the relevant technical specification.
3.8.2. Classification of Rock Fill Material
According to the compressive strength index for stone material saturation, the rock fill
material can be divided into hard rock, moderate hard rock and soft rock shown in Table 3.8.2.
53
Table 3.8.2 Rock Classification
Single-axle saturation
Rock type compressive strength Typical rock
(MPa)
1. Magma rock, such as granite, diorite, basalt, etc.
Hard rock 60 2. Sedimentary rock, such as silicon and iron
cementation gravel rock and sandstone, limestone,
dolomite, etc.
Moderate 3. Metamorphic rock, such as gneiss, quartzite,
30 ~ 60
hard rock marble, slate, schist, etc.
1. Effusive rock, such as tuff, etc.
2. Sedimentary rock, such as boulder-clay rock, soil
Soft rock 5 ~ 30 sandstone, soil shale, mudstone, etc.
3. Metamorphic rock, such as mica schist or phyllite,
etc.
3.8.3. The different standards on filling layer thickness and compaction control should be
applied to the stone material with different strength. For the compaction quality standard for
rock fill embankment, the porosity can be used as control index in conformity with Table
3.8.3-1 ~ Table 3.8.3-3.
Table 3.8.3-1 Compaction Quality Control Standard for Hard Stone Material
Depth below Thickness of Max. grain size Dry weight of Porosity

Parts bottom of paving layer compaction
pavement (m) (mm) (mm) (kN/m) (%)
Upper Less than 2/3 of layer Determined by

0.80 ~ 1.50 400 23
embankment thickness test
Lower Less than 2/3 of layer Determined by
> 1.50 600 25
embankment thickness test
Table 3.8.3-2 Compaction Quality Control Standard for Moderate Hard Stone Material
Depth below Thickness of Dry weight of

Max. grain size Porosity
(mm) (%)
pavement (m) (mm) (kN/m)
Upper Less than 2/3 of layer Determined
0.80 ~ 1.50 400 22
embankment thickness by test
Lower Less than 2/3 of layer Determined
> 1.50 500 24
53
General Subgrade
Table 3.8.3-3 Compaction Quality Control Standard for Soft Stone Material
Depth below Thickness of Dry weight of

Max. grain size Porosity
(mm) (%)
pavement (m) (mm) (kN/m)
Upper Less than layer Determined
0.80 ~ 1.50 300 20
Lower Less than layer Determined
> 1.50 400 22
3.8.4. Quality Control for Rock Fill Embankment
1Compaction quality for rock fill embankment should be controlled by combined control
of construction parameters (compaction power, rolling speed, times of compaction, paving
thickness, etc.) and compaction quality test.
2Compaction quality for rock fill embankment can be tested by compaction differential
settlement or porosity, and the water bag method should be applied in porosity test.
3.8.5. When filling other materials such as soil and fly ash, etc. on the surface of rock fill
material, the top of rock fill material should not be obvious pore and hollow hole. Before
filling other fillers, the last paved layer of rock fill embankment shouldnt be thicker than
400mm and the grain size of broken stone material for transitional layer shouldnt be smaller
than 150mm, of which, the fine-material content less than 0.05mm shouldnt be less than 30%.
Its suitable to set geotextile as separate layer if necessary.
3.8.6. For the rock fill embankment, the section type can be the same as soil embankment
and the ratio of side slope should be determined according to the variety of rock fill material,
the height of side slope and geological conditions of foundation base. If the weathering-based
rock and soft rock should be applied as filler, it should be designed as soil side slope of
embankment. When the foundation base of embankment is in good condition, the ratio of side
slope for rock fill embankment should not be steeper than the value specified in Table 3.8.6.
1When the side slope of fill is high, set a platform with width of 1-3m at the surface of
side slope.
2The side slope of rock fill embankment should be paved with moderate hard, hard and
over hard stone materials. The side slope masonry should adopt uneasily weathering stone
material whose strength is more than 30MPa and the minimum size of masonry stone material
shouldnt be less than 300mm.
53
Table 3.8.6 Ratio of Side Slope for Rock Fill Embankment
Variety of rock fill Height of side slope Ratio of side slope

material Total height Upper height Lower height Upper Lower
Hard rock 20 8 12 1:1.1 1:1.3
Moderate hard rock 20 8 12 1:1.3 1:1.5
Soft rock 20 8 12 1:1.5 1:1.75
3The paving thickness of side slope shouldnt be less than 1m for the rock fill
embankment with fill height less than 5m.The paving thickness of side slope is not less than
1.5m for the rock fill embankment with 5m~12m fill height; and not less than 2m for the
embankment with over 12m fill height.
3.8.7. Check & Calculation of Stability and Calculation of Settlement for Rock fill
Embankment
1For the rock fill embankment in soft foundation, its structure form design and the design
for treating soft soil foundation should be comprehensively considered and the check &
calculation of stability and calculation of settlement should be performed.
2For the rock fill embankment applied with weathered rock and soft rock, consider some
disadvantages such as reduction of shear strength after submerging, and increasing of
compressibility, etc.
3.9. Fly Ash Embankment

1The fly ash embankment is the highway embankment filled with fly ash (pure ash)
completely or partial fly ash (ash & soil space).
2For the highway embankment filled with fly ash, take corresponding technical measure
and sectional design, structure design and drainage design to guarantee the fly ash
embankment with enough strength and stability.
3For the part that cant be rolled by heavy-duty roller, take some measures to replace the
existing material with the required material or other solidifying treatment.
53
General Subgrade
4The fly ash embankment in the zone where acceleration factor is more than or equal to
0.05g at earthquake peak value should have protection facility according to the Specification
on Anti-seism Design for Highway Engineering (JTJ 004).
3.9.2. Fly Ash
1The ignition loss of fly ash for embankment of expressway and class 1 highway is better
to be less than 20%, if the ignition loss of fly ash exceeds the standard requirement, the
comparison test should be fulfilled and after analysis and verification, it can be used.
2Pre-survey of material resource and indoor necessary test should be conducted for design
of fly ash embankment. Master the engineering performance of fly ash material and the test
method should be carried out according to the Test Methods of Soil for Highway Engineering
(JTJ 051).
3.9.3 Design Parameters
1Select the typical sample to have ramming test to confirm the maximum dry density and
optimum water content before using fly ash.
2Measure and confirm the internal friction angle and cohesive strength c of fly ash by
test.
3Its suitable for fly ash to determine penetration coefficient, compressibility coefficient,
and the rise height of capillary water through test.
3.9.4. Design of Embankment Cross Section
1The measures on soil slope protection should be taken for the side slope and the shoulder
of fly ash embankment.
2According to the construction season and local precipitation, decide to build the drainage
seepage ditch in soil slope protection and take relevant measures to avoid seeping & blocking
ditch.
3Fill soil in the range of roadbed on fly ash embankment, in addition, combine with
pavement structure course, apply the materials of lime soil and lime fly ash soil, etc. for
subbase of pavement as top seal coat.
4The bottom of fly ash embankment should be over 500mm above the groundwater level
or long-term seeper level in the earths surface, otherwise build isolation layer whose
53
thickness is not less than 300mm and the transverse slope of isolation layer is not less than
3%.
5The retaining wall structure of fly ash embankment should be designed according to the
requirements of Section 5.4 in the Specifications and an inversed filter should be set in the
inlet of weep-hole in wall body.
3.9.5. For the embankment with height more than 5.0m, its stability should be checked and
calculated and the safety factor of antiskid stability should meet the requirement in Table
3.9.6. Based on Tables 3.2.1 and 3.3.2, the standard on degree of compaction should be
determined by test.
3.10. Earth Borrow for Subgrade
3.10.1. Unify to design the earth borrow area concentrated outside the line according to soil
amount taken for separate section and in combination with drainage, terrain ,soil quality, and
construction method for subgrade.
3.10.2. The earth borrows area should be set according to the following regulations:
1The distance from earth borrow area to subgrade should not affect the stability of the
subgrade side slope.
2Its not suitable to set earth borrow area on both sides of approach road of bridge head.
3As to the earth borrow area concurrently for drainage, the smooth discharge for
water-flow should be ensured, their depth cannot be higher than the local groundwater level,
and they should be connected to the elevation of inlet of bridge and culvert. The transverse
slope shouldnt be less than 0.2% and that in the flat section shouldnt be less than 0.1%.
3.10.3. In order to avoid water and soil erosion loss, take the necessary measures such as
drainage, protection and greening for earth borrow area.
3.11. Subgrade Spoil
3.11.1. When designing the subgrade spoil area, consider with the local farmland
construction with natural environment and pay attention to protect forest, farmland, house and
other works facilities.
3.11.2. Reasonable set the spoil area that cannot affect the stability of subgrade and slope.
3.11.3. The spoil area should be stacked regularly and rolled properly and taken necessary
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General Subgrade
measures on drainage, protection and greening.
3.11.4. Spoil along river should avoid increasing scour of subgrade and river bank in lower
reach, riverway blocked and polluted by spoil and set the retaining structure engineering for
protection if necessary. It is not allowed for the spoil at bridge head to press pier and block
span of bridge.
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Drainage for Subgrade
4. Drainage for Subgrade
4.1.1. When designing the drainage for highway subgrade, combine with protection,
drainage and dredging and cooperate with the measures for pavement drainage, subgrade
protection, foundation treatment and other treatments in special subgrade area (section) so as
to form a perfect drainage system.
4.1.2. The subgrade drainage design should follow the principle of general planning,
reasonable arrangement, less farmland occupied, environmental protection and cooperate with
the local irrigation and drainage system.
4.1.3. For difficult drainage section, take measures to reduce groundwater level and set up
isolation layer, so as to make subgrade in dry and moderate moisture condition.
4.1.4. The temporary drainage facilities at construction site should be combined with the
permanent drainage facilities as much as possible. Various drainage facilities should be
designed according to the requirements of operation function and with safe and reliable
structure so as to do construction, repair and maintenance.
4.2. Drainage for Earths Surface
4.2.1. In the design of drainage facilities for the earths surface of subgrade, the recurrence
period of rainfall should be 15 years for expressway and class 1 highway and 10 years for
other class highways. The section size of various drainage facilities for the earths surface
should meet the requirements for design of drainage amount; the top of ditch should be above
0.2m higher than the desired water surface inside the ditch.
4.2.2. The drainage facilities for the earths surface of subgrade include side ditch,
intercepting ditch, drainage ditch, water drop and chute, evaporation pond, oil-water
separation pond, drainage pumping station, etc. and should be arranged combining the terrain
and natural water system and the selection and treatment for the position of outlet and inlet
should be well carried out, in order to prevent blocking, overflowing, leaking, silting,
scouring and freezing, etc.
4.2.3. The water flow in the pipes of drainage ditch for the earths surface isnt allowed to
be directly drained into the drinking water resource and culture pond.
4.2.4. Side Ditch
1Section form and size of side ditch should be determined according to the terrain
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geological conditions, height of side slope and catchment area, etc.
2The longitudinal slope on the bottom of side ditch is suitable to be consistent with that on
the line and not less than 0.3%, and can be reduced to 0.1% if its in difficult situation.
3The water flow in the cutting side ditch is not suitable to be drained out through tunnel.
4The side ditch to be scoured possibly is suitable to be protected.
4.2.5. Intercepting Ditch
1Setting of intercepting ditch should be conducted according to the terrain conditions and
catchment area. The intercepting ditch on the cutting top of excavation subgrade is suitable to
be set 5m away from the outside of the beginning of slope and arranged combined with the
terrain. The distance from the intercepting ditch of embankment on the top of subgrade to fill
toe of slope is not suitable to be less than 2m. One or many intercepting ditches can be set in
raining area depending on the actual situation.
2The section form of intercepting ditch should be determined combined with the setting
location; the displacement, terrain, side slope condition and the longitudinal slope on the
bottom of ditch is not suitable to be less than 0.3% normally.
3The water flow in intercepting ditch should be drained to the outside of road boundary
and it is not suitable to be led into the cutting side ditch.
4The intercepting ditch is not suitable to be reinforced for anti-seepage.
4.2.6. Drainage Ditch
1Set drainage ditch to lead the water from the side ditch, intercepting ditch, earth borrow
(spoil) ground and low-lying place near the subgrade to the outside of subgrade.
2The sectional form of drainage ditch is suitable to be determined combining with the
terrain and geological conditions, the longitudinal slope on the bottom of ditch is not suitable
to be less than 0.3% normally. It should be connected with other drainage facilities smoothly.
The drainage ditch to be easily scoured by water flow is suitable to be reinforced and
protected according to the actual situation.
4.2.7. Water Drop and Chute
1In case that the water flow should be through the section of steep slope where the
gradient is more than 10% and height difference of water head more than 1.0m or particularly
steep section, its suitable to set water drop or chute and the reinforcing measures should be
made for them.
2The longitudinal slope on the bottom of chute should be combined with the terrain, the
water inlet should be protected & reinforced and the water outlet should take the energy
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alleviation measure to avoid scouring.
3In order to prevent basement sliding, the anti-skid platform can be set on the bottom of
chute or a convex tenon is suitable to be inlaid in the basement of chute.
4.2.8. Evaporation Pond
1For the section in drought and with difficult drainage, collect the earths surface water by
the earth borrow area along the line or evaporation pond set particularly.
2The distance from the edge of evaporation pond to the external edge of subgrades side
ditch should not be less than 5m and rely on the principle of ensuring stability and safety of
subgrade, in the collapsibility loess zone; it isnt less than the collapsed radius. The design
water level in the pond should be below the bottom of drainage ditch.
3The capacity of evaporation pond should be designed on such a basis that the rainwater
collected into the pond from subgrade within one month can permeate and evaporate
completely in time. The volume of each pond should be determined according to the
longitudinal space of the pond by hydraulic and hydrologic calculation.
4The evaporation pond should be protected and reinforced properly according to the
actual situation. Its setting shouldnt make the near ground salinization or swampiness.
4.2.9. Oil-water Separation Pond
1If the exit of drainage ditch for subgrade is located in special sensitive zone for water
quality and the sewage quality drained cannot meet the stipulation in the Standards on
Comprehensive Drainage of Sewage (GB 8978), the oil-water separation pond can be set.
2Oil-water separation is suitable to be done by precipitation method suitably. The sewage

should pass through the grid and desilting basin before entering the oil-water separation pond.
3Size of the pond should be determined according to the collected amount of water from
drainage ditch located in the section and be sure there is enough time for oil and water in the
pond to be separated or filtered and purified.
4.2.10. Drainage Pumping Station
1The station can be set in case the collected water from subgrade couldnt be drained out
by itself and the drainage pumping station includes the water collecting basin and pump
house.
2The volume of collecting basin should be determined according to some factors such as
amount of collected water, capacity of pump and pump operation state, etc..
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3The water pumped out by the pump should be drained to the outside of road boundary.
4.3. Underground Drainage
4.3.1. Before designing the underground drainage, the survey, exploration and test for field
engineering geology and hydrologic geology should be done to ascertain the hydrogeological
conditions and obtain concerned hydrogeological parameters.
4.3.2. The subgrade underground drainage facilities include blind ditch (pipes), underdrain,
permeable tunnel, seepage well, upward-oblique type drainage hole, manhole, dredge well,
etc.. The type, location and size of underground drainage facilities should be determined
according to the engineering geology and hydrogeological conditions and cooperated with the
drainage facilities on the earths surface.
4.3.3. Blind Ditch (pipes)
1The blind ditch (pipes) is used for draining the water spring or concentrated water flow
underground.
2The longitudinal gradient of the blind ditch isnt suitably less than 1% and it is not less
than 0.5% if the condition is difficult, the longitudinal gradient of the water exit should be
increased and the exite point 0.2m higher than the normal water level in drainage ditch for the
earths surface. The blind ditch in cold zone should be treated for anti-frozen and heat
insulation or it should be set below the freezing depth.
4.3.4. Seepage Ditch (Well)
1Seepage ditch, permeable tunnel and seepage well are used to reduce groundwater level
or intercept groundwater.
The seepage ditch is suitable to be used in case that the groundwater is covered in thinness
or doesnt have certain water stratum.
Permeable tunnel and seepage well are suitable to be used in the case that the groundwater
is covered more deeply or has certain water stratum.
2The covered depth for seepage ditch should be considered and determined according to
some factors such as elevation of groundwater level, reduced depth needed by groundwater
level, and penetration coefficient of water stratum medium, etc.
The drainage hole (pipes) of seepage ditch should be set at the place not less than 0.25m
below the freezing depth. The basement of intercepting seepage ditch is suitable to be
embedded with depth not less than 0.5m in water insulation course. Basements of side slopes
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seepage ditch and support seepage ditch are suitable to be set on solid soil layer below
water-bearing stratum.
The anti-freezing measure should be taken for the seepage ditch exit in cold zone.
3Section sizes of seepage ditch, permeable tunnel and seepage well should be determined
according to the structure type, embedded position, amount of water seepage, construction
and repair conditions, etc. For the seepage ditch, set an inverted filter for the side wall and the
top of it and sealing layer for its bottom. The lining structure size for permeable tunnel should
be determined by calculation.
4Minimum longitudinal gradient slope of rock fill seepage ditch isnt suitably less than
1% and that of no-sand concrete seepage ditch, pipe type and hole type seepage ditch isnt
less than 0.5%. For the seepage ditch, increase the longitudinal slope in the section of exit and
set grid or end wall at exit and the water exit should be 0.2m higher than the normal water
level in the earths surface drainage ditch.
5For seepage ditch and the surface layer water side of permeable tunnel, the sand gravel,
no-sand concrete and water seepage geotextile can be applied as inverted filter.
6Seepage ditches of the side slope and bearing should be embedded vertically into the
body of the side slope, seepage ditchs plane shape is arranged with strip shape suitably; the
humid slope body in larger range can be arranged by increasing fork in branch ditch or arch.
7For the fill and excavation intersection section with higher groundwater level and much
more water amount as well as the low fill section, set seepage ditch to ensure the subgrade in
dry or moderate moisture states.
4.3.5. Manhole and Dredge Well
For deep and long blind ditch (pipes), seepage ditch and permeable tunnel, its suitable to
set the dredge well for inspection at every certain distance in straight line section, plane turn,
and grade change point of longitudinal gradient slope, etc.
For the manhole, should set an inspection ladder inside it, a cover on the mouth of well and
set an inverted filter on the wall of it that concurrently serves as seepage well.
4.3.6. Upward-oblique Drainage Hole
1It is used to lead and drain the groundwater inside the side slope.
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2The elevation angle of it isnt less than 6o suitably; its length should stretch to the
enrichment part of groundwater or potential slide plane, it is suitable to be distributed in group
according to water seepage of side slope.
3The water drained out from it is suitable to be led to the cutting side ditch to drain off.
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5. Subgrade Protection and Retaining Structure
5.1.1. Comprehensive measures combining engineering protection and plant protection

should be taken for all classes of highways according to the local climate, hydrology,
topography, geology and the distribution of road construction material to prevent and treat the
subgrade disasters, ensure the stability of subgrade and be coordinated with the surrounding
environment.
5.1.2. Subgrade protection of surface of slope engineering should be taken on stable side
slopes. The protection styles should be chosen on the comprehensive consideration of the
influence of the factors such as engineering geology, hydrogeology, side slope height,
environment, construction conditions and construction period, etc. For the sections lack of
sub-grade stability or with unfavorable geologic conditions, special attention should be paid
to the comprehensive design of subgrade side slope protection and retaining structure
strengthening.
5.1.3. The design for subgrade retaining structure should comply with the requirements of
the stability, solidity, and durability of the retaining structures under various design load
combinations; the structure style selection and location determination should be safe, reliable,
economic and rational, and be able to facilitate construction and maintenance; and the
material should be durable and corrosion-proof.
5.1.4. For the sections with more developed groundwater, special attention should be paid
to the comprehensive design of subgrade side slope protection and underground drainage
measure. In the rainy area, for the embankment filled with sandy soil and fine-grained soil,
the comprehensive measures of slope protection and drainage and water interception should
be taken to prevent the side slope from being damaged by scouring.
5.1.5. The protective retaining structures should be coordinated and smoothly connected
with abutments, tunnel portal and existing retaining structures.
5.1.6. During subgrade construction, attentions should be paid to the side slope temporary
protection measures; the temporary protection engineering of side slope is suitable to be
combined with the permanent protection engineering.
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Subgrade Protection and Retaining Structure
5.2. Protection for Slope Surface
5.2.1. Plant Protection
1Vegetation protection
1) The selection of grass seeds should be determined according to the purpose of protection,
climate, soil quality and construction seasons, etc. It is suitable to adopt those perennial grass
seeds which are easily alive, survive and grow rapidly, with developed root systems and short
stems or creeping stems.
2) The seed combination and seeding amount should be determined according to the growth
characteristics of the plant, the protection locations and construction methods.
3) Sodding is suitable for the soil side slopes which need to be greened rapidly and whose
slope ratio is gentler than 1:1 and the severely weathered soft rock side slopes.
Drought-resistant grass seeds with developed root systems, short stems and exuberant leaves
should be selected for the turfs. Hygrophilous grass seeds are not suitable. Turfs growing in
mires are forbidden to use.
4) Tree planting is suitable for the side slope whose ratio is gentler than 1:1.5 or the river
banks outside the side slopes and floodplains. Short shrubs with rapid growth, deep roots and
dense branches should be selected. Tall trees are forbidden to plant in the slopes on the inner
side of highway bend.
2Three-dimensional vegetation net protection
Three-dimensional vegetation nets are applicable suitable for the side slope protections
which are formed by sandy soil, soil mixed with stones and weathered rocks and whose slope
ratio is gentler than 1:0.75; the mixtures of accommodation soil or soil, fertilizers and mucks
should be adopted as backfill soil in the three-dimensional vegetation nets.
3Wet- jet-planting
Wet-jet-planting is suitable for the greening protection in soil side slopes, slopes of soil
mingling with stone, severely weathered rocks and cutting with a slope ratio gentler than 1:0.5,
embankment side slopes, median, interchange areas, service areas and waste banks.
4Fertilizer jet-planting
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1) Accommodation soil jet-planting is suitable for the weathered rocks, soft rocks with little
soil, soils with little nutrient composition, hard soils, face of high steep slopes with poor
conditions for plant growth and face of slopes severely eroded.
2) When the slope ratio is steeper than 1:1, it is suitable to set the grid or concrete
framework.
5.2.2. Skeleton Plant Protection
1Slope protection for mortar rubble or cement concrete skeleton grass planting
1) It is suitable for the soil and fully weathered rock side slopes gentler than 1:0.75. If the
face of slopes is scoured severely by rainwater or wet, the slope ratio should be gentler than
1:1.
2) The skeleton forms should be determined according to the side slope ratio, soil quality
and local conditions, coordinated with the surrounding landscape. Plant or other auxiliary
protection measures should be taken inside the framework.
3) In the areas with large and concentrated precipitation, it is suitable for the skeletons to be
in intercepting ditch style. The dimensions of the intercepting ditches should be determined
through calculation of rainfall intensity.
2Plant slope protection of polygonal cement concrete hollow blocks
1) It is suitable for the soil side slopes gentler than 1:0.75 and full weathering and strong
weathering rock cutting side slopes. And mortar rubble or concrete skeletons should be set
according to the demands.
2) The concrete intensity of the polygonal hollow prefabricated blocks should not be
smaller than C20, the thickness should not be smaller than 150mm. The hollow prefabricated
blocks should be filled with planting soil and grass jet-planting.
3Plant protection of anchor concrete framework
1) It is suitable for soil side slopes and rock cutting side slopes whose slopes without
unfavorable structural surface weathered and broken.
2) Non-prestressed bonding anchors with full length stick should be adopted. The distances
and lengths of the anchors should be determined according to the geology conditions of the
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side slope. The protection courses of the anchors should not be thinner than 20mm.
3) Reinforced concrete is adopted for the framework, and the concrete intensity should not
be smaller than C25. The geometrical dimensions should be determined according to the
height and strata of the side slope. It is suitable to plant grass inside the frameworks.
5.2.3. Masonry Protection
1Shotcrete protection
1) It is suitable for the rock side slope with a slope gradient gentler than 1:0.5, vulnerable
for weathering but not strongly weathered.
2) The thickness of shotcrete protection should not be smaller than 50mm. The adoption of
the mortar intensity should not be smaller than M10.
3) The thickness of shotcrete protection should not to be smaller than 80mm. The concrete
intensity should not be smaller than C15.
4) The shotcrete protection of the slope face should have weep holes and expansion joints.
2Anchors grid shotcrete (concrete)
1) It is suitable for the excavation side slopes with hard rock of broken structure or
inconsecutive strata of layer structure and where the rocks and bedrock are separated and
which are possible to slide down.
2) The anchors should be embedded in stable bedrocks, and the anchoring depths should be
determined according to the features of the rock mass.
3) The support thickness of reinforcement mat shotcrete should neither be smaller than
100mm nor be larger than 250mm. The thickness of protection courses of the reinforcement
should not be smaller than 20mm.
3Slope protection
1) Dry rubble slope protections are suitable for the soil (rock) cutting side slopes with a
gradient gentler than 1:1.25. And the thicknesses of dry rubble slope protections should not be
smaller than 250mm.
2) Mortar rubble (cobble stone) slope protections are suitable for the rock slopes vulnerably
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weathered with a gradient gentler than 1:1 and soil cutting side slopes. It is not suitable for the
thicknesses of mortar rubble (cobble stone) slope protections to be smaller than 250mm, the
mortar intensity should not be smaller than M5. Expansion joints and weep holes should be
set for slope protections.
3) Cement concrete prefabricated blocks slope protections are suitable to be subgrade side
slope protections in the areas lack of stone material. The concrete intensity of the
prefabricated blocks should not be smaller than C15, and should not be smaller than C20 in
freezing areas.
4) Crushed stone or gravel bed courses should be set under the paving layers, with a
thickness not smaller than 100mm.
4Facing wall
1) Facing walls are suitable for excavation side slopes with soft rocks vulnerably weathered
or badly weathered or the broken rocks and soil side slopes whose slope face vulnerably
eroded and the side slopes should not be steeper than 1:0.5. The forms of facing walls should
be determined according to the geologic conditions of the side slopes, the side slopes for
window-type facing wall protection should not be steeper than 1:0.75; arch-type facing walls
are applicable for the side slopes whose lower parts are integer rock strata and the upper parts
are needed to be protected, and the side slopes should be gentler than 1:0.5.
2) The single stage facing walls are not suitable to be higher than 10m, and the expansion
joints and weep holes should be set.
3) The foundation of facing walls should be set on stable ground, and the embedded depths
should be determined according to the geologic conditions; they should be embedded below
the freezing-depth not less than 250mm in frost region. The front toes of surface layer walls
should be lower than the paved bottom of the side ditch.
5.2.4. Surface Finishing and Beating
1Surface finishing
1) Surface finishing is suitable for the rock side slopes which are vulnerable to be
weathered, drier and not badly weathered, but is not applicable for the side slopes formed by
rock strata of coal series or laterite rocks with bad diagenesis. The service period of the
surface plastering protection is 8~10 years. The subgrade side slopes of expressways are not
suitable to the protection of surface plastering.
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2) The thickness of surface plastering is not suitable to be thinner than 30mm. The surface
can be coated with asphalt protection course whose softening point is slightly higher than the
local temperature.
2Surface beating
1) Surface beating is applicable for the side slopes with their ratio gentler than 1:0.5; and
the soil side slopes vulnerable to be scoured or rock side slopes vulnerable to be weathered
and peeled. The service period is 10~15 years. The subgrade side slopes of expressways are
not suitable to adopt surface beating protections.
2) The surface beating is suitable to adopt the sections of equal thickness and their
thickness is not suitable to be less than 100mm.
5.3. Subgrade Protection along Rivers
1If the subgrade of the sections along rivers is scoured by water flow, suitable protection
engineering, water diverting or river relocating engineering should be selected according to
the characteristics of the rivers and water flow, riverway landform and geology, etc. in
combination with the location of the subgrade.
2The top elevation of scouring protection engineering should be calculated by the design
water level adding the heights of wave-affected and back-water and safe altitude. The
foundation base should be embedded at least 1m under the scouring depth or into the bedrock.
If the souring depths are very deep and it is difficult for groundwater construction, pile
foundations, sinking caissons or appropriate plane protection can be adopted.
3When the water diverting buildings are set up, the diverting and regulating lines should
be designed according the landform of the riverway, geology, and flow characteristics,
evolvement rules of riverway and protection requirements. The farmland, villages, highways
and worse scour to the downstream subgrade should be avoided. And it is not suitable to
provide water diverting buildings in the valley section in mountainous areas.
5.3.2. Plant Protection
1Plant protection is suitable for seasonal scouring which allows the flow velocity under
1.2~1.8m/s. The plant protections for scouring protection should be in accordance with the
relevant regulations in Article 5.2.1 of the Specifications. Grass planting protection is not
suitable to be adopted for the embankment side slopes often immerged or immerged in long
terms.
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2Shelter belts are suitable to be planted in the flood land outside the subgrade along rivers,
and the hygrophilous trees should be adopted.
5.3.3. Masonry Stone or Concrete Slope Protection
1Masonry stone or concrete slope protection is applicable for the embankment side slopes
with an allowable flow velocity of 2~8m/s. The (mortar) masonry stone (or concrete block)
slope protection for scouring protection should follow the relevant regulations in Article 5.2.3
in the Specifications.
2The thicknesses of mortar rubble (cobble stone) slope protections should be determined
in accordance with the factors such as the flow velocity and the sizes of the waves, and should
not be thinner than 350mm. Inverted filters not thinner than 100mm should be provided on the
bottom surface of the slope protections.
5.3.4. Apron
Apron protections are suitable for the retaining walls of the subgrade along rivers or the
sections with excessive local scouring depth and which is not convenient for the construction
of deep foundations.
5.3.5. Ripraps
1Ripraps are suitable for the subgrade side slopes or toes which are often immerged and
where the water is very deep or the foundation protections of retaining walls and slope
protections. The ripraps are often used for rush-repair works.
2The grade of riprap side slopes and the grain sizes of the stone material should be
determined in accordance with the water depth, flow velocity, and the waves. The grains of
stone material should be larger than 300mm, and the slope should not be more precipitous
than the natural angle of repose of the stone material after immerged. The thickness should
not be thinner than twice of the minimum grain diameter of the stone material.
5.3.6. Gabions
1Gabion protections are applicable for the retaining walls which are scoured by water and
invaded by waves, and whose foundations are hard to be treated or which are along rivers, and
the embankment slope toes or banks along rivers where the local foundation of the slope
protections are scoured excessively.
2The stone material filled inside the gabions should be non-weathered stone blocks which
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are very heavy, not collapsing after immerging in water and hard. The grain sizes should be
larger than the net holes of the gabions.
5.3.7. Immerged Retaining Walls
1Immerged retaining walls are suitable for the rush flow section in valleys with an
allowable flow velocity of 5~8m/s and the river sections with severe scouring.
2Immerged retaining walls should be designed in accordance with the relevant regulations
in Section 5.4 of the Specifications. And attentions should be paid to the connections between
the immerged retaining walls and bank slopes.
5.3.8. Geo-membrane Bags
1Soft sunken fascine mattresses of geotextile and geo-membrane bags are applicable for
scouring protections of river-side subgrade where the allowable flow velocity is 2~3m/s.
2Geo-membrane bags can be used to take the place of dry stone blocks and mortar stone
blocks to build embankment side slopes, toes, and the main bodies of spur dikes and dykes.
They can be also used for the rush-repair when the dykes and banks collapse.
5.3.9. Spur Dikes
1Spur dikes are suitable for the river sections on width transition to stir the water or
reduce the flow velocity and alleviate the scouring of the water to the river banks or subgrade.
2The lengths of spur dikes should be determined according to the protection lengths, the
intersection angles between the spur dikes and the direction of flow, topography and
hydrogeology in the river sections, and the geology of river beds. The projection lengths in
the vertical directions to the flow directions are not suitable to be longer than one fourth of the
widths of stable riverbeds.
3Overflow dikes or submerged dikes are suitable to be adopted as the spur dikes of
subgrade. The intersection angles between the spur dikes and the flow directions are suitable
to be smaller than or equal to 90.
4If group dikes are arranged, the distances between the dikes should not be larger than the
protection length of the former dike. If the allowable flow velocity which can be endured by
the banks between spur dikes or subgrade slopes is smaller than the flow velocity along the
banks, the distances should be shortened or the defense measures should be taken for the
banks and subgrade side slopes.
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5The cross sections and sizes of spur dikes should be determined according to the material
types and hydrology characteristics of the rivers. The widths of the tops of the dikes should be
determined through stability calculation.
5.3.10. Longitudinal Dikes
1Longitudinal dikes are applicable suitable for the protection of the banks with narrower
cross sections on riverbed and poor foundation geology or the river-side subgrade in order to
adjust the curve of the flow and improve the flow conditions.
2The connections between longitudinal dikes and the upstream and downstream banks
should enable the water to flow smoothly. The start points should be selected in the transition
sections with even and smooth flow. And the dike roots should be located above the turning
points of the main streams.
3The widths of the top of the dikes should be determined through stability calculation.
The dike roots should be embedded in the stable banks not shorter than 3m. The flood
longitudinal dikes should be provided with cellular dams behind them.
5.3.11. Riverway Relocating
1Riverway relocating can be carried out at the places where the subgrade along rivers is
scoured badly, or the protection works are very hard, and the routes across the curve riverway
for many times within short distances. River relocating is not suitable to be carried out for the
transitive rivers whose main channels change frequently or the river sections with a lot of
branches.
2The sections of the start and end points of river relocating should be connected with the
original riverbed smoothly. In order to prevent the water from returning to the former
riverway, it is suitable to incline the ground or provide barrages or longitudinal dikes at the
entrance to the river relocating. The sections of the new river channels should be designed
according to the flow of design flood frequency.
3The protection design of the river relocating sections should be executed according to the
relevant regulations in Chapter 5 of the Specifications.
5.4. Retaining Walls
1The types of retaining walls should be selected according to the regulations in Table
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5.4.1 with comprehensive consideration of the factors such as engineering geology,

hydrogeology, scouring depths, and load effects, environment, construction conditions, and
engineering cost, etc.
Table 5.4.1 Applicable Conditions of Different Retaining Walls
Types of
Applicable conditions
retaining walls
Applicable for the support and retaining structure works such as shoulders,
Solid Gravity embankments and cuts in normal, immersed, and seism areas. The heights
retaining walls are not suitable to exceed 12m. The dry rubble retaining walls should not be
higher than 6m and adopted for expressways and class 1 highways.
Applicable at the places where it is not suitable to adopt gravity retaining

Semi-gravity
walls such as the foundations with high groundwater level or which are
retaining walls
softer. The retaining walls are not suitable to be higher than 8m.
Cantilever Suitable to be adopted on the filling sections with shortage of stone material
retaining walls and lower bearing capacities, with a height not more than 5m.
Counter fort Suitable to be adopted on the filling sections with shortage of stone material
retaining walls and lower bearing capacities, with a height not more than 15m.
Suitable to be adopted on rock cut sections with a larger height. They can be
used as anti skid retaining walls. They can be rib column or plate wall single
Anchored
step walls or multi-step walls. The single step walls should not be higher
retaining walls
than 8m. Platforms not narrower than 2m should be provided between the
wall bodies of upper and lower steps in multi-step walls.
Suitable to be adopted as shoulder walls and embankment retaining walls in

Anchoage
the areas lack of stone material. But they should not be adopted in the areas
bulkhead
with landslide, collapse, soft soil and expansive soil. They can be rid column
retaining walls
or plate wall type with a height not exceeding 10m. Rib column anchor plate
53
Types of
Applicable conditions
retaining walls
retaining walls can be single or double step walls. The walls on each step
should not be higher than 6m, and platforms not narrower than 2m should be
provided between the wall bodies of upper and lower steps in multi-step
walls. The rib columns of the walls of the upper and lower steps are suitable
to be stagger in arrangement.
They are used as shoulder and embankment retaining walls in normal areas,
but they should not be adopted in the areas with landslide, collapse, soft soil
and expansive soil. The walls of expressways and class 1 highways are not
Reinforced
suitable to be higher than 12m, and those of class 2 and below are not
earth retaining
suitable to be higher than 20m. If multi step walls are adopted, the walls in
walls
each step are not suitable to be higher than 10m. Platforms not narrower than
2m should be provided between the wall bodies of upper and lower steps in
multi-step walls.
They are used on surface soil or homogeneous rock ground with thinner
Sheet pile strong weathered layer. The walls can be higher and can also be used as
retaining walls support and blocking walls on cut in seism area or embankment, or for the
harness of special sections such as skid slopes.
2During survey and design stage, the comprehensive geology investigation should be
carried out for the foundations of retaining walls to find the geologic conditions and the
bearing capacities of the foundation. And during design, the influence of retaining walls to the
environment should be analyzed and forecasted to determine the necessary environmental
protection schemes and plant measures; the rational construction methods should be adopted
during construction stage to reduce the adverse effects on the environment and adjacent
subgrade sections as much as possible.
3The retaining walls can be connected with the embankment by conic slopes, and the ends
of the walls should be inserted into the embankment not shorter than 0.75m. The ratio of the
conic slopes should be in accordance with those of embankment and it is suitable to adopt
53
grass planting. The ends of the retaining walls should be inserted into the original ground of
cutting not less than 1.5m for soil strata; 1.0m for weathered soft rock strata; and 0.5m for
slightly weathered rock strata.
4Drainage structures should be arranged rationally according to the seepage through the
backs of the retaining walls. Expansion joints and settlement joints should be set up for the
retaining walls with integer wall surface.
5The filler materials for the backs of the retaining walls are suitable to be the materials
with good permeability such as sandy soil, gravel, crushed stone (gravel), and fly ash, etc.
Mud, muck, and expansive soil are forbidden, and it is not suitable to adopt clay as filler
material. Frost heave material should not be adopted as filler material in seasonal frozen soil
area.
6The top widths of shoulder retaining walls should not occupy the subgrade widths of
hard shoulders, carriageways, and marginal strips and guardrail should be provided. The
guard rails of expressways and class 1 highways should conform to the relevant regulations in
Technical Specifications for Traffic Safety Facilities and Construction of Expressways (JTJ
074).
5.4.2. Loads
1The sub coefficient method in limit state design is mainly adopted in the Specifications.
2General expression of design adopted in limit state of the bearing capacity of the
components of retaining walls is:
(5.4.2-1)
R (5.4.2-2)
In which: 0-- Significance coefficient of the structures should be selected in accordance

with the regulations in Table 5.4.2-1;
S -- Combination design value of effect of actions (or loads);
R -- Resistance functions of the structures of retaining walls;
Rk -- Standard value of the intensity of resistance materials;

f-- Subitem coefficient of the structure material and the characteristics of rocks
and soil;
d -- Design value of the geometric parameters of the structure and components

of the structure. Standard value of the geometric parameters can be adopted
53
if there is not any reliable data.
Table 5.4.2-1 Structure Significance Coefficient 0
Classification of highways
Height of retaining walls Expressways and class 1

Class 2 highways and below
highways
5.0m 1.0 0.95
>5.0m 1.05 1.0
3The actions (or loads) on the retaining walls are listed in Table 5.4.2-2 in different
natures.
4Load effect combinations
For the retaining walls in general areas, the force on them can be calculated only by
permanent actions (or loads) and basic variable actions (or loads) being taken into
consideration. But for those in immersed area, the areas where the acceleration of seism peak
value is 0.2g or above, and frost heave area, variable actions (or loads) and accidental actions
(or loads) should be also taken into calculation. And the combinations of actions (or loads) are
as Table 5.4.2-3.
5When the earthquake force acts on a retaining wall, the regulations in the current
Seismic Design Specifications for Highway Engineering (JTJ 004) should be followed.
6For the skid resistance retaining walls with obvious skid surfaces, the load calculation
should follow the relevant regulations in Sections 5.7, 7.2 in the Specifications. The subgrade
retaining walls in debris flow sections should follow the regulations in Section 7.4 in the
Specifications.
Table 5.4.2-2 Classification of Loads
Classification of the
actions Name of the actions (or loads)
(or loads)
Permanent actions (or loads) Structure gravity of the retaining walls

53
(or loads)
Gravity of fillings (including the earth above the margins
of the foundations)
Lateral pressure of fillings
Effective permanent loads on the top of the walls

Effective loads between the top of the walls and the second
surface of fracture
Floatage and water static pressure

on the calculation of water level
Pre-applied force
Shrinkage and creep of the concrete
Influence force of the deflection of the foundations
Lateral pressure of the earth caused by vehicle loads

Basic variable
Crowd loads and lateral pressure of the earth caused by
actions (or loads)
crowd loads
Dynamic pressure of the water when ebbing

Variable
Flowing water pressure
actions(or Other variable
Wave pressure
loads) actions (or loads)
Frost heaving pressure and ice pressure
Temperature effect
Temporary loads related to the construction of the retaining
Construction loads
walls of different types
Seismic force
Accidental actions (or loads) Force of landslide and debris flow
Collision force of vehicles on the guard rails of the top of

53
(or loads)
the walls
Table 5.4.2-3 Common Combinations of Actions (or Loads)
Combinations Name of the actions (or loads)
The combination of structure gravity of the retaining walls, effective

I permanent loads on the top of the walls, gravity of fillings, lateral pressure of
fillings, and combinations of other permanent loads
II The combination of combination I and basic variable loads
The combination of combination II and other variable load and accidental

III
loads
Notes: Flood and earthquake force will not be taken into consideration simultaneously;
Frost heave force, ice pressure, and flowing water pressure or wave pressure will
not be taken into consideration simultaneously;
Vehicle loads and earthquake force will not be taken into consideration
simultaneously.
7If the backs of immersed retaining walls are formed of rock blocks and coarse grain soil
(except silt), the water static pressure on both sides of the wall bodies and water dynamic
pressure on the backs of the walls can not be taken into calculation.
8The buoyancy exerted on the wall bodies should be determined according to the
immersion states of the ground strata by the following principles:
1) For the foundations on sandy soil, crushed stone soil, and rocks with developed joints,
the floatage is calculated by 100% of the calculation water level.
2) For the foundations on rocks, the buoyancy is calculated by 50% of the calculation water
level.
53
9The active earth pressure on the backs of the walls can be calculated by Coulomb theory.
Earth quality tests should be carried out for the filler materials behind the walls to determine
the indexes of physical mechanics of the filler materials. If there is lack of reliable test data,
the internal friction angles of the filler materials can be selected with reference to Table
5.4.2-4.
Table 5.4.2-4 Internal Friction Angle or Comprehensive

Internal Friction Angle of Fillers ()
Comprehensive
Internal friction Absolute density
Varieties of the filler internal friction
angles () kN/m3
angles 0 ()
Height of the wall
35~40
H6m
Clay 17~18
Height of the wall
30~35
H>6m
Crushed stone, block stone not easily
45~50 18~19
to be weathered
Cobble stone, crushed stone soil,
and rock pieces un-vulnerable 40~45 18~19
to be weathered
Pebble, gravel, coarse sand,
35~40 18~19
and chips
Medium sand, fine sand
30~35 17~18
and sandy soil
Note: The absolute densities of the filler can be appropriately revised according to the data
from actual tests. The float absolute densities can be adopted as the absolute densities of the
filler under the calculation water level.
10The passive earth pressure in front of the retaining walls can not be calculated. If the
foundation embedment is deeper and the strata are stable without any scouring or disturbance
damage, the passive earth pressure can be taken into calculation. But the action subitem
coefficients should be taken into calculation according to the regulations in Table 5.4.2-5.
53
Table 5.4.2-5 Sub Coefficients of Actions (or Loads) of

Bearing Capacity in Limit State
When load increase acts When load increase acts
Conditions favorably on the structure un-favorably on the structure
of the retaining walls of the retaining walls
Combinations I, II III I, II III
Vertical dead loads G 0.90 1.20
Dead loads or the active earth
pressure of the vehicle loads 1.00 0.95 1.40 1.30
and crowd loads Q1
Passive earth pressure Q2 0.30 0.50
Water floatage Q3 0.95 1.10
Hydrostatic pressure Q4 0.95 1.05
Hydrodynamic pressure Q5 0.95 1.20
11The additional lateral pressure of earth caused by the action of the vehicle loads on the
fillings of the backs of the retaining walls can be calculated according to the Formula 5.4.2-3
after being converted into equivalent uniform depths of earth layers:
(5.4.2-3)
In which: h0-- Depth of the earth layer after conversion (m);
q -- Additional load intensity of vehicle loads, 20kN/m2 for the walls lower than
2m; 10kN/m2 for the walls higher than 10m; if the height of the wall is
between 2-10m the additional load intensity can be calculated by straight
interpolation methods; the intensity of the crowd loads on the top or the
fillings behind the walls is regulated as 3kN/m2; the horizontal thrust on the
top of the rails of the retaining walls adopts 0.75kN/m, 1kN/m is adopted as
the vertical force on the handrails.
-- The weight of the fillings on the back of the walls (kN/m3).
12If the retaining walls are designed by the limit state of their bearing capacity, the
53
common sub coefficients of the actions (or loads) can be adopted according to the regulations
in Table 5.4.2-5, unless otherwise stated.
5.4.3. Foundation Design and Stability Calculation
1The eccentric distance e0 of the resultant force on the bottom of the foundation base can
be calculated by the following Formula:
(5.4.3-1)
In which: Nd-- The design value of the combination of the vertical forces on the bottom of
the foundations base b (kN/m);
Md-- The design value of the combination of the bending moments in the center
of the foundation base (MPa).
2When the calculation of the foundation of the retaining walls is carried out, under the
combinations of various actions (or loads), the subitem coefficient of the actions in the
calculation formula of the combination design value of the actions effects is 1 except that the
subitem coefficient of the passive earth pressure Q2 is 0.3.
3The compressive stress of on the bottom of the foundation should be calculated by the
following formulas:
N d 6e0
When |e0| , 1, 2 = 1 (5.4.3-2)
A B
For the retaining walls on the rock foundation:
When e0 (5.4.3-3)
,
(5.4.3-4)
In which: 1 -- Compressive stress on the toe of the retaining wall (kPa);
2 -- Compressive stress on the heel of the retaining wall (kPa);
B -- Width of the foundation base (m), the inclined foundation base as its
inclined width;
A -- The area per linear meter of the surface of the foundation base, equals to
53
foundation width B1(m2) for the rectangular foundations;
Other symbols mean the same as above.
The eccentric distance e0 of the resultant action on the foundation base should not be larger
than B/6 for the soil foundation and should not be larger than B/4 for the rock foundation. The
compressive stress on the foundation base should not be larger than the allowable bearing
capacity [0] which can be adopted according to the regulations in the current Design
Specifications for Grounds and Foundations of Highways (JTJ 024) and can be added by
25% if the Actions (or Loads) Combination III and construction loads are in effect and
[0] >150kPa.
4The open cut foundations are suitable for the retaining walls. For the retaining walls
whose foundation is based on the longitudinal slopes larger than 5%, the foundation base
should be designed as steps. If a foundation is located in a cross slope, the embedded depth of
the front toe and the horizontal distance away from the earths surface should meet the
requirements in Table 5.4.3-1.
Table 5.4.3-1 Embedding Conditions of Foundation on Slopes

Horizontal distance away
Minimum embedded depth h
Classification of soil layer from the earths surface L
(m)
(m)
Integrated hard rock 0.25 0.25~0.50
General hard rock 0.60 0.60~1.50
Soft rock 1.00 1.00~2.00
Soil 1.00 1.50~2.50
5The embedded depths of the foundations should meet the following requirements:
1) If the frozen depth is smaller than or equal to 1m, the foundation base should be under
the freezing line not lower than 0.25m, and should meet the requirement that the minimum
embedded depth should not be smaller than 1m.
2) If the frozen depth is larger than 1m, the minimum embedded depth should not be
smaller than 1.25m, and the ground soil from the foundation base to 0.25m depth below the
53
freezing line should be replaced by weak frost heave materials.
3) When being scoured by water, the scouring depth should be calculated according to the
design flood frequency of subgrade and the foundation base should be located under the local
scour line not lower than 1m.
4) The top surface of the foundation of retaining wall for cutting slope should be lower than
the bottom surface of the side ditch of cutting and not less than 0.5m.
5) On the hard rock foundation with not thick weathered layers, the foundation base should
be under the weathered layers of the bedrock surface; on the soft rock foundation, the
foundation base should be embedded not lower than 1m.
6The sliding stability equation and antiskid stability coefficient of the retaining walls
should be calculated by the following formulas:
1) Sliding stability equation:
(5.4.3-5)
In which: G -- Gravity acting above the foundation base (kN), the floatage should be taken
into calculation for the immersed part of the immersed retaining walls;
Ey -- Vertical component of the active earth pressure behind the walls (kN);
Ex -- Horizontal component of the active earth pressure behind the walls (kN);
Ep -- Horizontal component of the passive earth pressure in front of the walls

(kN); Ep=0 for the immersed retaining walls;
0 -- Inclination angle of the foundation base (); if the foundation base is

horizontal, 0=0;
Q1, Q2 --Subitem coefficient of the active earth pressure, subitem coefficient of the
passive earth pressure in front of the walls, which can be selected according
to the regulations in Table 5.4.2-5;
-- The friction coefficient between the foundation base and the ground earth. If
there is lack of reliable test data, it can be selected according to the
regulations in Table 5.4.3-2.
53
Table 5.4.3-2 Friction Coefficient between Foundation base and Ground Soil
Classification of Friction coefficient Classification of Friction coefficient
the ground soil the ground soil
Soft plastic clay 0.25 Crushed stone soil 0.50
Hard plastic clay 0.30 Soft rock 0.40~0.60
Sandy soil, clayey sandy
soil and 0.30~0.40 Hard rock 0.60~0.70
semi-dry and hard clay
Sandy soil 0.40
2) Antiskid stability coefficient Kc should be calculated by the following formula:
(5.4.3-6)
In which: N -- Vertical component of the resultant force on the foundation base (kN), the
floatage should be taken into calculation for the immersed part of the
immersed retaining walls;
Ep' -- 0.3 time of the horizontal component of the passive earth pressure in front of
the walls;
7The capsize stability equation and capsize resistance stability coefficient of the retaining
walls should be calculated by the following formula:
1) Capsize stability equation:
(5.4.3-7)
In which: ZG -- The distance from the gravity of the wall body, the gravity of the foundation,
the gravity of filling earth on the foundation, and the gravity of the vertical
resultant force of other loads on the top of the wall to the toe of the wall (m);
Zx -- The distance between the vertical component of the active earth pressure
behind the wall and the toe of the wall (m);
53
Zy -- The distance between the horizontal component of the active earth pressure
behind the wall and the toe of the wall (m);
Zp -- The distance between the horizontal component of the passive earth pressure
in front of the wall and the toe of the wall (m);
2) The capsize resistance stability coefficient K0 of the retaining walls should be calculated
by the following formula:
(5.4.3-8)
In which: The symbols mean the same as above.
8The stability coefficient is not suitable to be smaller than the values regulated in Table
5.4.3-3 when the antiskid and capsize resistance stability are checked during the range of the
heights of the walls regulated in the Specifications.
Table 5.4.3-3 Antiskid and Capsize Resistance Stability Coefficient
Loads Item to be checked Stability coefficient
Skid resistance Kc 1.3

Load combination I and II
Capsize resistance K0 1.5
Skid resistance Kc 1.3

Load combination III
Capsize resistance K0 1.3
Check computing during Skid resistance Kc 1.2
construction stage Capsize resistance K0 1.2
9For the retaining walls on the base with unfavorable geology, or where there is inclined
bedrock base under the surface soil or on the slopes, the foundation of the retaining walls and
the integrated stability of filling earth should be checked, the stability coefficient should not
be smaller than 1.25.
5.4.4. Design Calculation of Gravity and Semi-gravity Retaining Walls
1Structure requirements
53
1) The top of the walls should not be narrower than 0.4m if the wall bodies are formed by
concrete; should not be narrower than 0.5m if the wall bodies are formed by mortar rubble;
should not be narrower than 0.6m if the wall bodies are formed by dry rubble.
2) The gradient of the back of the gravity retaining wall should be selected rationally
according to the topography conditions of the toe of the wall and economic comparison.
3) Appropriate strengthening measures should be taken at the place where the balance
weight platform of the balance weight shoulder retaining wall crosses the upper back of the
wall in order to enhance the shear strength in the cross section of the wall body.
4) The number of turning points between the vertical wall and the bottom plate should be
determined according to the calculation requirements of the bending tensile strength and
rigidity for semi-gravity retaining wall. The end parts should not be narrower than 0.4m and
the extension length of the front toe of the bottom plate is not suitable to longer than 1.5m.
2Design calculations
1) The calculation of the actions (or loads) of gravity and semi-gravity retaining walls
should follow the regulations in Article 5.4.2 in this Specifications.
2) The design of the gravity and semi-gravity retaining walls should be followed the
regulations about the design and stability calculation of the foundations in Article 5.4.3 in the
Specifications.
3) The material intensity of the wall bodies of gravity and semi-gravity retaining walls can
be adopted according the regulations in the current Design Specifications for Brick, Stone
and Concrete Highway Bridges and Culverts (JTJ 022). Check calculation of shearing
strength should be carried out if necessary.
4) When a solid gravity retaining wall is designed by the limit state of its bearing capacity,
the combination design value of the action (or load) effect under one type of the combinations
of the actions (or loads) can be calculated according to Formula (5.4.4-1). The subitem
coefficient f of resistance of the masonry components or materials can be adopted according
to Table 5.4.4-1.
(5.4.4-1)
In which: S -- Combination design value of the action (or load) effect;
G,Qi -- Subitem coefficients of the actions (or loads), which are adopted according
to the regulations in Table 5.4.2-5;
53
SGik -- Standard value effect of the vertical dead load of No. i;
SQik -- Standard value effect of the lateral pressure of the earth, water floatage,
water stantic pressure and other variable actions (or loads).
ZL -- Combination coefficient of the load effect, which is adopted according to

Table 5.4.4-2.
Table 5.4.4-1 Subitem Coefficient f of Resistance of

Masonry Members or Materials
Stress conditions
Masonry types Bended, sheared and
Pressed
tensed
Stone material 1.85 2.31
Masonry structure made from rubble, rubble
2.31 2.31
concrete
Masonry structure made from block stone,
coarse dressed stone, prefabricated concrete 1.92 2.31
blocks and bricks
Concrete 1.54 2.31
Table 5.4.4-2 Combination Coefficient ZL of Load Effect
Load Load Load

ZL ZL ZL
combination combination combination
I, II 1.0 Construction load 0.7 III 0.8
5) When a component of the retaining wall is pressed on its axis or offset center, the
intensity and stability of the right cross section are calculated by the following formulas:
For the intensity calculation:
(5.4.4-2)
For the stability calculation:

53
(5.4.4-3)
In which: Nd -- Design value of the combination of axial force on the cross section being
checked (KN);
0 -- Significance coefficient, which is adopted according Article 5.4.2 in the

Specifications;
f -- Subitem coefficient of the resistance of the masonry components or material,

which is adopted according Table 5.4.4-1.
Ra -- Compression ultimate strength of the materials (kN);
A -- Area of the cross section being calculated of the component for the retaining
wall (m2);
ak -- Influence coefficient of the eccentricity of the axial force, which is

calculated according to Formula 5.4.4-4;
k -- Longitudinal bending coefficient within the bending surface of the

component being pressed offset center, which is determined according to
Formula 5.4.4-6; the longitudinal bending coefficient of the component
being pressed on the axis can be calculated according the regulations in
Table 5.4.4-4.
(5.4.4-4)
In which: e0 -- Eccentric distance of the axial force (m), which is determined and calculated
according to Formula 5.4.4-5;
B -- The width of the calculation cross section of the retaining wall (m);
If the wall body or the foundation of a retaining wall is formed by masonry, the
eccentric distance e0 of the axial force should follow the regulations in Table
5.4.4-5.
(5.4.4-5)
53
In which: M0 -- The resultant moment on the centre of area of the calculation cross section
by the actions (or loads) under one combination of the actions (or loads)
(kNm);
N0 -- The resultant force of the axial force on the calculation cross section under
one combination of the action (or loads) (kN).
(5.4.4-6)
(5.4.4-7)
In which: H -- Height of the wall (m);
as -- The coefficient related to the material, which is adopted according to Table

5.4.4-3;
Table 5.4.4-3 Table of as Values
The mortar masonry adopts the following

Name of the intensity classes
Concrete
masonry
M10, M7.5, M5 M2.5 M1
as Values 0.002 0.0025 0.004 0.002
Table 5.4.4-4 Longitudinal Bending Coefficient k of

Pressed Axis Members
Intensity classes of the mortar masonry

2H/B Concrete members
M10, M7.5, M5 M2.5
3 1.00 1.00 1.00
4 0.99 0.99 0.99
6 0.96 0.96 0.96
8 0.93 0.93 0.91

53
Intensity classes of the mortar masonry

2H/B Concrete members
M10, M7.5, M5 M2.5
10 0.88 0.88 0.85
12 0.82 0.82 0.79
14 0.76 0.76 0.72
16 0.71 0.71 0.66
18 0.65 0.65 0.60
20 0.60 0.60 0.54
22 0.54 0.54 0.49
24 0.50 0.50 0.44
26 0.46 0.46 0.40
28 0.42 0.42 0.36
30 0.38 0.38 0.33
The offset-center pressed components should be checked for their stability within
un-bending plane as axes-pressed components in addition to the checking of longitudinal
stability within the bending plane.
6) The eccentric distance e0 of the axial force of gravity retaining wall should follow the
regulations in Table 5.4.4-5.
Table 5.4.4-5 Allowable Eccentric Distance e0 of Axial Resultant Force of

Masonry Structures
Allowable eccentric Allowable eccentric

Load combination Load combination
distances distances
I, II 0.25B Construction loads 0.33B
III 0.3B
Note: B is the width of the rectangular calculation cross section in the rotation direction of
the moment.
53
7) If the longitudinal reinforcement not less than 0.05% of the area of the cross section
is arranged on the tensile side of the concrete cross section, the allowable values in Table
5.4.4-5 can be increased by 0.05B; if the reinforcement arrangement rate is larger than the
regulations in Table 5.4.4-6, it can be calculated as a reinforced concrete component without
any limit to the eccentric distance.
Table 5.4.4-6 Minimum Arrangement Ratio of Tensile Reinforcements Calculated

for Reinforced Concrete Members
Minimum reinforcement ratio (%)
Reinforcement types Reinforcements on one Reinforcements of the
side of the section whole section
Steel bar Q235 (Class I) 0.20 0.50
Steel bar HRB335, HRB400

0.20 0.50
(Class II and III)
Note: The minimum reinforcement rate is calculated for the whole cross section of the
component.
5.4.5. Design Calculation of Cantilever and Buttressed Retaining Walls
1The calculation of the limit state of the bearing capacity of the reinforced components of
the cantilever and buttressed retaining walls and the normal checking calculation and structure
requirement of the limit state are executed according to the relevant regulations in the current
Design Specifications for Reinforced Concrete and Prestressed Reinforced Concrete Bridges
and Culverts of Highways (JTG D62) in addition to the regulations in the Specifications.
1) The top of the vertical wall should not be narrower than 0.2m and the bottom plate
should not be thinner than 0.3m.
2) The strength grade of the concrete intensity of the buttressed retaining walls should not
be lower than C20; the diameters of the main reinforcement in the walls should not be smaller
than 12mm.
3) Every section of the buttressed retaining walls is not suitable to be longer than 20m and
is suitable to be arranged 3 or more than 3 buttresses.
53
3Design calculations
1) The cantilever and buttressed retaining walls should be followed the regulations about
the foundation design and stability calculation in Article 5.4.3 in the Specifications.
2) The calculation of actions (or loads) of retaining walls should meet the requirements in
Article 5.4.2 in the Specifications. When the actual earth pressure of the back and heel plate
of the retaining walls is calculated, the friction force between the filling material and plate can
not be in consideration.
3) When the integer stability and wall plate are calculated, the action of the earth in front of
the wall can be out of consideration; when the internal force of the plate of the toe of the walls
is calculated and the gravity of earth fill on the bottom plate should be taken into
consideration.
4) All the parts of the cantilever retaining walls should be calculated as cantilever beams
whose sub coefficient of the actions (or loads) should be selected according to the regulations
in Article 5.4.2 in the Specifications. If the stress on the bottom of the foundation is taken as
vertical loads, the sub coefficient of the vertical dead loads can be adopted.
5) The front toe plates of the buttressed retaining walls can be calculated as cantilever
beams, the back heel plates can be calculated as continuous plate supported on the buttress
without consideration of the constraint effect on the bottom plate by the vertical walls; the
buttresses can be calculated as T beams; the bending moment of the vertical walls in the
direction along the route can be calculated as continuous beams supported at the points of
buttresses.
6) The actions (or loads) on the vertical walls of the buttressed retaining walls can be
distributed along the height of the wall in a pattern of trapezium (refer to Fig.5.4.5a); the
vertical bending moment of the vertical wall is distributed along the height of the wall (refer
to Fig. 5.4.5b); the vertical bending moment is distributed in the direction along the route in a
pattern of steps (refer to Fig. 5.4.5c). The bending moment of the wall plates in the direction
along the route can be calculated as the continuous beam taking buttresses as the supporting
point.
53
Rib M Mid Rib

M Mid
Wall plate of the wall
MMid -- The bending moment in the mid span of the plate;

H -- The height of the wall plate of the wall;
H -- The earth pressure in normal direction caused by the fillings inside the bottom end
of the wall plate of the wall;
l -- The clearance distance between the buttresses.
Fig. 5.4.5 Distribution of Loads and Bending Moments
5.4.6. Design Calculation of Anchor Rod Retaining Wall
1For bearing capacity limit state calculation of the concrete members of the anchor rod
retaining wall, the checking calculation of normal application limit state and structure
requirements, etc. should be implemented according to the Specifications. Other unmentioned
contents should be implemented according to the related Specifications in the current standard
of Specifications for Design of Highway Reinforced Concrete and Prestressed Concrete
Bridges and Culverts (JTG D62). The anchor rod should be in accordance with the
requirements in Section 5.5. The fasteners for anchoring should be in accordance with the
requirements in the national standards.
1) Concrete strength level for rib column and wall board should not be lower than C20.
2) Rib column interval between rib column type anchor rod retaining walls are suitable to
be 2.0~3.0m. The rib column is suitable to be placed vertically or inclined to the earth fill, but
the inclination degree should not more than 1:0.05.
3) The number of the anchor rod courses on each level of rib column should be designed as
double course or multilayer. The anchor rod should be placed on the principle of equivalent
bending moment or equivalent pivot counterforce and incline downwards. The angle included
between each course of anchor rod and the horizontal plane should be controlled between
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15~20. The anchor rod interval should not be less than 2.0m.
4) Within the front and back sides along the direction of the rib column under stress, the
stressed reinforcing bars should be equipped and their diameter not less than 12mm.
5) The platform of multi-level rib column type anchor rod retaining wall should be sealed
with C15 concrete with the thickness not less than 0.15m, and set to 2% cross slope inclining
towards the outside of the wall.
6) For wall boards, the boards with the same thickness should be used and the thickness of
board should not be less than 0.3m. For pre-casting wall boards, the anchoring holes for
anchor rods should be reserved.
3Design calculation
1) The action (or load) acting on the anchor rod retaining wall should be in accordance with
the requirements in Article 5.4.2 of the Specifications.
2) In the case of multi-level wall, calculate the active earth pressure behind each wall by
lengthening the back of wall.
3) Rib column design calculation should be in accordance with the following requirements:
(1) The action (or load) acting on the rib column should be taken from that between
midspan to midspan length of two neighboring span wall boards;
(2) According to the foundation base geologic structure, foundation bearing capacity and
embedded depth, the connection of the rib column and foundation base should be designed as
free end or hinged end. For the rib column, calculate its internal force and supporting
counterforce at the anchor rod according to the simply supported beam or continuous beam.
(3) When checking and calculating the section strength of rib column and allocating the
steel bars, internal force combinational designed value should be used, and the action (or load)
subitem coefficients should be in accordance with the requirements in Article 5.4.2.
(4) When using pre-cast rib column, check and calculate the section strength of rib column
under loads such as uneven stress of anchor rod during transportation, hoisting and
constructing.
4) The assembly type retaining plate can be calculated according to simply supported plate
with the rib column as the pivot, the calculated span is the sum of the clear distance between
the rib columns plus the overlapped length at both ends of the plate.
5) For cast-in-situ buttressed type anchor rod retaining wall, calculate the internal force of
the wall board according to the continuous beam, taking the unit width along vertical direction
and horizontal direction. The calculated load of vertical unit width beam is the earth pressure
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acting on the wall board; and the calculated load of horizontal unit width beam is the
maximum earth pressure where the wall board is in this section.
5.4.7. Design Calculation of Anchor Plate Retaining Wall
1For bearing capacity limit state calculation of concrete members of the anchor plate
retaining wall, checking calculation of normal application limit state and structure
requirements, etc, should be implemented according to the Specifications. Other unmentioned
contents should be implemented according to the related requirements in the current standard
of Specifications for Design of Highway Reinforced Concrete and Prestressed Concrete
Bridges and Culverts (JTG D62). The fasteners for anchoring steel tie bar should be in
accordance with the requirements in the current national standards.
1) Concrete strength level for the rib columns, retaining plates, wall boards, anchor plates,
separate cushion block substrate of rib columns and cup-seated substrate of the rib columns
and the coping stone of the batten wall type anchor plate retaining wall should not be lower
than C20. Concrete strength level for bar substrate of the rib columns should not be lower
than C15.
2) Rib column interval between the rib column type anchor plate retaining walls should be
1.5~2.5m. Each height of the rib columns at all levels should be 3~5m. The rib columns
should be placed vertically or face upwards back to the earth fill, but the upward-oblique
degree should be 1:0.05. Never rake the rib columns forward. Reserve a round or oval-shaped
tie bar opening in the rib column. The opening diameter or short axle length should be more
than the diameter of the tie bar.
3) The lower end of the rib column should be equipped with concrete bar substrate, the
separate cushion block substrate or cup-seated substrate. The substrates thickness should not
be less than 0.5m. The width of its front should not be less than 0.1m.
4) Within the inside of front & back along the stress direction of the rib column, the
common reinforcing steel bars should be equipped and their diameter not less than 12mm.
5) The platform of multi-level rib column type anchor plate retaining wall should be sealed
with C15 concrete whose thickness is not less than 0.15m, and set 2% cross slope inclining
towards to the outside of the wall. When using the fine-grained soil as filler, the top surface of
the subgrade should be also equipped with seal coat.
6) Each wall board of wall type retaining wall should connect to one tie bar at least, and the
diameter of the tie bar is properly 22~32mm.
7) For anchor plate, the reinforced concrete plate is suitable to be used. The area of rib
column type anchor plate should not be less than 0.5m2, and that of non-rib column type
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anchor plate should not be less than 0.2m2. The anchor plate should be arranged by two-way
steel bars.
8) The tie bar, connections between the tie bar and rib column, tie bar and anchor plate,
shall be well via rust-proofing treatment.
3Design calculation
1) When calculating the reinforced concrete members design of the anchor plate retaining
wall, for the action (or load) effect combination, the structure importance coefficient 0 should
be considered according to Article 5.4.2 in the Specifications.
2) Dead load earth pressures acting on the anchor plate retaining wall or wall board are
distributed as shown in Fig.5.4.7. Its horizontal earth pressure stress can be calculated
according to Equation 5.4.7-1.
(5.4.7-1)
In which: H -- Horizontal earth pressure stress for base of the wall under the action of dead
load (kPa);
Ex -- Horizontal component (kN/m) of active earth pressure at the back of the

wall on unit wall length calculated according to Coulomb Theory;
H -- Wall height (m). In case that it is two-level wall, the sum for height of the
lower and upper walls;
-- Increasing coefficient of the earth pressure: Adopt 1.2~1.4. Increasing

coefficient is not considered for earth pressure resulting from vehicle load.
Fig.5.4.7 Earth Pressure Distribution under Action of Dead Load
3) For overall sliding stability checking calculation of the anchor plate retaining wall, the
sliding surface analysis method with broken lines or overall earth wall method may be
used for calculation. The sliding stability coefficient should not be less than 1.8. For stability
calculation, the most disadvantageous combination where the top of the wall has additional
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load or not, and the increasing coefficient is considered in earth pressure or not, should be
adopted as the calculation value.
4) Rib column design should be in accordance with the following requirements:
(1) The action (or load) acting on the rib column should be that the two sides of the lagging
plate from mid span to the length of mid span.
(2) The rib column should bear the earth pressure transferred from the lagging plate.
According to the number of courses of the tie bars on the rib column and connection mode of
the rib column and its substrate, calculate according to simply supported beam or continuous
beam.
5) Tie bar design calculation is suitable to be in accordance with the following

requirements:
(1) The distance from the highest row of the tie bars to the top surface of the filler should
not be less than 1m. If the embedded depth of the anchor plate is not enough, the tie bars
inclined downwards may be used, and the horizontal oblique angle should be 10~15.
(2) The length of the tie bars should meet the requirement of overall sliding stability of the
retaining wall. The length of the lowest course of tie bars behind the fracture plane in active
earth pressure calculation should not be less than 3.5 times of the height of the anchor plate;
the length of the highest course of tie bars should not be less than 5m.
(3) For single steel tie bar with rust allowance not considered, calculate its diameter
(5.4.7-2)
In which: d -- The diameter (mm) of single steel tie bar;
Np -- The axial tension (kN) of tie bar;
Rg -- Designed strength (MPa) of the reinforcing steel bar; it can be used

according to the requirements in Specifications for Design of Highway
Reinforced Concrete and Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Culverts (JTG
D62);
0 -- Structure importance coefficient, which should be in accordance with the

requirements specified in Table 5.4.2-1 of the Specifications;
Q1 -- Subitem coefficient of the active earth pressure load should be in accordance

with the requirements specified in Table 5.4.2-5 of the Specifications;
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f -- Subitem coefficient of the material, f =1.4.
6) The area of anchor plate, based on the designed tension of the tie bar and allowable
pull-out force of the anchor plate, should be calculated according to Equation 5.4.7-3:
(5.4.7-3)
In which: A -- Designed area of the anchor plate (m2);
[P] -- Allowable pull-out force (kPa) of the anchor plates unit area; it should be
determined according to the on-site pulling tests. If theres no condition for
the on-site pulling tests, determine it by referring to the empirical data
according to the specific conditions for the workplace.
The meanings of other symbols are the same as above.
7) Design calculation of the lagging plate should be done according to the design of the
lagging plate in Article 5.4.6 of the Specifications.
8) The wall board should be calculated according to the flexural members on the tie bar. If
one tie bar is connected to one wall board, calculate according to the single-pivot
bidirectional-suspending wall plate and arrange reinforcing steel bars.
5.4.8. Design Calculation for Reinforced Earth Retaining Wall
1) Reinforced concrete and concrete wall board of the reinforced earth retaining wall
should appropriately adopt the pre-cast members, and the strength level should not be lower
than C20 and the thickness not less than 80mm.
2) Connection between tendon belt and wall board must be reliable and its
corrosion-resisting should be the same as that of the tendon belt.
3) The horizontal alignment of the reinforced earth retaining wall can be straight line,
broken line, and curve. Inner angle between two adjacent walls should not be less than 70.
4) If the reinforced wall is not constructed on stone block masonry, concrete member or the
ground is bedrock, set the concrete foundation whose width is not less than 0.40m and
thickness not less than 0.20m. Embedded depth of the foundation should not be less than
0.60m for earthy ground.
5) For the earths surface water and groundwater that may be harmful to the reinforced
earth works, suitable drainage or waterproofing measures should be taken. Make stone or
concrete solid masonry wall if its under the designed water level. For reinforced body in
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seasonal frost regions, antifrost heave measures should be taken.
6) Reinforced body on the slope should include corner whose width is not less than 1m.
Embedded depth of the reinforced body faceplate foundation should be calculated from the
top surface of the corner.
7) For non-soaking reinforced earth retaining wall, when the embedded depth of the
foundation is less than 1.25m, set concrete pre-cast blocks or mortar rubble protective corse
whose width is 1.0m and thickness more than 0.25m at the earths surface area of the wall. A
drainage cross slope with outwards inclination of 3%~5% should be made for wall surface.
8) The longitudinal slope shouldnt be set on the foundation base of the reinforced earth
retaining wall, which can be made as horizontal or step according to the terrain.
9) The platform top of the multi-level reinforced earth retaining wall should have a
drainage longitudinal slope not less than 2%, and protected with C15 concrete board whose
thickness is not less than 0.15m; when using fine-grained filler, there should be gravel or lime
soil bed course whose width is not less than 1.0m and thickness not less than 0.50m under the
faceplate foundation of the upper wall (See Fig.5.4.8-1).
Upper wall
Protective slab staggering
Bed course
Lower wall
Fig.5.4.8-1 Cross Section of Platform and Bed Course
10) In the precondition to meet the pull-out force stability requirement, the length of the tie
bar adopted should be in accordance with the following requirements:
(1) When the wall is over 3.0m high, the minimum length of the tie bars should be more
than 0.8 times of the wall height and not less than 5m; when the tie bars with different length
are used, the height of the wall sections with the same length tie bars should be more than
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3.0m; the length difference between two adjacent tie bars with different length should not be
less than 1.0m;
(2) When the wall is less than 3.0m high, the length of the tie bars should not be less than
3.0m and the same length tie bars should be used;
(3) When the pre-cast reinforced concrete belt is used, the length of each section should not
be more than 2.0m;
11) When the tendon belts of double-sided reinforced earth retaining wall insert to each
other, lay them staggeringly and avoid overlaping.
12) There should be concrete or reinforced concrete coping stones on the top surface of the
reinforced earth retaining wall.
2Design calculation
1) Reinforced earth retaining wall design should be calculated by internal stability and
external stability. Checking calculation of the external stability should be in accordance with
the requirements in Article 5.4.3 of the Specifications. For reinforced body built in soft soil
foundation, the foundation sedimentation calculation should be made. If it is possible to have
deep sliding under the foundation, the checking calculation of reinforced body and foundation
overall sliding stability should be done.
2) In soaked reinforced earth retaining wall design, the water floatage should be considered
according to the following requirements:
(1) In section design of the tie bars, the low water level floatage should be used;
(2) For foundation stress checking calculation, the low water level floatage should be used
or the floatage not considered; For reinforced body sliding stability checking calculation and
upset stability checking calculation, the designed water level floatage should be used;
(3) For other conditions, the most disadvantageous water level floatage should be used.
3) In tendon belt section calculation, the tension force resulting from additional load of
vehicles and crowds should be considered. In tendon belt anchor length calculation, the
pull-out force resulting from additional load should not be considered.
4) In internal stability checking calculation of the reinforced body, the earth pressure
coefficient should be calculated according to the following equation:
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When Zi 6m,
(5.4.8-1)
When Zi >6m,
(5.4.8-2)
(5.4.8-3)
(5.4.8-4)
In which: Ki -- Earth pressure coefficient in the depth of zi within reinforced body;
Kj -- Static earth pressure coefficient;
Ka -- Active earth pressure coefficient;
zi -- Vertical distance (m) between ith unit tendon belt node and the top surface
of reinforced body;
5) Horizontal earth pressure Ei acting on the wall board should be calculated according to
the following equation:
(5.4.8-5)
In which: zi -- Horizontal earth pressure stress of reinforced earth filler acting on the wall
board in the depth of zi (kPa);
ai -- Horizontal earth pressure stress of additional vehicle (or crowds) load acting
on the wall board in the depth of zi (kPa);
bi -- Horizontal earth pressure stress on the wall board in the depth of zi resulting
from earth fill gravity conversion uniform distribution earth thickness (kPa);
6) The interface of the active area and stable area of the reinforced body should be the
simplified fracture surface. The distance bH between the vertical part of the simplified fracture
surface and back of the wall board should be 0.3H. The included angle between the
inclination part and horizontal plane should be 45+/2, see Fig.5.4.8-2.
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Fig. 5.4.8-2 Simplified Fracture Surface
1- Active area; 2- Simplified fracture surface; 3- Stable area
7) Under the action of additional load, calculate diffusion width at the diffusion ratio of
slope of 1:0.5 along the depth. Additional vertical pressure stress in the depth zi of reinforced
body is fi (kPa). When the inner edge spot of the diffusion line does not enter the active area
yet, fi=0; when the inner edge spot of the diffusion line enters the active area, calculate
(5.4.8-6)
In which: h0 -- conversion equipollent uniform distribution earth layer thickness for vehicle
or crowd additional load (m);
Lc -- Load distribution width (m) when calculating the reinforced body, adopting
full subgrade width;
Lci -- Load diffusion width (m) of the depth Zi of the reinforced body;
-- Gravity of reinforced body (kN/m3). In case of soaked retaining wall,

calculate according to the difference between upper and lower water level in
the most disadvantageous condition.
8) Under the action of permanent load gravity, the vertical pressure in the tie bar location
should be calculated according to Equation 5.4.8-7.
(5.4.8-7)
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In which: i -- Vertical pressure stress (kPa) acting on the tendon belt in the depth of zi;
hi -- Earth fill conversion equipollent uniform distribution earth layer thickness

(m) for slope face of reinforced body;
9) Pull-out force stability of single tendon belt node should be checking calculated
(5.4.8-8)
When calculating pull-out force of the tendon belt, the action effect of basic variable load
should not be considered.
In which: 0 -- Structure importance coefficient should be used according to Table 5.4.2-1

in the Specifications;
Tio -- Designed horizontal tension force value born by the tendon belt in the depth
of zi (kN);
Ti -- Horizontal tension force born by the tendon belt in the depth of zi;
Ei -- Horizontal earth pressure stress on the wall board in the depth of zi (kPa);
Q1 -- Subitem coefficient of active earth pressure of reinforced body and earth fill
on the top of the wall or additional load earth pressure should be used
according to Table 5.4.2-5 in the Specifications;
Tpi -- Pull-out force (kN) provided by effective length of the tendon belt in the
depth of zi under the action of permanent load gravity;
R1 -- Adjusting coefficient for pull-out force calculation of the tendon belt should
be used according to Table 5.4.8-1;
Sx -- Horizontal interval (m) of the tendon belt node;
Sy -- Vertical interval (m) of the tendon belt node;
f ' -- Similar friction coefficient between the filler and tendon belt should be
determined via tests. If there are no reliable test data, refer to Table 5.4.8-2;
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bi -- Total width of tendon belt on the node (m);
Lai -- Effective anchor length of the tendon belt in stable area (m).
Table 5.4.8-1 Adjusting Coefficient R1 for Pull-out Force Calculation of

Tendon Belt
Load combination I, II III Construction load
R1 1.4 1.3 1.2
Table 5.4.8-2 Similar Friction Coefficient f between Filler and Tendon Belt
Filler type Clayey soil Sandy soil Gravel soil
Likely-friction
0.25~0.40 0.35~0.45 0.40~0.50
coefficient
Notes: Similar friction coefficient of steel belt with rib may be up to 0.1;
For high retaining wall with the height more than 12m, the value of the similar
friction coefficient is taken as the minimum value.
10) Tensile strength checking calculation of cross section of the tendon belt should be in
accordance with the requirements of Equation 5.4.8-9:
(5.4.8-9)
In which: A -- Effective net cross section area of the tendon belt (mm2);
fk -- Material strength standard value of the tendon belt (MPa) should be taken
according to Table 5.4.8-3;
f -- As to the subitem coefficient of tension performance of the tendon belt

material, take 1.25 for all kinds of tendon belts;
R2 -- As to the adjusting coefficient for material tension calculation of tie bars,

take the value according to Table 5.4.8-3;
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Table 5.4.8-3. Material Strength Standard Value fk of Tendon Belt and Adjusting
Coefficient R2 for Tension Calculation
Material type fk (Mpa) R2
Q235 flat steel belt 240 1.0
I-level reinforced concrete

240 1.05
slab belt
Steel-plastic compound belt Test rupture tension 1.55~2.0
Geogrid Test rupture tension 1.8~2.5
Polypropylene geotextile belt Test rupture tension 2.7~3.4

Notes: For R2 of tendon belt made of composite geotextile material, take the maximum
value when the construction condition is bad or the material creepage becomes
serious; take the minimum value when the construction load is in checking
calculation or the material creepage becomes slight.
When it is the reinforced concrete belt, the tendon content of tensioned steel bar
should be less than 2.0%;
Relative elongation of test rupture tension should not be more than 10%.
11) Requirements for effective net cross section area A of tendon belt:
(1) Flat steel belt. The net cross section area is calculated with designed thickness by
deducing the reserved corrosion thickness and deducing the bolt hole.
(2) Reinforced concrete belt. The tension strength of concrete is not considered, the
effective net area of steel bar is the sum of cross section areas of the main steel bars by
deducing the reserved corrosion amount of the steel bar diameter.
(3) Steel plastic compound belt, geogrid, polypropylene geotextile belt. The sizes should be
provided by the suppliers. After strictly checking of elongation and rupture stress, determine
its designed cross section area and strength limit according to the statistical principle, with the
assurance rate 98%.
12) For wall board, calculate according to the following requirements:
(1) Earth pressure acting on single board can be viewed as even distribution;
(2) With wall board as simply supported board whose both ends extrude outward, calculate
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the inner forces vertically and horizontally;
(3) Bonding section of wall board and tendon belt should be strengthened properly;
13) Checking calculation of full wall pull-out force stability should be in accordance with
the requirements of Equation 5.4.8-10.
(5.4.8-10)
In which: Kb -- Full wall pull-out force stability coefficient;
Tpi -- The sum of friction forces resulting from various layers of tie bars;
Ti -- The sum of horizontal tension forces born by various layers of tie bars;
For all the subitem coefficients in the equation, take 1.0.
5.4.9. Sheet Pile Retaining Wall
1For bearing capacity limit state calculation of reinforced concrete members of sheet pile
retaining wall, the checking calculation of normal application limit state and structure
requirements, etc, the requirements in the Specifications should be implemented. Other
unmentioned contents should be implemented according to relative requirements in the
current Specifications for Design of Highway Reinforced Concrete and Prestressed Concrete
Bridges and Culverts (JTG D62) and Specifications for Design of Highway Bridges and
Culverts Subgrade and Foundation (JTJ 024).
1) Anchor pile of sheet pile retaining wall must be anchored in stable subgrade. The length
of the cantilever arm of the pile should not be more than 15m. Strength level of concrete for
anchor pile and fender board should not be lower than C20.
2) Structure of the pile should be executed according to the relative requirements in Article
5.7 of the Specifications.
3) The fender board and the pile should be overlapped. The overlapping length at each end
should not be less than one time of the fender thickness. If the pile is round, a convex
platform for overlapping should be set up behind the pile. The platform should be 20~30mm
wider than the overlapping length.
4) Steel bar protective thickness of external wall surface of the fender board should be more
than 35mm and that of internal wall surface of the fender board more than 50mm; the
53
reinforcing steel bar of the pile should be distributed along the pile full length and the
diameter not less than 12mm. Net distance between steel bar protective layers of the pile
should not be less than 50mm.
5) When an arched fender board is used, it is not suitable to place concrete. A certain
quantity of structural steel bars should be allocated radically and circumferentially, and the
diameter of steel bars should not be less than 100mm.
6) Anchor pile with anchor rod should ensure to coordinate deformation of the pile and
anchor rod.
3Design calculation
1) When calculating the reinforced concrete member design of sheet pile retaining wall, in
the load effect combination, the structure importance coefficient 0 should be counted
according to the requirements in Article 5.4.2 of the Specifications.
2) For sheet-pile retaining wall on landslide subgrade, according to the most

disadvantageous combination of landslide thrust and earth pressure, calculate the load, but,
the piles gravity is not considered.
3) Load width acting on the pile should be calculated according to the half of the distance
between right and left two neighboring piles, and the load width acting on the fender board
can be calculated according to the computational span of the fender board.
4) Inner force of the pile should be calculated with subgrade coefficients method according
to the requirements in Article 5.7.3 of the Specifications.
5) When the occurrence of structural face of the ground rock strata inclines towards the
outside of the landslide, check the ground stability and overall stability according to the
landslide of longitudinal layer.
6) For pre-casting the reinforced concrete fender board, calculate it according to the simply
supported board born on the pile. The span L can be calculated as:
For round pile (5.4.9-1)
For rectangle pile (5.4.9-2)
In which: Lc -- Center distance of round piles (m);
L0 -- Net distance between rectangle piles (m);
t -- Thickness of fender board (m);
7) For anchor rod sheet-pile retaining wall in embankments, the secondary stress of anchor
rod resulting from filler sedimentation should be avoided. Anchor rod design should be in
53
accordance with the requirements in Article 5.5 of the Specifications.
5.5. Side slope Anchoring
1When designing the anchoring of side slope, distinguish the destroy mode of the side
slope by analyzing side slope stability data, determine instability extent and scope of the side
slope, and make technical economical demonstration of reasonableness and safety for anchor
scheme. Anchor forms can be determined in accordance with the conditions of rock and soil
type, engineering features, anchor bearing capacity, anchor material and length and
construction technology of the side slope, etc.
2When designing the anchoring of side slope, the following materials should be available:
1) The terrain, topographical feature related to the anchoring works and overall layout
design of side slope;
2) Rocky soil type, occurrence of main structure, combination relationship of various

structural faces and development extent of groundwater;
3) Compression strength of rock and soil in the position where the anchoring works
involves, c and values of rock and soil, c and values of structural faces that may be
instable and bond strength of bonding material & anchored medium;
3According to the anchoring works features, anchoring position, works scale, the anchor
rod material can be steel strand of high strength and low relaxation, precisely rolling twisted
steel or common prestressed reinforced bar. If the conditions allow, the steel strand without
bonding is suitable to be firstly adopted.
4Anchoring side slope drainage design should be in accordance with the requirements in
Article 3.7.7 of the Specifications.
5.5.2. Evaluation of Anchoring Side Slope Stability
1The evaluation of anchoring side slope stability should be in accordance with the
requirements in Article 3.7.4 of the Specifications.
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2 Calculation methods of stability before and after side slope anchoring should be
correspondent.
3When making stability calculation of side slope anchoring, the anchor action force can
be simplified as a concentration force acting on the side slope, it can be also simplified as a
concentration force acting on the sliding plane (see Fig.5.5.2). Take the minor value of
anchoring side slope stability safety factor calculated as the stability safety factor of anchoring
side slope.
Acting point on the face of slope
Slide fracture
Face of side
slope
Acting point on
slide plane
Fig.5.5.2 Simplified Anchor Action Force
5.5.3. Designed anchoring force should be determined according to the side slope
instability (downslide force), and calculated by Equation 5.5.3.
(5.5.3)
In which: Pd -- Designed anchoring force (kN);
E -- Downslide force (kN);
-- Friction angle in the slide plane ();
a -- Inclination angle of slide plane at the intersection area of anchor rod and
slide plane ();
-- Included angle between anchor rod and horizontal plane ().
5.5.4. Prestressed anchor rod design should be in accordance with the following
requirements:
1Prestressed anchor rod can be used for soil and rock side slope reinforcement; its
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anchoring section should be in stable stratum.
2The tensile anchor rod should be used for hard rock anchoring and the dispersed
anchor rod for soil and soft rock anchoring.
3Cross section area of anchor rod body should be calculated according to Equation
5.5.4-1.
(5.5.4-1)
In which: A -- Cross section area of anchor rod body (m2);
K -- Safety factor, taking the values in Table 5.5.4-4;
Fptk -- Tensile strength standard value of anchor rod body material (kPa);
4Bearing capacity of anchoring body should be controlled by three factors of the bonding
strength of grouting body and anchor hole wall, the bonding strength of anchor rod and
grouting body and anchor rod strength, etc. In design, take the minor value.
1) The bonded anchor body should be used for prestressed anchor rod. Bonding length of
stratum and grouting body should be calculated according to Equation 5.5.4-2.
(5.5.4-2)
In Which: Lr -- Bonding strength between stratum and grouting body (m);
Pd -- Designed anchoring force of anchor rod (kN);
-- Bonding operation condition factor of anchoring body and stratum. Take

1.00 for permanent anchor rod (service lifetime of anchor rod is more than 2
years) and take 1.33 for temporary anchor rod (service lifetime of anchor rod
is less than or equal to 2 years);
d -- Drilling hole diameter of anchoring section (m);
frb -- Bonding strength between stratum and grouting body (kPa).

53
Bonding strength should be determined via tests. If there is no test condition, refer to
Tables 5.5.4-1 and 5.5.4-2.
Table 5.5.4-1 Bonding Strength Character Value of Interface

between Rock Mass and Grouting Body
Bonding strength frb Bonding strength frb

Rock mass type Rock mass type
(kPa) (kPa)
Extreme soft rock 135~180 Relative hard rock 550~900
Soft rock 180~380 Hard rock 900~1300
Relative soft rock 380~550
Notes: Data in the table are suitable for the conditions when the grouting strength level
is M30;
Data in the table are only suitable for the preliminary design, and should be
checked via tests during construction;
If the rock massy structural surface is developed, take the lower limit value in
the table;
Rock mass type in the table is divided into 5 types according to the natural
single-axis compression strength fr: Extreme soft rock when fr<5MPa, soft rock
when 5MPafr<15MPa, relative soft rock when 15MPafr<30MPa, relative hard
rock when 30MPafr<60MPa and hard rock when fr60MPa.
Table 5.5.4-2 Bonding Strength Character Value

between Soil Mass and Anchoring Body
Soil mass type Soil status Bonding strength frb (kPa)
hard 32~40
Clayey soil Hard plastic 25~32
Soft plastic 15~20
Loose 30~50
Sandy soil
Sight dense 50~70
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Soil mass type Soil status Bonding strength frb (kPa)
Moderate dense 70~105
Dense 105~140
Slight dense 60~90
Broken stone soil Moderate dense 80~110
Dense 110~150
Notes: Data in the table are suitable for the conditions when the grouting strength level is
M30;
Data in the table are only suitable for the preliminary design, and should be
checked via tests during construction.
2) Bonding length between the grouting body and anchor rod body should meet the
requirements in Equation 5.5.4-3.
(5.5.4-3)
In Which: Lg -- Bonding length between grouting body and anchor rod body (m);
-- Bonding operation condition factor of anchor body and stratum. Take the
value of 0.60 for permanent anchor rod (service lifetime of anchor rod is
more than 2 years) and 0.72 for temporary anchor rod (service lifetime of
anchor rod is less than or equal to 2 years);
dg -- Anchor rod material diameter (m);
fb -- Bonding strength between anchor rod body and grouting body (kPa);
n -- Number of anchor rod bodies (pcs)

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Bonding strength should be determined via tests. If there is no test condition, refer to
Table 5.5.4-3.
Table 5.5.4-3 Designed Bonding Strength Value fb (MPa)

Among Steel Bar, Steel Strand and Mortar
Strength level of grout or cement mortar

Anchor type
M25 M30 M35
Between cement mortar and screwed steel bar 2.10 2.40 2.70
Between cement mortar and steel strand,

2.75 2.95 3.40
high-strength steel wire
Notes: When using two pieces of steel bars for spot welding fascicle, the bonding
strength should be the value in the table multiplying with the reduction factor of
0.85;
When using three pieces of steel bars for spot welding fascicle, the bonding
strength should be the value in the table multiplying with the reduction factor of
0.7.
5Overall length of anchor rod consists of anchoring section length, free section length and
exposed section length. The length of each section should be determined according to the
following requirements:
1) When determining the anchor section length of the anchor rod, calculate the bonding
length Lr and Lg of the anchor rod respectively. For the actual anchor section length, take the
larger value of Lr and Lg and should not be less than 3m and not more than 10m;
2) Free section length of the anchor rod is controlled by stable stratum interface. When
design, the length of the free section in slide plane or potential slide plane should not be less
than 1m and free section length should not be less than 5m.
6When designing the anchor rod, the values of safety factor should be in accordance with
the requirements in Table 5.5.4-4.
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Table 5.5.4-4 Designed Safety Factor of Anchoing Body of Prestressed Anchor Rod
Safety factor
Extent of harm after the Service lifetime of anchor Service lifetime of anchor
anchor rod is damaged rod2 years rod>2 years

(for temporary anchor rod) (for permanent anchor rod)
The harm is slight; it will not
1.4~1.6 1.6~1.8
affect public safety.
The harm is slightly serious,
but it will not affect public 1.6~1.8 1.8~2.0
safety.
The harm is serious, it will
1.8~2.0 2.0~2.2
affect public safety.
Note: For soil mass or fully weathered rock, take the bigger value from the Table.
5.5.5. Prestressed anchor rod structure should meet the following requirements:
1Prestressed anchor rod consists of anchor section, free section and anchor head. The
anchor head consists of cushion pier, steel cushion plate and anchorage.
2For prestressed reinforced bars in anchor section, set separation frames every 1.5~2.0m.
Protective layer thickness of prestressed reinforced bars should not be less than 20mm. For
temporary anchor rod, the protective layer thickness of prestressed reinforced bars should not
be less than 10mm.
5.5.6. Anticorrosion should meet the following requirements:
1) According to the investigation test of anchor rod corrosion environment, choose the
proper anticorrosion method;
2) For permanent anchor rod, double-layered anticorrosion treatment should be done;
3) For permanent anchor rod and temporary anchor rod not in the corrosion environment,
use the simple anticorrosion method;
4) Anticorrosion methods used for anchor section, free section and anchor head should not
damage its anticorrosion function during anchor rod construction and service period.
5.5.7. Full length bonding type anchor rod design should be in accordance with the
following requirements:
1Design the anchor rod based on axis tensioned member. The area of necessary anchoring
reinforced bar should be calculated according to Equation 5.5.7-1:
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(5.5.7-1)
In which: As -- Cross section area of common steel bar (m2);
K -- Load safety factor, taking the value of 2.0.
Nt -- Designed axial tension force value of anchor rod (kN);
fy -- Designed tensile strength of common steel bar (kPa).
2 Anchor rod length includes non-anchoring length and effective anchoring length.
Non-anchoring length should be determined by the actual distance of slide fracture plane of
side slope. Effective anchoring length should be calculated based on the tension force of
anchor rod according to Equation 5.5.7-2. For bonding type anchor rod made of bonding
material, the allowable bonding force between anchor rods and bonding material should be
also checked according to Equation 5.5.7-3. Effective anchoring length should not be less
than 2.0m and not more than 10.0m.
(5.5.7-2)
In which: L -- Effective anchoring length of anchor rod (m);
Nt -- Designed axial tension value of anchor rod (kN);
d -- The diameter of anchor hole (m);
frb -- Bonding strength between stratum and grouting body (kPa);
K -- Safety factor, taking the value of 2.5.
(5.5.7-3)
In which: n -- Number of anchor rod steel bars;
ds -- Diameter of anchor rod steel bar (m);
fb -- Bonding strength between grouting body and anchor rod (kPa);
-- Considered fascicle steel bar coefficient. For single steel bar, =1.0; for two
bars as a fascicle, =0.85; for three bars as a fascicle, =0.7.

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3Rod body materials should be steel bar of level II and III. The diameter of steel bar of
rod body should be 16~32mm.
4The diameter of drilling hole should not be less than 42mm and not more than 100mm.
5Steel bar protective thickness of rod body should not be less than 8mm when using
cement mortar and not less than 4mm when using resin.
6For anchor rod with the length more than 4m or rod body diameter more than 32mm, the
structure measure in the middle of rod body should be taken.
5.5.8. Structure design of face of anchoring side slope
1The structure form of face of anchoring side slope should be comprehensively surveyed
and determined according to the hydrogeological condition of side slope works geology, rock
and soil feature, side slope height, construction method, rock mass structure, structural surface
occurrence, weathering extent, topographic form and natural stable side slope and manual side
slope. The face of slope structure form and its suitable conditions should be chosen according
to the requirements in Table 5.5.8.
2Lattice (frame) beam design should be in accordance with the following requirements:
1) The cross section should be rectangle or T-shape, and the width of the cross section
should not be less than 0.30mm.
2) Beam unit shape should be rectangle or diamond shape. When using rectangle beam unit,
its size should not be less than 3m3m; when using rectangle beam unit, its size should not be
less than 5m3m.
Table 5.5.8 Common Type and Suitable Conditions of Slope Face Structure
Structure type Suitable condition Remarks
Weathering is serious, Hyetal region, the
Lattice (frame) beam groundwater abundant, soft rock, beam should be made as
soil side slope intercepting drain type
Soft and hard rock mass

Ground beam
interlaced, soil side slope
Hard rock, massive rock mass

Single anchor pier
or rock mass with good holism
3) Beam design should be done by units: The inner bending moment and shear of the beam
53
should be calculated according to the frame beam or continuous beam. Beam structure should
be calculated according to the current national standard of Specifications for Design of
Concrete Structure (GB 50010). Structure importance coefficient is 1.0 and the subitem
coefficient of permanent load is 1.35.
4) For primary steel bar in the beam, equip with through steel bars by units.
5) The depth of the beam bottom embedded in rock mass of face of slope should not be less
than 0.20m; Cement concrete strength level should not be lower than C20.
3Ground beam and single anchor pier design should be in accordance with the following
requirements:
1) The load acting on the ground beam and single anchor pier should be calculated
according to the centre-to-centre distance of two ground beams or two single anchor piers.
2) Ground beam and single anchor pier cross section should be rectangle or T-shaped. And
the thickness of the cross section should not be less than 0.30m.
3) Bending moment and shear of the ground beam should be calculated based on the
number of anchors in the beam according to the simply supported beam or continuous beam.
Ground beam structure should be calculated according to the current national standard of
Specifications for Design of Concrete Structure (GB 50010). Structure importance
coefficient is 1.0 and the subitem coefficient of permanent load is 1.35.
4) Single anchor pier design should be done according to the anchor force, satisfying the
bearing requirements of rock mass and equipped with proper quantity of structural steel bars.
5) Cement concrete strength level of ground beam and single anchor pier should not be
lower than C20. The depth of the ground beam embedded in rock mass of face of slope should
not be less than 0.20m.
5.5.9. Anchor Rod Test and Monitoring Design
1In the preliminary period of anchoring works, the prestressing anchoring test of anchor
rod should be conducted. Anchor rod test includes basic test and acceptance test. Quantities of
anchor rod acceptance tests should be controlled in 5% of operating anchor rods. If there are
some special requirements, add properly.
2 Test content and requirements of anchor rod should be in accordance with the
requirements in Technical Specifications for Anchor Rod Shotcrete Supporting (GB 50086).
3Prestressed anchoring works are in-situ monitoring the operation status of prestressed
anchor rod and anchoring effect during construction period and permanent operating period
according to the importance and actual conditions of side slope works and landslide treatment
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works.
1) Monitoring during construction period: The aim is to guarantee the construction safety
and construction quality. Choose items to be monitored according to Table B-3 of Appendix B.
Fracture plane to be monitored during construction period should be set to the key position of
anchoring region; if the condition allows, combine with the permanent monitoring.
2) Permanent monitoring is to stabilize the overall anchor region and keep anchor rod
prestressing. Choose the items to be monitored according to Table B-3 of Appendix B. One
observation fracture plane should be set for permanent monitoring. There should be at least
three observation positions on one observation fracture plane. Permanent monitoring should
start from the anchor rod construction period.
5.6. Soil Nailing Supporting
1Soil nailing supporting is suitable for temporary supporting and permanent supporting of
excavation side slope in hard plastic or hard clayey soil, cemented or weak cemented silty soil,
sandy soil, gravel, soft rock and weathered rock formation, etc. However,, the permanent soil
nailing supporting should not be set in the following earth mass:
1) Loose sand soil with SPT N<9 and relative density Dr<0.3;
2) Soft plastic and flow plastic clayey soil with liquidity index more than 0.5;
3) Backfill soil of low strength with large amount of organic substances or industrial wastes,
new backfill soil and strong corrosion soil;
4) When building the soil nailing supporting works in clayey soil with plasticity index more
than 20, liquid limit more than 50% and unconfined compression strength less than 50kPa, the
on-site soil nailing upright test should be conducted to check the creepage performance of
earth mass.
2For the soil nailing supporting design, pay special attention to the water action and
influence. Perfect drainage system should be set up in the earths surface and supporting so as
to discharge the earths surface runoff and groundwater. For the design of permanent soil
nailing supporting, the disadvantageous influence of water content change in earth mass to the
shear strength of earth mass during long-term application should be considered. For the
excavation side slope with groundwater more developed, the permanent soil nailing
supporting should not be set up.
3Before designing the soil nailing supporting, general engineering geology investigation
experiments should be conducted to the soil nailing supporting, in order to find out the
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stratum of side slope, structure, rocky soil physical mechanic property, hydrogeological
condition and potential corrosivity.
4For the soil nailing supporting works, the basic pull-out tests for soil nails should be
conducted. Number of the tests should account for 1% of the total number of operating soil
nails, and not less than 3 pieces of soil nail.
5For permanent soil nailing supporting in clayey soil with plasticity index Ip20, liquid
limit wL50%, the creepage test should be conducted. Number of the tests should not be less
than 3 pieces of soil nail.
6According to the importance and actual conditions of side slope works, the in-situ
monitoring of operating status of soil nails and supporting effect during construction and
permanent operation period should be done. Choose the items to be monitored according to
Appendix B. Horizontal displacement of soil nailing supporting side slope should not be over
0.3%H (side slope height).
5.6.2. Structure Configuration
1Soil nailing supporting can be used in side slope protection with the height not more than
18m. When the soil nailing supporting is used together with prestressed anchor rod, the side
slope height may be heighten. If the side slope is higher, multi-level soil nailing supporting
should be used. A platform should be set between the upper level and lower level of
multi-level side slope, and the width of the platform should not be less than 2.0m. The height
of each level of slope should not be more than 10m.
2 Soil nailing length includes non-anchoring length and effective anchoring length.
Non-anchoring length should be determined by the actual distance between the wall board and
the potential soil nailing fracture plane. Effective anchoring length should be determined by
the soil nailing internal stability checking calculation. Soil nailing interval is suitable to be
0.75~2m and the included angle with horizontal plane is suitable to be 5~25.
3Soil nailing material should be steel bar of level II and III. The diameter of steel bar is
suitable to be 18~32mm and the diameter of drilling hole 70~100mm. Soil nailing steel bar
should have positioning support.
4Thickness of shotcrete surface layer: For temporary supporting, it is better not less than
60mm; for the permanent supporting, it is better not less than 80mm and the strength level of
shotcrete should not be lower than C20.
5Shotcrete surface layer should have reinforcement mat. The diameter of steel bar should
not be less than 6mm and the interval is suitable to be 150~250mm.
6Drilling grouting material is suitable to be cement mortar or cement and the strength
53
should not be lower than 20MPa. Use hole footing cement back method for grouting. The
grouting pressure is suitable to be 0.4~1.0MPa.
7The soil nailing must be connected to the surface layer effectively. Adopt the method of
setting steel plate on outer terminal or reinforced steel bars to connect or weld with screw end
rod anchorage.
8There should be weep hole in the surface layer. And there should be non-sand concrete
inverted filter behind the weep hole. If the side slope leaks water seriously, the weep hole of
upward inclination should be set and the angle is suitable to be 5~10, its length is slightly
longer than the soil nailing. Concrete surface layer is suitable to have the expansion joint
along the length.
9The bottom of permanent supporting surface layer should be inserted in 200~400mm

under the ground. If the surface layer is constructed by pre-cast concrete member, it is
necessary to set special foundation.
10When the soil nails are used for side slope supporting of corrosive soil and pluvial
regions, or the soil nails have to be inserted under the groundwater level unavoidably, the
anticorrosion treatment should be done to them. According to the conditions, choose
polyethylene, polypropene plastic wavy bushing or epoxy coating steel bar.
5.6.3. Design Calculation
1Soil nailing supporting structure calculation includes internal integrity stability checking
calculation of soil nailing supporting, external integrity stability checking calculation,
supporting surface layer and connection calculation between surface layer & soil nailing.
2External integrity stability checking calculation of soil nailing supporting should be done
with the method in Article 3.7.4 of the Specifications. For retaining structure of soil nailing,
the overall slide, upset of soil mass anchored with soil nailing and ground soil bearing
capacity checking calculation should be carried out according to Article 5.4.3 of the
Specifications.
3Checking calculation of internal integrity stability of soil nailing can use the arc method.
Suppose all the soil nails on the fracture surface can only bear the tension and reach the
maximum designed tension value respectively. For internal integrity stability checking
calculation, the safety factor should be 1.25~1.30. Considering the earthquake action, the
safety factor can be discounted by 0.1.
4For concrete surface layer, the checking calculation can be done according to the
continuous board with soil nailing as the spot support; connection between soil nailing head
and concrete surface layer should use the soil nailing head as the pivot of the surface layer,
pivot reversed force resulting from the action of lateral earth pressure as the tension that the
53
soil nails can bear. Local concrete bearing capacity should be checked in the connection area
between the surface layer and soil nailing head.
5.7. Slide-resistant Pile
1Before Slide-resistant pile design, detailed engineering geological investigation should

be conducted to side slope so as to determine the main sliding direction, slide surface position,
boundary condition, rocky soil feature and hydrogeological condition.
2Setting of slide-resistant piles shall be ensure that the sliding mass will not overpass the
top of the pile or slide between the piles, and will not result in new landslides.
3Slide-resistant piles should be set in a section with small landslides thickness, small
thrust and higher strength foundation of anchor section. When determining the plane layout of
the piles, pile interval, pile length and the size of cross section, comprehensively consider the
related matters so as to be economic and reasonable as well as in coordination with the
surrounding landscapes.
4The slide-resistant pile of prestressed anchor cable or the combination of slide-resistant

pile and open cut tunnel and piling, etc. can be used.
5.7.2. Structure Configuration
1Cross section of slide-resistant piles is suitable to be rectangle. The cross section size of
the piles should be determined by the factors such as landslide thrust, pile interval and the
allowable lateral strength of anchor section foundation. Minimum side width of the piles
should not be less than 1.25m. In the case that the main sliding direction is not determined,
use the round cross section.
2Concrete strength level of pile body should not be lower than C20. If the groundwater is
corrosive, choose cement according to the related regulations.
3Pit head of slide-resistant piles should be equipped with preliminary shaft. If the pile pit
lies in soil and broken weathering rock formation, the protective wall should be arranged. The
preliminary shaft and protective wall concrete strength level should not be lower than C15.
4The diameter of longitudinal reinforcing bar for slide-resistant piles should not be less
than 16mm, and the net distance not less than 120mm. In difficult conditions, it can be
reduced properly, but not less than 80mm. When using fascicle bars, there should be not more
than 3pcs each fascicle. If it is difficult to allocate steel bars in a row, arrange them by 2 or 3
rows. Protective layer thickness of born reinforced concrete should not be less than 60mm.
5Cut-off point of longitudinal reinforcing steel bar should be calculated according to the
53
national standard of Specifications for Design of Concrete Structure (GB 50010).
6There should be no inclined steel bars inside the slide-resistant piles. Measures such as
adjusting stirrup diameter, interval and cross section size of pile body, etc. should be taken to
meet the requirement of shear strength in the oblique section.
7Stirrup is suitable to be closed type, its diameter is not less than 14mm and the interval of
stirrup not more than 500mm.
8Both sides and compression edge of slide-resistant piles are suitable to be equipped with
longitudinal steel bars, the interval is 400~500mm and the diameter not less than 12mm. Both
sides of compression edge of the piles should have vertical steel bars and the interval not less
than 16mm. When the pile body is longer, the diameter of longitudinal steel bars and vertical
steel bars should be longer.
5.7.3. Design Calculation
1External force acting on slide-resistant piles includes landslide thrust, resistance force of
slide body in front of pile and resistance force of anchoring section stratum. Friction force and
cohesive force on the side of pile, pile body gravity and back force of pile footing may not be
calculated. Landslide thrust can be determined with transfer coefficient method according to
the requirements in Section 7.2 of the Specifications.
2Resistance force in front of pile should be determined by landslide thrust or passive earth
pressure in front of pile when the slide body in front of pile is in limit balance. Take the minor
value.
3 Landslide thrust on slide-resistant pile can be in rectangle distribution or ladder

distribution. When the slide body is very loose soil mass, use triangle distribution.
4Support of pile footing can be free terminal. If the support is deeply embedded in the
rock, choose the free terminal or twisted supporting.
5Anchoring section length of slide-resistant pile should meet the requirement that the
maximum stress of pile sides would not be more than the allowable longitudinal bearing
capacity of ground.
6Inner force of pile body above the slide surface should be calculated by landslide thrust
and slide body resistance force in front of the pile. Inner force and variable position of pile
body under the slide surface should be calculated with the method of foundation coefficient
according to the bending moment and shearing force at the slide surface. Choose K method
or m method according to the rock and soil condition. Foundation coefficients K and m can
be determined synthetically according to the test data, regional experience and engineering
analogy.
7Concrete structures of slide-resistant piles should be calculated according to the current
53
national standard of Specifications for Design of Concrete Structure (GB 50010). The
structure importance coefficient should be 1.0, and permanent load subitem coefficient should
be 1.35. The body of slide-resistant piles should be designed according to the bending
members. If there is no special requirement, the checking calculation of deformation,
anti-fracture and deflection may not be done.
53
6. Widening and Reconstructing of Highway Subgrade
6.1.1. Depending on the topography, land feature, geological structure, hydrogeology,

property of ground soil and development of poor geology, take the reasonable engineering
measure to guarantee the strength and stability of the widened and reconstructed highway
subgrade.
6.1.2. Before design for widening and reconstructing of highway subgrade, collect the
information on survey & design, completion drawing and maintenance, etc. of the existing
highway subgrade, investigate the current stability of the subgrade of the proposed widened
and reconstructed, survey and explore and test for the engineering geology and hydrogeology
in the existing subgrade and the widening site, ascertain the property, moisture content,
density, degree of compaction, strength and consistency of the filler in the existing subgrade,
investigate the geology on the original cutting side slope, current measures on protection &
drainage and side slope stability, make sure of hydrogeology and engineering geologic
condition on the proposed widening site, analyze and evaluate the influence extent on
settlement and deformation of the existing subgrade and side slope stability for newly
connected subgrade or additionally built subgrade.
6.1.3. Pay more attention to the comprehensive design of subgrade and pavement for the
design to reconstruct the highway subgrade. Good connection between the widened subgrade
and original highway subgrade should be maintained, take the necessary engineering
measures to decrease the differential settlement between the widened subgrade and original
highway subgrade and avoid happening the longitudinal crack.
6.2. Survey and Evaluation on Existing Subgrade
6.2.1. The comprehensive method of information collection, field survey and exploration
test should be adopted for the survey of original highway subgrade.
1The field survey and measurement on the existing subgrade should be performed based
on the material collection of survey & design, completion drawings and maintenance, etc. of
the original highway subgrade. According to the condition of original highway, divide it into
some sections, select the typical section, survey and test each structural course of pavement,
upper & lower roadbeds, upper & lower embankments and foundation soil. The depth of
drilling and sampling test should comply with the relevant regulations in the Specifications
for Geological Survey of Highway Engineering (JTJ 064).
53
Widening and Rebuilding of Highway Subgrade
2 The foundation within the subgrade to be widened and reconstructed should be

investigated according to the newly-built subgrade standards. The survey holes in the
subgrade to be widened and reconstructed should be suitably arranged in the same subgrade
cross section as that in the existing subgrade.
3 Investigate the geological condition, base formation and application of retaining

engineering foundation of the existing subgrade and the survey & test for retaining
engineering foundation should be carried out if necessary.
6.2.2. Test Items of Existing Subgrade Filler
1For the original fill embankment and the roadbed soil in the excavation section, the
following tests should be conducted:
Physical property test: Natural moisture content, natural density, relative density of earth
grain, composition of grain size, liquid limit and plastic limit, etc;
Mechanics property test: Heavy-duty compaction, CBR, consolidation test, direct and rapid
shearing, etc;
2For original embankment and the roadbed soil in excavation section, calculate the indices
as follows based on the tests above mentioned: Dry density, optimum water content,
maximum dry density, degree of compaction, average consistency, compression coefficient
and compression modulus, etc.
6.2.3. On-site Test of Existing Subgrade
According to the original highway conditions, select typical section to test the geometric
dimension, deflection and bearing plate of the existing highway subgrade and pavement,
determine their modulus of resilience. Each test should meet the relative stipulations in
On-site Test Specifications for Highway Subgrade and Pavement (JTJ 059).
6.2.4. Analysis and Evaluation of Existing Subgrade
1According to the data of survey, measurement, test and hydrologic analysis, determine
whether the elevation of existing subgrade complies with the design flood frequency of
subgrade stipulated in Article 1.0.8 of the Specifications.
2Determine whether the filler of existing subgrade is in conformity with the requirements
of the degree of compaction for subgrade and minimum. strength of subgrade filler in Articles
3.2.1, 3.3.1 and 3.3.2 of the Specifications.
3Determine the average consistency of subgrade soil and the hydrology in subgrade
53
location, analyze and evaluate whether the minimum height of subgrade is in conformity with
the critical height under dry and moderate humid condition.
4Analyze and evaluate the stability of the side slope of subgrade, the efficiency of various
protective & drainage facilities and improving measures.
5Analyze and evaluate the type, distribution range, scope, the cause of existing subgrade
disease, the effect of correction works facilities for existing subgrade disease, and put forward
the measure on correction of subgrade disease.
6.2.5. Analysis and Evaluation of Original Embankment in Soft Soil Zone
1Analyze and evaluate the consolidation of soft soil foundation, consolidation coefficient,
development rule on compression and deformation, and increasing rule on shear strength in
various foundation treatment sections of existing subgrade, determine the consolidation of
soft soil foundation and residual settlement value (including primary and secondary
consolidation) in various foundation treatment sections of existing subgrade.
2Analyze and evaluate the effect of treatment method in the original soft soil foundation
and its improving measure.
3Analyze and evaluate the stability and different settlement between the widened and
reconstructed subgrade and existing subgrade as well as how much the widened and
reconstructed subgrade will affect the stability and settlement of existing subgrade, determine
the measures on treatment of soft soil foundation in newly connected or additionally built
subgrade.
6.3. Widening and Reconstructing of Class 2 and Below Highway

Subgrade
6.3.1. Depending on the highway classification, technical criterion and combined with local
terrain, geology, hydrology, fill and excavation, select the proper form of subgrade cross
section for widening and reconstructing of highway subgrade.
6.3.2. For the subgrade of widened and reconstructed highway, its elevation should meet
the requirements in Article 1.0.8 of the Specifications and the minimum height of fill should
conform to the requirements in Article 1.0.9 of the Specifications.
6.3.3. Foundation treatment for widened subgrade, bottom treatment for subgrade,
minimum strength and degree of compaction of subgrade filler, etc. should meet the technical
requirements for the corresponding class highway after reconstruction. At the time to
reconstruct class 2 highway, apply the impact rolling or strong ramming, etc. for reinforcing
53
and adding pressure so as to eliminate the differential deformation caused by jointing and
widening of new subgrade and old subgrade.
6.3.4. The subgrade should be widened and reconstructed according to the requirements
stated as follows:
1For the filler to widen and reconstruct embankment, suitably select and use the same
filler as original embankment and it is suitable to be comply with the filler requirements or
that with better penetration than the original embankment. When filling with fine-grained soil,
pay attention to the drainage design between new subgrade and old subgrade. The blind ditch
for transverse drainage can be set up to remove the collected water inside the subgrade if
necessary.
2When widening the original embankment, the step should be excavated in the face of
slope in the existing subgrade; the step width is not less than 1.0m. In case that the widened
jointed width is less than 0.75mh, take the engineering measures such as super-width filling or
excavating the original subgrade, etc.
3The form and gradient of side slope in the widened embankment should be selected
according to the stipulations in Section 3.3 of the Specifications.
6.3.5. When widening the excavation subgrade, the form and gradient of excavation side
slope can be determined according to the stipulation in Section 3.4 of the Specifications or
refer to the stable side slope of original excavation subgrade.
6.3.6. For the section where the disease of original excavation side slope has been treated
for many years and become stable, decrease the removing works, unsuitable touch the original
side slope during reconstruction.
6.3.7. According to the type, character, cause and extent of harm of disease and combined
with some factors such as local weather, hydrogeology and engineering geology, etc., the
subgrade with diseases should be reconstructed and the relevant treatment measure should be
taken.
6.3.8. The design of widening subgrade in the soft soil foundation should be conducted
according to the relevant stipulations in Articles 6.4.3 and Section 7.5 of the Specifications.
6.3.9. For the section where the existing structures should be reconstructed caused by
raising or lowering subgrade and relocating the center line, the existing retaining buildings in
good service is suitable to be maintained.
6.3.10. In case that the existing buildings are found without obvious damage and their
strength and stability conform to the reconstructing requirement , they should be used
completely; if part of them is damaged or is not in conformity with the reconstructing
requirement, it can be reinforced for application, reconstructed or removed for reconstructing.
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6.3.11. For reinforcing and applying the existing buildings, the new and old concrete or
masonry body should be connected closely to form integration.
6.4. Widening and Reconstructing of Existing Subgrade of Expressway

and Class 1 Highway
6.4.1. Widening and reconstructing design of subgrade should be according to the relevant
stipulations in Section 6.3 of the Specifications, pay attention to the comprehensive design of
foundation treatment, subgrade filler, stability of side slope and protection & drainage
facilities, and harmonize with the design of traffic works and pavement drainage system.
6.4.2. The degree of compaction for widened subgrade should meet the stipulations in
Articles 3.2.1 and 3.3.2, the impact rolling or strong ramming, etc. can be applied for
reinforcing and adding pressure if necessary so as to eliminate the different deformations from
the jointing and widening of new subgrade and old subgrade. Design for jointing and treating
of new subgrade and old subgrade should be conducted based on the stipulations in Article
6.3.4 of the Specifications. In addition, the geogrid can be transversally laid between new
subgrade and old subgrade when the height of embankment is more than 3m, in order to
enhance the integrity of subgrade.
6.4.3. Widening of existing subgrade in soft soil foundation should be designed according
to the concerned stipulations in Section 7.5 of the Specifications and the requirements stated
as follows:
1Control the different settlement between new and old subgrade when jointing the
subgrade. The after-construction increased value of crown cross slope in original and widened
subgrade shouldnt be more than 0.5%.
2If applying the method of drainage consolidation for treatment in the original soft soil
foundation, the widened subgrade mustnt lower the ground water level in the existing
subgrade. For the section with fish pond (water pond), river, and reservoir, etc., when
necessary to drain and dredge, the ground water level can be lowered after the measures of
anti-leakage and waterproof have been taken.
3For the widened section neighboring with the structures such as bridge, culvert and
passage, etc. or the section where the existing subgrade has basically finished the settlement
of foundation, the composite foundation is applied suitably for treatment of soft soil
foundation within the widening range of subgrade instead of the treatment measure with the
method of drainage consolidation.
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4When new subgrade and old subgrade are set up in separation and nearer (less than 20m),
take some measures to set up separation facility or perform treatment for the foundation of
newly-built subgrade to reduce the settlement effect of newly-built subgrade to the existing
subgrade.
6.4.4. For the existing subgrade in the section with poor hydrology, add the drainage
bedding course or the drainage penetrating ditch underground, etc. in combination with the
design of widening and reconstructing subgrade and pavement.
6.4.5 When class 2 and below highways are widened and reconstructed as expressway and
class 1 highway, in case that the strength and degree of compaction of existing subgrade soil
cant meet the requirements, make soil improvement in the existing subgrade or newly
backfill the existing subgrade and pavement after excavation.
6.4.6 In design of widening and reconstructing subgrade of expressway and class 1

highway, consider a transitional measure to maintain the temporary traffic traveling during
construction. If the traffic vehicles in expressway cant be controlled during widening the
expressway, the traffic vehicles and safety construction should be considered in designing.
Apply the method of smooth blasting or pre-splitting blasting in rock excavation section, in
combination with the relevant protective mea.
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7. Special Subgrade
7.1.1. The special subgrade includes the special earth (rock) subgrade, the unfavorable
geological subgrade and the special condition subgrade. When the route passes through the
above special sections, the comprehensive geological survey should be done for finding out
the development trend, stability status, scale, genetic type and property of the special
geological mass. For the physical and mechanical parameters needed by the special subgrade
design, it is appropriate to adopt the in-situ test data and confirm by the comprehensive
analysis of indoor test data.
7.1.2. The design for special subgrade should consider the influences of the factors
including geology and environment, etc. on the subgrade, and the development law of the
factors. Treatment of the subgrade disease should follow the principles of taking prevention as
the main way, combining prevention and treatment, and seeking for radical cure. Through the
economic comparison of comprehensive technologies, adopt the reasonable treatment scheme
and effective engineering measures. If adopting the treatment by stages, the extent of safety
for the subgrade should be guaranteed in the change course of various factors.
7.1.3. The subgrade work site with special geological conditions or many kinds of special
earth (rock) should be comprehensively designed.
7.2. Subgrade in Landslide Region
1For designing subgrade in landslide region, the matters including traits, landslide scale,
landslide genetic type, engineering geological condition, hydrogeology, physiognomy and
landform near the landslide mass and landslide property, etc. should be found out, analyze and
evaluate the landslide stability status, development trend and extent of harm to highway
works, timely adopting the effective measures for guaranteeing the safety of subgrade
construction and operation.
2For the landslide with large scale, complicated property, slow deformation and difficult
to find out its nature in short period, the scheme for all-round planning and controlling by
stages may be adopted.
3 For controlling and preventing landslide, the comprehensive controlling measures

including draining, reducing load, back pressure and retaining structure engineering should be
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Special Subgrade
adopted according to the stability, scale and type of the landslide, in combination with the
engineering geological conditions in the landslide region, important extent of the highway, the
construction conditions and other requirements.
4For high side slope, special rock and earth and the side slope with unfavorable structural
plane, the necessary prevention measures should be adopted for preventing the engineering
landslide.
7.2.2. Analysis for Landslide Stability
1Evaluation for landslide stability
For landslide stability, the analog method of engineering geology and mechanical
calculation for comprehensive evaluation should be adopted. And when checking calculation,
the safety coefficient for expressway and class 1 highway should be 1.20~1.30; the safety
coefficient for class 2 highways and below should be 1.15~1.20; when considering the
additional effect of earthquake force and rainstorm for many years, the safety coefficient may
be properly reduced to 0.05~0.1.
2Calculation method for landslide stability
1) For calculating the landslide thrust, the following loads should be taken into
consideration. The permanent loads including the landslide mass gravity, the additional load
produced by the buildings on the landslide mass, the load generated by groundwater
(including hydrostatic pressure and hydrodynamic pressure) and the dynamic load (such as
automobile load), etc., the temporary construction loads working on the landslide mass, and
the horizontal acting force from earthquake.
2) The residual sliding down force of the landslide may be calculated by the transfer
coefficient method with Formula (7.2.2-1). And the acting force of strip and block is shown in
Figure 7.2.2.
(7.2.2-1)
(7.2.2-2)
When Ti <0, Ti =0 should be taken.
In which: Ti, Ti-1 -- The residual downward sliding force (kN/m) of No i - 1, and i
sliding-blocks;
Fs -- Stability coefficient;
Wi -- The self-weight force (kN/m) of No i sliding-block;
i, i-1 -- No i and i -1 sliding-blocks is corresponding to the sliding faces dip ();
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i -- The internal friction angle ()of the sliding face of No i sliding-block;
ci -- Cohesion (kN/m) of rock and earth of sliding face to No i sliding-block;
Li -- Sliding face length (m) of No i sliding-block;
i -- Transfer coefficient.
Figure 7.2.2 Schematic Diagram for Calculating Residual Sliding Force
Si- Antiskid counterforce; Ni- Normal counterforce
3) When the residual sliding force of the last strip of the sliding-block is smaller or equal to
zero, the landslide is stable; and when larger than zero, it is not stable. And Ti value may be
used as the thrust to be endured by the designed retaining structure of the works. The stability
coefficient got from analysis of landslide stability should not be smaller than the requirements
in Section No.1 on the safety coefficient of antiskid and stabilization.
3Selecting parameters value
As to the selecting value for shearing strength of rock and earth on the sliding face, it
should be determined according to the indoor test data of rock and earth on the sliding face,
back calculation value of limit equilibrium, and analogy comparison data of engineering
geology and in combination with the most unfavorable case possibly happening to landslide.
And if necessary, it may be also determined according to the data from site test.
7.2.3. Measures for Prevention and Treatment
1Drainage Engineering
1) For designing the drainage engineering, the drainage scheme should be worked out on
the basis of the overall scheme for preventing and treating landslide, considering the
engineering geology, groundwater and rainfall conditions.
2) For the earths surface drainage engineering, the annular intercepting ditch should be set
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Special Subgrade
up in the stable stratum at the landslide back brink and if the landslide scope is too large, the
dendritical drainage ditch should be set up within the landslide mass scope. The measures for
preventing crack should be adopted for the drainage ditch passing through the cracks. And for
the slope body with apparent crack and distortion, clay or cement mortar should be used for
filling cracks in time, leveling the plash and waterlogged land to have the rain on the earths
surface quickly collected and drained into the drainage ditch.
3) For underground drainage engineering, make choice of the drainage schemes including
seepage ditch, face upward-slant drainage hole or tunnel, etc. by taking into consideration the
status of sliding face, hydrogeology conditions of the slope river basin where the landslide
exists, and the dynamic traits of groundwater.
4) Seepage ditch
(1) It is fitting in draining or dewatering the shallow groundwater inside the landslide mass.
And if necessary, it may be set up in combination with the antiskid support structure.
(2) The design of seepage ditch should be tallied with the requirements of the Article 4.3.4
in the Specifications.
(3) The plane layout of intercepting and seepage ditch should be perpendicular to the flow
direction of the groundwater, located on the stabilized soil mass 5m away beyond the
landslide scope. The inverted filter should be arranged in the facing water surface of the
seepage ditch while the seeping-proof layer should be set up in the dorsal surface.
5) The blind ditch is suitable for draining underground emerged spring water or the sealed
water log outside the landslide mass. And the blind ditch design should be tallied with the
requirements of Article 4.3.3 in the Specifications.
6) Face upward-slant drainage hole is suitable for draining the deep groundwater inside the
landslide mass. And the location and quantity of the face upward-slant drainage hole should
be determined according to the distribution case and geological conditions of the groundwater,
tallying with the requirements of the Article 4.3.6 in the Specifications.
7) Drainage tunnel
(1) The drainage tunnel is suitable for diversing and draining the deep groundwater.
(2) Around the drainage tunnel, several seepage wells or leaky pipes should be set up for
draining the water into the tunnel. And buried depth of the tunnel is mainly based on the
embedment depth of the aquifer and the tunnel should be buried into the stabilized stratum, its
top should be 0.5m below the sliding face (belt). The drainage longitudinal gradient on the
tunnel bottom should not be less than 1%.
(3) The tunnel section should be determined according to the water volume of groundwater
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and the structural design should be tallied with the requirements of the Specifications of
Highway Tunnel Design (JTG D70).
2Load reduction and counter-pressure measures
1) Applicable conditions
(1) For movable type landslide or the landslide from inverting of strewing at random, it is
appropriate to adopt reducing weight for the landslide back brink and counterpressure
measures for the front brink.
(2) The landslide bed has the upper steep and lower gentle shape and the stratum on both
sides and back brink of the landslide is quite stable and so, it will not result in the landslide
developing towards the back brink and both sides because of excavation for reducing weight.
Measures to reduce weight are appropriate adopted.
(3) For the longer antiskid section at the front brink of the landslide, it is appropriate to adopt
counterpressure of reducing weight and spoil. And when the subgrade is at the landslide front
brink, the embankment should be adopted. Under the occasion that the landslide mass or the
earth at the landslide belt will be expanded and cracked due to unloading, the measures to
reduce weight should not be adopted.
2) In reduction of load, the stability of mountain mass on both sides and landslide back part
after the earth removal must be taken into consideration for preventing the back brink from
resulting in newly sliding.
3) When adopting the measures of earth fill counterpressure, prevent the groundwater
from seeping out of the passage and blocking the landslide front brink. The foundation base
stability should be taken into consideration and fulfill the foundation treatment if necessary.
3Antiskid retaining structure engineering
1) Antiskid retaining wall
(1) The antiskid retaining wall is properly set up at the landslide front brink. And if
necessary, it may be combined with the measures of drainage, reducing weight and anchoring,
etc. in usage.
(2) The antiskid retaining wall should be designed according to the large value between the
residual slide down force of landslide and Coulomb earth pressure; the height and basis buried
depth should prevent the landslide mass from sliding out of the wall top or sliding in the soil
strata below the foundation base.
(3) Structural design of antiskid retaining wall should be tallied with the concerned
requirements of Section 5.4 in the Specifications.
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Special Subgrade
(4) When the fundamental buried depth of antiskid retaining wall is relatively deeper and
poorer stability of the earth mass, the temporary retaining measures should be adopted. And
for guaranteeing the landslide stability and construction safety in construction period, the
construction must be conducted by stages.
2)Slide-resistant pile [including slide-resistant pile of anchor rod (anchor cable)]
(1) The slide-resistant pile should be appropriately arranged in the sections with thinner
thickness of landslide mass, smaller thrust and higher strength of foundation in the area to
inlay rock. Make great effort to prevent the landslide mass from sliding out of the pile top, or
possibly new sliding resulting from the pile bottom.
(2) The slide-resistant piles are appropriate to be arranged in single row and when the
landslide thrust is larger, anti-sliding to the landslide may be used in sections. And if the
bending moment is too large, the slide-resistant pile of pressured anchor rod (cable) should be
used.
(3) The length of slide-resistant pile is not appropriately less than 35m. And for the
landslide whose buried depth at slide belt is deeper than 25m, the feasibility of slide-resistant
pile in anti-sliding should be fully demonstrated.
(4) The structural design of slide-resistant piles should be tallied with the concerned
3) Prestressed anchoring
(1) The prestressed anchor rod (cable) anchoring section must be located in the stabilized
stratum below the sliding face.
(2) The bearing structure of prestressed anchor rod (cable) should be determined according
to the bearing capacity and earth and rock property of the landslide mass, appropriately adopt
the reinforced concrete framework or ground beam. The measures of preventing the earths
surface soil from being scoured by rainwater and the local collapsing should be adopted for
the face of slope.
(3) The design of prestressed anchor rod (cable) should be tallied with the concerned
4) The measures of revolving jet grouting pile with high pressure or grouting to improve
the rock and earth in the sliding belt should be made so as to upgrade the shear strength of
rock and earth in the sliding belt and strengthen the landslide stability.
5) When the front brink of landslide mass is scoured by the river, the protective measures
should be adopted.
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7.2.4. Construction Monitoring and Dynamic Design
1In preventing and controlling the landslide for expressway and class 1 highway, the
landslide monitoring and dynamic design should be done. Preventing and controlling &
monitoring landslides include monitoring construction safety, preventing and controlling
effect monitoring and operation period monitoring, taking the construction safety monitoring
and preventing and controlling effect monitoring as the main matter. In construction, the
monitoring result should be taken as the important basis for judging landslide stability,
guiding construction, feeding back the design and preventing and controlling effect
inspection.
2Monitoring items of landslide may be selected according to the attached Tables B-1 and
B-3 of Appendix B.
3Monitoring point should be arranged at the location where the landslide mass is poor or
the engineering disturbance is severe, which is strived for forming the complete section,
adopting many means for mutual verification and replenishment.
4Monitoring of preventing and controlling effect should be conducted in combination with

construction safety and operation period monitoring. The monitoring time of preventing and
controlling effect should not be less than one year after the improvement engineering is
completed and after the highway is open to operation. Monitoring data collecting time in
construction period will be once every day and the time interval of monitoring data collecting
time in operating period is 7~15 days. And when the external disturbance is relatively bigger
(in storm period, for instance), the observation frequencies should be increased.
5To guarantee the construction safety and subgrade stability, forecast the landslide
displacement, development trend of deformation and effect of controlling engineering,
analyze the landslide monitoring data in time and timely adjust the design for landslide
controlling and construction scheme.
7.3. Subgrade in Rock Fall and Rock Deposit Regions
1As to the subgrade design for collapsed and rock deposit regions, the data relating to
weather, hydrology, geology, landform, and terrain in the region should be investigated,
finding out the happened collapse, origin, scope and type of rock deposit and the harm extent
to the highway, working out happening or developing forecast of collapse and rock deposit
and stability evaluation after the highway is built up and considering the comprehensive
measures of preventing and controlling.
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Special Subgrade
2For the subgrade design, high fill and deep excavation should be avoided. The subgrade
should be far away from the collapsed material heap area. For medium and small rock fall
regions, the engineering measures including shielding, intercepting, clearing and reinforcing,
etc. may be used for comprehensive controlling.
3At the rock deposit region, the stability analysis for rock deposit should be done on the
basis of the cases relating to subgrade type, rock deposit scale, physical makeup, property and
gradient of underlying rock & soil, groundwater and the earths surface water, etc.
4For the subgrade in rock deposit region, adopt the low embankment or shallow cutting,
using the stabilizing and reinforcing measures.
7.3.2. Preventing and Controlling Measures for Collapsing
1When the side slope or natural slope face is relatively flat with the rock surface easily
weathered into broken rock in scattered falling, the slope face protection should be done for
preventing the weathering from developing and preventing the scattered falling from
happening.
2If the volume and amount of the block mass from collapsing of hillside or face of side
slope is not much, with broken extent of the rock not serious, the measures of full-scale
clearance and gentle side slope may be used.
3For the sections where the rock mass is seriously broken with rock fall often happening,
it is better to adopt the flexible protective system or heading off structures including stone
intercepting wall and stone falling channel. And the stone intercepting wall and stone falling
channel may be configured in application and the setting location is reasonably arranged
according to the terrain. The channel depth and bottom width of stone falling channel will be
determined through site investigation or test. The back of stone intercepting wall should have
a buffer layer, it can be designed according to the highway retaining wall. And for wall
backpressure, the influence of the impact load due to collapsing should be taken into
consideration.
4For the hanging rock with relatively intact rock mass but with possibility turning into
crag on the local side slope, reinforced concrete column, propping of roof by masonry rubble
or flexible protective system may be used according to concrete situation.
5For the high side slope easily to be collapsing, the side slope anchoring is better to be
adopted.
6When the collapse body is relatively larger with frequently happening, shorter distance to
the route and difficult in setting up interception structures, it may be treated by shielding
structures such as open cut tunnel and shed tunnel, etc. The shielding structure should have
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enough length and the tunnel top have a buffer layer. And the influence of impact load and
deposit rock load should be taken into consideration.
7.3.3. Preventing and Controlling Measures for Rock Deposit
1For the subgrade in rock deposit section in developing, the excavation should be done as
less as possible, using the protective measures including retaining wall and sealing for face of
slope, etc. The shielding structures of stone intercepting wall and stone falling channel or
open cut tunnel, etc. may be also used.
2For the subgrade in the rock deposit section, the following treatment measures should be
used:
1) When it is located in the upper part of the rock deposit, the benched subgrade may be
used, gentling side slope or clearing away the rock deposit accumulation on the top of
subgrade along the bedrock surface.
2) When it is located in the mid part of rock deposit, the retaining wall should be set up for
the excavated side slope.
3) When it is in the lower part of the rock deposit, the fill subgrade for passing through rock
deposit should be adopted.
3For the active feeding area of rock deposit, the interception or reinforcement engineering
measures should be adopted according to the area, rock mass type and scale.
4When the stability of subgrade in rock deposit section is not enough, it is better to set up
antiskid retaining wall or slide-resistant pile.
7.4. Subgrade in Debris Flow Area
1For the design of the subgrade in debris flow area, the extent of harm, developing trend,
movement law, traits, scale, and genetic type of the debris flow should be found out.
2.For controlling debris flow, various measures including the conservation of soil and
water, interception, draining and diversion should be fully taken into consideration, well make
the overall planning and carry out comprehensively controlling & treating.
7.4.2. Preventing and Controlling Measures for Debris Flow
1Crossing measures
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Special Subgrade
1) Bridges are fitting in crossing the debris flow ditch in the circulation area or the
stabilized natural channel in the drifted sector area. In designing, the reasonable span and
form should be adopted in combination with the developing trend, flow, mud wave height,
flooding boundary of debris flow, river channel width, depositing and scouring of ditch bed,
geology and landform.
2) The tunnel is fitting in the large-scale or many debris flow ditches with serious damage
and large scale area where the route passes. The tunnel scheme should be determined after
comparing the economy and technology with other schemes.
3) In the debris flow region, the culvert isnt adopted and in the active drifted sector of
debris flow, the culverts are prohibited in use. For class 3 and 4 highways, when the debris
flow is not big in scale, low solid matter content and no bigger stone blocks and with straight
channel, the culverts can be used.
4) The overflow pavement is fitting in class 3 and 4 highways passing through the debris
flow ditch with small-scale face of slope. The subgrade cross section of overflow pavement
should be the fully controlled type, feasible in joint use with bridges and culverts, etc. And set
up the curtain wall at the foot of subgrade to prevent scouring.
2Drainage and diversion measures
1) Drainage and diversion ditch
The drainage and diversion ditch is fitting in the section with sediment ejection landform
condition. The outlet should be linked with the main river course, the outlet elevation should
be higher than the flood water level in the main river course happening every 20 years. The
longitudinal slope of drainage and diversion ditch is better to be consistent with the ground
slope. And the cross section of drainage and diversion ditch should be determined according
to the flow calculation. In addition, the drainage and diversion ditch should be properly
protected.
2) Aqueduct
The aqueduct is fitting in debris flow with discharge flow smaller than 30m3/s. and the
landform condition should satisfy the requirements of the designed longitudinal slope of
aqueduct and running clearance. And the piling up silt place is under the subgrade.
The aqueduct should be smoothly linked with the original ditch, the longitudinal slope is
not smaller than that of the original ditch and the outlet should meet the demand to discharge
debris flow. Design load of aqueduct will be calculated according to the full load of debris
flow, with impact force taken into consideration and impact coefficient as 1.3.
3) Diversion dike
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When it is in a certain section of the accumulation sector and needing to control the trend of
debris flow or limiting its influencing scope, the diversion dike may be set up for preventing
the debris flow from directly impacting embankment or blocking bridges and culverts.
The height of diversion dike should be the sum of ditch depth of debris flow and silting
thickness accumulated in the design service life; in the road bend area or the place where the
debris flow may be possibly blocked, the impacting height and road bend height should be
also added.
3. Interception measures
1) Interception dam
The interception dam is fitting in the landform without sediment ejection or stopping silt in
the middle reach and upper reach or the lower reach of the ravine, the upper reach river course
to produce sand must be controlled, the river reaches with more sand amount in river
basin ,more collapsing and more landslide inside the ravine.
Dam body location of interception dam should be determined according to the purpose for
setting up the dam and comprehensively considering the geological conditions of the
foundation and ravine landform, paying attention to connection between both ends of the dam
and the bank slope and the buried depth of the foundation. The maximum height of the dam
body shouldnt exceed 5m and the dam top should be flat. And when the slopes at both banks
are possibly scoured, the concave shape should be adopted.
2) Grid dam
The grid dam is fitting in the small-scale debris flow with less block stone and smaller
interception quantity.
The grill space of the grid dam should be arranged according to the requirements to
intercept big block stone and drain fine grains; the water flow cross section should meet the
demand of safe flood discharge in the lower reach. The dam width should be consistent with
that of the ditch & channel and the dam foundation should be set up in the solid ground.
7.5. Subgrade in Karst Area
1For designing subgrade in karst area, carry out survey with remote sensing, geophysical
prospecting, drilling and other effective means to get the data in the aspects of karst
geomorphology, karst development extent, development law, dissolved cavern wall rock
property, law of the earths surface water and groundwater, etc.
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2For subgrade in karst section, distinguish the damage extent of karst to subgrade works
based on the engineering practice in order to select the reasonable means to harness it.
7.5.2. Measures for Preventing and Controlling
1For the karst spring and water cave in the upper part of the subgrade, it is better to adopt
the drain ditch to intercept the water outside the subgrade. As to the karst spring and water
cave on the subgrade bottom, the water catchment open ditch or seepage ditch should be set
up to drain the water out of the subgrade.
2For the dry karst dissolved cavern on the stabilized cutting side slope, adopt dry rubble
for filling in it.
3For open dry karst dissolved cavern located in the bottom of subgrade when its volume is
not big and its depth is shallower, it should be backfilled and ramped. And when its volume is
bigger or its depth is deeper, it should be crossed via structures. As to the dry karst dissolved
cavern with top plate but the strength of top plate is not enough; it should be backfilled after
blasting off the top plate or crossed via structures.
4For judging whether the underlying karst dissolved cavern is possibly to collapse through
classifying the wall rock of dissolved cavern or calculating, it is better to use the following
methods for reinforcement:
1) For the dissolved cavern of long diameter without filling and good construction
condition in it, it is better to use mortar rubble or reinforced concrete support wall and support
column for reinforcing.
2) When the dissolved cavern is small and deep, not convenient for reinforcing inside it, the
stone lab or reinforced concrete lab should be adopted to cross the possibly damaged area.
3) For the dissolved cavern with thinner roof plate and when it is difficult or uneconomical
to cross it via the earths surface structure, the roof plate can be blasted off and treated
according to the mode for open cut tunnel.
4) For the dissolved cavern with filler, use the shotcrete method and rotary mortar jetting
method for reinforcing. But, if such measure can not meet the design requirements, it is better
to cross it via structures.
5) If needing to keep the running water smoothly inside the dissolved cavern, the drainage
ditch should be set up.
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5For the earth dissolved cavern inside the subgrade scope, firstly it is better to distinguish
whether it still develops. For the earth-dissolved caverns that have already stopped developing,
it may be evaluated based on the general foundation. And when the reinforcement is needed,
the methods of shotcrete and composite foundation, etc. should be adopted for treatment. As
to the earth dissolved caverns still under development, it is better to cross them via structures.
7.5.3. Safety Thickness of Cavern Roof Plate
When the rock stratum of cavern roof plate is not cut by joint fissure or cut but good in
cementation, the safety thickness of cavern roof plate may be determined according to
comparison method of thickness and span. When the ratio of the roof plate thickness and the
length of the subgrade to cross the cavern is larger than 0.8, the rock stratum of cavern roof
plate may not be treated.
7.5.4. Safety Distance from Cavern to Subgrade
When the karst geomorphology is located on both sides of the subgrade, the influences of
karst to the subgrade should be judged. For the open karst geomorphology, distinguish its
stability and influences to the subgrade by the reference of natural side slope. And for the
underground dissolved cavern, its influencing scope may be calculated by the proliferation of
angle when collapse happens (see Formula 7.5.4-1 and Figure 7.5.4).
(7.5.4-1)
(7.5.4-2) Figure 7.5.4 Sketch for Calculation of

Dissolved Cavern Safety Distance
In which: H -- Thickness of cavern roof plate (m);
-- Proliferation of angle when collapse happens ();
K -- Safety coefficient, taking 1.10~1.25 (for expressway and class 1 highway,

large value should be taken.)
-- Inner friction angle of rock.
If the coverage soil layer is on the rock stratum of roof plate, the oblique line should be
drawn in 45 angle from soil layer bottom to get the crossing point with ground and the toe of
slope for subgrade should be outside of the crossing point.
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When subgrade toe of slope is positioned outside the influencing scope of cavern
collapsing, the cavern may not be treated.
7.6. Subgrade in Soft Soil Area
1 The data including weather, hydrogeology, engineering geology, landform and

geography should be investigated and collected. According to the related requirements of the
Specifications for Survey of Highway Engineering Geology (JTJ 064), it is better to use the
appropriate survey method for comprehensive prospecting test and site origin test and doing
statistics and analysis so as to provide the reliable physical mechanics indices in design.
2The design of subgrade at soft soil foundation includes settlement calculation, stability
checking calculation, and some corresponding controlling method; the technical requirements
of of lateral displacement (stability) observation and settlement in construction should be
regarded as the design content.
3Discrimination basis for the soft soil is seen in Table 7.6.1.
Table 7.6.1 Discrimination Indices of Soft Soil
Compression
Direct shear Vane shear
Natural moisture Natural coefficient
Soil inner friction strength
content (%) void ratio a0.1~0.2
angle () (kPa)
(MPa-1)
Better to be
Clayey soil, Better to be
35 1.0 greater than
organic soil less than 5
liquid 0.5
<35
limit Better to be
Better to be
Silty soil 30 0.90 greater than
less than 8
0.3
7.6.2. Calculation on Foundation Settlement
1For the main consolidation settlement Sc, it will be calculated with comprehensive
method in layers.
2When calculating the total settlement, it is suitable to adopt the settlement coefficient ms
and the main consolidation settlement:
S = ms Sc (7.6.2-1)
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The settlement coefficient ms is an empirical coefficient related with the factors of

foundation condition, load strength and loading rate, etc. Its range value is 1.1~1.7 that should
be determined according to observation data from the site settlement, be also estimated by the
following empirical formula:
ms = 0.123 0.7 (H0.2 + VH) + Y (7.6.2-2)
In which: -- Type coefficient for foundation treatment and 0.95~1.1 will be taken when
the foundation is treated with plastic drain plate; 0.85 should be taken when
treating the foundation with stirring pile of powder body and for common
pre-pressing, 0.90 should be taken;
H -- Subgrade center height (m);
-- Filler gravity (kN/m3);
V -- For the correction coefficient of earth fill rate, take 0.025 when the earth fill
rate is 0.02~0.07m/d.
Y -- For the geologic factor correction coefficient, Y =0 when three conditions

including undrained shear strength of soft soil layer less than 25 kPa,
thickness thicker than 5m and crust layer thickness less than 2.5m are met.
For other conditions, take Y =-0.1.
3Total settlement may be also the calculated sum of distortion settlement Sd, primary
consolidation settlement Sc and secondary consolidation settlement Ss, that is:
S = Sd + Sc+ Ss (7.6.2-3)
4For the foundation settlement amount at any time, it may be calculated by the following
formulas when considering the change course of the primary consolidation with time:
St =( ms -1+ Ut) St (7.6.2-4)
Or St =Sd+ScUt+Ss (7.6.2-5)
For the above formulas, the foundation average degree of consolidation Ut will be
calculated with uni-dimensional consolidation theory of Terzaghi; for the foundation treated
with vertical drainage structures including sand well and plastic drain plater, etc, the degree of
consolidation will be calculated with the solution under equity strained condition by the
consolidation equation given by Barron of axial symmetry condition from Terzaghi-Rendulic
consolidation theory.
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7.6.3. Stability Checking Computation
For the stability checking computation of the embankment in soft soil area, generally use
the methods of consolidation effective stress method and improved total intensity method in
the typical arc slide method; and if the conditions are suitable, the simplified Bishop method
and Janbu general slices method may be also used. When doing checking computation, the
stable safety coefficient will be respectively calculated according to the load of construction
period and operation period. And as to the load of construction period, only will the
embankment dead weight be taken into consideration. The load of operation period includes
embankment dead weight, pavement weight and vehicle load.
7.6.4. Foundation Stability and Settlement Control Standard after Construction
Design for treating soft soil foundation includes design for stability and settlement. When
the safety stability coefficient is less than the specified value in Table 7.6.4-1, the treatment
design should be done for stability; and when the residual settlement (called settlement after
construction) within the pavement design service life (bituminous pavement is 15 years while
cement concrete pavement is 30 years) fails to meet the requirements in Table 7.6.4-2, the
design for treatment should be conducted for settlement.
Table 7.6.4-1 Stability Safety Coefficient
Method Simplified
Consolidation effective stress
Safety Improved total intensity method Bishop method,
method
Janbu method
coefficient Consolidation Consolidation
Consolidation Consolidation
not to be taken not to be taken
Index to be taken into to be taken into
into into
consideration consideration
consideration consideration
Direct fast shear 1.1 1.2
Static sounding, vane

1.2 1.3
shear
Effective shear index
1.4
of three-axle
Note: When the earthquake force should be taken into consideration, the stability safety
coefficient will be reduced by 0.1.
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Table 7.6.4-2 Allowable Residual Settlement after Construction
Engineering position Neighboring spot between Culverts and General

Road class abutment and embankment underpass section
Expressway, class 1 highways 0.10m 0.20m 0.30m
Class 2 highways 0.20m 0.30m 0.50m
7.6.5. Foundation Reinforcing Measures
1The embankment bottom constructed in the soft soil foundation is suitable to set up the
horizontal bed course of water permeability, its thickness is suitable to be 0.50m. For the zone
lacking of gravel, the geosynthesized composite material and the gravel bed course may be
used in proper proportion to reduce the thickness of gravel bed course.
2Light mass embankment may be filled with light materials such as fly ash and EPC block,
etc. When using fly ash for embankment, some technical requirements of Section 3.9 in the
Specifications should be carried out. When adopting EPS material for embankment, the
compression deformation and antifloating stability should be calculated.
3When the reinforcing steel bars are used for embankment, the geosynthesized material
with the characters of high strength, little deformation and age-proof should be used as the
reinforcing material of the embankment.
4The counterpressure berm may be set up on one side or both sides of the embankment,
its height is not suitable to be higher than that of 1/2 embankment, its width should be
determined through the stability calculation.
5Drainage consolidation method
1) According to the soft soil thickness and property, embankment height, subgrade stability,
control standard of residual settlement after construction and the construction period, etc, the
treatment scheme of using sand bed course prepressing, or sand bag well (plastic drain plate
prepressing) or vacuum united piling load prepressing in the soft soil foundation may be
determined via comprehensive analysis.
2) According to the soft soil property, road construction material and construction
technology, etc, the sand bag well, plastic drain plate, or other material can be selected as the
vertical drainage structure. The vertical drainage structure should be arranged in equilateral
triangle, its length should be determined according to the stability of subgrade to foundation
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and the deformation requirements. For the thinner soft soil layer, it is suitable to penetrate
through the soft soil layer. Prepressing period is not suitable to be less than 6 months.
3) According to the load size acting on the foundation in prepressing and operation period,
the prepressing includes under load prepressing, equal load prepressing and super-load
prepressing. The prepressing height should be determined according to the soft soil property,
embankment design height, filler and construction period, etc. At the same time, the factor
that the gravity of pavement structural course material is different from that of filler should be
taken into consideration. Super-load prepressing height should meet the stability requirements
of the embankment in construction period.
4) For preloading period, it should be determined according to the residual settlement

demanded or consolidation degree of foundation. In preloading period, the settlement quantity
to be finished by the foundation should not be less than the difference of the settlement
quantity at the year-end of pavement design life and allowed residual settlement quantity. And
if necessary, the foundation consolidation degree at the period end of preloading should also
meet the Rules on embankment stability.
5) Vacuum united piling load for preloading is suitable for treatment of high filling section
and soft soil foundation at bridgehead section. For adopting vacuum united piling load for
preloading, the vertical drainage structures including sand well or plastic drain bar should be
set up for the foundation. The vacuum degree of the vacuum film for vacuum preloading is
not suitable to be less than 70kPa. Under the situation that there is a good airing layer surface
layer or the permeable layer with adequate water source replenishing, the measures for cutting
off airing layer and permeable layer should be used.
6Granular material pile
1) Granular material pile of vibrating and punching type is suitable for the foundation soil
with vane strength larger than 15kPa; granular material pile of immersed tube type is suitable
to use for the foundation soil with vane strength larger than 10kPa.
2) For the diameter of granular material pile, setting depth and space should be fixed after
checking computation for stability and settlement, with clear spacing of neighboring pile not
larger than 4 times of pile diameter.
3) For calculating stability coefficient of integral shear resistant for the composite
foundation with granular material pile, the shear resistant strength on the sliding surface of
composite foundation will adopt the shear resistant strength ps of composite foundation and
the strength will be calculated by the Formula of (7.6.5-1).
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In which: -- Vertical stress of pile body at the sliding face;
c -- For inner friction angle of granular material pile, 38 may be taken when the
pile material is macadam; 35 to be taken when pile material is grit;
-- For displacement ratio of pile to earth, it will be fixed by the Formula of

(7.6.5-3) when the pile on the plane is arranged in equilateral triangle; And
to be fixed by the Formula of (7.6.5-4) when the pile on the plane is
arranged in square;
p -- Shear resistant strength of granular material pile (kPa);
s -- Shear resistant strength of foundation soil (kPa);
-- Inclination of sliding surface ();
D, B -- Respectively represents the pile diameter and pile space.
4) SZ -- Settlement of foundation within the depth of granular material pile length,

which will be converted reducing by the formula of (7.6.5-5).
In which: s -- Earth stress converted reducing coefficient between the piles;
n -- For stress ratio of pile and earth, it is bettered to fix through testing; and if
there have not been data for it, 2~5 may be taken for n; high value may be
taken when the soil quality at pile bottom is good and the soil quality
between piles is poor; if not, low value to be taken;
S -- Settlement of the original foundation within the depth of granular material

pile length.
7Reinforcing earth pile
1) For adopting deep lift mixing method to reinforce soft soil foundation, the vane strength
is not smaller than 10kPa; for using powder jetting pile method to reinforce soft soil
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foundation, the depth should not be deeper than 15m.
2) For the diameter of reinforced earth pile, setting depth and space, it should be fixed
through stability checking computation, with rules on residual settlement satisfied. The clear
spacing of neighboring piles should not be larger than 4 times of pile diameter.
3) For calculating stability factor of integral shear resistant strength for embankment at the
composite foundation with reinforcing earth pile, the shear resistant strength on the sliding
face within composite foundation should use the shear resistant strength ps that will be
calculated by the Formula of (7.6.5-7).
The other symbols in the Formula mean the same as above.
4) For shear resistant strength of reinforced earth pile, the strength of 90 days period will be
taken as standard. It may be calculated by measuring the half of unconfined compression
strength qu with the original specimen drilled from the test section; also to be calculating with
the unconfined compression strength multiplied by the converted reducing coefficient of 0.3,
measured from the reinforced earth specimen made indoor according to the mix ratio, i.e. p =
0.3qu.
5) For settlement quantity of composite foundation for reinforced earth pile will be
calculated by the settlement quantity s1 of reinforced area in composite foundation and the
settlement quantity s2 of underlying layer in reinforced area; as to settlement quantity s1 of
reinforced area, it will be calculated by adopting modular approach of composite compression
while the settlement quantity s2 of underlying layer to be calculated by compression modular
approach.
6) Composite compression modulus (Eps) will be calculated by formula of (7.6.5-8).
In which: Ep -- Compression modulus of pile body (MPa);
Es -- Compression modulus of earth mass (MPa);
8Strongly tamping
1) In saturated soft clay foundation are mixing multi-layers of silty sand or by backfilling
block stone, gravels and pebble, etc. for strongly tamping; and for replacement, it may be
treated with strong tamping method.
2) Before strongly tamping, the representative section at construction site shall be selected
for pilot tamping to guide construction in large area.
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3) The effective reinforcing depth d of strongly tamping may be estimated by Formula of

(7.6.5-9).
In which: m -- Hammers mass (t);
h -- Hammers falling height (m);
-- As to coefficient of correction, it has something to do with the factors

including soil condition, groundwater level, tamping energy, bottom surface
of hammer, etc, with range value being 0.34~0.80 that should be determined
according to pilot tamping result at site.
4) For tamping blow count (optimized tamping energy) of the tamping area, it should be
determined by the pilot tamping at site. And it should satisfy the following conditions: Taking
as principle that the amount of compression of tamping pit is maximum while the hunch
around the tamping pit is minimum, the average tamping settlement quantity of final two
blows or three blows will not be larger than 50~100mm.
5) Tamping site may be arranged in square or equilateral triangle, space to be bettered as

5~7m.
6) The tamping blow count will be determined by pilot tamping.
7.6.6. Design of Embankment Section
1) Embankment widening
The bottom surface of the embankment on soft soil foundation is suitable to be widened,
with widening quantity d of one side to be:
In which: m -- Designed side slope value of the embankment at soft soil foundation
(reciprocal of ratio of slope);
Sf -- Settlement quantity at the end of pre-compression period at the toe of the

embankment.
2) Side slope of the embankment
The side slope n of the pre-compression embankment will be calculated by the following
formula:
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(7.6.6-2)
In which: Sj -- Settlement quantity at the end of pre-compression period at the shoulder;
H -- Depth of fill (m) for subgrade;
7.6.7. Design for Settlement and Stability Observation
1For high filling embankment at soft soil foundation and bridgehead embankment, the
design for settlement and stability observation should be done. And the design content
includes: observation point of settlement observation and lateral displacement (stability), type
selection and arrangement of observer, observation method, and observation frequency. if
necessary, the deep displacement observation of soft soil foundation should be done.
2Earth fill rate of the embankment should meet the following requirements:
1) Filling time should not be less than the consolidation time needed by gain in strength of
foundation shear resistant.
2) The central settlement quantity of the embankment every day and night should not be
larger than 10~15mm; Border pile displacement every day and night should not be larger than
5mm.
7.6.8.For embankment at soft soil foundation, it is suitable to have the engineering actuality
taken into consideration for selecting representative section for reclamation in advance of
experimental embankment.
7.6.9. Time Determination on Pavement Laying
Pavement laying should not be done until the settlement is stabilized, with double control
standard used, i.e.: The estimated residual settlement quantity should be less than the design
allowable value. And unloading for excavating road trough and beginning pavement laying
will not be done until continuous observation of two months settlement quantity will not
exceed 5mm every month.
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7.7. Subgrade in Laterite and High Liquid Limit Soil Area
1For the route passing through laterite or high liquid limit soil area, the data including
distribution scope of laterite or high liquid limit soil, genetic type, layer trait of soil structure,
humidity state, vertical distribution, distribution trait of fissure in soil body, distribution law,
physical mechanics property and swell shrink characteristics, etc. of groundwater should be
found out.
2Classification of laterite
1) Based on the fissure development traits, the structure of laterite may be classified
according to Table 7.7.1- 1.
Table 7.7.1-1 Structural Classification on Laterite
Earth mass structure Fissure development trait st
Compacted structure Fissures come upon (<1 strip/m) >1.2
Huge block structure More fissure (1~2 strip/m) 0.8~1.2
Crushed block structure Rich in fissure (>5 strips/m) <0.8
Note: St is the unconfined compression strength ratio of laterite soil sample in natural state
and keeping wet disturbance state.
2) Repetition immersion trait of laterite may be classified by the Table 7.7.1-2.
Table 7.7.1-2 Classification on Re-immersion Trait of Laterite
Category Relationship between Ir and Repetition immersion trait

By repetition immersion expansion after
I
shrinkage, it can restore to home position.
By repetition immersion expansion after
II
shrinkage, it cannot restore to home position.
Note: WL-liquid limit; WP-plastic limit.
3When laterite and high liquid limit soil has extensibility, it should be designed according
to expansion soil subgrade.
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4Design for subgrade should avoid high fill embankment and deep cut and if they cannot
be avoided, it will be fixed after having it comprehensively compared for selection.
5For the subgrade, it should be comprehensively designed with side slope drainage and
supporting and warding off works taken into consideration, harmonizing with pavement
structure design for reducing subgrade deformation from too large or pavement structural
damage caused by uneven settlement.
7.7.2. Fill Subgrade
1For the laterite that will be used as subgrade filler, the smallest strength should meet the
rules of Table 3.2.1 and 3.3.1. And if the rules cannot be met, treatment should be done. If the
laterite has compression coefficient larger than 0.5MPa-1, it should not be used for filling
embankment.
2Filling embankment height in the laterite without modification processing is not suitable
to be higher than 10m.
3High liquid limit soil is not suitable to be directly used for embankment filler. And when
using high liquid limit soil from excavation section for reclaiming embankment, it should be
treated.
4When making certain of the optimized moisture content for embankment reclaiming, it is
suitable to use moist soil modified proctor test.
5For the side slope height, when it is not higher than 10m, the ratio of slope for
embankment side slope is suitable to be 1:1.5~1:1.75. And for side slope height is higher than
6m, it is suitable to setted up plain stage of slope, with width not less than 2m. Based on the
rules concerned of Section 3.6 of the Specifications, when side slope height is higher than
10m, the cross section form of embankment, side slope gradient, and protection and
reinforcement measures for subgrade should be fixed through analysis and calculation of
embankment stability.
6The embankment basement should be set up with bed course of drainage and isolation.
And with thickness to be 0.3~0.5m, use sand gravel or macadam having good water
permeability for reclaiming. And the top layer should be set up with inverted filter.
7For protection of embankment side slope, when using the modification laterite or using
out pack sealing of non-laterite (high liquid limit soil), it may be treated according to common
subgrade protection.
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7.7.3 Excavation Subgrade
1For excavation subgrade design, pay attention to that the fissure development caused by
earth mass setting shrinkage at the cut surface of type I laterite under repetition immersion
and the negative influence of earth quality change from repetition immersion. For side slope
stability analysis and calculation, it is bettered to use the strength index from saturation shear
test and repetition slow shear test. And for the soil with developed fissure, use the index of
three axes shear test or unconfined compression strength test; if necessary, shrinkage test and
repetition immersion test may be done.
2The height of excavation side slope is not suitable to be higher than 20m. And the design
for cutting slope should follow the principles of having ratio of slope gentled, having
platform widened and toe solidified. The slope ratio of side slope and platform width may be
fixed according to Table 7.7.3 and when side slope height is higher than 6m, the excavation
subgrade is suitable to use cross section of step type. If the landform allows, the side slope is
bettered gentling.
3For the laterite or high liquid limit soil within the scope of 0.8m to the cutting roadbed, it
should be over-cutting according to the highway classification, engineering property of
laterite or high liquid limit soil, with treatment of alternative filling of sand gravel, soil
aggregate having good water permeability or having lime mixed.
Table 7.7.3 Ratio of Cutting Side Slope
Side slope height (m) Side slope ratio Width of side slope platform (m)
<6 1:1.25~1:1.5 -
6~10 1:1.25~1:1.5 2.0
10~20 1:1.5~1:1.75 2.0
4To the comprehensive design for subgrade drainage system should be paid attention,
having surface water and groundwater timely drained and discharged. And according to
development case of groundwater, adjust measures to local conditions for setting up drainage
hole and supporting seepage ditch of slanting and face upward type on the cutting slope. And
under the side ditch is set up the seepage ditch.
5To the comprehensive design for supporting reinforcement and dome protection of
cutting slope should be paid attention. And for dome protection, it is suitable to use the
skeleton plant for protection. If the stability of side slope is not enough, supporting and
warding off works should be added. For full sealing masonry protection, the drainage bed
course with thickness of 0.15~0.30m should be set up at the wall back.
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7.8. Subgrade in Expansive Soil Area
1For designing subgrade at expansive soil zone, the data including distribution scope of
expansive soil, genetic type, structural layer of earth mass, distribution and storage condition
of groundwater, swelling property, physical mechanics property, mineral component of
expansive soil, etc. should be found out.
2The design of subgrade should comprehensively take into consideration the factors such
as expansive soil type, earth mass structure and engineering trait, environmental geology
condition, and weathering depth, etc. to guarantee the stability of subgrade with road use rules
met.
3For designing subgrade, it is suitable to avoid high filling and deep cutting in large scale
and for shallow cutting and low embankment, it is suitable for passing through. When the
subgrade belonging to arduous works with poor stability needs excavation in large scale, it
should be made certain through comparison scheme with bridges and tunnel. When the
subgrade passes through, the measures for guaranteeing stability should be provided.
4When the highway passes through expansive soil section, subgrade design should take as
main the waterproof, wet preservation, and weathering prevention. Combining with slope
protection and lowering side slope height, construction will be continuously going, with
roadbed and slope face timely closed up.
5Protection and reinforcement for side slope should abide by the following rules:
1) When possible damage from shallow layer may happen, it is suitable to use
corresponding measures for wet preservation and seepage proof in half closing up.
2) When damage from deep layer may happen, the solution for long-term stability of
integral side slope should be firstly provided, with measures preventing the shallow layer
from being damaged adopted.
3) For the strength index of expansive soil, use strength value lower than the peak value,
with back calculation and experience index to also be used.
4) Basis buried depth of supporting and warding off structure should be larger than the
depth of weather influencing layer and inverted filter should properly thickened.
1When soil filling height of the subgrade of class 1 highway and 2 and expressway is less
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than the total thickness of pavement and roadbed and basement belonging to expansive soil, it
is suitable to excavate out the expansive soil of 0.30m~0.60m on ground surface, to have the
roadbed treated with vicarious filling or with lime mixed. If it is strong expansive soil, the
excavation depth should reach that of atmospheric influencing.
2Strong expansive soil should not be used as embankment filler.
3When expressway and class 1 and 2 highway use medium expansive soil for filling the
embankment, reclaiming will not be going until the soil is treated with modification. When
lower expansive soil is used as filler for embankment, it may be directly used for filling when
the swelling overall rate not exceeding 0.7%. And the measures including water proof,
temperature preservation, sealing up, and slope protection, etc. should also be adopted and if
not, treatment should be carried out according to the condition such as road classification,
weather, hydrological traits, and earth filling layer, etc. with practice experience taken into
consideration.
Optimized ratio of lime mixing for modification treatment of expansive soil is not suitable
to exceed 0.7% of swelling overall ratio after having lime mixed.
4For roadbed, use the material meeting with the rules 3.2.1 of the Specification Table for
filling. And if use lower expansive soil and medium expansive soil as the filler for roadbed, it
should not be used for filling until the soil is treated with modification. The swelling overall
rate after modification should not exceed 0.7%.
5When using lower expansive soil and medium expansive soil for filling embankment, the
side slope rate should be fixed according to the trait of regional weather, the property of
remolded filler and height of embankment side slope, with mature experience from the
existing subgrade taken into consideration for comprehensive decision. When side slope
height is not higher than 10m embankment side slope rate and setting of side slope platform,
it may be fixed according to the Table 7.8.2-1.
Table 7.8.2-1 Side Slope Ratio of Expansive Soil Embankment and Platform Width
Swellability Side slope ratio Side slope platform width (m)

Side slope
height (m) lower swelling Medium swelling lower swelling Medium swelling
<6 1:1.5 1:1.5~1:1.75 Not to set up
6~10 1:1.75 1:1.75~1:2.0 2.0 2.0
6The filled subgrade with expansive soil should be timely rolled and compacted, with
degree of compaction for subgrade tallying with the rules of 3.2.1 and 3.3.2 of the
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Specification Table. When determining the optimum moisture content and the maximum dry
density of embankment filling, it is suitable to use modified proctor test of wet earth method.
7For protection of embankment side slope, it should be fixed according to engineering

geology condition and height following Table 7.8.2-2.
Table7.8.2-2 Protection Measures for Embankment Side Slope of Expansive Soil
Side slope height (m) Weak expansive soil Medium expansive soil
6 Plant Skeleton plant
Vegetation protection and Supporting seepage ditch and

>6
skeleton plant arch skeleton plant
8Borrow pit depth is suitable to be controlled within the depth of local atmospheric
influence and atmospheric influence depth may be carried out referring to the rules of national
standard Technical Specification of Building in Expansive soil Area (GBJ 112).
7.8.3. Excavation Subgrade
1For slope rate of expansive soil cutting, it should be comprehensively fixed according to
earth property, on-cam relationship of weak layer and fissure, weather characteristic,
hydrogeological condition, stable ratio of natural slope and manual side slope.
2The design of side slope should follow the principles of gentle slope rate, wide platform
and toe consolidation. Side slope rate and platform width may be designed according to
Table 7.8.3-1. When side slope height is higher than 10m, it should be individually designed,
doing comparison for selection with tunnel scheme if necessary.
Table 7.8.3-1 Side Slope Gradient of Expansive soil and Platform Width
Side slope Width of debris

Expansive soil Side slope Side slope
platform width avalanche
classification height (m) gradient
(m) platform (m)
<6 1:1.5 -- 1.0
Lower expansive soil
6~10 1:1.5~1:2.0 1.5~2.0 1.5~2.0
<6 1:1.5~1:1.75 1.0~2.0

Medium expansive soil
6~10 1:1.75~1:2.0 2.0 2.0
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<6 1:1.75~1:2.0 2.0

High expansive soil
6~10 1:2.0~1:2.5 2.0 2.0
3Over-excavating should be done for the expansive soil within the scope of 0.80m to
cutting roadbed, having it substituted with the filler tallying with the rules of Table 3.2.1 of
the specification, or doing earth quality improvement or adopting other reinforcement
measures.
4To timely drain surface water (including slope accumulated water) and groundwater,
enhanced drainage system is suitable to be set up for the side slope. According to the
development case of groundwater, upward-slanting type drainage hole, supporting seepage
ditch and longitudinal seepage ditch may be adopted for draining.
5For reinforcement and protection type of cutting side slope, it may be fixed according to
engineering geology condition, environmental factor and side slope height and taking into
consideration the rules of Tables 7.8.3-2 and 7.8.3-3. The excavated side slope is suitable to
be timely protected and closed up. For selecting plant to protect side slope, broadleaf species
will not do. For masonry protection, buffer layer should be set up at the back wall.
Table 7.8.3-2 Protective Measures for Cutting Side Slope of Expansive Soil
Side slope height (m) Lower expansive soil Medium expansive soil
6 Plant Skeleton plant

Arch skeleton plant, support
Skeleton plant, plant protection,
>6 seepage ditch and arch skeleton
mortar rubble slope protection
plant
Table 7.8.3-3 Retaining Structure and Warding off Measures for

Cutting Side Slope of Expansive Soil
Side slope Lower expansive Medium expansive

Strong expansive soil
height (m) soil soil
6 Not set up Toe wall Protection wall, retaining wall
Retaining wall for bearing platform
Protection wall, Retaining wall,
>6 of pile foundation, antiskid pile and
retaining wall antiskid pile
side slope anchorage
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7.9. Subgrade in Loess Area
1For designing subgrade in loess area, the things including distribution scope, thickness
and movement law of yellow soil, genetic type and stratum trait of the loess along the route,
cases on geomorphic unit, surface water and groundwater of the zone where the route locates,
physical mechanics property of the loess at different stratum, collapsibility type and
collapsibility grade should be found out.
2For loess tableland area, the design of subgrade should avoid tableland brink area where
groundwater outcropping, gully developed, sinkhole group, collapse and landslide exist. If the
said area is unavoidable for passing through, the feasible engineering measures and full basis
should be provided.
3For the subgrade locating at gully head and around sink holes, the development trend
should be analyzed and evaluated, together with extent of harm to subgrade. Influence from
gully and sink holes to stability of subgrade should be considered in design.
4For the subgrade at collapsibility loess section, it is bettered for designing in the good
section where it is slight in collapsibility loess grade, thinner in hydrocompaction earth layer
and better in drainage condition.
5For designing subgrade in loess area, it should specially pay attention to strengthening
drainage, using interception and decentralized treatment principle to set up the comprehensive
drainage facilities favorable in water and soil conservation and in anti-scouring and leakage
proof. And the mutual interference between farmland water conservancy facilities and
subgrade should also be properly solved.
1When constructing fill subgrade in loess area, the fillers strength, foundation base
compaction and treatment, etc. should be tallied with the rules of Sections 3.2 and 3.3 of the
Specifications. When the foundation bearing capacity of high embankment is allowed
lowering than the dynamic load of vehicles and pressure of embankments dead weight, the
foundation should also be treated according to the demand on bearing capacity.
2When foundation case of embankment is good or the side slope height is not higher than
30m from treatment, the embankments cross section form and side slope rate may be selected
for using according to Table 7.9.2. The cross section of echelon form is fitting in the area
where average annual precipitation larger than 500mm and at the location where side slopes
height is up to 20m, the plain stage of slope with width of 2.0~2.5m will be set up. And the
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plain stage of slope is better to set up intercepting ditch, with treatment of leakage proof and
reinforcement done.
Table 7.9.2 Cross Section Form of Embankment and Side Slope Ratio
Segmentation slope ratio of the side slope below the subgrade

Cross section form
0<H10m 10<H20m 20<H30m
Broken line form 1:1.5 1:1.75 1:2
Echelon form 1:1.5 1:1.75 1:1.75
3When side slope height of embankment is higher than 30m, it is bettered for comparing
with that of bridge scheme for individually designing according to the rules of Section 3.6 of
the Specification. Based on the property of foundation soil and embankment body, side slope
height and highway classification, side slope form and height of embankment should be fixed
through stability checking computation in mechanical analysis, which will be argued for
application taking into consideration the different conditions such as hydrology, stratum and
landform.
4Checking computation for side slope stability is better to use arc method and the stability
coefficient should not be less than the specified value of Table 3.6.8 of the specification.
Based on Rules for designed reclaiming degree of compaction, the index value of earth fill
shear strength should be confirmed by fast shear test after compaction.
5For the embankment whose height is higher than 20m, the widening value of subgrade
top surface should be reserved in advance according to the after-construction settlement value
that may be estimated according to 0.7%~1.5% of embankments height.
1 Based on loess classification, evenness and side slope height, the side slope form of
loess cutting should be fixed according to Table 7.9.3-1. Cutting side slope of loess of
expressway and class 1 highway is better to adopt step form. Small platform width of side
slope is 2.0~2.5m and the big platform width of side slope should be fixed according to
calculation of stability, it is bettered to be 4~6m. And for the area where annual average
precipitation is larger than 250mm, the interception ditch should be set up on the platform,
with prevention measures provided.
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Table 7.9.3-1 Cutting Side Slope Form and Application Condition
Side slope form Application condition

1) For uniform soil layer, side slope height H of loess Q4,
Straight-line form
Q3 15m; side slope height H of loess Q2, Q1 20m;
(sloping up to the top)
2) For non-uniform soil layer, side slope height H10m;
Broken line form
(the upper gentle while the For non-uniform soil layer, side slope height H15m;
lower steep)
1) For uniform soil layer, side slope height 15m of loess Q4,
Q3<H30m; side slope height 20m of loess Q2,
Small platform Q1<H30m;
Step form 2) For non-uniform soil layer, side slope height
15m<H30m;
Wide platform Side slope height H>30m;
2Based on Table 7.9.3-2 and taken into consideration the ratio of side slope stabilized
manually or naturally, the side slope ratio should be fixed according to the geomorphic unit,
age genesis, structure joint, groundwater distribution, precipitation, side slope height,
construction method when the height of excavation side slope is not higher than 30m.
Table 7.9.3-2 Cutting Side Slope Gradient in Loess Area
Side slope height (m)

Subarea Classification
6 6~12 12~30 20~30
New loess Drift bed 1:0.5 1:0.5~1:0.75 1:0.75~1:1.0 -
Southeast Q3 Q4 Diluvium 1:0.2~1:0.3 1:0.3~1:0.5 1:0.5~1:0.75 1:0.75~1:1.0

area I New loess Q3 1:0.3~1:0.5 1:0.4~1:0.6 1:0.6~1:0.75 1:0.75~1:1.0
Old loess Q2 1:0.1~1:0.3 1:0.2~1:0.4 1:0.3~1:0.5 1:0.5~1:0.75
Drift bed 1:0.5 1:0.5~1:0.75 1:0.75~1:1.0 -
New loess
Q3 Q4 Diluvium,
1:0.2~1:0.3 1:0.3~1:0.5 1:0.5~1:0.75 1:0.75~1:1.0
Central area Alluviation
II New loess Q3 1:0.3~1:0.4 1:0.4~1:0.5 1:0.5~1:0.75 1:0.75~1:1.0
Old loess Q2 1:0.1~1:0.3 1:0.2~1:0.4 1:0.3~1:0.5 1:0.5~1:0.75
Red loess Q1 1:0.1~1:0.2 1:0.2~1:0.3 1:0.3~1:0.4 1:0.4~1:0.6
Western area New loess Drift bed 1:0.5~1:0.75 1:0.75~1:1.0 1:1.0~1:1.25 -
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Side slope height (m)

Subarea Classification
6 6~12 12~30 20~30
III Q3 Q4 Diluvium,
1:0.2~1:0.4 1:0.4~1:0.6 1:0.6~1:0.75 1:0.75~1:1.0
Alluviation
New loess Q3 1:0.4~1:0.5 1:0.5~1:0.75 1:0.75~1:1.0 1:1.0~1:1.25
Old loess Q2 1:0.1~1:0.3 1:0.2~1:0.4 1:0.3~1:0.5 1:0.5~1:0.75
Drift bed 1:0.5~1:0.75 1:0.75~1:1.0 1:1.0~1:1.25 -
New loess
Q3 Q4 Diluvium,
1:0.2~1:0.4 1:0.4~1:0.6 1:0.6~1:0.75 1:0.75~1:1.0
Northern alluviation
area IV New loess Q3 1:0.3~1:0.5 1:0.5~1:0.6 1:0.6~1:0.75 1:0.75~1:1.0
Old loess Q2 1:0.1~1:0.3 1:0.2~1:0.4 1:0.3~1:0.5 1:0.5~1:0.75
Red loess Q1 1:0.1~1:0.2 1:0.2~1:0.3 1:0.3~1:0.4 1:0.4~1:0.6
Note: Inside the table is the side slope value that is the average value got after the platform is
set.
3When the cutting side slope height of loess embankment is higher than 30m, it should be
compared with that of tunnel scheme. Cutting side slope height should be individually
designed according to the rules of Section 3.7 of the Specification. For cutting side slope form
and height should be analyzed according to physical mechanics property, stability case of
natural side slope, and side slope stability of the works already constructed, to be fixed by
adopting stability checking computation of mechanical analysis method. When using arc
method for calculation, the stability coefficient should not be less than the rules of the Table
3.7.4 of the Specification.
4For deep cutting with large platform, apart from doing stability checking computation for
entire high side slope, local stability checking computation has to be done for segmentation
side slope of the upper and lower neighboring the large platform.
5Based on the earth quality, precipitation, weather condition, side slope height, gradient
and source of material, the side slope protection type should be selected for using by the
Chapter 5 of the Specification.
6At the section where the groundwater is moving, the measures for preventing surface
water from leaking, draining and intercepting groundwater should be used with necessary
protection works set up.
7.9.4. Treatment on Collapsibility Loess
1For collapsible type of the site at loess area, it should be judged by slumping type
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settlement actually measured of dead weight or slumping type settlement accumulated

calculating from indoor compression test. When slumping type settlement of dead weight
actually measured or calculated is not larger than 70mm, it should be fixed as self weight
non-collapsibility loess site, and when slumping type settlement of dead weight actually
measured or calculated is larger than 70mm, it should be fixed as self-weight collapsibility
loess site.
2Based on the total slumping type settlement accumulated from layers of foundation base
and factors big or small for calculating slumping type settlement of dead weight, the
hydrocompaction grade of collapsibility loess foundation should be judged by the Table
7.9.4-1.
Table 7.9.4-1 Collapsibility Grade of Collapsible Loess Foundation
non-self-weight
Collapsibility type Self-weight collapsibility site
collapsibility loess site
Calculation on self-weight
zs<70 70<zs350 zs>350
collapsibilityzs (mm)
s<300 (Slight) I (Medium) II -
Total
(Medium) II or
collapsibility s 300<s600 (Medium) II (Serious) III
(serious) III
(mm)
s>600 - (Serious) III (Very serious) IV
Note: When 300mm<s<500mm, 70mm<zs<300mm, it should be graded into II; when

500mms600mm, 300mmzs350mm, graded into III.
3Based on embankment depth of fill, the possibility to be soaked in water, extent of harm
and difficulty extent and when expressway and class 1 highway pass through the loess section
where collapsibility loess having higher compressibility, the treatment depth for collapsibility
loess foundation may be fixed by Table 7.9.4-2.
Table 7.9.4-2 Treatment Depth on Collapsibility Loess Foundation
Collapsibility Water flow at all times Seasonal water flow

grade and trait (or having much possibility to (or having little possibility to
be soaked) be soaked)
Embankment height I II III IV I II III IV
High embankment (>4m) 2~3 3~5 4~6 6 0.8~1 1~2 2~3 5
Low embankment (4m) 0.8~1.2 1~1.5 1.5~2 3 0.5~1.0 0.8~1.2 1.2~2.0 2
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Note: For the subgrade neighboring with abutment and high retaining wall subgrade
(wall height more than 6m), eliminate the ground entire collapsibility amount or pass through
the entire collapsibility loess layer.
4For treating collapsibility loess foundation, it should be fixed according to the things
including material source, construction condition, Rules on treatment depth, collapsibility
grade of loess, and highway classification and through comparison in technology and
economy. For treatment of non-self-weight collapsibility loess with collapsibility grade I~II
and self-weight collapsibility loess with collapsibility graded I, it may use heavy hammer for
tamping or impaction and rolling. And for self-weight collapsibility loess graded above II, it
may use the methods including strongly tamping, close pile (lime pile, grey soil pile and
macadam pile), or strongly tamping inside hole, etc. for treatment of compacting and
reinforcing. When farmland irrigation may result in collapsibility of loess foundation, the
surface reinforcement and leakage proof treatment or the lateral leakage-proof wall should be
provided for the scope of 5~10m outside the toe of embankments both sides.
5The loess sinkhole harmful to the foundation should be treated. Treatment method for
loess sinkhole should be fixed according to the buried depth and size of sink hole; based on
highway classification, may use the methods including excavation, backfilling, tamping, sand
pouring and grouting for treatment. For surface water flowing towards sinkhole, intercepting
and draining measures should be used while for crack on cutting top and waterlogged
depression, it should use tamping and compacting for treatment.
7.10. Subgrade in Saline Soil Area
1For saline soil highway, it should find out the cases including distribution scope, salt
content trait, groundwater and surface water and reasonably fix design scheme through
researching and analyzing diseases (corrosion, salt heaving, frost heaving and frost boiling)
possibly producing to the subgrade for meeting Rules on subgrade strength and stability.
2The subgrade should pass through in earth fill embankment, with the height fixed
according to the factors including highway classification, frost heaving depth, salt heaving
depth, capillarity height of groundwater, degree of salinity to earth quality, hydrogeology and
weather trait, etc.
7.10.2. Saline Soil Classification
1Saline soil will be classified into five classifications according to the properties of salt
content, which is seen in Table 7.10.2-1.
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Table 7.10.2-1 Property Classification by Salt Content of Saline Soil
Specific value of ion content

Saline soil name
Cl /SO 24 CO 3 2 +HCO 3 /Cl /SO 4 2
Chlorin saline soil >2 -

Chlorous saline soil 1~2 -
Sulfite soil 0.3~1.0 -
Sulphate saline soil <0.3 -
Carbonate saline soil - >0.3
Note: Ion content will be metered by millimole number of the ion contained in 1Kg of
earth (mmol/Kg).
2. Degree of salinity of the saline soil will be classified by Table 7.10.2-2.
Table 7.10.2-2 Saline Soil Classification by Degree of Salinity
Coarse-grained soil
Fine-grained soil
Average salt content passing
Average slat content of soil layer
through sieve pore 1mm
(metered by mass percent)
Salt soil name (metered by mass percent)
Chlorine saline Sulphate saline Chlorine saline Sulphate saline
soil and chlorous soil and sulfite soil and chlorous soil and sulfite
saline soil soil saline soil soil
Weak saline soil 0.3~<1.0 0.3~<0.5 2.0~<5.0 0.5~<1.5
Medium saline soil 1.0~<5.0 0.5~<2.0 5.0~<8.0 1.5~<3.0
Strong saline soil 5.0~8.0 2.0~5.0 8.0~10.0 3.0~6.0
Excessive saline
>8.0 >5.0 >10.0 >6.0
soil
Note: For ion content, it will be metered by total slat content contained in 100g of dry earth.
1For the smallest height of subgrade edge in saline soil area above the ground or
groundwater level or longtime ground seepage level, it should be fixed not lower than the
Specifications in Table 7.10.3-1.
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Table 7.10.3-1 Lowest Height of Subgrade in Saline Soil Area
Height higher than groundwater level

Height higher than ground
and longtime ground seepage level
Type of soil
Weak, medium Strong, excessive Weak, medium Strong, excessive
saline soil saline soil saline soil saline soil
Gravel soil 0.4 0.6 1.0 1.1
Sandy soil 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.4
Clayey soil 1.0 1.3 1.8 2.0
Silty soil 1.3 1.5 2.1 2.3
Note: 2 times for class 1 highway and expressway; 1.2~1.5 times for class 2 highway.
2For determining the usability of filled embankment in saline soil, it should be done
according to the Table 7.10.3-2, taking into consideration local hydrogeological condition,
climatic condition, different highway classifications and location for embankment filling.
Table 7.10.3-2 Usability of Saline soil for Subgrade Filler

Highway classification Expressway, class 1 Class 3 & 4
Class 2 highway
highway highways
Fill layer
Type of soil location 0.80~ 1.50m 0.8~ 1.50m 0.8~
and extent of 0~0.8m 0~0.8m 0~0.8m
salinity 1.50m below 1.5m below 1.5m
1
Weak saline soil
Coarse-grained soil
Medium saline soil 1 3
Strong saline soil 1 2 3 1

Excessive saline
2 2
soil
Weak saline soil 1 1 1
Fine-grained soil
Medium saline soil 1 1 4
Strong saline soil 2 2

Excessive saline
2
soil
Note: In the table -- usable; -- partly usable; -- unusable.
1: Chloric saline soil and chlorous saline soil is usable;
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2: Chloric saline soil and chlorous saline soil in the strong drought area is approved and
usable;
3: Silty soil (sand) and clayey soil is unusable;
4: For bad hydrogeological condition, sulfate saline soil and sulfite saline soil is
unusable.
3For foundation base of embankment in saline soil area, it should be treated separately
according to different ground conditions. Compacting should be done after removing the
vegetation, salty shell and humus soil in the surface layer. For excessive wet sections,
accumulated water should be removed and substitute filling should be done after excavating
the wet soil in the surface layer with substitute filling thickness should be not smaller than
0.3m. For sections near to blow sand or river sand, the blow sand or river sand should be
firstly used for substitute filling. For subgrade affected by groundwater or underground
capillary water, setting up insulating layer can be considered. Special treatment design should
be done for weak subgrade.
4For side slope ratio of embankment in saline soil area, it should be determined according
to the soil texture of filling material and the salinization degree following Table 7.10.3-3.
Table 7.10.3-3 Side Slope Ratio of Embankment in Saline Soil Area
Salinization degree of filler

Type of soil quality
Weak, medium saline soil Strong saline soil
Gravel soil 1:1.5 1:1.5
Sandy soil 1:1.5 1:1.5~1:1.75
Clay 1:1.5~1:1.75 1:1.75~1:2.00
Silty soil 1:1.5~1:1.75 1:1.75~1:2.00
7.10.4. Preventing and Controlling Measures
1For the subgrade treatment, effective measures adjusting to local conditions including
heightening the subgrade, substitute filling the subgrade, setting up insulating layer and
improving drainage conditions should be adopted, aiming at the conditions including
landform, road construction materials, local engineering geology and hydrogeology, extent of
salinization and salt-containing traits of soil body to make sure the roadbed in a stable state of
dry or medium wet, not be effected by salinity and moisture.
2 For the heightened height of subgrade, it should be comprehensively taken into

consideration the preventing and controlling measures and drainage designing. For excessive
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wet belt in bad drainage condition, the smallest height of subgrade should be not smaller than
the Specifications in the specification Table 7.10.3-1. For subgrades of highway classification
above II higher than ground by 2m, berm of 1~2m width should be added with top surface
higher than the longtime seeper level by at least 0.5m.
3For subgrade substitute filling materials, adopting gravelly soil or sand would be
appropriate. The substitute filling thickness of expressway or class 1 highway should be not
thinner than 1.0m, for class 2 or 3 highway not thinner than 0.8m, and comprehensively
treating combining the insulating layer measures would be appropriate.
4Setting up horizon of the insulating layer should be higher than the ground and ground
longtime seepage level to insulate water and salinity from going into the upper layer of
subgrade and base course of pavement.
5For using blow sand or river sand as subgrade filling or insulating layer, gentling the side
slope and wrapping edges with gravelly (sand) soil should be appropriately done to prevent
side slope from corroding and falling.
6 For subgrade in saline soil area, complete drainage facilities must be set up,
comprehensively taking into consideration local draining and irrigation system for farmland.
7For road sections having drainage or irrigation aqueduct for farmland near the highway
or with relative high groundwater level or difficult in surface drainage, drainage (intercepting)
ditch should be set up at one side or both sides of the subgrade to lowering the groundwater
level or intercepting the farmland drainage and irrigation water, with the distance between
drainage (intercepting) ditch and slope toe of subgrade should be not smaller than 2m and
with the ditch depth to be 1.0m below the surface at least.
8For road sections difficult in drainage but free in land occupation, evaporation pond can
be set up. Designing of the evaporation pond should be complying with the regulation by
Article 4.2.8 in the Specifications.
9 For replacement of existing subgrade filler being limited, treating with fixation
accelerator added into the primary filler can be done. The type, component and dosage of the
fixation accelerator can be determined by experiment on the soil of filler.
7.10.5. Subgrade in Drying Up Salt Lake Region
1For designing subgrade in drying up salt lake section, conditions including type of rock
salt, kind of engineering, corroding status and groundwater level, traits of containing salt
should be found out.
2For filling subgrade in drying up salt lake sections, rock salt can be used as filler.
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3For expressway or class 1 highway in drying up salt lake sections, it should be

constructed by stages. For highway in other grades, subgrade cross section type of low
embankment can be adopted with height of the embankment not smaller than 0.3m. For side
slope rate of embankment, 1:1.5 can be adopted.
4For saturation salt water existing under the ground of salt lake, adopting subgrade cross
section with ditch and berm would be appropriate, with the width of berm bigger than 2m.
5When the surface has corrosion, karren and corroded pool, it should be filled with filler,
spraying saturation salt water and tamping in layers.
7.11. Subgrade in Permafrost Area
1For designing the subgrade in permafrost area, things including the distribution and type
of permafrost, upper limit of the frozen soil layer and hydrogeological conditions along the
route should be found out. For constructing the subgrade in sections including frozen soil
swamp, drumlin, ablation cone and Thermokarst Lake, the development trend, generating
reason, scale and scope should be investigated in detail.
2For the subgrade sections in Thermokarst Lake and frozen soil swamp (swamped
wetland) area, it should be passed in way of embankment with the height higher than the
water level of water accumulation in warm season, with capillary water height and
damageable frozen height and 0.5m added, also meeting the requirement of heat preservation
thickness. The influence from water gushing of wave should be taken into consideration when
getting across the relatively big Thermokarst Lake.
3For designing the filling, the development condition of water above the frozen layer and
the frost heaving sensitivity of the filling should be considered, with pebble soil or aggregate
soil firstly adopted when it is allowed. It is forbidden to use the fine-grained soil with
plasticity index larger than 12 and liquid limit larger than 32%, and soil rich in humus and
frozen soil. For filling of heat preserve berm, use local materials including peat, turf,
bristlegrass or fine-grained soil.
4Principles combining the sectional design and site design should be adopted according to
the different construction stage and environmental traits of the works. Adopt design principles
including protection, common protection and general subgrade according to the type and
average earth temperature of the frozen soil.
5For subgrade located in frozen soil sections with little ice or much ice, it can be designed
as the general subgrade. As to the subgrade located in sections with ice-rich frozen soil,
ice-full frozen soil and ice layer containing earth, also in the sections with drumlin, ablation
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cone, permafrost swamp, thermalkarst lake and groundwater cut, special design should be
carried out.
6For designing the subgrade, comprehensively take into consideration the pavement
structure design, to decrease the structural damage of the pavement caused by the excessive
distortion of the subgrade or differential settlement.
7.11.2. Subgrade in Frozen Soil Regions with Higher Ice Content
1For designing the embankment, it should calculate the settlement quantity from thawing
and compressing and determine the widening value and heightening value reserved in
advance according to the settlement quantity after the completion of the construction.
2For designing according to the principle of protecting or commonly protecting the

permafrost, the smallest filling height of the embankment is not only to meet the rules for
preventing the frost heaving and frost boiling but also to make sure the upper limit of the
frozen soil not lowering. The height of the embankment should be not too high, to prevent
secondary damages such as longitudinal crack of the embankment.
3Enforcement measures such as geogrid or geo-chamber can be adopted when the

embankment is relatively high.
4Industrial heat preserve material layer can be set up when the embankment height can
not meet the smallest height for preventing the upper limit of frozen soil from changing.
5Foundation base filling replacement should be done for excavating and filling transition
sections and low filling sections, with filling thickness determined by hot working calculation.
The filling replacement foundation base and that of excavation sections should be connected
in the same direction. For adopting pebble gravel as the exchange fillings, composite
geomembrane anti seepage layer should be set up on the surface of the ground to prevent the
surface water from permeating, with surface transversal slope of the geomembrane not
smaller than 4%.
6Full or part filling replacement treatment would be adopted for the basement and cutting
side slope according to the source of filling, earth temperature condition, orientation of the
slope surface and the distribution of the frozen soil layer, with the filling replacement
thickness determined by calculation and the slope rate not larger than 1:1.75.
Cross section of wrap angle type would be adopted for cutting top, with the wrap angle
elevation of the cutting top generally higher than the original ground by 0.8m and the width
being 1.0m, the slope rate of the outer side slope being 1:1.75. The slope rate of inner side
slope would be the same with the cutting slope.
7When the filling basement being fine-grained soil containing much ice or ice layer
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containing earth with ice layer underground relative thicker, heat preservation berm and foot
protection can be set up at the toe and the heat preservation layer set up for the filling
basement. Local materials including moss, turf, bristlegrass, peat or clayey soil can be used
for the heat preservation facilities.
8For subgrade in unstable permafrost area, integrative treatment measures including

cooling the groundwork, setting up heat preservation layer, etc. can be adopted according to
the conditions of earth temperature, excavating and filling of the subgrade, fillings and
distribution of frozen soil, with setting of the heat preservation layer determined by hot
working calculation.
For subgrade sections with frozen soil having traits including smaller thickness, higher ice
content and relatively lower burying, measures of removing the frozen soil with higher ice
content would also be adopted after considering the technology and economy. When stability
of the subgrade still can not be guaranteed by the abovementioned measures, to substitute the
fill subgrade with bridges would be appropriate.
9For frozen soil subgrade with high ice content in unstable permafrost sections,
adopting geosynthetics reinforcement structure would be appropriate.
7.11.3. Subgrade in Engineering Geology Sections with Poor Frozen Soil
1For embankment at the lower section with ice cone or frost heaving hillock, drainage
ditch would be set up at the upper part of it for intercepting and draining the water from the
ice cone or frost heaving hillock and nearby. For the perennial thawing area with relative big
groundwater streams; heat preservation seepage ditch should be set up for draining
groundwater outside the embankment. Bridges would be set up for passing when necessary.
2The route pass scheme for the upper section with ice corn or frost heaving hillock should
be cautiously adopted. When passing is needed, deeper drainage ditch and freezing gutter
should be set up outside the toe of slope on the upper part of embankment with distance not
shorter than 20m. If having water under frozen layer, the thermal insulation seepage ditch
should be set up to lead the groundwater to the outside of the subgrade. If there is much
accumulated ice, or much more groundwater crossing the subgrade and when interception or
drainage is difficult, it is bettered to arrange bridge for passing.
3For subgrade passing the thawing lake or pool, measures including draining out water
collection and filling with sand gravel or dumping rock to squeeze out the silt can be done if
the lake area is not big; for bigger lake area, measures including draining out water collection
by setting up cofferdam, excavating and removing the soft earth layer of the foundation base
and filling with water permeable materials can be done. The settlement quantity reserved in
advance should be considered for width and height of the embankment. For the settlement
quantity, not only the impact of filling compaction of the subgrade body but also the impact of
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impaction settlement of the earth layer of foundation base is needed for consideration.
For subgrade passing the lake (pool) in the frozen soil section with high ice content, it
should be treated according to the ice-containing condition in the stratum of subgrade
foundation base following the Rules in 7.11.2.
4For embankment in swampland section, adopt integrative measures including enforcing

the drainage, reserving the settlement in advance and eliminate the damage by frozen
according to principle of protecting the permafrost and based on the traits of swampland,
depth of the water and type of permafrost.
7.11.4. Drainage of Subgrade
1Constructing drainage ditch and intercepting ditch in frozen soil sections with high ice
content should be avoided and constructing water retaining bank would be more appropriate.
The cross section dimensions of the water retaining bank should be determined through
calculation and adopting anti seepage and heat preservation measures for the bank.
Reinforcement measures should be adopted if necessary.
2For designing drainage ditches and intercepting ditches in frozen soil sections with high
ice content, the burying depth of the frozen soil and ice layer should be adequately considered,
with wide and low type of cross section adopted. The dimensions of the cross section should
be determined by calculation. For the frozen soil section rich in ice or with full ice, the
distance from inside edge of drainage ditch, intercepting ditch and water retaining bank to the
slope toe of heat preservation berm or top of cutting slope or slope toe of embankment
(without heat preservation berm) should be not smaller than 5m; for ice layer sections
containing earth not smaller than 10m.
3Measures including constructing frozen ditch, ice accumulating pit, ice-blocking band,
ice-blocking wall or seepage ditch would be adopted according to the type of groundwater,
stratum, seepage and water quantity conditions, to eliminate the groundwater damaging the
subgrade.
For adopting the seepage ditch to draining the groundwater, heat preservation measures
should be adopted both for the seepage ditch and manhole. Location of the outlet should be at
the place that has such traits as open topography, larger altitude difference, steeper
longitudinal gradient, exposed to the sun and taking shelter from wind, with heat preservation
measures of buried centrum or other types adopted.
Water should be drained with heat preservation measures adopted for the side slope when
the groundwater spilling from the cutting slope.
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7.11.5. Borrow Pit and Spoil Bank
1The borrow pit (area) should be operating according to the environmental protection
Rules for frozen soil area, and appropriately keeping far away from the route, concentratively
borrowing earth by subsections. Reducing the heat balance influence of the borrow pit on the
surrounding stratum after borrowing should be considered for setting up the borrow pit (area)
to avoid naturally falling of upper limit and causing new bad geological damages including
sinking and falling in by hot thawing, which may influence the stability of the subgrade.
2The borrow pit (area) should be located in the hillside or thawing area or hirst wady on
upside of the embankment, thin in vegetation with frozen soil having little or much ice. Earth
shouldnt be borrowed in the section with rich ice, frozen soil or soil ice layer.
3For cutting excavation being frozen soil with high ice content, it should not be used as
filler for subgrade or heat preservation berm.
7.12. Subgrade in Sand Storm Area
1 For designing subgrade in sand storm area, information including local weather
condition, landform and topographic feature, engineering geology and hydrogeology,
materials for constructing road and ecology environment, etc. should be found, fixing on the
type of desert.
2For constructing the road in sand storm area, local desert controlling experiences should
be investigated combining with different type of desert and traits of highway engineering for
determining the route line and cross section type of subgrade that is good for the smooth
passing of sand storm, and determining works or biological shield measures for preventing the
subgrade from corroding and burying by the blowing sand.
3Shields should be set up according to the landform type of desert of different areas in
sand storm area. For excessive dry desert area with stronger blowing sand streams, the
principles of using local materials, adjusting measures to local conditions and comprehensive
treatment should be followed. Except adopting shield measures for subgrade, complete sand
defending system should be set up for both sides of the subgrade; for drought desert area,
adopting shield measures combining engineering and biology would be appropriate; for
dampish and half drought desert, adopting measures of biological control and zoology
recovery would be good.
4While focus for designing comprehensive sand proof controlling scheme for subgrade in
desert area, it should also pay attention to the issues including subgrade filler, integral strength
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and stability and taking into consideration the convenience for later maintenance and
management at the same time.
5Drainage facilities such as side ditch etc. may not be needed for subgrade in dry flowing
desert, but for road section needing irrigation, drainage design should be also considered,
setting up wide and low side ditch and bridge and culvert with big aperture would be
appropriate.
6The local fragile ecology should not be damaged at will when constructing the desert
highway and the earth borrowed and abandoned should not be piled up at will. At the same
time preventing and controlling the formed sand calamity, more attention should be paid to
environment protection. Protect the existing vegetation and ground duricrust on both sides of
the subgrade.
1Subgrade in windy and sandy areas should be mainly based on lower embankment, the
earth fill height should be determined in terms of the wind direction, change of wind speed
and other conditions, etc. on embankment, the embankment height is generally 0.3~2m higher
than the average height of the sand dunes within the range of 50m on both sides of the
subgrade. When the highway passes a high compound sand ridge or a compound dune-chain
section, the subgrade fill height is slightly higher than that of excavation or they are in
approximate balance.
2Fill subgrade in windy and sandy areas should adopt gentle side slope or streamlined
cross section. The expressway and class 1 highway can adopt the separated gentle side slope
subgrade type while it is inappropriate to adopt convex median divider. The intersection area
of the shoulder and the side slope should be designed in arc shape.
3The gradient of general embankment side slopes in windy and sandy areas should be
determined in terms of the filler, earth fill height, wind direction, roadside terrain and
protection conditions. For expressway and class 1 highway in slightly-humid and semiarid
sand areas, the embankment side slopes with a gradient of 1:3 are suitable.
4In windy and sandy areas, the subgrade filler should meet the requirements set out in
Table 3.2.1 and Table 3.3.1 of the Specifications. For pure wind-accumulated sand, the
materials of geotextile, etc. can be used to reinforce and construct the subgrade. The vibration
and dry compaction technology can be used for sandy subgrade in the areas short of water
source.
5The earth borrows for subgrade should come from the excavated sections or such dunes
that prevent wind from coming direction to alleviate sand damage. When the longitudinal haul
is relatively far away and earth borrow by roadside, the borrow pits should be set in those
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places about 5 meters apart from the foot of leeward slope and designed as a shallow groove
in arc shape. Protective measures should be taken on the borrow pits if necessary. Road
sections in flat sand land are not suitable for earth borrows, and they should be protected.
6 The shoulders and side slopes should be protected on the basis of the highway
classification, materials source, wind power and wind direction, etc. In the circumstance that
the climate permits, it is better to adopt biological protection. All the protective engineering
facilities should be solid and reliable.
1In windy and sandy areas, the subgrade should avoid using the cutting whose length is
more than 30m and depth more than 6m. If it cannot be avoided, the subgrade should be open
and widen the sand accumulating platform.
2The cutting in windy and sandy areas is better to adopt cross section of open subgrade
with gentle side slope and the gradient of excavated side slope should be determined in terms
of excavation depth, wind power, wind direction, roadside terrain and protective measures.
The sand accumulating platform should be set on the foot of the side slope of deep cutting to
facilitate maintenance. For expressways or class 1 highways in slightly-humid and semiarid
sand areas, the ratio of the cutting side slope should be less than 1:3.
3When the route and the prevailing wind direction are perpendicular, the ratio of the
cutting top width to the cutting depth should be close to 20~30, which can be appropriately
lowered for class 2 and below class 2 highways, but it should not be less than 12.
4The excavation waste should be used for fill subgrade, the redundant waste should be
placed in low-lying places on the leeward side, the distance from cutting slope top to it should
not be less than 10m, and protective measures should be taken if necessary.
5On the basis of highway classification and road construction materials, the cutting should
be protected within a range of 20~30m outside the shoulder, the side slope dome and the slope
top.
6For part-fill and part-cut subgrade, the excavation dypass should be properly widened,
the upper and lower sides are better to adopt gentle side slopes, the part of the side slope at
changing point should be designed in arc shape and meanwhile, the upper and lower side
slopes should be reinforced.
7.12.4. Roadside Sand Prevention Engineering
1The sand prevention engineering should take the engineering or biological measures such
as reinforcement, prevention, transportation and guidance, etc. according to the highway
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classification, and be arranged as a whole so as to form perfect and integrated protective

system. Its setting range and location should be determined on the basis of characteristics of
wind-sand activity, wind status, sand transporting quantity, terrain, nature of protective
materials, local weather, soil geology, natural ecological environment and demands for
highway use, etc.
2In slightly-humid and semiarid sand areas which fit for plant growth, it should give
priority to select shrubs, grasses and other plants for sand fixation. In arid desert areas, it is
suitable to adopt such a method for sand fixation that combines engineering and vegetation
measures and follows the principle of first engineering and second vegetation. The plants
selected for sand fixation should have developed roots, drought tolerance and strong
sand-binding capacity and fit the local growth conditions, refer to the width of engineering
sand fixation belt to determine the width of sand-fixed belt and appropriately reduce it. In the
very dry desert areas which are not suitable for cultivating plants, the local materials,
geotechnical grids and other materials can be used for sand fixation.
3On the windward side of subgrade, the vertical sand barrier for sand fixation can be set
up with firewood and grass materials. If the condition is favourable, the vegetation sand
barrier combining arbors and shrubs can be built up. The lower vertical sand barriers should
be more than 20m away from the subgrade while the high vertical sand barriers should be
more than 50m away from the subgrade.
4In windy and sandy areas with rich sand source, the sand prevention barriers of wall, dike,
fence, and belt or vegetation types should be established 100m away from the windward side
to block wind & sand and limit the accumulating sand to shift.
5In flat shifting sand and wind-sand flow areas as well as the shifting dune districts where
the intersection angle of route and prevailing wind direction is 45~90, the necessary sand
transportation measures to set up shallow grooves and wind shutters, etc. should be taken so
as to make the shifting sand smoothly cross the subgrade without accumulating.
6When the intersection angle of route and prevailing wind direction is 25~30, the
diversion method to change the moving direction of wind-sand flow and dunes can be used.
The measures to set up sand guiding walls and sand guiding slabs, etc. should be taken in the
place about 50~100m away from the windward side of subgrade. If the condition is allowed,
the plants of arbors and shrubs can be cultivated to form sand guiding barriers.
7In districts with severe shifting sand damage, it should keep the land in a range of
20~30m and on both sides of subgrade flat and smooth, all projection on land surface should
be removed, and the land should be leveled up to form a level area.
8It should integrate the setup of comprehensive vegetation protective system with local
sand control planning. When the shelter belts are adopted, it should follow such a principle to
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cultivate that combines grasses, shrubs and arbors, early tree species and later tree species as
well as local tree species and the introduced tree species. The width of shelter belt should be
determined according to sand source, the activity intensity of the wind-sand flow and the
characteristics of shifting dunes. It should not be less than 200m on the windward side; if the
wind on the leeward is unidirectional, the shelter belt could not be set up. If there is backward
wind, a shelter belt with a width not less than 50m should be set up.
9If the condition is allowed, the vegetative protection screens should be set up outside the
forest shelter belts on both sides according to the severity of wind-sand. Generally, the width
of vegetative screen should not be less than 300m on the windward side of subgrade and
100m on the leeward of it.
10When the measures are taken to control sand by cultivating plants, it should combine
the standing conditions of local plants, select suitable species, determine reasonable
vegetation architecture and planting methods, and meanwhile establish perfect irrigation
facilities and managerial organization.
11In arid desert areas that lack the road-building and sand fixation materials, it can
chemically consolidate or protect desert highway subgrade on the premise that they are
feasible after having being tested.
7.13. Subgrades in Snow Hazard Zone
1For the subgrade design in the areas of snow hazard, investigate local physical geography,
meteorological elements, hazard rate, snow cover, wind regime and geology and collect the
related data, analyze the causes of snow hazard and put forward the correct treatment schemes
and measures.
2 Investigation on snow avalanche should make certain the topography and

geomorphology along highways, the type, distribution, quantity, range and snow cover area of
snow avalanche, and the knick point position, the gradient of mountain body, the occurring
frequency and the damage degree of snow avalanche. Survey and map the topography of the
snow cover area and the vertical sectional profile of the snow avalanche movement route.
During the investigation on engineering and hydrologic geology, investigate the rock
property, thickness, geological fabrication, groundwater distribution and vegetation of the
overburden layer.
3For snow drift districts, investigate on the snow cover area and the topography, ground
objects, vegetation and other situations occurred in the travel of snow-bearing wind,
determine the quantity of the shifted snow in snow-bearing wind, the wind power, direction,
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frequency and duration in winter, total annual snowfall, maximum and average depth of snow
cover, winter temperature and freezing and thawing time, the prevailing wind direction of
snow-bearing wind, the type of drifting snow and its hazard rate, etc.
In the districts to build high embankments, excavate grounds for snow storage and
recondition side slopes, it also should make certain the engineering and hydrologic geology of
the grounds.
4In the districts that the route necessarily passes and snow avalanche possibly occurs, it
could follow the principles of stabilizing the hillside snow, changing the moving direction of
snow avalanche, retarding the snow avalanche movement and clearing the snow cover and
adopt the horizontal steps, snow-guiding dikes (walls), soil mounds, snow walls, protective
forest belts against snow and other facilities; in the districts, expressways, class 1 highways
and the highways with special requirements where snow avalanche is severer, such structures
as snow prevention corridors, open cut tunnels and tunnels, etc. could be adopted.
5In snow drift districts, rationally design the subgrade cross section form in terms of local
wind-snow situation and topographic condition, adopt fill, and avoid cutting or possibly
decrease its number. If necessary, under the circumstance that the engineering amount is not
substantially increased, appropriately widen the subgrade.
6In flat, open and stable snow drift districts, the subgrade should adopt the streamline
form or embankment form with gentle side slope, possibly avoid excavation and cutting
section form. The embankment height should be 0.3~0.5m higher than the maximum stable
snow depth, and 0.5~1.0m higher than it in severe snow drift districts.
7In the snow drift districts with lower fill like grassland, farm and pastoral areas, it is
reasonable to adopt 1:3 embankment side slope while in the districts with shallow excavation
or those with lower fill like barren grounds and Gobi deserts, 1:4 embankment side slope
should be adopted, if the condition is allowed, decrease the gradient of the side slope or make
it into the streamlined form. Where unidirectional wind is strong, decrease the gradient of the
side slope on the windward side of embankment possibly, the gradient of side slope in
prevailing wind direction should be or less than 1:4.
8Obstacles and structures in a range about 20m away from the subgrade side slope foot on
both sides of subgrade in snow drift districts should be removed, otherwise, set up the snow
prevention facilities. According to the requirements and if the condition is allowed, the
borrow pits for fill embankment could be used as the grounds for snow storage.
9When excavation has to be carried out in snow drift districts, avoid deep cutting, it is
reasonable to make subgrade open or pass in part-fill and part-cut cross section form, when
the engineering amount of the remaining mesas is not big on the outside of excavation
subgrade, the mesas should be excavated and removed completely. In the districts with severe
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snow hazard, it is appropriate to widen the subgrade and set up the platform for snow cover.
10The gradient of excavation side slopes in snow drift mountainous regions should be less
than 1:4, and platforms for snow cover should be set up, its cross slope is equivalent to the
gradient of road camber, for the districts where the gradient of the slope could not be
decreased, widen the platforms for snow cover. If necessary, adopt the embankment section
form or set up the grounds for snow storage in excavation cutting.
11The medial of expressway and class 1 highway in snow drift districts should be flush
with pavement, shoulder, slope foot, slope top and other parts with arris should be designed in
arc shape, to facilitate snow-bearing wind pass smoothly.
7.13.2. Principles of Prevention & Treatment
Snow hazard prevention should put prevention first and combine prevention and treatment,
follow the principle of suitable measures to local conditions, drawing on local resources,
effectiveness, easy to do, economical and sustainable, give priority to adopt the biological
prevention, and in the respect of engineering treatment, pay attention to ecological
environment protection and water loss and soil erosion prevention, and create conditions for
biological prevention & treatment.
7.13.3. Snow Controlling Measures
1Integrated controlling
Snow hazard controlling should adopt such an integrated controlling scheme that combines
engineering controlling and biological prevention together. In the districts with severe snow
hazard, combine the importance degree of highway to set up defense, take the stabilization,
arrestment, guidance and elimination measures which integrate various engineering and
biological methods, these measures are arranged on the basis of the local conditions and they
can mutually cooperate.
2Snow avalanche controlling measures
1) Horizontal steps
On those hillsides that have a lateral gradient of ground less than 45 and a thicker soil layer
with good permeability and landslides and the debris flow are not easy to emerge, to prevent
small avalanche, excavate some horizontal steps along the contour lines. The step spacing
should be determined according to the gradient of the hillside, and the step width should be
determined according to the maximum thickness of snow cover and the gradient of the
hillside.
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2) Snow stabilization fence
For those hillsides that have steep side slopes, thin soil layers, poor permeability and are not
suitable to excavate horizontal steps, set up some fences along the contour lines to stabilize
snow on hillsides. It is appropriate to set up more than one row of such fences, the highest
row of fence should be set up possibly near the avalanche knick point and below the snow
cornice.
3) Protective forest against snow
Starting from snow avalanche source to its movement zone, plant some suitable tree species
by stages from up to down, prevent the snow avalanche from emerging, the engineering
measures could be taken in the initial period of the protective forest against snow.
4) Soil mount and wedge
In the avalanche ditches with thicker earth layer and a gradient less than 30, soil mounts
can be set up to reduce the avalanche speed; wedge plays a role of segmenting snow body, it
is appropriate to set up one or more wedges at slope breaks in the way of avalanche. The
height of soil mound and wedge should be higher than the height of the maximum avalanche
frontal surface.
5) Snow guiding dike
In wide avalanche furrows, set up snow guiding dikes. Snow guiding dikes should descend
from one side of the furrow and stretch into the furrow, the intersecting angle between it and
the avalanche flow should not exceed 30. The height of the snow guiding dike should be
bigger than the height of the maximum avalanche frontal surface.
6) Protective corridors against snow
In the districts with severe snow avalanche, build protective corridors against snow. The top
of such corridors should meet the requirements for avalanche impact force; the clearance
should conform to the stipulations of the technical standards for tunnel clearance.
3Snow drifts controlling measures
1) Protective forest against snow
When the suitable conditions prevail, cultivate some protective forests against snow on one
or two sides of subgrade, the width of the forest should not be less than 50m. It is appropriate
to adopt multiple forest belts, the spacing between them is 20~50m and the width of single
forest belt is 20m.
The types and tree species of the protective forests against snow should be selected and
determined according to the local snow cover depth and the soil quality and weather
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conditions, it is appropriate to adopt a mixed type of shrubs and arbors and select those tree
species that can play a protective role early and for a long time. The net distance from the
forest to the slope foot of the subgrade could be set 10 times the height of the forest, but
should not be less than 25m.
2) Protective fence against snow
For those districts that wind-snow is less but lasts long and wind direction doesnt change a
lot, the fixed protective fences against snow could be adopted. The height of the fixed
protective fence should be determined according to the wind power and snow amount, but
should not be less than 3m. The distance from the subgrade edge to the fence should be
determined according to the length of the snow cover dike behind it, it is appropriate within
30~50m.
In those districts with variable wind direction, strong wind power and big snowfall, some
movable protective fences against snow could be used, the height of such a fence should be
1~2m appropriately. The initially set location of such a fence should be 20~50m away from
the subgrade edge.
Such a fence should be arranged on the windward side, and is perpendicular to the
prevailing wind direction in winter, when the landscape is open and the snow cover amount is
too big, two rows of such fences could be set up with an appropriate spacing about 50~80m.
3) Air deflector
Lower air deflector is suitable for those districts that the intersecting angle of the route and
the prevailing wind direction is more than 30 and the gradient of mountain body on the
windward side is less than 40. Otherwise, it should adopt the lateral air deflector.
The location for the air deflector should be determined according to the local prevailing
wind direction, subgrade cross section form, topography and other conditions, lower air
deflector should be set up near the shoulder on the windward side, and lateral air deflector
should be set up not less than 15m away from the outside of the subgrade edge on the
windward side.
4) Snow prevention dike (wall)
For the districts that have less snow cover and are not suitable to set up the protective
fences against snow, set up snow walls or snow prevention dikes on the windward side. The
height of the snow prevention dikes (walls) could be determined according to the amount of
the snowfall. There should be a certain distance between the snow prevention dike (wall) and
the subgrade edge.
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7.14. Subgrade of Saliva Drift-ice Zone
1In the subgrade design of saliva drift-ice zone, carry out the investigation on local
topography, geology, weather, water source, type, scale and damage of the saliva drift-ice, as
well as local prevention experience, and make technical and economic analysis to determine
the reasonable treatment measures.
The required data can be obtained through on-site observation by the related departments or
on-site investigation during the formation of the saliva drift-ice, its main content should
include: topography, water source type and flow, soil quality type and thickness, frost thawing
cycle and depth, the relationship between the type, scale and size of the saliva drift-ice and
alternative route scheme. For the valley saliva drift-ice, the catchment area, water level, flow
and other data should be also investigated.
2In frozen or alpine cold saliva drift-ice areas, the subgrade should be possibly set on the
dry and sunny slopes and it passes these areas in a form of embankment or shallow
excavation.
3Subgrade design in saliva drift-ice section should put prevention first and properly
combine prevention and controlling.
4For hillside saliva drift-ice, except for channeling hillside water away from the subgrade,
it also could widen and deepen the side ditch of the upper side slope, set up the ice retaining
walls, ice collecting pits or ice retaining dikes, ice collecting ditches and other facilities.
When the groundwater volume of hillside is big, construct the seepage ditches, blind ditches
and other underground drainage facilities. For ice collecting ditches/pits, the culverts with
higher clearance should be constructed to discharge the melting ice water.
5For river valley saliva drift-ice, the subgrade should be raised, and crossing is via the
bridges and culverts with bigger span to prevent saliva drift-ice from overflowing in the
pavement.
6For subgrade engineering, avoid disturbing the original natural drainage status and the
aquifer is not cut, when the drainage, retaining and intercepting prevention and controlling
measures are taken for treatment, keep smooth of the naturally-formed drainage system.
7.14.2. Prevention and Controlling Measures
The prevention and controlling of saliva drift-ice should be suited for the measures to local
conditions and take all the factors into account and the following measures should be adopted:
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1Raising subgrade
For such saliva drift-ice with less ice collection, adopt the method of raising the subgrade to
prevent and control. The subgrade height should be 0.5m higher than the height of the highest
barrier ice of saliva drift-ice; meanwhile, select such materials that have good water stability
like fragmented stone and earth as the road-building materials.
2When saliva drift-ice is crossed by bridges and culverts, the clearance of the bridge
culvert should be the numerical value calculated by adding these figures together including
the highest saliva drift-ice level, the barrier ice height and the safety height (0.5m).
3Setting up ice collecting ditches and ice retaining dikes
For the saliva drift-ice on the alluvial fan and the gentle hillside, the ice collecting ditch can
be set outside the upper side slope of the subgrade. More ice collecting ditches can be set up.
The first ice collecting ditch should be arranged along the hillside or gully starting from the
water source to lead the water to river channel or bridge culvert nearby.
The cross section of the ice collecting ditches should be determined according to the
topography, geology, water volume and collected ice amount, and the drainage facilities
should be smoothly connected.
The ice retaining dike should be set up below the ice collecting ditch, the determination of
its height and width should take the influence of the choked ice into account.
4Setting up ice retaining wall and ice collecting pit
The ice retaining wall should be set up on the outside of the side ditch, and it should be
constructed with mortar rubble and rubble; if it is dry-laid, big rubbles should be used to
construct. The height of the ice retaining wall depends on the volume of the collecting ice.
When the volume of the collected ice is too much, the ice collecting pits can be set up
outside the ice retaining wall and utilize the natural cols or over-excavated side slopes to
construct it. The size of the ice collecting pit is determined according to the volume of the
collected ice.
For the ice collecting pits in the earthy section, the dry-laid rubble wall can be set up at the
foot of the slope according to the seepage and soil status of the slope face. Mortar rubble
should be used to protect the side ditches.
5Underground drainage facilities
When the groundwater overflows, utilize the underground drainage facilities of seepage
ditches and hidden drainage ditches, etc. to drain the groundwater away from the subgrade.
The underground drainage facilities should be set up below the frozen depth, and the
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thermal insulation of the reverse filter layer, the impermeable layer and the water outlet
should be well carried out.
7.15. Subgrade in Goaf Area
1During the subgrade design for the goaf area of highway, investigate and collect the data
about the natural environment, mineral resources distribution and exploration, and foundation
deformation and displacement along the highway. Through investigation, survey and mapping,
comprehensive exploration, experiment and on-site test, and other integrated means, to make
sure on the distribution, scale and variation characteristics of the goaf area and the physical
and mechanical properties of the rock soil mass in all the related strata.
2The subgrade design for the goaf area should combine the local environment features,
engineering geological conditions, material distribution & supply, resources planning, time
schedule requirements and other factors, and carry out alternatives comparison.
3Highway protective coal pillar preservation
1) Conditions for protective coal pillar preservation
In the coal seam distribution area that is not mined yet, the protective coal pillar should
be set up in one of the following circumstances:
(1) Expressway and class 1 highway;
(2) Tunnel;
(3) Super-large bridge, large bridge and medium bridge;
(4) Those sections where underground mining may have severe landslide hazard and
difficulty to treat.
2) Width of the enclosing belt for protecting coal pillar
The embankment section borders by the area about 1m away from the slope foot of the
embankment on both sides of the highway; the cutting section borders by the edge of the
cutting top on both sides, the area within the boundaries on both sides is protected. Enclosing
belt is set and preserved along and outside the boundaries on both sides, the width of the
enclosing belt for highway is 20m while that for class 1 highways is 15m.
3) Determination of protective coal pillar boundary
The protective coal pillar boundary of the inclined coal seam is determined with the vertical
section method according to the angle of critical deformation in the direction of climbing up,
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the angle of critical deformation in the direction of climbing down and the angle of critical
deformation of the unconsolidated layer.
7.15.2. Goaf Area Treatment
1Scope of treatment
For the shallow goaf areas that have been treated by excavating and backfilling, the
treatment length is the actual distribution length of the goaf area in the axial direction of the
highway, the treatment width is the width of subgrade bottom surface or the width of structure,
and the treatment depth is the position of weathered rock at bottom plate. The treatment
scopes of the other goaf areas are determined according to the following stipulations:
1) Treatment length
Treatment length is the actual distribution length of the goaf area in the axial direction of
the highway. When the thickness of the goaf area is thicker and the earths surface
deformation is severe, the treatment length should increase the effect width of the angle of
critical deformation of the overlying rock.
2) Treatment width
The treatment width is composed of three parts: Subgrade bottom width, enclosing belt
width and the effect width of overlying rock in the goaf area, the concrete numerical value of
it can be calculated out according to Formulas 7.15.2-1 and 7.15.2-2.
The inclined rock formation, and route and rock formation trend are in parallel or obliquely
cross:
Horizontal rock formation:
For the inclined rock formation, with route and rock formation trend perpendicular, the
width of each point in the route can be figured out according to the horizontal rock formation.
In the formula:
L-- Width in horizontal direction that is perpendicular to the axial line of highway (m);
D-- Highway subgrade bottom width (m);
d-- Width on the side of subgrade enclosing belt (m);
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H-- Thickness of overlying bedrock in goaf area (m);
h-- Thickness of loose layer (m);
-- Angle of critical deformation of loose layer ();
-- Angle of critical deformation of overlying bedrock on goaf area in layers strike ();
-- Angle of critical deformation of overlying bedrock on goaf area in the direction of

climbing up ();
-- Angle of critical deformation of overlying bedrock on goaf area in the direction of

climbing down ().
3) Treatment depth
The treatment depth is from the ground to the position below the bottom plate of the goaf
area (or coal seam) and it should not be less than 3m.
2Treatment measures
For highway goaf area design, the treatment scheme should be selected according to the
formation time, buried depth, goaf thickness, coal mining method, roof lithologic character,
mechanical properties, hydrogeological and engineering geological conditions in the goaf area.
The treatment schemes mainly include excavating and fill, filling, bridge span and grouting.
In practical engineering, integrate these schemes to apply according to the specific conditions
in the goaf area.
1) Excavation and backfill
It is appropriate to adopt the scheme of excavation and backfill for the goaf areas on the
side slopes of subgrade excavation.
2) Filling
For the goaf area that the top plate doesnt collapse yet after the coal seam has been mined,
adopt the non-grouting scheme of filling, including dry masonry rubble, mortar rubble,
underground backfill, dry and wet material backfill by borehole, etc.
Dry masonry (mortar) rubble is suitable for such goaf area treatment that the goaf area
doesnt completely collapse and have the required conditions for the manual operation and
material transportation with big space, small buried depth and good ventilation. The subgrade
of the ordinary section is backfilled with dry masonry rubbles and the compressive strength
should not be less than 10Mpa, for the sections with structures, mortar rubbles are used and
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Special Subgrade
the compressive strength should not be less than 15Mpa.
3) Bridge span
Adopt the bridge span scheme for the goaf areas where the coal seam mining scale is not
big and the mining depth is less than 100m.
4) Grouting
It is appropriate to adopt the full filling and grouting method for the goaf areas where the
coal seam mining scale is big and the mining depth (buried depth) is less than 250m. For the
goaf areas with a buried depth is more than 250m, determine whether the full filling and
grouting scheme can be adopted according to its mining characteristics, hydrogeology,
engineering geological conditions and its hazard rate toward the highway engineering, etc.
7.16. Subgrade in Coastal Area
1For coastal subgrade design, the topography, landform, geology, hydrology, meteorology
and other factors should be taken into account, combine the construction conditions and
material supply, rationally determine the subgrade design elevation, select suitable subgrade
section and protection form, and guarantee the overall stability, durability and corrosion
resistance of subgrade on the basis of the geographical environment and the characteristics of
the subgrade.
2 When there is a big water head pressure difference between both sides of the
embankment, it is appropriate to set up the overtopped structures. When the pipe erosion and
the underground erosion possibly occur in the dike body or foundation, set up the drainage
facilities in the lower part of the slope on the side of low water level, decrease the gradient of
the side slope or construct the slope protection path and set up the anti-seepage wall and other
anti-seepage and reinforcement facilities at the center of the embankment.
3The materials with good water permeability should be selected as the embankment filler,
if it is difficult, adopt the fine-grained soil and should take appropriate measures to protect
and reinforce.
7.16.2. Coastal Subgrade Design Elevation
1Coastal subgrade design elevation should not be less than the numerical value calculated
by adding these three figures together with the design tidal water level based on high tidal
frequency, the wave-affected height and the safety height (0.5m). Subgrade design high tidal
frequencies for different classes of highways should conform to Table 7.16.2-1. If it can not
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satisfy the demand, the tidal prevention wall and other facilities should be set up.
Table 7.16.2-1 Subgrade Design High Tidal Water Level Frequency
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4

Highway classification Expressway
highway highway highway highway
Subgrade design high tidal As the case
1/100 1/100 1/50 1/25
water level frequency may be
2Design wave standard
1) As to the design wave recurrence period standard, for expressway, class 1 highway and
class 2 highway, adopt the standard for the wave of 50-year meeting frequency, while adopt
the standard for the wave of 25-year meeting frequency for class 3 highway and class 4
highway.
2) Cumulative frequency of design wave height
When the strength and stability of the retaining structure and the slope face protection
engineering of the coastal subgrade are calculated, the cumulative frequency of the design
wave height should be determined according to Table 7.16.2-2.
When the calculated wave height exceeds the limit wave height in shallow water, the limit
wave height should be adopted
Table 7.16.2-2 Standard for Cumulative Wave Train Frequency
Type of coastal Cumulative wave

Position Calculation content
embankment train frequency F (%)
Parapet wall, square block
Strength and stability 1
on embankment top
Slope type Revetment block stone,
Stability 13
revetment block mass
Bed protection block stone Stability 13
Superstructure, wall body,
Strength and stability 1
pile foundation
Vertical wall type
Bedding, bed protection
Stability 5
block stone
7.16.3. Adopt the slope-type of coastal embankment for coastal subgrade, but in special
circumstancethe parallel wall type can be also adopted.
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Special Subgrade
7.16.4. The ratio of the coastal embankment side slope should be determined according to
the property of filler, embankment height, water immersion depth, protection type and sea
hydrology, the ratio of the side slope should not exceed 1:1.5.
7.16.5. Protection for Face of Side Slope of Coastal Embankment
1The slab stones, block stones, concrete heteromorphic blocks and earthwork synthetic
materials, etc. should be adopted to protect the side slope on the basis of water depth, wave
characteristics, construction conditions and materials conditions; in order to weaken the
damage of waves to embankment and improve the stability of embankment slopes, the
measures to construct wave-proof platforms, longitudinal dams and submerged dikes, etc. can
be taken. All the protective works should have the corrosion resistance against seawater and
organism, it should also have the anti-freezing ability and ice slush impact resistance in cold
regions.
2Riprap mound should be set on the bottom of the revetment on the side of the open sea,
the top elevation of it should be higher than the construction water level and the top width
should not be less than 1.0m.
3Take proper bottom protection measures to the foot of slope on the side of the open sea
according to the maximum scouring depth, topography and foundation form, etc., the
thickness of the bottom protection stone should not be less than 1.0m, and the width of it
should not be less than 5m.
7.17. Subgrade in Reservoir Area
1Investigate and collect the water level design data of reservoir and the meteorological
data of the reservoir area, find out the topographic and geomorphologic characteristics of the
reservoir bank and the lithology, occurrence, geological structure, variation of the ground
water level of the strata composed of reservoir bank; make certain the stability of the valley
slope and whether there exist landslide, avalanche and other bad geological phenomena,
analyze and evaluate the influence of the reservoir on the stability of the side slope; and find
out the source of filler and its physical and mechanical properties.
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2When designing, it should take the variation in gravity and strength caused by soakage,
seepage, water level fluctuation, wave invasion, flow scouring, bank caving and groundwater
mound, wet subsidence of bulk porosity and other elements into account, and takes the
corresponding measures to protect and reinforce.
7.17.2. Filler Requirements and Subgrade Section Form
1Embankment design should follow the requirements for the soaked subgrade design,
when the side slope height is higher, it is suitable to adopt the stepped section, the gradient of
the side slope below the design water level should not exceed 1:1.75; when the embankment
side slope height is higher, the side slope gradient should be determined through the stability
checking up and calculating.
2For subgrade, adopt such permeable materials that have low compressibility, little
deformation and good permeability as the filler. When the permeable material is scarce, the
soaked part of the embankment should be filled with the permeable materials while those
parts over the reservoir water level can be filled with the fine-grained soil.
3For the embankment filled with the fine-grained soil, when the infiltration velocity and
seepage pressure are bigger and the impact erosion possibly emerges, except for decreasing
the gradient of the side slope, it is suitable to set up the drainage facilities on the side of low
water level.
7.17.3. Analysis on Stability of Embankment and Reservoir Bank
1When analysis on the stability of the embankment, consider the seepage pressure and the
impact erosion toward the embankment side slope from the steady seepage caused by the
hydraulic head pressure difference between the upper and lower reaches and the unstable
seepage caused by the sudden water level drop, the earthy embankment should be checked up
and calculated according to the worst condition of seepage in the embankment, if necessary,
the flow net calculation should be carried out.
2For the strength parameters of soil, respectively adopt the quick shear test value after
compaction and the saturation quick shear test value after compaction for these two
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Special Subgrade
circumstances according to the height of above & below groundwater level (immersible curve
above plus the height of ground backwater rise). The physical parameters should be also
obtained respectively in the same way.
3In ice bound and drift ice areas, consider the effect of the ice load. In the districts along
the upper reaches of the reservoir, if the flow velocity is high, it also takes the scouring effect
of the flow into account.
4The stability safety coefficient should not be less than 1.25. When water level fluctuation
is considered and at the same time the impact of earthquake is taken into consideration, the
stability safety coefficient should not be less than 1.05~1.15.
7.17.4. Subgrade side slope protection type should be determined according to the type of
reservoir, capacity of the wave power, location of the subgrade and other factors as well as the
related stipulations of Section 5.3, and do a good job in anti-permeability filter layer. When
the stability of the subgrade is affected due to water immersion and other elements, it could
construct retaining walls, side dikes and other facilities to reinforce. All protective
engineering should be coordinated with the surrounding environment and landscapes.
7.17.5. When the reservoir collapsing bank endangers the stability of the subgrade, take
proper measures to the reservoir bank according to the route location, the soil of reservoir
bank, the height and gradient of the reservoir bank, immersion depth, reservoir sedimentation
and other conditions. The protection types of the collapsing reservoir bank should be
rationally selected on the basis of the destructive action of the wave and the topographic and
geologic conditions. The protective length range of the collapsing reservoir bank should be
determined according to the zone of the reservoir bank where the highway subgrade lies,
which is affected by wave action; two ends of the protective engineering should have an
appropriate safe distance, and should be inlaid in the reservoir bank or the subgrade side
slope.
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Appendix A Rock Mass Classification of Rocky Side Slope
Attached Table A-1 Rock Mass Classification of Rocky Side Slope
Determinant
conditions Bonding extent
Integrity degree Occurrence of structural Self-stability of
of structural
Rock mass of rock mass plane vertical side slope
plane
classification
of side slope
30m-high side
Inclination of out-dip
slopes are long
structural plane or out-dip
I Integrated Good or ordinary stable and there
complex line of different
are fall-blocks
structural planes >75 or <35
occasionally.
Integrated Good or ordinary
structural planes is 35~75 15m-high side
Inclination of out-dip slope is stable and
structural plane or out-dip 15~30m-high side
complex line of different slope is not stable.
II Integrated Bad
structural planes>75 or <35,
there exists in-dip structural
plane.
Relatively Good or ordinary structural plane or out-dip Side slope locally
integrated or bad complex line of different collapse.
structural planes<35.
Integrated Bad
structural planes is 35~75.
Relatively structural plane or out-dip
Good or ordinary
integrated complex line of different
structural planes is 35~75. 8m-high side
slope is stable and
15m-high side
Relatively slope is not stable.
bad complex line of different
integrated
structural planes >75 or
<35.
Relatively
integrated There is no obvious rule for
Good or ordinary
(fragmentation, structural planes.
inlaying)
Most out-dip structural planes
Relatively
Bad or very bad are strata and the inclinations
integrated
are mainly 35~75.
8m-high side
IV Very bad bonding
Incomplete slope is not stable.
extent between
(granular rock,
fragmented
fragmentation)
blocks
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Notes: The rock mass classification of side slope excludes those side slopes
dominated by weak structural planes and those damaged side slopes as a result
of inclination, collapse and avalanche;
Class I rock mass belongs to soft rock, those softer than it should be lowered to
Class II.
When groundwater is developing, Class II, III can be lowered to the next class
as the case may be;
Strong-weathered rock and extremely soft rock could be classified into Class
IV;
The out-dip structural planes in the table refer to such structural planes that the
angle between inclination and slope direction is less than 30;
The integrity degree of rock mass is determined according to Table A-2.
Attached Table A-2 Integrity Division of Rock Mass
Integrity degree Development degree of Integrity

Structural type
of rock mass structural plane coefficient Kv
1~2 groups of structural planes,
Integral giant block
Integrity mainly based on structural joints >0.75
structure
or strata, close type.
2~3 groups of structural planes,
mainly based on structural joints Block structure,
Relatively
or strata, most fissure assume layered structure, inlaid 0.35~0.75
integrity
close type, some are slightly open fragmentation structure
type, scarce filling.
More than 3 groups of structural
planes, the influence of tectonic
Fragmentation
process is greater near fault, most
Incomplete structure, granular <0.35
fissure assume slightly open type,
structure
the majority of them have filling
with big thickness.
Notes: Integrity coefficient Kv=(VR/VP)2, VR--propagation velocity of elastic
longitudinal wave in rock mass; VP--propagation velocity of elastic
longitudinal wave in rock block;
Inlaid fragmentation structure has larger fragments among fragmented
structures and these fragments occlude each other, hence it is a structure with
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relatively good stability.
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Appendix B. Monitoring Contents and Items
Attached Table B-1 Cutting Side Slope and Landslide Monitoring
Monitoring contents Monitoring method Monitoring objective

Horizontal
Total station
displacement
instrument, geodimeter
monitoring Observing the development of terrain
Earths
Vertical displacement and deformation.
surface
deformation Level gauge
monitoring
monitoring
Marking stake, ruler or

Crack monitoring Observing the development of crack.
crack gauge
Detecting the displacement of

underground stratum relative to stable
terrain, proving and confirming the
structural characteristics being
displaced, determining the depth of
Underground displacement
Inclinometer potential sliding surface, judging
monitoring
prevailing sliding direction,
quantitively analyzing and evaluating
the stability of slope (landslide), and
judging the effectiveness of slope
(landslide) reinforcement engineering.
Observing the relationship between

change of ground water level and
Groundwater level monitoring Manual measurement
rainfall, evaluating the effectiveness of
slope drainage facilities.
Inclinometer, layered Observing the deformation of rock soil

Deformation and stress of settlement gauge, mass and retaining structure as well as
retaining structures pressure cell and steel the contact pressure between retaining
stress meter structure and rock soil mass.
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Appendix B. Monitoring Contents and Items
Attached Table B-2 Stability and Settlement Observation of High Embankment
Observation items Instrument name Observation objective
Horizontal Terrain horizontal It is used for stability monitoring and ensuring

displacement and displacement stake the safety and stability of embankment
upheaval of terrain (side stake) construction.
Horizontal It is used for stability monitoring and research,

Underground horizontal
displacement of grasping layered displacement and presuming
displacement gauge
underground soil the position of soil mass shear failure, which
(inclinometer tube)
mass layer could be adopted if necessary.
It is used for monitoring settlement after

Embankment top Ground settlement gauge construction, predicting settlement trend after
settlement (settlement plate or stake) construction and confirming pavement
construction time.
Attached Table B-3 Prestressed Anchoring in-situ Monitoring Content and Items
Working stages of
Monitoring content Monitoring items
prestressed anchor
Working state of archer Anchor tension force;

Material of
and construction quality of Anchor extension value;
anchor road body
anchor Prestressed loss
Construction stage
Displacement and
Anchor object Reinforcement effect deformation of the
anchored thing
Anchor rod body Working state of anchor Change of prestressing

Operation stage of Displacement of the
project Safety situation of anchor
Anchor object anchored thing and
engineering
groundwater state
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Appendix C Highway Engineering Classification in
Perennially Frozen Soil
Volumetric
Total water Frozen soil Frozen soil
Soil type ice content
content (wn) (%) temperature pattern
(i)
Powder clay
particle <10
Coarse content15%
i<0.1
grain soil Powder clay Leaving out Stable type
(low-icy
particle <12 of account (I)
frozen soil)
content>15%
Fine sand, silty sand <14
Clayey soil <wp
Powder clay
particle 10~16
Coarse content15% Basic stable
i=0.1~0.2 0.0~1.0
grain soil Powder clay type (II)
(High-icy
particle 12~18
frozen soil)
content>15%
Fine sand, silty sand 14~21 Stable type
<1.0
Clayey soil Wp<Wn<Wp+7 (I)
Powder clay
particle 16~25
Coarse content15% Basic stable
i=0.2~0.3 0.0~1.5
grain soil Powder clay type (II)
(Thick-icy
particle 18~25
frozen soil)
content>15%
Fine sand, silty sand 21~28 Stable
<1.5
Clayey soil Wp+7<Wn<Wp+15 type (I)
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Explanation of Articles
Powder clay particle Unstable

25~48 0.0~1.0
Coarse content15% type (III)
i=0.3~0.5
grain soil Powder clay particle Basic stable
25~48 (Icy-saturate 1.0~2.0
content>15% type (II)
d frozen soil)
Fine sand, silty sand 25~45 Stable type
<2.0
Clayey soil Wp+15<Wn<Wp+35 (I)
Powder clay particle Unstable
>48 0.0~1.0
Coarse content15% type (III)
i>0.5
grain soil Powder clay particle Basic stable
>48 (Ice layer 1.0~2.0
content>15% type (II)
with soil)
Fine sand, silty sand >45 Stable type
<2.0
Clayey soil >Wp+35 (I)
Notes: Coarse grain soil includes macadam (gravel) soil, gravel sand, coarse sand and
medium sand;
+7, +15 and +35 in the limits of total water content are the middle values of
clayey soil, the value for the soil with more sand grain is less than these values,
while the value for the soil with more clay grain is more than them.
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Appendix D Loess Zoning Map
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Appendix E Description of Words in the Specifications:
When exactly implementing the articles in the Specifications, the words of the degree of
strictness to be treated differently, are explained as follows:
1 Words denoting very strict requirement, which must be observed without exception:
Shall is used for affirmation; Shall not is used for negation.
2 Words denoting strict requirement under normal condition:
Should is used for affirmation; Should not is used for negation.
3 Words denoting a permission of slight choice, when conditions allow, may firstly be
chosen:
Suitable or May is used for affirmation; Not suitable is used for negation.
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Appendix
Specifications for Design of Highway Subgrade
JIGD30-2004
Explanation of Articles-
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1 General Rules
1.0.2 The Specifications are applicable for the design of newly-built and reconstructed
highway subgrade in various classes as well as for other types of highway subgrade.
1.0.3 Subgrade consists of subgrade body and subgrade facilities. Subgrade body means
excavation and fills part of subgrade section. Subgrade facilities refer to the necessary and
auxiliary engineering facilities for guaranteeing the stability of subgrade body, which include
drainage facilities, protection supporting & strengthening facilities. Subgrade is a foundation
of pavement, which shall be permanent, stabilized and prevent from damage. Therefore the
wrong concept must be changed from taking subgrade engineering as the ordinary civil
engineering, it must be taken as the important construction work as a bridge and tunnel
engineering.
1.0.5 The new deficiency occurred after the road is built in the past because of unclear
exploration of site geology conditions which leads to incompliance of design and real
condition after excavation, or unsuitable construction process in complex geology condition
site. Because of that reason, the Specifications emphasize the hydrogeology and engineering
geology must be investigated thoroughly for making design work in compliance with practical
conditions.
1.0.7 After investigation of 731 excavated high side slopes on highway in South China, the
poor stability and non-stability high side slopes are accounted for 41.7% in soil or similar soil
(full strong weathering stratum) with cutting side slope height above 20m; and in rock cutting
side slope, 2 elements of soil and rock side slope with height above 30m. Proportion of the
poor stability and non-stability high side slopes (41.7%) is high, which doesnt include
non-stable side slope caused by improper construction process and craftwork. For guarantee
of stability of high side slope and safety operation of expressway, a number of prestressed
anchor rope (anchor rod), pile and retaining wall against sliding are adopted in strengthening
of high side slope, which costs high and affects ambient environment.
Landform is complex in mountainous area and embankment side slope is usual 20-30m high,
some even 40-50m high because of expressway horizontal and longitudinal technical standard
limitation which is often companied by deep embankments, poor side slope stability and
unequal deformation of embankment, occupies large area of arable land. Its not an optimized
engineering scheme when adopting high embankment from a viewpoint of comprehensive
social economic benefit.
According to above mentioned, its reasonable to limit height of side slope embankment and
excavated side slope, strengthen comparison of route selection based on side slope stability
during initial design.
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During comparison of road design scheme, the following issues should be considered, work
quantity during construction, construction methods, and maintenance work and operation
benefit loss because of road damage during service, as well as social comprehensive benefits.
Bridge and tunnel engineering, and new technique and technology, new material should be
adopted in priority compared with other schemes when engineering capital cost is not quite
different.
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3 General Subgrade
3.2.1, 3.3.2 Subgrade compaction degree is a common concern. It is suggested to

increase subgrade compaction degree for relieving or avoiding subgrade deformation and
decrease vehicle jumping at bridge. The compaction degree is increased by 1%-3% in this
version in compliance with road construction experience and compaction thickness of
subgrade with zero fill and cutting road bed is increased from 0.3m (up roadbed) to 0.8m
(upper and lower roadbed).
When wet clay, latirite, high liquid limit soil, expensive soil, sailine soil, etc. is taken as filling,
various effective technical measures should be adopted for making the filling to the satisfied
compaction degree in compliance with heavy-duty compaction test method. If it is more
difficult and costly to increase compaction degree, the degrees can be determined according to
the results of the test road or decreased by 1%~3% properly in compliance with Tables 3.3.1
and 3.3.2 in the Specifications.
3.3.1 The original specification JTJ013-95 regulated the minimum strength (CBR)
requirement for upper and lower roadbed and embankment filling, which is a base for
selection of subgrade filling and plays an important role for guaranteeing quality of subgrade
filling. There is, however, a conflict in conducting of the Specifications, as the current CBR
test is conducted with embankment after 4 days water saturation while expressway is in
moderate wet and dry condition, therefore the test condition is different from real subgrade
condition.
It is a special soil when CBR is <3. The most domestic test of subgrade performance is from
dead load, not from live load under vehicle operation. Based on Powells research,
corresponding relation between dynamic module and CRB is ; After study
of dynamic fatigue performance of full weathering granite used in Lin-Chang Expressway,

Hunan Provincial Communication Research Institute set up a design index of dynamic
strength and dynamic module of full weathering granite (high liquid limit soil) used as a
subgrade of expressway (see Table 3-1). Dynamic stress design value of subgrade top should
be 50KPa. The research results show when the water content is not proper and CBR <3, soil
dynamic strength can not meet the requirement so that the current CBR design value is
reasonable.
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Table 3-1 Dynamic Module Control Index of Subgrade Filling
Subgrade Section Lower Embankment Upper Embankment Roadbed
CBR (%) 3 5 8
Dynamic module (MPa) Ed 35.6 49.3 66.6
From the other side, after dry-wet cycle and freeze-thawing cycle, water content in the built
road is higher by 2%~5% than that as-built time, compaction degree is lower. It means
subgrade performance is changed under natural conditions.
Based on above mentioned, it must be considered doing design of subgrade filling with
dry-wet cycle and freezing-thawing cycle and other natural conditions affecting long term
performance of subgrade and permanent deformation of subgrade under vehicle operation
load. Therefore the corresponding regulations in original specifications JTJ013-95 are
remained in the new version.
3.3.6 The vehicle jumping often occurs in the adjacent area of fill subgrade and bridge,
tunnel or culvert and the main reason is lack of compaction degree of embankment. Much
research work has been conducted for avoiding vehicle jumping. A transitional section is set
up in the area where the embankment of expressway, class 1 highway is connected with
bridge abutment, transverse structures (culvert, underpass), etc., and increase compaction
degree of embankment to 96% in the new version of the Specifications, which can be also
used in new built highways with asphaltum concrete and cement concrete pavement and other
class roads.
3.3.7~3.3.9 Shoulder protection subgrade, stone masonry subgrade, foot protection

subgrade have economical benefits with good effective application and widely used in
mountainous areas. It should be considered in design that wideness of shoulder protection and
stone masonry should not be wider than that of soil shoulder, and foundation should be stable.
Mud shale, phyllite marlite and other soft rock should not be used for stone masonry subgrade
which is only used for lower class roads.
3.4.1 Ratio of cutting side slope in Table 3.4.1 is a minimum value based on equal soil, no
unfavorable geology or underground water. In practical design, the ratio of cutting side slope
should be decided according to climate, geology and other natural conditions with the site
investigation and analysis, as well as side slope height.
3.4.2 It is complex for analyses of rock cutting side slope stability and design work. It is
not only affected by rock properties, side slope height and construction methods, etc, but also
mostly by rock structure, structure face and weathering degree. It is still a new topic for
research and study.
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The stability of rock cutting side slope is mainly affected by rock structure. Table 3.4.2 (based
on rock type of side slope) is set up in the modified specifications with reference of Table
12.2.2 in Technical Specification for Construction of Side Slope Engineering (GB 50330)
and with consideration of highway side slope properties and experiences in construction.
Table 3.4.2 should be used in rock side slope lower than 30m and without outward incline soft
structure face. China has a large area and various landforms and geology, climate conditions,
the stability of different side slope heights should be studied and optimized when
implementing the Specifications with that principle in order to update the specifications next
time.
Sometimes the design work of rock cutting side slope is affected greatly by construction
process and methods. For example, the impulse and vibration during normal explosion in
excalating hard rock often make rock breaking, loosing of cutting side slope, which should
fall down, sliding or collapsing during road service. It is very difficult to guarantee safety
operation of expressway and class 1 highway if the normal explosion excavation method is
adopted during construction. Therefore it is not only enough to design based on rock natural
properties but must be also with consideration of rock loosing properties after explosion.
Smooth and prespliting blasting technique can resolve the above mentioned problems based
on construction experiences of Liu-Gui Eexpressway and others. For rock cutting, the smooth
blasting and prespliting blasting technique can increase side slope engineering quality,
minimize damage on side slope during excavation, and rock side slope of built road is
stability and with a good appearance. It is worth to be popularized in road construction.
3.4.7 The investigation results of highway in mountainous area show the geological
condition is more complex and side slope stability is poor when the soil cutting side slope
height is over 20m and rock cutting side slope height is over 30m; the routing design can not
guarantee the stability of side slope and design scheme is changed frequently. Special and
individual design is required for soil side slope (over 20m) and rock side slope (over 30m) in
the Specifications.
3.5.1~3.5.6 There are many part-fill and part-cut subgrade highways in mountainous
areas. Different settlement between cutting and filling should break subgrade, weaken
stability of road. The treatment measures for different settlement are adopted in the
Specifications for design reference based on road construction experiences in mountainous
areas in recent years.
1) Filling road basement of part-fill and part-cutting subgrade is mostly in steep slope
and the subgrade stability is poor. Some design adopts adding transverse soil grid on steep
slope for increasing subgrade stability after excavation and fill but the result is not so good
and cost is increased, too. Therefore Article 3.5.4 specifies that for the subgrade without
enough stability is suitable to establish dry masonry stone block, set up the retaining works
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below the side slope of embankment according to the landform and geological conditions.
2) The most deformation damage of part-fill and part-cut subgrade is caused by ground
water. From investigation result, there is no deformation damage on subgrade road if a
complete underground drainage system is provided.
3) In order to release or decrease deformation caused by fill and cut difference, some
highways are compacted by shock vibration roller or strong compactor additionally. After
compacting with regulation requirement, the subgrade surface is 30~50mm lower than before
and some even 100mm lower. That shows the effect is great but surface soil is loose after
shock vibration rolling or strong compaction which is suitable for strengthening press
embankment below roadbed.
3.6.1, 3.6.2 There is no clear definition between high side slope embankment and steep
side slope embankment till now. The Specifications definite the embankment with side slope
higher than 20m is high side slope embankment; while embankment with ground slope bigger
than 1:2.5 is steep slope embankment. From the investigation results, there are more stability
problems in these two kinds of embankments, therefore the specifications emphasize those
two kinds of embankments be taken as an important individual structure to conduct geological
investigation and design, and comprehensive design and dynamic design be very important.
3.6.3 Geological investigation is very important for guaranteeing the design quality of high
side slope and incline steep side slope as the most embankment problems are caused by
unclear geological conditions. The definite requirement for primary and detailed site
investigation of high side slope and incline steep side slope embankments is specified in the
current Geological Specifications for Survey of Highway Engineering (JTJ 064), but drilling
hole is less in detail site investigation, which is suitable to be added for getting more
information of site and physical dynamic index for stability analysis.
3.6.4 From investigation of road construction, high side slope embankment of expressway
and class 1 highway is filled with compaction degree required in Regulation JTJ013-95 of the
Specifications, but there is still deformation after compaction, which affects road level. Some
research work has been done in recent years and shock vibration roller and strong compactor
are used for increasing subgrade compaction degree and decreasing deformation after
compaction, which has got good results. Therefore compaction degree in Table 3.2.1 and 3.3.2
in the Specifications should be strictly obeyed in compaction of high side slope embankment.
3.6.5 Side slope embankment is wide and step form is suitable for such embankment. Side
slope ratio should be decided according to fill material properties and site foundation
conditions, as well as stabilization analysis calculation. Side slope may be extended as long as
landform is possible.
Land should be more occupied if side slope is gentle. So the design scheme should be
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compared with other stabilization schemes such as foundation treatment, reinforcing, retailing
wall, even with bridge scheme and based on technique, economy and environment protection,
etc.
3.6.6 Embankment stabilization calculation involves foundation soil, embankment fill soil,
control layer and other strength data, which should be decided by indoor test, site test or other
tests with different site foundations. The strength data should be comprehensively analyzed
with site conditions because all samples are obtained from one site no matter the test
conducted indoor or at site, all results are strength data of sample site or test site. Attention
should be paid to indoor test as the most embankment fill strength data is adopted in random.
Dynamic character of embankment fill is a slight complex, in addition to non-satuation, it has
super-consolidation feature under certain conditions and its strength is mainly based on soil
primary density and water content. Results of indoor direct shearing test and real water
content of embankments of Gguizun, Liugui, Taijiu and Kunqu Expressways, show a shearing
strength should occur peak value along with change of water content, and side where water
content is less than optimized water content. When the index obtained from saturated sample
is used in design, it should judge the integrated dynamic feature lower. Therefore it is
recommended to adopt shearing strength index of artificial sample with higher water content
and with required compaction degree corresponding to shock curve for embankment stability
analysis; shearing strength index of saturated sample should be adopted for analysis of slope
partial damage, and damage caused by poor drainage at intersection of fill and original
foundation.
It is difficult to consider non-saturated and super-consolidation properties of compaction fill

in embankment stability analysis in despite of test method or calculation at present. The
strength parameters c & are still adopted by direct shearing and fast shearing or three-axes
non-drainage shearing test methods at home and abroad in some specifications.
Most high fill embankments are filled with mixed soil and stone, and the sample size affects
greatly to strength indexes c & . Research results at home and abroad show the internal
friction angle of small diameter three-axes is a little big, a conventional test device normally
adopts 300mm diameter, three-axes device, which is widely used in China water conservancy
departments and is made by China, too. Therefore it is recommended to adopt 300mm
diameter of three- axes device as a mandatory test meter for getting strength indexes c & ,
and so does the large size direct shearing meter for positive stress stability control.
Most foundation soil is usually in normal consolidation condition. For the foundation soil
strength indexes c, obtained by direct shearing consolidated fast shearing or three-axes
consolidated non-drainage shearing based on analysis of force bearing status of foundation
soil, strength index substance and variability under various test methods in the subject of
reliability research of highway subgrade structure conducted by Chongqing Communication
Research and Design Institute.
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Stability of embankment on incline slope subgrade is mainly affected by the soil stratum
strength of controlled layer. The soil stratum of controlled layer is often more complex, it may
be base fill of embankment, coverage soil layer of foundation or latent soft poor soil layer, or
the contacting surface of embankment and foundation, or the contacting surface between
coverage soil layer and rock layer. From analysis of practical engineering, the main influence
factor is also a cross slope of structure on these soil stratum, which should be considered in
design work.
3.6.7 In the normal conditions, an integrated slip surface of embankment body,

embankment and foundation is similar to a circle arc. For a circle arc slip surface, the
simplified Bishop method is recognized currently as a stability analysis method that is
relatively more precise and commonly adopted in practice. However its difficult to adopt the
normal simplified Bishop method in engineering practice, which often adopts the effective
stress index. Chongqing Communication Research and Design Institute set up a stability
factor calculation Formula (3.6.7-1), which is expressed by total stress strength index and
average foundation consolidation degree U based on the reliability research of highway
subgrade structure, in combination with the research achievements of predecessors and in
consideration of various strength indexes adopted in foundation and embankment. When U=0,
the formula is used for stability analysis during road construction in fast fill for embankment
and foundation is not consolidated. When U=1, the formula is used for calculation in the
condition of slow fill embankment and full consolidated foundation, it should be used for
stability analysis during embankment construction or the stability analysis in operation period
when the fill speed is lower. When the embankment fill speed makes the foundation
consolidation degree as U=0~1, the estimated foundation average consolidation degree of the
practically measured result or in combination with the settlement analysis should be put in the
formula for calculation.
Slip of embankment along with the incline slope foundation or soft poor soil stratum zone is
normally called random slip surface. For any type slip surface, the limit equilibrium method
for slices (such as Spencer method) can satisfy all conditions, but the unbalance propulsion
method of non limit equilibrium method for slices is widely used in China. After research and
analysis of unbalance propulsion method during road construction in West China, Chongqing
Communication Research and Design Institute pointed out that when the slip surface is much
smooth and slice is much small, the stability factor calculated from that method is almost the
same as that with Bishop method, while the slip surface is not smooth and the slip angle
below slice is big, the calculated stability factor is over big, the big error from the result of the
limit equilibrium method for slices. It is an unreliable value for use. For correction of that
error, a slip angle below each slice must be less than 10, and then the correct calculation can
be obtained. In consideration of the historic reason and more simple calculation,, it is
recommended to adopt unbalance propulsion method for various types of slip surface, but the
slice must be reasonable or some slip surfaces must be partially corrected for guaranteeing the
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included angle of lower slip surface for each slice less than 10.
Many complex factors affecting embankment stability can not be fully considered in
calculation. The calculated result for embankment stability should be comprehensively
analyzed and evaluated with the site conditions and engineering geological analogue
3.6.8 Confirmation of stability safety factor involves tech-economic factor, so that its
more difficult to confirm fully reasonable safety index. Embankment stability safety
coefficient in mountain valley soft foundation is decided in accordance with Technical
Specification for Design and Construction of Soft Soil Foundation Embankment of Highway
(JTJ 017), adopt Sweden method, fast shearing index and corresponding stability safety factor
1.1 for design and control. For the incline slope embankment and high side slop embankment
in ordinary road section should be in accordance with the original specification (JTJ095-013),
and the stability safety factor 1.25 is adopted.
Chongqing Communication Research and Design Institute, after study and research in the
subject of Design method of embankment stability and Reliability research of highway
subgrade structure and with comparison analysis of side slope stability safety factor in
corresponding trades and combining with practical embankment damage probability, pointed
out the stability safety factor confirmed in current Technical Specification for Design and
Construction of Soft Soil Foundation Embankment of Highway (JTJ 017) and original
specification (JTJ095-013) is basically reasonable. A new stability safety value is set up based
on above information and analysis of different stability calculation methods and foundation
strength index test methods.
After comparing of several different calculations, it shows the result by Bshop is about 6.5%
bigger averagely than Sweden Spencer method. Stability safety factors are calculated in 9
embankment sectiobs with Sweden Spencer method, fast shearing index respectively and
compared with results calculated by recommended sinplified Biahop Formula (3.6.7-1) in the
Specifications, consolidated fast shearing index, under different calculation methods and
strength index. The results show:
(1) Foundation conditions have affected the calculation results greatly. The calculated
stability factor KB0.is obtained by simplified Biahop method, consolidation fast shearing
index, foundation average consolidated degree U=0.0. Compared with the stability safety
factor KU calculated by Sweden method, fast shearing index, KB0 is about 6%~7% bigger than
KU averagely for embankment on soft foundation or the embankment in the non-soft poor
foundation with relatively poor permeability foundation soil. In consideration that the
foundation is complete consolidation with embankment fill. The calculated stability safety
factor KBi is obtained by simplified Biahop method, consolidated fast shearing index and
foundation average consolidated degree U=1.0. For soft foundation embankment, KBi
increases by 73% averagely compared with KU; for relative poor permeabiity non soft
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foundation soil embankment, KB1 increases by 22% averagely compared with KU.
(2) For good permeability non soft foundation soil embankment, KB0 is about 28%
averagely less than KU when the fast shearing index is not much different from consolidated
fast shearing index. By this time, the real status of foundation soil with embankment fill is
closer to the status of consolidated fast shearing and it is more reasonable to calculate with
consolidation degree U=1.0, and the stability factor KB1 increases about 17% compared with
KU.
Based on the stability safety value taken from Specification for Foundation Design of Port
Engineering, when the same calculation method (Sweden Spencer) is adopted but with
different strength index of fast shearing and consolidated fast shearing respectively, the
stability safety factor increases from 1.1~1.2 to 1.2~1.3. The stability safety factor increases
by 8%~10% in comparison with adoption of consolidated fast shear index and adoption of
fast shear index . When Sweden Spencer method is used without consideration of foundation
consolidation conditions, the calculation value is obtained by assuming average foundation
consolidation degree as U4. When Bishop method Formula (3.6.7-1) in the Specifications and
foundation average consolidation degree U=0.0, the calculated value of stability safety factor
increases by 6% averagely compared with adoption of Sweden method and fast shearing
index which is nearly the same as that value obtained by Sweden Spencer method. It shows
that the change of soil properties under such foundation condition doesnt cause a change of
calculation value. When the calculation method is changed from Sweden Spencer method to
Bishop method, the safety factor increases from 1.1 to 1.11.06=1.166, then 1.22 is adopted.
KB1 increases by about 17% averagely compared with KU; KB1 is closer to KU compared with
KB0.When the average consolidation degree U=1 is assumed in calculation, the stability safety
factor increases from 1.25 to 1.251.174.46, then round 1.45 is adopted. When the foundation
soil adopts the same index and with only consideration of change by different calculation
methods, the calculated value by Bishop increased by 6% averagely than by Sweden Spencer
method; if calculation by simplified Bishop method and with fast shearing index, the stability
safety factor can increase to 1.251.064.325, round 1.35 is adopted; if in consideration of
change of index, the stability safety factor by consolidated fast shearing (in compliance with
Specification for Foundation Design of Port Engineering) should increase by 8% compared
with fast shearing and reach 1.351.08=1.458, which is nearly the same as the stability safety
factor 1.46 obtained by the example calculation. Fast shearing index is kept remaining and the
consolidated fast shearing index is recommended for engineering calculation.
Based on above descriptions, the stability safety factors listed in Table 3.6.8 of the
Specifications are confirmed with consideration of stability calculation method, foundation
strength index test method and foundation soil comprehensive analysis.
3.6.10 Considerations for of stability inspection design content, inspection items and
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arrangement requirements are regulated in the Specifications with damage characteristics of

high side slope embankment and steep slope embankment. Because of limitation of geology
survey and the design can not fully simulate the real construction status, therefore the
dynamic inspection can not only effectively control the construction schedule and guarantee
embankment stability with feedback information verification and perflective design in
construction, but also quantitatively analyze and estimate embankment settlement after road
completion in order to reasonably confirm the time for pavement construction and guarantee
pavement quality & service level. Therefore, the inspection and dynamic design is very
important for the construction of high side slope embankment and steep side slope
embankment.
Landform, foundation and filling for embankment in mountainous area is extremely complex.
Although the settlement control for high side slope embankment has been researched after
road service, the result is a certain limitation. Its difficult to set up the settlement control
standard for high side slope embankment in the Speicifications. With inspection of settlement
along full Chengya Expressway and Nanning-Guilin Expressway, and consideration of real
unequal settlement after road service, Chongqing Communication Research and Design
Institute analyzed and pointed out the settlement control standard of 40mm is more suitable
for embankment settlement after road operation for controlling ununiform deformation of
subgrade, which can be referred to in design.
3.7.2 Survey of side slope
One drilling method used in engineering geology survey can not reach the respected result,
while the multi means (incline drilling hole, shaft channel, survey channel and physical
survey) of comprehensive survey adopted is very effective for clearly surveying of rock
structure. Side slope survey line should be layout along vertical side slope and survey scope
should involve area which is possible to affect side slope stability.
3.7.3 Mechanical data for rock soil mass side slope
Its difficult to obtain rock mechanical data because the site shearing test of rock mass
(especially, the structure surface) is difficult to be conducted and with a long time test and
high cost. Rock characteristics index (including shearing strength index on structure surface)
can be obtained by inspection and test, but it can not be done for all projects at present. Tables
3.7.3-1 and 3.7.3-2 in the Specifications are provided based on Table C.0.2 in Engineering
Rock Mass Classification Standard (GB50218), some inspection and test data, research
results and engineering experiences for reference in engineering. The mechanical data of rock
side slope with severe damage outcome should be obtained from site survey and investigation.
Rock standard value is one reflecting the rock characteristics after error correction to the
surveyed value. Structure surface exists in rock mass, more or less, and its strength is less than
that of rock. Many survey companies adopt the experience from water resource and
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hydropower organizations, let rock cohesive force c time 0.2; internal friction angle times 0.8
as c & values. With reference of Table 4.5.4 in Technical Specification for Construction of
Side Slope Engineering (GB Qin 50330), and combination of domestic highway department
experiences, rock mass c value can be adopted with the experience from water resource and
hydropower organizations, and the value for rock mass in Table 3.7.3-3 can be taken.
Its easy to get soil mass mechanical data through test and the result is available in practice. It
is recommended to get side slope soil mass mechanical data through shearing test on original
site. Water affects side slope stability in two ways; decreasing side slope soil strength and
causing water pressure which is not benefit to side slope stability. With consideration of those
two affections, the different methods should be adopted in water treatment when analysis of
earth slope stability: i.e., calculating with water and soil together or separately. This section
regulates the different mechanical strength data according to different calculation methods.
3.7.4 Evaluation of stability
1 The evaluation on side slope should include the following contents:
1) Evaluation of side slope stability;
2) Calculation of side slope stability;
3) Comprehensive evaluation of side slope stability;
4) Analysis of side slope development trend.
Evaluation of side slope stability should take qualitative analysis as a base, and the
quantitative calculation as main auxiliary means as a principle for comprehensive evaluation
of side slope stability. It is the main contents for evaluation and judgment of side slope
stability to consider engineering site geology conditions, possible damage form and damage
appearance. The Specifications regulate that the evaluation of side slope stability may adopt
the methods of engineering geology comparison, graphical analysis, limit balance and
numerical analysis.
2 There are many methods for calculation of side slope stability. Damage form of side
slope is a priority consideration for choice of calculation method. Even for calculation of one
damage form of side slope, there are many methods to be chosen. The principles for
calculation methods are given in the Specifications as follows:
For side slope of circle arc sliding surface, the stability is calculated by Sweden Spencer
method in highway section in China currently, but the accuracy of this method is not high.
The simplified Bishop method is recognized enough accuracy and can meet the requirement
of engineering, which is strongly recommended in water resource and construction
organizations in China. Therefore it is recommended in the Specifications, too.
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For the stability calculation of side slope of broken line slide surface, Sarma and Spencer are
two methods recognized at home and abroad with high accurate, but they are too complex for
designers to apply. The unbalance propulsion method is widely used in highway, railway and
constructiondepartments in China, so that it is recommended in the Specifications.
Numerical method is a better analysis method for side slope stability and can resolve complex
analysis which can not be resolved by limit balance method; however it can not give
calculation result and evidence till now for engineering staff to accept and master easily.
Special topic study should be conducted for complex data analysis of side slope stability.
3 The quantitative calculation result of side slope stability is close to considered factors,
additional load and special load, etc. used in calculation that means it has close relation with
the corresponding calculation conditions. Combined with calculation classifications of side
slope stability for Three Gorge Hydropower project in China, the calculation classifications of
cutting high side slope stability are given in the Specifications.
Under normal conditions, the calculation data of side slope rock mass and soil mass should
adopt the data under natural conditions; under abnormal condition I, calculation data of side
slope rock and soil mass should adopt the data under water saturated conditions; under
abnormal condition n, the calculation data of side slope rock and soil mass should adopt the
data under water saturated conditions and with consideration of special load of earthquake,
etc.
4 The original specifications (JTJ013-95) dont definite the safety factor for cutting
side slope stability, but definite the safety factor of slide resistance in landslide section. In
modification of the Specifications, the safety factors adopted in relative sections in China are
analyzed (see Table 3-2).
1) Safety factor is adopted between 1.05-1.5;
2) Safety factor is adopted based on importance of side slope;
3) Safety factor is adopted with corresponding calculation methods.
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Table 3-2 Summry of Current Industrial Side Slope Safety Factors and Stability
Analysis Methods in China
Safety
Department Project Classification Analysis Methods Remarks
Factor
Foundation side slope 1.2 Sweden method

Specificaion for Design
Building class A 1.25
natural
Unbalance of Building Foundation
side Building class B 1.15
propulsion method GB50007
slope
Buildings Building class C 1.05
Side slope class 1 1.30(1.35) Circle arc slide

Technical Specification for
method (plane,
Side slope class 2 1.25(1.30) broken line slide Construction of Side Slope
GB50330
Side slope class 3 1.20(1.25) method)
Embankment side slope 1.25 Sweden method Original specifications

Highway
Cutting side slope (JTJ013-95)
Embankment side slope
Side slope class 1 1.25

Railway Cutting side Unbalance
slope; propulsion method
Limit equilibrium
Side slope of hydraulic dam 1.5 for slices and
Water Bishop
resource Limit equilibrium
Natural side slope of reservoir 1.3 for slices and Primary plan
Bishop
Stability safety factor of cutting side slope is shown in Table 3.7.4 of the Specifications based
on the above-mentioned information and in combination with investigation of existing side
slope engineering actual examples summarized by the highway departments in our country
as well as the characters of highway engineering.
There are differences among the calculation results of side slope stability safety factors as the
different calculation methods are adopted. Based on a number of sample calculations, the
result with simplified Bishop is 5%~10% bigger than that with unbalance propulsion method
under normal conditions; the result by numerical analysis is nearly the same as that by
simplified Bishop and the difference is usually within 5%; the result by the plane and sliding
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surface analytic method is 8%~16% bigger than that by unbalance propulsion method. It is
regulated in the Specifications that the evaluation of side slope stability with the calculated
side slope stability safety factor should be corresponding to the calculation method.
3.7.5 Design of excavation high side slope is not conducted till evaluation of stability with
reasonable method. Step type side slope design should be advantage to side slope stability, but
its more difficult to build the side slope step in hard rock. Sometimes the step type side slope
shouldnt be set up as the step in smooth stratum rock side slope in rich raining area is
disadvantage to the side slope stability sometimes.
3.7.7 Water is one of the main factors affecting excavation high side slope stability so that
attention must be paid to the comprehensive drainage system design of surface and
underground, especially to the design of underground drainage.
3.7.8 Dynamic design is a basic principle for excavation high side slope design. Designer
should get real geology properties, side slope changing value and stress monitored value, etc.
during excavation in order to check, supplement, perfect and guarantee the project safety and
reasonable design.
Geology information is a base of design but the accuracy of geology information is much low
because the complex and easy changing geology conditions in mountainous areas, as well as
the limitation of other factors. There are many examples of failure of projects in the past
because of wrong geology survey conclusion. Therefore, the survey for construction is
supplemented in excavation of high side slope in complex geology areas, which requires
collecting geological information, inspection and check geological survey conclusion for
avoiding project failure due to wrong survey conclusion.
Site inspection is a work with much technology, and plays an important role in constructing
projects and an important base for guaranteeing the construction progress, emergency work in
releasing risk and guarantee safety. Therefore the detailed design work should be done with
definite inspection and monitoring process, contents and technical requirements.
3.8.1 It is also difficult to design, construction and monitoring in the rock fill embankment
because of special properties of fill, which affects more application of rock in road fill
seriously. There many success or failure examples in rock fill road in the past. Test and
research work started in 1990s last century, which has collected many experiences in design,
construction and quality control.
For expansive rock, easily solvable rock, slaking rock and salinization rock, etc. shouldnt be
applied for filling the embankment because of poor stability and the properties are easy to
change due to water vapor environment conditions and aging.
When a roller is with small power, rock fill material can not be crushed further and compact is
no good. When bulldozer is with small power, its difficult to move big gravel and make the
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spreading surface thoroughly crushed and compacted. The test shows its difficult for a
vibration roller with dead weight less than 12t to level a surface when rolling medium hard
gravel, which greatly affects the rolling efficiency. Therefore it is regulated that large power
bulldozer and heavy-duty roller should be applied in rock fill embankment.
The technical guideline for shock roller is under preparation in China. There are many
approved experiences on heavy-duty compacting rock fill embankment. Compaction layer
thickness and quality control standard may be confirmed in accordance with corresponding
standards and construction experience when application of heavy-duty compacting or shock
roller in road construction.
3.8.2 There is no classification of rock fill strength in relative specifications now. In

Code for Design on Subsoil and Foundation of Highway Bridge and Culvert (JTJ024), rock
is classified according to rock foundation bearing force and compressive strength as: Hard
rock (>30MPa); Soft rock (5~30MPa); Extremely soft rock (<5MPa). In Specification for
Design of Highway Tunnel (JTG D70), wall rock, magmatic rock and sedimentary rock are
classified as two kinds; hard rock and soft rock according to stability, physical dynamic index
and weathering resistance; and it is also classified based on saturation and compressive
strength as four kinds, namely extremely hard rock (>60MPa), hard rock (>30MPa), soft rock
(5~30MPa) and extremely soft rock (<5MPa). However these classifications can not reflect
rock fill geological properties.
In Specification for Survey of Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering Geology (GB
50287), rock classification standard is set up according to single exle saturation compressive
strength, i.e. Hard rock (>60MPa), moderate rock (30~60MPa) and soft rock (<30MPa).
Engineering practice shows that when the rock compressive strength is less than 50~60MPa,
crushed rock fill ratio should increase greatly and construction plasticity increase when
compared with hard rock. From some literature, when the wet compressive strength is above
25~30MPa, the rock can be taken as hard rock for normal application, and when the strength
is less than that value which is taken as soft rock and it can be used in dam as long as in
suitable position and with special design. When compressive strength of rock fill is less than
30MPa, it can be easily crushed by available paver and roller. For soft rock, the feature is as
the same as earth after it is compacted; therefore the construction and compaction properties
of the extremely soft rock (less than 5MPa) can be treated as earth. Since different rocks are
used in rock fill embankment, different requirements on construction process, quality control,
compaction layer thickness and gravel diameter are needed.
Therefore, rock classifications are shown in the Specifications from a viewpoint of rock fill
engineering properties and construction process.
3.8.3 There is no quality control standard for highway rock fill embankment in China.
Many experiences have been got in compiling dam construction in water resource engineering
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similar to highway rock fill embankment. Table 3-3 shows the data of soil and rock rolling
dam at home and abroad, for main rock fill section, the rolling layer is about 0.80~1.0m and
thickness is 1.50m for hard rock, for soft rock, the rolling thickness is about 0.40~0.80cm.
Various strength hard rock fills are analyzed at home and abroad, it shows that a little thicker
layer can be adopted in compliance with rock strength, fill section, as long as the roller and
paver can meet the requirements.
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Table 3-3 Rolling Samples of Rock Soil Fill Dam
Rolling Data
Average fill dry density

Project Classification
Average fill porosity

Pile Stone Name
Dam Height (m)
Roller Weight (T)

LayerThick (m)
Rolling Times
Remarks
(KN/m3)
(KN/m3)
Main stone
Fozdo 160 Hard basal rock 0.80 10 4 21.2 24.8
piling area
Northwest Main stone
95 Dolomitic limestone 0.80 10~13.5 8 21.5 23
mouth piling area
Tuff with little Main stone
Bikou 110 1.0 13.5 6 21.0 22~26
phyllite piling area
Granite max. dia. Main stone
Lagdo 40 1.30 13.5 8~10 20.2 25
100cm piling area
Granite max. dia. Main stone
Close Hill 58.5 0.80 12.0 6~8 19.6 25
60cm piling area
Main stone
La-Ma Limestone 1.50 10.5 8~10 21.0 24.0
piling area
Main stone
Ketemeili 97 Purple perilla granite 1.0 15.0 4 22.8 24
piling area
Main stone
Baiyun 120 Dolomite limestone 0.80 17.0 4 21.0 24.6
piling area
Main stone
Lotus 71.8 Mixed granite 0.80 13.5 6 21.0 25
piling area
Aldogan its Main stone
140 Hornfels 0.60 10.0 4 22.8 22.5
Kaya piling area
Downstream
Soft sand rock,
Salvajina 148 0.60 13.5 4 22.6 17.0 stone piling
powder rock
area
Alphitite, max. 0.5~
Winneke 85 10.0 6 19.6 24.6
dia.:400mm 0.6
Mudstone, max.
Leon Byrne 90 0.80 13.5 4 22.1 18.2
dia.200-600mm
Watering
Zhushuqiao 78 Weathering slate 0.80 10.0 6
compaction of
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Rolling Data
Average fill dry density

Project Classification
Average fill porosity

Pile Stone Name
Dam Height (m)
Roller Weight (T)

LayerThick (m)
Rolling Times
Remarks
(KN/m3)
(KN/m3)
downstream
dam body
Downstream
Tianshengqiao 178 Metamorphic rock 0.80 10.0 8
drying area
From Table 3-3, it can be seen that the porosity is relative orderliness though great change in
average rolled dry density (mainly because of difference between rock type and
corresponding grades, etc.). Average fill dry density in main rock fill area is about
20~23KN/m3, and corresponding porosity is about 24% (18%~28%). Control standard in
main rock fill area: Porosity after compaction of hard rock material is 23%~28%, Porosity of
easy weathering rock materials is 19%~24%. It is reasonable to adopt porosity for quality
control of rock fill materials. Compaction quality of rock fill materials can be better controlled
when application of the porosity index without conducting of maximum dry density test of fill
materials.
Calculation formula of porosity of fill materials is as follows:
Where:
-Porosity;
d -Soil sample dry density;
G -Soil sample appearance density.
During rolling of pile rock dam, it is often regulated a compaction porosity (normal
20%~28%), and corresponding rolling data (i.e. roller weight, rolling times and layer
thickness). It can satisfy the requirements for stability and avoiding deformation of soil and
rock dam as long as adopting of above mentioned compaction porosity and corresponding
construction data with strict quality control in construction.
Height of rock fill embankment is much lower than rock fill dam, but they have many similar
characteristics. It is possible to adopt porosity as a quality control index for rock fill
embankment. In recent years, the porosity of granite, limestone and red sandstone has been
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taken as the quality control index on compaction quality and corresponding construction
process, quality control methods in expressways in Fujian Fuquan, Guangdong Jingzhu and
Guangxi Liugui, and the pavement is stable after road operation for years.
Therefore Porosity is taken as compact quality index for road quality control in the
Specifications, based on successful experiences and approved research results.
3.8.4 The test shows it can not control quality efficiently if only one of current compaction
quality monitoring methods (dry density, bearing plate, difference of settlement and surface
wave) for rock fill embankment is adopted. Construction data of rock fill embankment
(compaction power, rolling speed, rolling times and paving layer thickness, etc.) affect
compaction quality greatly and they must be monitored strictly. It is suitable to adopt quality
control methods with combining of construction data and monitoring of compaction quality
simultaneously for rock fill embankment. Quality monitoring of rock fill embankment can
adopt the method of compaction settlement difference or porosity standard. Big pit (1.5~2
times of maximum size diameter) and water bag must be applicable if monitoring of
compaction dry density or porosity.
Monitoring of compaction settlement difference is mostly used at present. There is close

relation between compaction settlement difference and rolling times as well as rock fill dry
density (corresponding data is above 95% based on statistics of test projects in Fujian and
Guangdong provinces). Its easy to control rolling times when the compaction roller is not
changed. However, the application of combination of compaction settlement difference and
construction process data can effectively control compaction quality of rock fill embankment.
The following standards are recommended to apply in monitoring of compaction settlement
difference based on the test project experiences in China.
Compaction settlement difference is an elevation difference obtained from different

monitoring places after twice rolling with heavy-duty vibration roller (weight above 14t is
recommended) within the specified rolling data (forced vibration, below 4km/h). Average
value of compaction settlement difference should not be bigger than 5mm and the standard
difference not bigger than 3mm.
3.8.6 Paving is often used for side slope of rock fill embankment and it is difficult to
compact and level with ordinary compacting method. Therefore, the stone masonry is usually
used for side slope with moderate strength. The stone should be dry mortared, in weathering
resistance.
3.8.7 For weathering rock and soft rock, they are easy to be broken during paving and
rolling by construction machines, and their strength changed greatly, especially the strength
decreased much after it is soaked. Therefore the worse conditions after embankment in
service should be considered when the calculation of settlement and stability.
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3.9.1 Main fly ash embankment is mainly on wet fly ash (pot ash) at present, mixed wet
ash as auxiliary, which belong to silicon aluminum with low calcium flyash. There is lack of
experience on application of dry ash, bottom ash and surlfer calcium with high calcium ash in
ambankment. Therefore only silicon aluminum with low calcium flyash is recommended in
the Specifications.
Pay much attention to stability of base and side slope of flyash embankment and take
corresponding technical measures for protection, especially strengthen drainage system on
embankment and strictly prohibit the soaked embankment base in water log for a long time.
For flyash embankment of soft soil foundation, consolidation settlement on soft foundation
should be considered in structure type design. Soil road arch or increase separate layer
thickness may be designed with soft foundation treatment design at the same time for
avoiding reverse arch due to excess settlement.
3.9.2 Flyash in the Specifications belongs to silicon aluminum with low calcium flyash,
similar to flyash class F in American standard (ASTM C618-87) which is set up for
supplement flyash to cement concrete. The max. calcine loss is 6%. Flyash class F with max.
calcine loss 12% may be used if there is test data provided but there is no definition of road
embankment fill. Technical Specifications for Highway Pavement Base Construction
(JTJ304) specifies that flyash calcine loss should not be bigger than 20%, it is available for
embankment filler when the regulation is adopted which is suitable for the base materials.
3.9.3 Flyash is one of main factors affecting of max. dry density and optimized water
content of flyash, which is related to coal characteristics, fineness of pulverized coal, firing
condition, ash collection and delivery modeetc. It is important to select typical sample to test
because the test results are much difference even if the samples from different part in the same
ash pit.
Standard density value is a scale measuring site compactness, so that it must have adequate
accuracy. Because there are errors in tests conducted simultaneously, the test results obtained
from one test group can not reflect the real status of samples. Therefore it is regulated that
three test groups should be done for standard density test and take max. average dry density as
the standard density value.
Bond strength C and internal friction angle of flyash is an important index for embankment
stability calculation. C, values are changed greatly along with flyash category, size content
and density. After saturation, C, values should intend to decrease so that attention should be
paid to monitoring and stability of C, values after saturation of flyash.
3.9.4 Separate layer is used for isolating capillary water, which is set up according to local
geology, hydrology, and ground surface accumulative water. Capillary water usually increases
within 0.40~0.60m in indoor clay, therefore it is specified that the distance between flyash
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embankment bottom and ground water level or long term surface cumulative water level
should be above 0.50m, otherwise the separate layer should be set up. 200~400g/m2
non-woven geotextile should be taken as filter for avoiding blockage in drainage blind ditch
or drainage plate as horizontal drainage channel.
3.9.5 Design and construction experiences in some test projects of flyash embankment on
general foundation show that the calculation of slip resistance stability can meet the
requirements in the Specifications and there is no poor sign occurred in construction.
Therefore it is regulated that no calculation on stability and settlement is for flyash
embankment below 5m.
3.9.6 All physical dynamical indexes of flyash are obviously increased when heavy-duty
compaction standard is adopted comparing with the light compaction standard, which is
benefit to increase subgrade strength. Under normal conditions, the compaction degree of
flyash embankment should obey Articles 3.2.1 and 3.3.2 in the Specifications . However from
some built flyash embankment projects, there is no damage to the project due to insufficient
compaction when 90%~ 93% compaction standards is applied. Therefore, the compaction
degree can be decreased by 1~3% according to the test results.
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4 Drainage for Subgrade
4.1.1 Drainage of highway subgrade includes draining the surface water and ground water.
Design should be comprehensively considered with highway class, landform along the road,
geology, hydrology and meteorology, etc. as well as layout of bridge and culvert. All drainage
facilities should be cooperated for draining from subgrade smoothly.
Drainage of surface water mainly means draining the surface runoff, accumulative water, side
slope rainwater within road subgrade and surface water nearby road, which affects the
subgrade stability. Underground drainage is mainly to drain the groundwater flowing to the
subgrade or decreases the ground water level.
Drainage design should guarantee roadbed in dry, moderate wet status by combination of
prevention, discharge and draining. As China has a large area and the geology conditions are
special and different, the design should be systematically in comprehensive consideration.
The subgrade drainage facilities have close relation with pavement drainage, subgrade
protection and foundation treatment, as well as the close relation between surface water
drainage and ground water drainage.
4.1.2 Road drainage should be an independent system separating from agriculture

irrigation channels for preventing damage on farmland or other water resource facilities and
environment protection prevent polluting water resource and environment by sewage from
communication accident or other reasons and for easily maintaining road, from a view point
of environmental protection and water resources.
Land saving and environment friendly is a basic policy in China. The country has issued a
series of environment protection laws and regulations, among which the Water Protection
Law for Preventing Pollution and Water and Soil Reservation Law have relations with
road drainage, which must be obeyed in design. Under the precondition of meeting main
function of drainage, the design of subgrade drainage should consider land saving, less
occupation of arable farmland, coordination of peripheral natural landscape along the road
when selection of drainage facility type, for creating harmonization of road and natural
environment.
4.1.3 Water is a main natural factor to damage road. Settlement, scouring and and collapse
of subgrade are caused by corrosion of surface water and ground water in different extents. It
has very important significance to stabilize subgrade for guaranteeing road service and
increasing service life. So attention should be given in design to the areas where drainage is
difficult.
4.1.4 Road construction should surely affect the original irrigation & drainage facilities
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along the road, with global climate warming, sudden rainstorm in small area occurs heavily in
serious damage to road, therefore attention must be paid to drainage design and construction.
Temporary drainage facilities used during construction are necessary facility for guaranteeing
quality of subgrade, pavement, bridge and culvert, and protection of natural environment
along the road. Drainage of subgrade design should be considered with combination of
temporary and permanent drainage systems for capital saving and easy construction. All
drainage facilities should be convenience for construction, inspection and maintenance,
creating necessary condition for maintenance after road service.
4.2.1 Calculation method in Specifications for Design of Highway Drainage (JTJ08)

may be used for hydrology calculation of subgrade drainage or refer to the calculation method
in Subgrade of Highway Design Manual. The Specifications regulate recurrence interval of
heaviest rainstorm in design should be 15 years for expressway and class 1 highway; 10 years
for other class highways based on information at home and abroad. When calculating the
hydrology for subgrade drainage structures, hydrology calculation formula should be selected
in accordance with the location, function and water collection scope of drainage structures,
etc.
Section size of side ditch, interception ditch, drainage ditch, drop water and chute should be
big enough for draining the entire design flow without overflow of ditch, and at the same time,
max. and min. flow in ditch and piping should be controlled in permitted scope.
4.2.2 In the updated Specifications, the water and oil separating pit and drainage pump
station are supplemented, but they are seldom used in current built highway or highway under
construction. Articles are mainly based on the reference of Code for Design of Outdoor
Drainage (GBJ 14); Code for Design of Pump Station (GB/T 5026); Sewage
Comprehensive Discharge Standard (GB 8978) and Specifications for Design of Highway
Drainage (JTJ 018) ,etc.
All kinds of drainage facilities should full use the advantage landform and natural water
system in forming a perfect and complete drainage system, properly select water inlet and
outlet places, prevent the system from blockage, overflow, penetration, siltation, scouring and
freezing, which should damage subgrade, pavement and nearby areas.
4.2.3 For environment protection, highway drainage should not pollute the potable water
source and breed aquatics water along road and it should be drained to local drainage system.
If it has to be drained to the sensitive water, measures should be taken for satisfying water
quality requirement specified in Sewage Comprehensive Discharge Standard(GB 8978).
4.2.4&4.2.6 Vocabularies to side ditch and drainage ditch is interpreted in Articles 4.2.4 and
4.2.6 according to Vocabulary of Highway Engineering (JTJ 002), it is further definite in
their defination and applicable conditions in this edition.
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Side ditch is divided as cutting side ditch and embankment side ditch located outside of earth
shoulder or berm and used to collect or drain water from pavement, shoulder and side slope.
Section type should be selected with consideration not only the landform geology condition,
side slope height, water collection area and drainage function, but also the affection on
driving safety and environment landscape by side ditch type. Trapezium, rectangle, U-type (or
rectangle, U-type with cover plate), triangle, dishing type section and embedded side slope;
but for excavation section on road, triangle, shallow dishing, rectangle with cover plate and
embedded side slope ditch are favorable to be applied. Size at each section should be decided
according to landform, physiognomy, water collection area, rainstorm, subgrade excavation
and fill and local engineering experiences as well as hydrology and hydraulic calculation.
Longitudinal slope at ditch bottom is not suitable to be less than 0.3% for smoothly drainage
and avoiding blockage; A slope can decrease to 0.1% in some flat area or reverse slope
drainage section, or outlet is far and not easy to discharge section but the measures for
avoiding block should be taken and the depth of side ditch can decrease to 0.3m.
Different protection and reinforcing measures should be selected in accordance with side
ditch. Rubble stone or precast concrete block is used for masonry in past but it is not
harmonization with surrounding environment. Normally, plant is used for protection of side
ditch. Mortar rubble or precast concrete block is used when side ditch is possible to be
scoured.
4.2.5 Interception ditch can be divided as embankment intercepting ditch, cutting top
interception ditch and platform interception ditch according to subgrade cutting and fill. One
or several interception ditches can be constructed based on real conditions.
Interception ditch is used to prevent side slope from ground water scouring of side slope or
upper hill. The section size should be decided by calculation of flow. To prevent side slope
from damage, it is important to select location of interception ditch and quantity with detail
investigation of meteorology, geology, landform, etc. Effective measures should be taken for
preventing seepage and the water outlet is suitable to be located beyond subgrade scope.
Energy releasing facility should be designed at water outlet for guaranteeing the stability of
side slope and subgrade.
4.2.7 Water drop and chute are mainly used for discharging water from steep slope sections,
which can release energy and decrease flow speed, very popular drainage structure used in
mountainous area highway. Sections of water drop and chute may adopt rectangle or
trapezium; and its easy to be scoured at water inlet and outlet where should be protected and
reinforced.
4.2.8 Evaporation pond is only applicable to dry weather in North China, where the
evaporation is too much and difficult to drain water. Volume of the evaporation pond is
decided with longitudinal space of the pond and after calculation of hydrology, meteorology
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and evaporation volume. Safety protective measures should be fitted around the evaporation
pond for preventing people from falling to the pond.
4.2.9 In normal condition, the subgrade ground drainage ditch should lead the water to a
bridge, culvert or natural drainage channel. When it has to drain the water to very sensitive
water mass (such as potable water resource), and when the sewage from highway can not
satisfy the standard value specified in Sewage Comprehensive Discharge Standard (GB
8978), the water and oil separating pond should be provided to treat sewage from highway
and guarantee the quality of receiving water mass to meet the requirement for its recycling.
Highway sewage mainly consists of suspended substances and oil and the oil content is
relatively low compared with other sewage, therefore it is recommended to adopt the
simplified settlement method. Because less of water and oil separating pond is built in China
at present, the design of separating pond may refer to the current Outdoor Drainage Design
Code (GBJ 14) and Sewage Comprehensive Discharge Standard (GB 8978).
4.2.10 Subgrade drainage under highway should adopt gravity flow method as possible.
When it is difficult to drainage in gravity flow in plane with high underground water level,
imerged pump should be used to pump water from collecting pond. Two pumps should be
provided for meeting different requirements and used separately. Outdoor Drainage Design
Code (GBJ 14) or current Pump Station Design Code (GB/T 50265) may be refered in
detail design of the pump station. The station should be operated by special persons and the
volume is no less than the quantity of one pump 30s operation.
All water to the collection pond should pass grids, and arrangement of the pond should
improve conditions for pump suction pipe decreasing delay flow and turbulence.
Pump type in the pump station should be definited in accordance with water flow, water
quantity and required head etc. Two pumps with same model should be at least provided for
one pump station.
4.3.1 Corresponding information of project geology and meterology etc should be

collected before design and special meterology test conducted when necessary for correctly
evaluation of affection to highway by underground water, which provides reliable base for
underground water drainage design.
4.3.2 Advancing to rise drainage hole, sand free concrete leakage ditch can effectively
discharge underground water from excavation subgrade. Especially when centralized
underground water is in the slope, the advancing to rise drainage hole with a group of
arrangement can get good results; support leakage ditch provided in the slope can effectively
diascharge underground water from slope when no centralized underground water in the slope,
but soil is wet and with high water content especial high liquidated limit soil, red clay and
expansion soil side slope.
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4.3.3 Embeded ditch is used for leading water underground without function of water
leakage and collection. It is suitable to adopt embeded ditch to drainage water to outside of
subgrade scope when there is spring or centralized water flow in subgrade.
Secton of embeded ditch is of retnagle in general. Spring shaft wall, ditch bottom and wall
may be built by masonry of stone plate or precast cement concrete plate, while ditch top is
covered by concrete or stone plates with soil thickness above cover no less than 0.05m. Size
at each section should be decided according to drainage quantity, landform and geology.
Block should be prevented when design of embeded ditch. 0.50m
4.3.4 In accordance with application location and structure, underdrain is divided as rock
fill ditch, piping ditch, tunnel ditch, side slope ditch, supporting ditch and sandfree concrete
ditch.
Rock fill ditch also called blind ditch is usually used in section with small flow and short
ditch but its easy to be blocked. Tunnel and piping ditches are generally used in sections with
big flow and long water leading ditch. When constion is permitted, piping ditch should be
favored to be used. Its difficult to construct tunnel ditch or guarantee quality. Rock fill ditch
and tunnel ditch is usually replace by piping ditch at present. Many new materials may be
selected for leakage piping and reverse leakage materials along with development of building
material in China.
Side slope leakage ditch and support leakage ditch should mainly use for drying wet soil
cutting and discharging upper layer bare collecting water or spring. Side slope should be
covered by dry masonry stone plate for guarantee dry and stability of the side slope.
Reverse filting geotextile and leakage resistance geotextile (i.e compound geotextile film)
should be designed and selected with consideration of meterology, used locations and Earth
Work Compond Materials (GB/T 17638) issued by the State Quality Technicque Burea.
Geotextile with hot asphalt may be used as leakage resistance geotextile.
Free sand concrete may be taken as reverse filting layer and leakage ditch, which is used as a
new drainage facility in underground water drainage system in highway construction in recent
years. Free sand concrete can be used as water leakage well shaft and ditch wall replacing
complex construction reverse filting layer and leakage hole facilities. It can bear suitable load
with fine leakage and filterity, easy construction and materials saving. It is worth to be
promoted and populated for use. Precast sand free concrete plate has high effection when it is
used as reverse layer in gravel and course sand water content layer; if it is used in fine sand
layer, geotextile should be fit on outside of free sand concrete block as a reverse filting layer
for prevent fine sand from blocking of free sand concrete block.
4.3.5 Under general conditions, inspection well and leakage well should be provided in
every 30m along leakage ditch, every 120m along leakage tunnel, turn at plane, turning point
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of longitudinal slope, Wall of inspection well which is also used in leakage well should be fit
with reverse layer. Diameter of inspection well may not be less than 1m and provided with
ladder in it and cover plate; when the well is more than 20m in depth, safety rail should e
provided.
4.3.6 Advancing to rise drainage hole is one of effective methods to adopt small dia.
drainage piping to exhaust deep underground water, which can drain underground water fast,
increase shearing strength of rock mass, prevent side slope from stability, decrease excavation
of rock and earth mass, speed construction schedule and lower capital cost, therefore it is
widely used in highway construction in mountain areas at home and abroad. Good results
have been got in Guangdong, Fujian and Sichuan provinces recently and the longest drainage
hole is 50m.
Diameter of advancing to rise drainage hole is 75-150mm generally, elevating not less than 6,
and length should reach rich underground water level or latent slide surface. Leakage piping
dia, in hole is 50~100mm normally and it should be wrapped with one or two layers water
leakage earth cloth for preventing leakage for blocking by mud. Leakage geotextile should be
taken as reverse layer around piping.
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5 Subgrade Protection and Supporting
5.2.1 Thee division vegetation net takes plastic resin as raw materials, and processed
through screezing, pulling, welding and shrinking with scientific mixture methods. The
structure consists of two layers upper and lower. The lower layer is a high modular basic layer
after pulling by two sides, which has enough strength to prevent vegetation net from
deformation. The upper layer has certain plastic and consists of regular and accidented nets.
The net package can decrease rain drop erode energy, blocking rain on slope and prevent fills
(soil, nutrimental soil and grass seeds) from flushing in order to guarantee vegetation growing
well. In addition, three division net fixed on slopes can reinforce slope. When plant becomes
exuberance, its roots twist, connect and entangle with three division net, slope touches with
soil which form a fixed green and combined protection integrity for slope protection.
Wet spray planting is a mechanical vegetation technique with seeds carrying by water. Seeds
are planted by a special machine (Seed sprayer). And the seeds can germinate, grow and cover
slope in a short time and realize target to quick virenscence and slope stabilization.
additional soil seed spraying is full mixing earth removed from some other place to improve
the local soil (base material for plant growing), fabric (auxiliary base materials), erode
resistant agent, slow efficient fertilizer in a propotion in a special equipment, then it is sprayed
on slope, which provides necessary grow foundation for plant and realize fast virenscence
target.
5.2.2 Planting grass in framework of masonry stone plate (concrete block) is applicable to
soil and high weathering rock side slope, prevents side slope from rain eroding or groove on
soil side slope. There are many kinds of frameworks such as arc, water rhomboid (square),
herringbone, multi-sides concrete empty block etc. Planting grass in framework of masonry
stone plate can not only stabilize side slope, but also save materials, low capital investment,
easy construction, and beautiful appearance and be hazardonic with environment. It is a main
type of road side slope protection at present and worth to be promoted.
Plant protection of anchor concrete framework has been developed recently based on
experiences of anchor net grout (concrete) spraying. It has remained positive reinforced
protection or weathered broken stone on side slope, preventing local wedge damage from
loosing of excavation and explosion of side slope, and attracted advantage of beautiful
appearance of grout stone plate (concrete) framework plant and easy greenable.
Plant protection of anchor concrete framework has many types: anchor concrete framework
plus spraying plant seeds; anchor concrete framework plus grout three dimension earth net
plus spraying plant seeds; anchor concrete framework plus earth grid framework plus
spraying plant seeds; anchor concrete framework hollow block concrete plus spraying plant
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seeds etc.
5.2.3 Grout protection consists of spraying protection, anchor hanging net grout spraying,
grout stone plate and surface protection structure etc. Weakness of grout protection is mainly
poor hazardony with environment, poor road sight, which should not be used as less as
possible especially with anchor hanging grout apraying. If grout protection has to be adopted,
pay attention to the detail design, cooperate with natural and cultural environments, grow
climbing wall plant such as Parthenocissus tricuspidata or adopt borrow soil on rock face to
plant for decreasing reverse affection to environment.
When the grout protection is used on road cutting, side slope leakage ditch and advancing to
rise water drainage hole should be combined for application, preventing damage from side
slope deformation. When grout stone plate side slope is high, slide resistance cantilevered
wing wall should be provided for guarantee side slope stability.
5.3.1 Eroding protection has two types, direct and indirect protection. Direct protection
refers to surface wall, concrete plate, stone pitching or geotextile etc. are supplemented on
side slope, also includes rock riprap on side slope or slope foundation along river, or stone
package, soaked retaining wall; indirectly protection refers to building embankment structure
along river or plant forest for protection, leading flow which damage subgrade greatly to the
designated place for decreasing direct eroding from small flow.
5.3.5 Jackstone
Side slope degree with jackstone refers to Table 5-1 and Jackstone size not less than 0.3~0.5m
refers to Table 5-2.
Table 5-1 Side Slope Degree with Rock Riprap
Hydrology Side slope Hydrology Side slope
Water depth>6m,construction in Greater than

Shallow in depth and low speed 1:1.25~1:2
high water speed Slope:1:2
Depth 2~6m,High flow, wave surging 1:2~1:3
Table 5-2 Relation between Jackstone Size and Water Depth, Flow Speed
Water Depth(m)
Jackstone Dis.(cm) 0.4 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0
Allowed speed(m/s)
15 2.70 3.00 3.40 3.70 4.00
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Water Depth(m)
Jackstone Dis.(cm) 0.4 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0
Allowed speed(m/s)
20 3.15 3.45 3.90 4.20 4.50

30 3.50 3.95 4.25 4.45 5.00
40 - 4.30 4.45 4.80 5.05
50 - - 4.85 5.00 5.40
5.3.7 T-dam
T-dam and longitudinal dam are constructed in compliance with reasonable guiding ling and
water level. Guiding line should be in compliance with river changing development and make
water flow smoothly. Guide line is connected with water flow line by circle curve line, of
which radius may be 5-8 times of rive width in stable section. Guide water level should be
decided in consideration of the worse eroding conditions.
T-dam provided should not decrease riverbed section greatly or damage farmland, village or
other facilities at opposite bank. Relative regulations of river transportation should be also
satisfied for rivers opening to transportation.
5.3.10 Earth Work Cloth Film Bag
Earth work cloth film is earth work compound material with one resin film or rubber water
proof material on its surface, or water proof material of compounding of earth work
compound material and plastic film. Earth work film is mainly of compounding of thin
free-textile and film. Based on engineering requirement, earth work film can be fabricated as
one cloth and one film, two-cloth and two- film; or three-cloth and two-film etc. The
thickness of selected free textile and film can also be decided according to requirement.
Table 5-3 Shows Main Technical Data of Film Bag:
One Layer Weight(g/m2) 200
Longitude 1500
Extend strength N/5cm
Latitude 1300
Longitude 14
Extend rate %
Latitude 12
Longitute 600
Tearing strength N/5cm
Latitude 400
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Tip beaking strength N 800
Leakage factor cm/s 0.028
One layer thicknerss mm 0.45
5.4 This retaining wall section is prepared mainly on base of Design and Construction
Technical Details of Highway Retaining Wall under preparation by the Ministry of
Communications, which should be issued soon.
5.4.1 In spite of widely used of retaining wall, other design scheme can also be used
instead of retaining wall but decision is based on comparing of economy and technique. In
addition, environment benefit and social benefit are also important factors for scheme
selection, especially for longer retaining wall projects.
Environment protection is one of our national basic policies. Retaining wall must cooperate
with natural environment as possible for increasing highway environment quality.
Gravity and bracket (buttress wall) etc. and integrated retaining wall should be fitted with
water leakage holes along with wall sat suitable height. If it is a soaked retaining wall, the
leakage hole is often provided
Width of expansion and settlement seams is usual 20-30mm, filled with bitumen hemp or
plate in seam along internal, external and top of wall with filling depth not less than 0.15m. If
wall back is rock fill and not serious frozen, seams may be kept without fills. Vertical V
trough may be provided in on reinforced concrete wall surface, of which space is not bigger
than 10m and reinforce bar is not cut at the trough; horizontal reinforce bar should be cut in
expansion or settlement seam, and seam joint may be rabbet or trough on front and rear walls.
No expansion and settlement seams are provided for dry grout retain wall.
5.4.2 When retain wall structure is over a certain status, leading retaining wall can be used
normally or meet the requirements under normal conditions. This special condition is called
utmost status of foundation.
Utmost status is divided in two kinds as follows:
1) Utmost status of bearing capacity
2) Normal utilization of utmost status
Bearing capacity of retaining wall structure can be interpreted as the max. bearing capacity in
consideration of safety. When the retaining wall structure is plastic deformed and then causing
geometry obvious changing, which seriously affects safety of structure, it reaches the utmost
status of bearing capacity although it is not full broken. The normal retaining wall utmost
status is a status corresponding to application and durability, it can be interpreted that an
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utmost status is allowed for retaining wall and its structure on its function, and only relating
with work condition and performance of retaining wall. It only requires some limitation
conditions such as breaking width of concrete structures and flexibility of wall surface etc.
The Specifications takes item factor of limited condition as a main design method. Typical
value is taken from the design basic variable in a formula through probility analysis; the item
factors are used to reflect their variability. The allowed stress method is still used for design of
rock and earth engineering in the current highway design code, and no unique standard value
for safety and item factor is definated in rock and earth engineering design therefore a partial
substant allowed stress method in design is still kept in the Specifications.
In compliance with combination properties of load effect of retaining wall and reference of
corresponding regulations at home and abroad, the Specifications shows a design expression
formula in design according to load bearing capacity during utmost status.
A design formula of utmost status under normal utilization condition is not shown in the
specification because this formula is mainly applied to design of reinforced concrete retaining
wall structure. It is specified in the Specifications that the design of reinforced concrete
retaining wall is in compliance with Design Code for Highway Reinforced Concrete and
Prestressed Concrete Bridge and Tunnel (JTG D62), so that there is not detailed requirement
for that design. For structure important factor, it is divided into three levels, I, II and III with
factors as 1.1, 1.0 and 0.9 ( similar to different value 0.5 between reliability idex) respectively
according to damage degree after structure failure in compliance with regulations in Design
Unique Standard of Highway Engineering Structure Reliability (GB/T 50283). The
structure important factors can be adjusted partially when necessary, but adjusted value can
not be more than one level value. With consideration of damage degree of higher retaining
wall is more serious than the normal retaining wall so that it takes highway class and retaining
wall height as important data in Table 5.4.2-1. Half-level difference value is taken as an
adjusted value in compliance with the principle of adjusted value can not be more than one
level value.
Table 5.4.2-2 load classifications is prepared with regulation of Function of Structure in

Highway Engineering Structure Reliability (GB/T 50283). It is divided into three kinds;
permanent load, variable load and contigent load according to time several of retaining wall
load function.
It is specified in Highway Engineering Structure Reliability (GB/T 50283) that design of

utmost status of bearing capacity of engineering structure should consider one or two effects
combination in basic or contigential group in accordance with its condition. The
Specifications, based on action (load) on retaining wall divides effect combination of action
(load) as three kinds, I, II and III, which belong to a basic combination group i.e several
permanent actions (loads) combination or combination of permanent actions (loads) and
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variable actions (loads).
In classification of actions in Highway Engineering Structure Reliability (GB/T 50283),

construction load is not definite clearly. Construction person and equipment is definated as
temporary loads but construction load is not listed in load classification in General Code of
Highway and Tunnel Design (JTG D60); It is specified in Unique Standard of Railway
Engineering Structure Reliability Design (GB 50216), that certain partial self-weight and
installation loads in some project construction belong to variable loads, and the Specifications
adopts this rule, lists construction load into variable load in load classification.
In accordance with conventional experience in China, earth force acting on back of retaining
wall is considered as active earth pressure, which is calculated by Coulomb theory. But for
reinforced retain wall, height of wall should be taken as a division base for dead earth force or
active earth force sections.
Regulated additional load strength plus conversional earth thickness method is taken as a
calculation of additional side pressure caused by vehicle load. Additional load strength only
takes height of wall as a reference, therefore there is no division of calculation load, trial load
or vehicle load class in a basic variable loads.
Comparison of earth pressure calculation data specified between some foreign design
standards and the Specifications as in following table:
Table 5-4 Calculation Data in Different Standards
Load factors
Live load or Fill active earth pressure

Code or standard conventional
additional earth Vertical Horizontal
load
American Highway and Tunnel Deisign Code 0.75-1.5 1.0-1.35 0.9-1.5
BS 5400 British Standard Association Steel Bridge,

Concrete Bridge and Combination Bridge, Chapter II 1.5 (1.0) 1.5 (1.0) 1.5
Load Speicifation
Former Soviet Highway, Railway and City Road Bridge

1.2 (0.7) 1.4 (0.7) 1.4
Design Code
Japan Utmost Status Method Concrete Structure New

1.2 1.2 1.2
Code Calcualtion
China Specification 0.95~1.4 0.95~1.4 0.95-1.4
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Note: For the data in above table, a smaller value is adopted when increased earth pressure benefits to
retaining wall structure while bigger value adopted when decreased earth pressure worse to the retaining
wall.
For simplizing calculation, when vehicle load and person load is taken as vertical force acted
on wall top, it can be taken approximately as a vertically constant load and therefore G is
adopted as a vertically itemized factor.
5.4.3 In the Specifications, a design method specified in section of foundation calculation

should take allowed bearing capacity as a base, and take format and terminology of utmost
status design formula for coordination with other chapters.
Foundation fill condition for slope ground is prepared based on summarization of railway and
highway retaining wall project experiences in years. Distance of items from ground in table is
given top and bottom values according to foundation earth classifications, which can be
applied in compliance with combination factors of real foundation earth geology, slope and
steep degrees etc. It is one of high efficiency methods to adopt slope bottom foundation, but
when the foundation slope degree is much bigger which is possible to slip with wall mass and
foundation earth together, therefore foundation slope degree is limited according to soil
stratum and foundation functions. The slope degree may not be bigger than 0.3:1 when it is a
rock foundation; slope foundation is not adopted when it is a water soaked foundation; When
, foundation slope degree may not be bigger than not bigger than
0.2:1. When retain wall is affected by upsetting stability, foundation eccentricity or bearing,
wall foot steps may be provided. Angle between step link line and vertical line may not be
bigger then 35 for mortar mass; or not bigger than 45 for concrete wall.
Along with preparation of highway engineering reliability design unique standard,

standardization of foundation engineering is facing how to implement basic principle of
probility utmost status design. Foundation structure component design is nearly same with
upper structures, therefore probability utmost status design regulations for the upper structure
may be applied. But foundation design is quite different from the upper structure design;
therefore approved concepts, methods and data of reliability analysis of the upper structures
can not be used completely without analysis of current conditions. Current intention of
foundation engineering standardization is to adopt reliability research results in specification
carefully when it is lack of rich technical experiences. Basic concept should be in compliance
with earth dynamic physics system. Data should match with projects experiences and consider
future amendment and development of specifications.
This article is prepared according to abovementioned intention comments. In calculation of

stabilization of retain wall, Total Safety Factor Method in chapter 3 Check calculation of
Retain Wall in former Highway Subgrade Design Code (JTJ013-86) is reserved, and
regulation for check calculation equation of bearing capability utmost status is added too,
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therefore total safety factor method with engineering experiences may be used to check results
calculated by design equation of the utmost status, which can also cumulate information for
preparation of code in application of probability utmost status design method.
5.4.4 Semigravity retain wall is one type wall between gravity wall and bracket wall. An
advantage of semigravity retain wall is full utilization of integrity or tension strength of
concrete wall, less volume than gravity wall, and less strength concrete (grade bigger than
C10) structure may be adopted with less or free reinforce bar, and lower capital cost than
same height bracket retain wall.
5.4.5 Regulation of buttress wall is prepared with combination of relative specifications in

Code of Railway Subgrade Supporting Structure Design (TB 10025), Manual of Railway
Engineering Design-Subgrade, Manual of Supporting Structure Design and Japan Code
for High Class Highway Design etc. All these regulations specified that integrated pouring
concrete structure is recommended. Patchwork is also adopted for buttress wall but with many
limitations such as it is not applied in poor geology foundation or earthquake intense above
VIII, required installation lift facilities and cast in-situ, and different calculation methods from
integrated cast wall. It is seldom used in China so that it is not listed in the specification.
5.4.6 Rib-post anchor retain wall has similar support principle with panel anchor retain
wall, but they also have special properties respectively such as follows for reasonable
application in practice.
Rib-post anchor retain wall consist of rib-post and retaining planet. Space between anchors is
bigger than planet anchor retain wall and anchor hole diameter is 100-150mm, drilled by
driller. After pouring concrete, pole and anchor wall is felted, which belongs to anchor-pole
type mainly by cohesive function.
Planet anchor retain wall consists of integrated wall plate cast in situ or fabricated plate
combining with multi-row small anchor poles. Anchor hole can be drilled by ordinary driller,
anchor hole diameter is 35-50mm with depth of 4-5m. Wedge slot anchor pole is often used.
Pole head contacts anchor hole directly, which increases friction between anchor pole and
anchor hole therefore it has combination properties of cohesive and mechanical anchor poles.
5.4.7 Anchor plate retain wall has two kinds; rib-pole type and planet type. Rib-pole
anchor plate retain wall consists of rib-pole and retain planet, normally with two layers of
pulling pole, large area of anchor plate, longer pulling pole and less deformation of retain wall,
and availably used as subgrade shoulder type or embankment type retain walls. Planet type
retain wall belongs to reinforced concrete wall plate, which can be built in compliance with
wall planet geometry and thickness, leading to beautiful appearance, therefore it is mostly
used as a city communication support structure.
Although bearing earth pressure from anchor plate of retain wall or wall planet is caused by
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additional vehicle load on fill and fill surface, anchor retain wall is a combined structure and
pressure mechanism is more complex due to reciprocity of pulling pole, anchor plate and fill,
which has relations with fill properties, compact degree, embedded depth of pulling pole and
its length, anchor plate area etc. The conclusion has been got as follows after a lot of site
inspection and model test by railway section in combination with project s experiences.
1) Practical surveyed active earth pressure is bigger than that calculated by Coulomb
theory, with ratio about 1.21-1.55, medium value between calculated active earth
pressure and dead earth pressure.
2) The practical surveyed earth pressure is allocated as single peak or hackle along wall
back, not along triangle.
Because reinforced concrete structure is a main part in anchor plate retain wall, the bearing
force (load) of structure should be precisely calculated, especially pay attention to prevent
rib-pole of multi-layer pulling-pole from internal force changing due to unproper force (or
load) adopted. Therefore the designed earth pressure can not be predigested to triangle
allocation, but to simplify according to real allocation figure.
5.4.8 A special difference between reinforced retain wall and other types of retian wall is
that fill is also a part of wall, therefore selection of fill, reinforced bar quality, stable
contacting degree between fill, reinforced belt and planet is a main factor to be considered
specially during design and construction.
Reinforced plastic combined belt, earthwork grids and reinforced belt materials are
supplemented in preparation of the Specifications, with consideration of developing trend of
reinforced belt, application experiences in some areas and technical standards and codes of
corresponding earthwork textiles at home and abroad.
Angle between reinforced earth retaining wall and adjacent wall should not be less than 70,
with main reason of consideration of arrangement of reinforced belt in equality, suitable
bearing force and economic capital cost during construction. In normal condition, overlape
reinforced belts should be avoid for increasing friction between reinforced belt and fill, but
when polypropylene earth belt is used as reinforced belt, there may be more reinforced belts
on one steel ring (or preserved hole for reinforced belt through), a partial of reinforced belts
can be overlapped for meeting requirement of lifting resistance and stability as well as bearing
earth pressure strength.
In protruding part (i.e. internal angle less than 180) of adjacent reinforced wall surfaces, the
less angle, the easier stress is centralized, which makes protruding part expended outside and
therefore more reinforced belts should be provided at wall surface turns; when the angle is
less than 90, crossed reinforced belts should be provided in adjacent wall surfaces. More
reinforced belts should be provided in concave part (i.e. internal angle is bigger than 180) of
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reinforced wall surface when it is necessary for keeping same density of reinforced belt be
same as in other sections.
In order to reduce pressure from panel to foundation and prevent big unequal settlement of
foundation and guarantee no panel is damaged, bar concrete mat foundation should be
provided under normal conditions except hard foundation.
In accordance with article 5.4.3 of the Specifications, the embedded depth is required to 1m at
least underground for normal earth retaining wall without eroding. But from dometic project
experiences, the regulation is a little bigger, the embedded depth may be reduced because
disperse and 1m width protection slope are provided for reinforced wall outside, which
protects the foundation of reinforced earth structure. Therefore it is specified that minimum
value of the embedded depth is 0.6m in the Specifications. When the foundation is of rock or
on former road or concrete, the embedded depth of reinforced earth banel is not limitted by
the above mentioned regulation; it can be decided according to real conditions.
Reinforced earth project is less used in soaked area, especially no experiences with clay fill,
therefore leakage soil is taken as fill can drain water from reinforced wall on time, reduces
affection of dynamic water pressure on reinforced wall. Rock grout or solid wall may be
provided under the design water level for increasing wall stability and wall rear earth stability.
For reinforced earth structure on slope, certain width protection foot should be provided on
wall root for preventing shearing damage from horizontal thrust of reinforced earth on front
earth, which causes reinforced earth structure to lose stability. In compliance with project
experiences and relative information from foreign countries, protection foot is not less than
1m in general and its location should be decided according to the embedded depth of panel
foundation bottom.
For discharging wall ground surface flow, and prevent rainwater, reinforced wall top and
internal water from leakage into reinforced earth wall foundation or eroding foundation,
protection foot may be laid with stone plate and 3%-5% horizontal disperse slope.
Internal stability analysis of reinforced earth wall is mainly to decide reinforced belt section
length, and partial balance method is a basic method.
A principle for calculation of internal balance by a partial balance method is based on stress of
max. pulling stress on fill for getting the reinforced max. pulling force Timax. There is no
shearing stress on max. pulling stress M, and main forces are vertical stress 1 and horizontal
stress 3. According to symmetry principle, it can also be assumed there is no shearing force
on medium plan between two reinforced layers. That means partial stress 3 can be balanced
by reinforced belt. For increasing high wall safety, a trial calculation of total balance method
should be conducted for wall higher than 12m, in addition to a partial balance calculation.
Relative information may be refered to.
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Interpretation of flotage regulations is as follows:
1) Lower water level, lower flotage, and more pull force is on reinforced belt, therefore
reinforced belt section is designed with low water level flotage.
2) Other conditions in article refers to length of reinforced belt design and check
calculation of comprehensive stability. Worse water level refers to water level by
design (or calculation) action (or load) of worse combination value.
Distinguish of active and stable areas of reinforced wall is to decide start anchor point of pull
reinforcement.
A latent broken surface of reinforced wall is at link line of max. pull force point.
In accordance with references at home and abroad, latent broken surface may be simplisized
as two section fold line, which is parallel to wall surface (space 0.3H) in upper, and through
wall foot in bottom (horizontal angle 45+/2). This predigested broken surface method is
adopted in the Specifications. According to Fig. 5.4.8-2 predigested broken surface drawing,
height of top and bottom can be calculated by following formula:
Where:
bH -Distance between predigested broken surface vertical part and wall panel rear
-Comprehensive internal friction angle of reinforced fill.
Formula (5.4.8-9) in specification is educed by basic material mechanical and combined

design value of pull force action should be less or equal to resistance design value of
reinforced belt material. Where 1000 is a unit conversion factor.
Values of pulling resistance performance itemized factor Yf and pulling resistance calculation
adjust factor YK2 of reinforced material is mainly educed and decided by allowance pull
resistance strength comprehensive safety factor in Earthwork Compound Material
Application Technical Specification (GB 50290) and design value of steel and steel
components performance in General Code of Highway and Tunnel Design (JTG D60).
5.4.9 When piling type retaining wall occurs a large calculation displacement on top due to
action of earth pressure and other variable loads, deformation on wall top may be limited by
fitting of proper number of anchors, and vertical and smooth appearance of wall can be
guaranteed on normal service conditions.
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Its difficult for two side structures of piling type retaining wall to meet depth requirement
embedding subgrage or original stratum, therefore the two side structure are designed
specially. A section of integrated retain wall is often built at both ends of retaining wall as a
transfer structure connecting subgrade or original stratum.
5.5.1 Side slope anchor technique is a new developing consolidation measure, with
complex process, various kinds and many limited factors. It is a hidden project, which must
be studied on design scheme in feasible for guarantee safety reliability and advanced
technology of anchor project.
Different anchor structures have different limitation functions on slope deformation.

Therefore allowed deformation of side slope should be understood clearly for selection of
anchor structure types when design side slope anchor support. Generally side slope
deformation supported by active anchor (prestressed anchor line) is less than that by passive
anchor (full length cohesive anchor).
Water drainage is a very important issue in side slope anchor design. Stability lost in many
side slopes is caused by water immerging, which weakens strength of structure surface
leading to less slip resistance. Water drainage should be designed suitably no matter what kind
of anchor scheme is adopted.
5.5.2 Safety margin should be reserved in consideration of various affection factors when
design side slope anchor, therefore safety factor for anchor side slope is as same as that for
free-anchor side slope.
Anchor action simplisization is an important problem in calculation of anchor side slope

stability. There are two simplization methods; action is predigested as central force on slide
surface; and action is predigested as central force on slope surface. When slide surface is
single (plan slide surface) and slide strength is same, results obtained by two calculation
methods are same. And when the slide surface is not regular and slide surface strength is
different, the results are quite different by two calculation methods. A smaller value is
recommended to be adopted from two calculations for keep safety in this article.
5.5.3 Various additional loads and relative factors are considered when calculation of down
slide force of side slope, therefore anchoring force of anchor should not be considered again.
The anchor force calculation is mainly relative with down slide force of side slope and
therefore formula (5.5.3) is suggested.
5.5.4 Anchoe location is very important in design of side slope prestressed anchor.
Different location should cause different anchor effects and quite different economy results.
Anchor location has a close relation with side slope damage mechanism. Article 1-3 is
prepared on base of research results and project experience at home and abroad.
Anchor placing direction is another vital problem in design of side slope anchor. The most
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effective placing direction is on counter direction to sliding. Only one direction can be
decided because of limitation of construction conditions and of slide mass boundary
conditions. The most optimization anchor direction should ba selected after comprehensive
comparing for the most effective anchoring. When the angle between anchor and slide surface
is equal to internal friction angle of side slope, the most sliding resistance can be got but the
anchor is the longest and less economy. There are some empirical formulas for getting the
most optimization anchor angle, which still need approving in projects. So that these formulas
are not shown in the Specifications temporarily.
5.5.8 Solpe structure in the Specifications is only taken as bearing structure of anchor side
slope, which does not include side slope structure for supporting (such as pile, wall). Table
5.5.8 is decided with comprehensive consideration of difficulties of construction, integrated
effect of supports and environment sights etc. Suitable anchor side slope structure should be
selected in design with consideration of site geology conditions and applicable conditions of
various structures in order to reduce prestress loss of anchor side slope.
5.5.9 Prestressed anchor test is used to verify if the anchor has adequate bearing capability
and design and construction method can meet protect requirements. There two kinds of test,
one is destructive test for verifying the most extension force and safety of anchor project; the
other one is nondestructive test, normally conducting in a typical working anchor with
purpose of verifying design suitability and safety, inspection and control of technical
requirement of construction quality.
It is important for inspection and survey work for prestressed anchor project. Anchor is a
hidden project and there are many factors affecting anchor efficiency, which is difficult to full
control during design. Therefore inspection and survey work must be conducted in original
place for prestessed anchor projects. The inspection and survey work for anchor projects are
mainly conducted during construction and service time. Main inspection and survey in each
period are survey of anchor itself and of anchoring medium or anchoring objects.
5.6.1 Generally speaking, soil nailing support is only suitable for a certain cohesive sand
soil and hard cohesive soil, or soil mass with certain stability. For loose sand soil, soft
cohesive soil and area with rich underground water, there are some problems when utilizing of
soil nailing support.
(1) Loosing soil with lower shearing strength can not provide adequate pull resistance
force to soil nailing.
(2) A spraying surface is difficult to form on side slope because of soft soil and high
water content.
Soil nailing support is very sensitive to water. High water content in soil increases not only
soil mass weight, but also decrease sliding resistance strength of soil, and cohesive strength
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between soil nail and soil mass. Experiences from a lot of projects approved that most damage
occurred on soil nailing project has relation with water, so that water content must be
specially considered in design and construction.
5.6.2 Soil nail types consist of:
1) Support structure of sprayed concrete surface with soil nail with reinforced net or
with earth work net;
2) Support structures consist of reinforced net beam or ground beam connected by nail
heads, which also include two kinds, sprayed concrete layer or no sprayed concrete
layer under net-grid beams.
3) Support structures of concrete blocks with independent soil nails and nail heads;
4) Support structure of nail, vertical pole and retaining panel;
5) Support structure of cast in situ or prefabricated reinforced concrete panel and soil
nails.
5.6.3 Internal stability check calculation of soil nail consists of breaking out test, pulling
and uplifting test and internal integrated stability trial test.
1 Check calculation of breaking out of pulling resistance of soil nail
Strength of nail material
Where; Ti strength of nail material; d diameter of soil nail; fy standard value of pulling
resistance
Where;
Ehi -Pulling force on soil nail
K1 -Safety factor for breaking out of pulling resistance, 1.5~1.8
2 Stability check calculation for soil nails uplifting resistance:
1) For a single nail; under pressure of stratum active soil, adequate cohesive strength
and shearing resistance strength between soil nail and sand slurry, soil nail sand slurry and
soil mass after nail breaking out in soil nail support internal should keep soil nail not uplifting
form soil. The following formula should be met.
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Where:
Fi1 -Cohesive strength between nail and sand slurry
Lei -limited length the nail entering beyond breaking out area
g -Standard cohesive strength value between nail and sand slurry
Fi2 -Shearing resistance value between nail and soil mass,
f -Shearing resistance standard value between nail and soil mass, generally decided by
site test.
K2 -Uplifting resistance safety factor, general 1.5~2.0;
The other symbols have the same meaning as before
2) Uplifting resistance stability check calculation of total soil nail: Moment of effective
uplifting resistance of soil nail on support bottom, after soil nail internal breaking out, should
be bigger than the moment caused by active soil pressure.
Where:
ai -Angle between soil nail i and horizontal;
Eh -Compound force of soil mass active pressure;
Hh -Distance from compound force of soil mass active pressure to soil nail support
bottom;
Kf -Total soil nail support uplifting resistance safety factor, general 2.0~3.0;
H -Height of soil nail support (m);
hI -Distance from soil nail of row i (layer) to support top surface (m).
Integrity stability of soil nail support internal should be calculated with the following fomula
on basis of definited latent sliding surface of soil nail support and soil mass above this slide
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surface should be divided into some upward soil slips, with calculation of self weight of each
soil slip, cohesive force, friction force and downslide force on this sliding surface.
Where:
Ks -Safety factor of side slope integrity stability;
Wi -Soil slip i self weight (k N/m);
cii -Cohesive force (k Pa) and internal friction angle () of soil slip i respectively;
i -Angle between central tangent on soil slip i and horizontal ()
i -Angle of soil nail i and horizontal ()
li -Sliding surface arc length of soil slip i; (m)
Sx -Horizontal space between soil nails ; (m)
Pi -Uplifting resistance of soil nail, take a smaller value (kN)
n -Real setting soil nail rows
-Discount factor, 0.5
The other symbols have same meaning as before.
5.7.1 The failure of sliding resistance piling in past project is, after investigation, because
of unclear surveying of geology boundary or unsuitable treatment of boundary conditions,
such as not knowing of former sliding slope or sliding surface, no division of slide boundary,
installed support for slide slope but sliding occurs, slope shears from piling top, error data of
slope and sliding surface, error calculation of slide thrust etc. Therefore survey of side slope
geology and design of sliding resistance piling is a systematic engineering, and detailed
survey and design is a vital for successful project.
5.7.3 In Code of Railway Subgrade Supporting Structure Design (TB 10025), it points
out that allocation of slide slop thrust has a big affection on design of slide resistance piling,
therefore its difficult to draw the allocation of thrust because of many affection factors.
During calculation of slide slope thrust, it is often assumed that slide slope mass is down
sliding along sliding surface equally. When slide mass is gravel soil, triangle allocation of
down slide force is adopted; when slide mass is cohesive soil, rectangle allocation is adopted;
when slide mass is between above two, trapezia allocation is adopted. In addition, according
to model test results of two kinds of simulation sliding resistance of slide mass by No. 2
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Railway Design Institute, when slide mass is loose soil, gravity of sliding down force is at
about 1/4 of piling above slide surface; when slide mass is cohesive soil, the gravity of slide
down force is a little higher than loose soil, but not over 1/3 of the sliding surface. From many
test experiences, it can be seen the better sliding mass, the lower gravity of sliding down force
is. Northwest Branch of Ministry of Railway once surveyed on earth slope sliding, allocation
of sliding down force is a trapezia in small on top and big on bottom, and compound action
force above sliding surface, 0.42 times of sliding mass thickness. It is safety and available of
adopting triangle, trapezia, or rectangle allocation for calculation of sliding slope thrust based
on above comprehensive factors.
Horizontal allowed bearing force of piling side foundation may be calculated in different
conditions as follows:
1) Formula (5-7) should be for rock stratum,
Where:
[H] -Horizontal allowance bearing force of foundation:
KH -Conversion factor for horizontal, based on rock structure, factor may be 0.5-1.0
-Discount factor, based on rock crack, weathering and soft degree, and factor may be
0.3-0.45;
Rc -Utmost strength of rock homotaxial pressure resistance (kpa)
2) When stratum is soil or weathered soil, sand rock, and no horizontal slope on ground
or slope is small, formula (5-8) is adopted; when ground slope is big and i<0, horizontal
allowance bearing capacity of y point on foundation should be calculated by formula (5-9).
Where:
r1 -Soil mass unit weight above sliding surface (kN/m3);
r2 -Soil mass unit weight below sliding surface (kN/m3);
-Soil mass internal friction angle below sliding surface ();
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c -Soil mass cohesive force below sliding surface (kpa);
h1 -Distance between sliding surface at piling and ground (m);
y -Distance from slide surface to calculation point (m);
0 -Soil mass comprehensive internal friction angle below slide surface ();
It is vital to select foundation factors and corresponding physical dynamic index for
calculation of piling internal force. But it is also difficult to conduct rest and monitoring for
selection of the factors and index. The factors piling resistance foundation and index of
stratum physical dynamic are shown in below two tables (Table 5-5 and 5-6) for reference.
Table 5-5 Factors of Sliding Resistance Foundation (Ration Factor Should

Increase With Depth)
Vertical m0 Horizontal m
No. Soil Name 2
(kPa/m ) (kPa/m2)
1 0.75<1<1.0 soft plastic cohesive and powder soil; mud 1000~2000 500~1400
2 0.5<L<0.75 soft plastic powder and cohesive soil 2000~4000 1000~2800
Hard plastic powder and cohesive soil; fine sand and

3 4000~6000 2000~4200
medium sand
4 Hard powder cohesive soil and cohesive soil 6000~10000 3000~7000
5 Gravel sand, crushed soil and scree 10000~20000 5000~14000
6 density big boulder 80000~120000 40000~84000
Notes:
1 L is soil liquidated index, soil foundation index is m, and piling top displacement is
6-10m corresponding m value.
2 Factors are not limited by this table if there is available information and experiences.
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Table 5-6 Factors of Sliding Resistance Foundation and Physical Mechanics Index
of Stratum
Internal Poissons Shearign

Plastic modul Foundation factor
Stratums fricriction ratio stress
Eo(kPa) K(kPa/m)
angle () (kPa)
2.0106~2.5
Granitello, syenite more than 5430~6900 0.25~0.30 more than
106
80 1500
Green rock, igneous 6700~7870 0.28 2.5106
Medium pegmatites 5430~6500 0.25

more than 1.8106~2.0 more than
Coase syenite, hard
80 6560~7000 0.25 106 1500
dolomite
Hard limestone 4400~10000 0.25~0.30
Hard sandstone, banded 4660~5430 1.2106~2.0

80 1500
Coase pegmetites,granitic 106
5430~6000 0.15~0.30
gneiss
Slight hard limestone 4400~9000

0.8106~1.2 1200~
Slight hard sandstone 75~80 4460~5000 0.25~0.30 6
10 1400
Unhard granitic gneiss 5430~6000
Hard shale 2000~5500 0.15~0.30

0.4106~0.8
Normal limestone 70~75 4400~8000 0.25~0.30 700~1200
106
Notmal sandstone 4600~5000 0.25~0.30
Hard marlite 800~1200 0.29~0.38
Slight hard shale 1980~3600 0.25~0.30 0.3106~0.4

70 500~700
Nonhard limestone 4400~6000 0.25~0.30 106
Non hard sandstone 1000~2780 0.25~0.30
Slight hard marlite 700~900 0.29~0.38

0.2106~0.3
Normal shale 65 1900~3000 0.15~0.20 300~500
106
Soft limestone 4400~5000 0.25
Nonhard marlite 30~500 0.29~0.38 0.06106~0.12

45 150~300
hard clay 10~300 0.30~0.37 106
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Internal Poissons Shearign

Plastic modul Foundation factor
Stratums fricriction ratio stress
Eo(kPa) K(kPa/m)
angle () (kPa)
soft cash 500~700 0.15~0.18
hard coal 50~300 0.30~0.40
dense clay 10~300 0.30~0.37
normal coal 50~300 0.30~0.40 0.03106~0.06

30~45 100~150
cement scree 50~100 - 106
soil mixed with stone 50~100 -
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6 Extension and Rebuilding of Subgrade
6.1.1,6.1.2 Site inspection and survey, and necessary monitoring before design of
highway linking, extension and rebuilding are important part of highway survey. Information
and treatment of original highway foundation and subgrade should be collected for taking
proper treatment for engineering.
6.1.3 Settlement is basically stable for original road because of actions by embankment
and vehicle operation. After extension of embankment, there is a difference between new and
original roads. Treatment should be constructed for new extension road for avoiding
longitudinal crack due to different settlement; pay attention to compacting of embankment,
reducing foundation settlement and embankment compacting settling.
6.2.1~6.2.5 Before design of extension and rebuilding of original road, the main task is
to survey, test and analysis of subgrade and foundation of the original road. Inspection and
survey work includes three parts; investigation of subgrade current status, road surface
strength and subgrade soil survey and test; surveying and test of original subgrade foundation;
surveying and test of foundation of extension section. Surveying holes should be placed in
same section, analysis foundation compacted degree, strength, hydrological condition,
foundation consolidation and side slope stability etc. of original road through comparing
survey and tests in order to verify available original road and extension rebuilding scheme,
provide reliable bases for design of subgrade.
6.3.1 Subgrade section types (one side or both sides extension) of the extension road
should be decided in accordance with highway classification and combination with landform,
physiognomy, hydrological, geology and fills etc. It should satisfy requirements of available
technology and reasonable economy. Subgrads of extension road and new building road
should be designed in compliance with a standard of new road construction.
6.3.4 At connection of new and original roads, protection engineering should be removed
from the original road for increasing efficient connection of the roads. Loose soil on slope is
removed too and steps are excavated along the original road slope from bottom upward for
strengthening an integrity of new and original subgrades.
New connection subgrades should adopt course soil with good leakage, high strength and
good gradation as fills. If fine soil is adopted, it should meet min. strength requirement (CBR),
and drainage water fluently from subgrade (especially from connection subgrades).
Transverse drainage blind ditch may be provided for discharging internal water from subgrade
when necessary.
In order to ensure subgrade compact degree, excess width fill or excavating of original road
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subgrade and other measures should be taken when extension subgrade is not equal to one
compact width. After filling and compacting, rectify slope and form a final subgrade section,
and no adding slope is allowed.
6.3.8 Settlement should be strictly controlled in the extension and connection road scope in
compliance with standards of bridge section of corresponding class highway after completing
of engineering. Pay attention to control the settlement at connection of new and original roads
for avoiding longitudinal crack on pavement,
6.4.3 For extension and rebuilding expressway through soft foundation, foundation should
introduce new additional settlement and certain affect on original subgrade and pavement
because both sides of the original road are basically former foundation and under pressure of
new subgrade. The extension subgrade settlement should be controlled in compliance with
standards of bridge section of corresponding class highway after completing of engineering,
for reducing affection on original subgrade by new extension subgrade. From work
experiences of extension expressway through soft foundations in Jinagsu, Zhejiang, and
Guangdong provinces, pavement should be cracked when additional settlement of the original
subgrade center is over 30mm and the extension pavement horizontal arc increases more than
5%. Based by analysis and experience of above projects, design principles for expressway
through soft foundation are regulated in the Specifications.
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7 Special subgrade
7.2 Subgrade in landslide section
7.2.1 When design of a large project in complex geology landslide areas, comparison of
bypass or special treatment of subgrade should be conducted. Bypass is a priority scheme
because the special treatment of subgrade is complex, unclear geology conditions and low
reliability.
Landslide is one of main damages to mountain roads, therefore investigation and survey
should be conducted on landslide seriously through comprehensive survey of engineering
geology, find out causes and characteristics of landslide, evaluate landslide stability and
damage degree to project, provide protection measures and calculation data for landslide.
Landslide should be treated thoroughly and perfectly once in principle. For large, complex
characteristics, slow deformation landslide, of which characteristic is difficult to be
understood should be planned integrately, treated in steps under precondition to guarantee
safety of road. Urgent project for favorable of landslide stability should be built first and
necessary inspection system should be set up for monitory and control changing rules and in
order to treat landslide thoroughly.
Forming and developing of landslide is caused with many factors so that comprehensive
treatment of landslide should be in different ways with consideration of various factors. Water
is a main reason for landslide and it is very important to prevent water from entering landslide
belt and drainage water from landslide mass. Load decreasing is an effective method for
reducing landslide deformation, guarantee safety during construction and reducing supports
for project. There are many kinds of landslides. Even it is the same type landslide; it has
different forms so that different technologies should be adopted after analysis.
For southwest and frequent rainy areas, deep loose rock cutting and crushed soft rock high
side slope, road embankment on worse soft stratum, and slope soft soil which are easy to
landslide, prevent measures should be taken and pre-consolidationg project should be
provided for preventing landslide.
7.2.2 There are many mechanical balance check calculation methods for evaluation of
landslide stability. Transmittering factor is given in the Specifications, which assumes action
of a thrust Ti between slips is sliding upward, then introduce vertical shearing force between
slips and therefore safety factor obtained by transmittering factor is more safety. When
stability factor is decided, down sliding factor Tn calculated with transmittering factor may be
taken as bearing force of support structure.
Landslide thrust safety force Fs may be selected with comprehensive consideration of
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landslide damage, purpose of project prevention measures, importance of project and allowed
deformation value, investigation reliability of landslide characteristics, factors, structure
strength of landslide, and rock and earth on slide belt etc. Fs may be also increased or
decreased after necessary evaluation under special conditions.
For getting shearing strength index of rock and earth on landslide, rock direct shearing test
should be adopted as possible when complementing of soil work test. If it is first landslide,
peak strength is used; if it frequently or with a large displacement of landslide, residual
strength is adopted after several times shearing or circle shearing; saturated fast shearing or
water controlled fast shearing is adopted when water is cumulated on landslide belt; when
landslide belt sensitive is higher, test should be conducted on site, otherwise indoor; when
course grain in landslide substance is more than 30%, a large area shearing should be
conducted, otherwise a small sample.
When c small value is obtained with reverse calculation, pay attention or keep nearly
same condition of geology, and distinguish geology condition of landslide at reverse
calculation and worse conditions in future, analyze reasonability of c , small value on base
of their differences.
7.2.3 Prevention measures
1 Ground surface water drainage plays a very import role on stability of landslide,
which should avoid surface water flowing into landslide mass and drain quickly from
landslide scope.
2 Underground water drainage is divided into shallow and deep layers. For shallow
water, various kinds of leakage ditches are used; for deep water, advancing to rise drainage
drilling holes, drainage holes are used. Its difficult to adopt deeper interception leakage ditch
and drainage holes and capital cost is high.
Support leakage ditch is mainly used to support wet soil mass in the front of the landslide and
drainage cumulative shallow water from soil mass and underground water. Horizontal support
space in support ditch is general 6-15m according to soil conditions. Bottom base of support
ditch should be buried in 0.5m stable stratum below slide surface and 2%~4% longitudinal
drainage slope provided. If slide surface is steep, it can be built as steps with width not less
than 2m. Reverse filter layer should be provided on side wall at water entrance and on top of
ditch. Frozen measure should be taken for the ditch in cold area.
Side slope leakage ditch is used for drying wet side slope and drainage cumulative water or
spring from upper side slope, which is suitable for soil cutting side slope with slope gradiant
not bigger than 1:1. Side slope is not only drying and supporting side slope but also
intercepting slope flowing and reducing eroding.
Interception leakage ditch is used to interception shallow or deep underground water flowing
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to landslide and draining it from landslide mass. Underprecondition of not eroding round
grout of ditch wall, interception leakage ditch should adopt deeper flowing slope as possible.
Inspection well should be provided at every 30-50m in straight ditch or at turning and
gradient changing point. Leakage holes should be provided in inspection well for discharging
underground water nearby.
3 Weight reducing has obvious function to decrease landslide deformation. For

medium and small landslide, weight reducing is one of main treatment of landslide, for a large
landslide, the treatment should be cooperated with other project construction. It should be
considered, that weight reducing may add new bare surface. It also should be fully evaluated
if the secondary landslope occurs or worse the original landslope conditions, therefore weight
reducing measure should be selected carefully. Pay attention to stability of reverse treatment
measures for preventing new landslope occurring.
4 Sliding resistance retain wall is one of effective treatment measures of landslope, and
one part of comprehensive treatments such as drainage, weight reducing for a large landslope.
It is often used with support leakage ditch together for medium and small landslope with
advantage of a little damage to mountain slope and fast efficiency of landslide stability. But it
should be clearly investigated with properties of landslide, structure, sliding surface, thrust
and geology of basic foundation. Sliding resistance retain wall is usual gravity retain wall. In
addition, a difference between sliding resistance retain wall and general wall is different soil
pressure bearing, direction, allocation and action functions. The bearing soil pressure is
decided with calculation of landslide thrust.
Sliding resistance pile is an effective measure for stability of landslide, widely used at present
along with expressway construction, and with advantages of flexible arrangement, easy
construction and little affection to landside stability during construction.
Design and calculation of sliding resistance piling is divided as rigid and plastic piling
calculations, of which rigid piling dividing into piling in equal soil, and in two different
stratum and other 6 boundary conditions. Plastic piling should be calculated with ordinary m
method and simplisized K method under different boundary conditions. Detailed design
should be in compliance with Manual of Highway Subgrade Design and other relative
information.
There are many examples of anchor technology used in landslide treatment in practice but
anchors should be located in a stable rock stratum. There is a little example for anchor in soil
stratum. Internal anchor is usual sand concrete and external anchor is reinforced concrete
frames, ground beams and piers. For soil stratum, frame, ground beam may be used and size
of frame, ground beam and pier should be decided with calculation of bearing capacity of
landslide rock mass. Eroding resistance measures should be taken for soil surface for
preventing anchor loose and failure.
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In order to increase shearing resistance strength and stability of landslide belt, high pressure
circle spraying or slurry filling is adopted for improving rock and earth in landslide belt,
which is an effective method for soil landslide, medium and small landslides.
7.3 Subgrades of landslide and rock compiled sections
7.3.1 General
Landslide is a general name of rock landslide and rock fall. In this section, landslide consists
of rock fall, stone falldown and crag. In addition, a great landslide may be called avalanche,
and frequently falling of small stones from mountain is called etc. A various degree of
landslide often occurs from slope when building highway in a deep mountain. Affections to
subgrade stability by landslide can not be neglected because of difference of geology forming
history and background, different properties for local landform, climate, rock, stratum
structure, earthquake action and man factors etc. Therefore full investigation should be
conducted during highway surveying and so did the evaluation and precasting of avalanche as
well as effective treatment measures, and highway should be avoided building in landslide
sections. Rock compiled means an area at mountain foot or mild slope where rock fall loosen
matter is collected by removing. It is vital important to build subgrade in rock compiled areas.
Road should be passed through location where it is favorable to subgrade stability or prevent
measures taken for getting stability.
7.3.2 Side slope of surface cover and protection wall should be stability itself, and no rock
pressure on soil is considered. Chapter 5 of the Specifications should be referred for the
detailed structure and material requirement. Surface cover side slope is required not only for
stability itself but also with plain and dry. Corresponding measures must be taken when
leakage from slope and serious weathering of slope rock, knit developing. It should be
connected with extension of slope as possible when clearing out crushed weathered rock layer,
and extended slope should kept same consistence with latent slip broken surface.
Good results have been got in recent years in promotion and application of protection
technology on worse crushed stone, easy landslide side slope and flexible protection. The
flexible protection system consists of active and passive types. Active protection system
consists of system anchor and protection net while passive protection system consists of
interception nets. Active protection system is priority to be adopted in general conditions.
7.3.3 When building retain wall and excavating in rock compiled areas, it may be
considered to pour low strength cement concrete slurry in proper scope for local stabilization.
7.4 Subgrade in mudflow areas
7.4.1 A comprehensive suitable prevention measure should be taken in compliance with

highway grades. For higher grade highway and in full frequent mudflow areas, effectively
control and avoiding mudflow damage can not be realized if no a comprehensive treatment of
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soil, water and drainage is taken. Only highway section can not treat mudflow
comprehensively, it must be cooperated with local relative departments to coordinate, plane
and treat together.
7.4.2 Prevent and protection measures
1 Measures for bypass
Principles for building bridges and tunnels when bypassing mudflow areas; It is rather
building bridges than tunnels, rather building big space bridges than small space or
multi-tunnels, especially in cohesive mudflow and mountain mudflow areas. Space of bridge
in mudflow area should not only be decided by flow calculation, but also with comprehensive
consideration of landform conditions, river width, mudflow properties, developing intent and
rules etc.
Compared with bridges, tunnel has many disadvantages, mainly small space, lower clearance
height, long longitudinal slope for discharging flow, big resistance around and poor
discharging capacity, easy blocking and difficult to deal with emergency. On railways, the
past hazards approve that tunnel mudflow is more than in bridge; after investigation in Gansu
and Tibet, mudflow hazard is serious in tunnels, therefore tunnels should be carefully adopted
in mudflow areas.
2 Drainage measures
Drainage measures consist of drainage ditch, rushing trough and guiding flow embankment.
Designed drainage ditch is required not to block and erode when peak flow is passing by; rush
trough is used to prevent tunnel fouling and blocking in bridge tunnel; guiding flow
embankment is used to change mudflow direction and flow speed for smoothly mudflow and
guarantee subgrade safety.
7.5 Subgrade in Karstareas
7.5.1 Under action of long flow dissolving and denudation, limestone rock and other Karst
layer should introduce special landform and meterology, which is called rock dissolving.
Damages induced by Karst include: subgrade settlement and damage by ceiling rock fall;
Karst ground damages subgrade stability; subgrade settlement, rock fall or slurry rushing by
dipping of repeat spring and intermittent spring; and subgrade damaged by sudden
underground water rushing, etc. The important thing is to verify developing and allocation
rules of Karst based on geological conditions, careful design road line and location. In normal
conditions, road should be avoided passing through Karst section as possible, where is large,
unclear and serious rock dissolving. For area of medium and small or not so serious rock
dissolving, highway should choose the narrowest section to passing through and where the
easiest measures can be taken. Subgrade design in Karst area is mainly to prevent and treat of
Karst and its water, which should affect subgrade stability. The proven experiences show that
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should affect project plan scheme, delaying construction schedule, waste money and also
induce various damages and affect driving safety if there is no treatment or unsuitable
treatment of Karst.
7.5.2 It is a main task to discharge Karst water based on local favorite conditions, generally
drainage ditch, leaking tunnel are used to drainage Karst water. Blocking of Karst water may
not be adopted.
Dry dissolved cave on road cutting side slope should affect stability and road appearance.
Stone slip can be used to block cave, with dry stone slip, sand slurry on seams or grout stone
slips. Its better to use flyover method if there is a good flyover and construction condition
when road passes through dissolved cave or Karst water areas. Bridge is available to pass
througn big flow hidden river, sprung out water cave or leaking water cave etc. Tunnel is
suitable for passing through general Karst spring. Leakage rock fill embankment is available
for passing through seasonal or frequant cumulative shouldow water depression areas.
7.5.3 In accordance with treatment of ceiling plate of dissolved cave in construction of

highway and railway in China, there are two necessary factors for evaluation cave ceiling
stability; one is internal factor which includes thickness of ceiling plate, space and form, rock
properties, rock layer form, knit crack and rock physical dynamic index etc. another is
external factor includes bearing load, rock water content and affection by temperature
changing, and damage by machinery in moving water in a cave. Safety thickness of ceiling
may be evaluated by approximate calculation methods. There are many calculation methods
for evaluation. Thickness and space ratio is adopted in the Specifications in compliance with
research results by railway section and project experiences obtained in north section in
Guanzhou province of Beijing-Zhuhai highway. Other project experiences may be also
investigated during design work.
7.5.4 Nearby Karst cave should keep a certain distance to subgrade foot and if rock fall in
cave is of infundibular which has no damage to subgrade, this distance is safety distance from
the cave to subgrade. The calculation fomula in the Specifications is based on proximated
calculation of diffuse angle of rock fall in past projects as there are many affection factors.
7.6 Subgrade in soft soil areas
7.6.1 General provisions
Quality of design and construction of embankment on soft subgrade is mainly based on truth
and typicality of geology information. Information can be evaluated for reliability by
compairing and analysis of information, combining with side condition and test samples. Data
obtained from one single hole is not enough to be used for design. Typical data should be
chosen by symbolic and statistic method from same stratum and same index.
There is deviation between verification of soft soil in China standards in different sections.
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Direct shearing internal friction angle, vane shearing strength and compression index etc are
supplemented in the Specifications in compliance with Design and Construction Technical
Specification of Soft Soil Foundation Embankment of Highway (JTJ 017), reference of
national standards Rock and Soil Survey Code (GB 50021), and with combination of
project experiences in treatment of soft foundation highway in recent years.
7.6.2 Settlement calculation of foundation
The most useful current method for calculation of soft soil foundation concretion settlement is
to adopt summery of layers, with compacted test e-p curve, compact module Es or e-lgp curve,
especially there are much experiences on application of e-p curve and compression module
Es,. There are also some experiences on application of corresponding settlement ms and.
Experience formula for calculation of settlement ms is given in the Specifications with
research result of soft foundation of Bejing-Tianjing-Tangshan highway.
Application of sum value of instantaneous settlement Sd, main consolidation settlement Sc and
secondary consolidation settlement for calculation of total settlement is mainly used in
research projects in soft foundation in China. This method is also used in German Notice for
Road Construction on Soft Foundation and Japan Design Specification of High Grade
Highway, which also include some experiential formulas.
7.6.3 Check calculation of stability
Consolidation effective stress method considered soft foundation embankment, that means
embankment load is not filled to design height instantaneously, but fill in gradually according
to certain construction speed. When high embankment is built in weak strength foundation,
this method may be applied for check calculation with safety factor on concretion strength
increasing after loading in steps, in order to meet stability requirements during road filling.
Improving total strength is developed on base of =0 method, with utilization of inspection

information obtained at site (adoption of penetration resistance of static force touching test,
(single probe) or tip resistance (double probe) of conversion vane shearing resistanc strength
or direct vane test shearing resistance strength). In principle of calculation of foundation
strength by effective stress method is along with increasing concretion foundation strength,
strength increasing factor is adopted for strength increasing value during concreton process.
This method combined with static force touching survey supplies a high efficiency and
reliable method for check calculation of soft foundation embankment.
Simple Bishop Method and Janbu popular slip method are more precise calculation methods
while Janbu method is often used in stability check calculation of non-arc sliding surface.
However due to these two methods adopt effective shearing resistance strength index and a
number of work done in sampling, its difficult to apply these two methods in all work, they
can be selected to use in some key embankment in a project.
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Calculation formulas of above four methods are as follows:
1 When adopting of consolidation effective stress check calculation, a formula for

stability safety factor is as follows:
Where:
cqi,qi -Cohesion and internal friction angle monitored in fast shearing test of foundation
soil or embankment fill.
cqi -internal friction angle monitored in fast shearing test of foundation soil concretion.
Ui -Average foundation consolidation, other symbols refer to Fig. 7-1
Embankme
Foundation
Fig. 7-1 Calculation Figure for Safety Factor
2 When adopting improved total strength verification calculation method, calculation

for stability safety factor is as follows:
Where:
Sui -adoption of penetration resistance of static force touching test, (single probe) or tip
resistance (double probe) of conversion vane shearing resistance strength or direct
vane test shearing resistance strength.
mi -Increased factor of foundation soil stratum, values is taken from Table 7-1.
Other symbols have same meaning as that above mentioned.
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Table 7-1 Increased Factor of Foundation Soil Stratum
Increased factor of
Soil name Description
foundation soil stratum
In wet and shortage of oxygen, nondecomposed hydrophylous plant

body is piled and formed muddy cover, fabric status, puce to black.
Turf 0.35
Organic content is over 50%; water content 50%~2000%, void ratio
usual bigger than 5.
Most part of hydrophylous plant body decomposed, with odour

Humus
smell and black mud fine size soil. Organic content more than 50%
Organic Fine soil consists of different decomposed vegetation plants, among

0.20
soil which minerals and organic content over 25%
Clay Plastic index (76g wimble) bigger than 17. 0.25
Plastic index(76g wimble)bigger than 10, but smaller than or equal

Powder 0.30
to 17
3 When adopting Bishop Verification calculation method, calculation for stability

safety factor is as follows:
Where:
-Effective cohension and effective internal friction angle respectively obtained from
foundation soil 3-axes
bi -Horizontal width of slip, i.e. bi=Licosi
ui -Crevice water pressure on sliding surface
Meaning of other symbols is same as that before.
Because stability safety factor calculation formula has F in right end mm, iterative method is
applied in safety factor calculation.
4 When adopting Janpu popular slip verification calculation method, calculation for
stability safety factor is as follows:
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Where:
-Shearing added value on boundary of soil slip both sides, calculated by assumption
action point on s boundary on both sides of oil slip
Meaning of other symbols is same as that before.
Because stability safety factor calculation formula has F in right end mm, iterative method is
applied in safety factor calculation.
7.6.4 A great number of project experience approved that the stability safety factor has
relation with adopted calculation methods and shearing resistance strength index, that means
different design calculation methods and strength index should adopt different stability safety
factors. The stability safety allowance in this article has considered concretion factor and that
means different stability safety factors are adopted respectively in construction and service
periods. Safety factor is required to reach 1.1 during construction in Japan Code for High
Class Highway Design, and 1.25 for service period. It is recognized in the code that subgrade
in fast construction is a temporary project and damage is much possible to occur. Safety factor
1.1 is enough.
It is more safety when safety factor 1.1 is used under concretion effective method U=0 than
1.1 factor used with total stress method before. Because the friction induced due to soil slip
embankment gravity is zero when friction force is calculated for
former one; but for the latter, total gravity WII of embankment is calculated in friction force
. It can be seen here when U0, If U.W
, i.e, , the safety factor is calculated

under concretion effective method is less than that with total stress method. This is a conflict
from the concretion theory, therefore the total stress method is not forever taken as check
calculation method for soft embankment stability.
The reason applying of total stress method is mainly on experience and practice, because
drilling for sampling and test of direct shearing is a basic requirement for geology survey. For
soft foundation, turbulence during sampling, transportation and sampling opening etc should
decrease surveyed shearing resistance strength monitored indoor. This error can be
compensated if total stress method is adopted. That problem can be solved by two methods,
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one is adopting information monitored in original site and another is adopting effective
shearing resistance index and that is why the four calculation methods are used.
Allowed control standard of settlement after road service specified in Design and
Construction Technical Specification of Soft Soil Foundation Embankment of Highway (JTJ
017) is suitable after construction of expressway in past more 10 years. This standard is
adopted in the Specifications.
7.6.5 Reinforcement measures for foundation
2 Light embankment
Average weight density of flyash embankment is 15.6kN/m3, which can decrease settlement
of foundation comparing with normal fill embankment. ESP is an abbreviation of expand
polystyrene, means foam polystyrene. Its density and block size can be produced according to
requirement, and 0.2kN/m3 is usually used in embankment project. It is more effective to
reduce settlement of embankment comparing with flyash but with high cost and difficult to
use widely. It is generally used in structure itself. Because EPS density is smaller than water,
float resistance stability of embankment should be considered when embankment is possible
to be soaked in water. If it can not be satisfied with the requirement, laying out EPS thickness
should be changed with increasing fill weight or adopting drainage measures.
3 Reinforced embankment
Reingforced embankment on soft foundation is not reinforced soil project. Layer of designed
soil grids, soil cloth (reinforced soil cloth) and reinforced plastic grids should not be more
than 4, otherwise foundation measure should be taken for guarantee stability. It is not suitable
to adopt reinforced material when pulling resistance strength is less than 50kN/m, because of
less function for increasing stability. 10% extension ratio may be taken as a control standard
for design pulling resistance strength when selection of reinforced material. Bigger extension
ratio is not suitable for reinforced material of embankment.
5 Consolidation method of drainage
Consolidation method of drainage is an approved and economical measure in soft foundation

treatment, very popular used. It consists of prestress of sand padding, plastic drainage plate or
prestress sand bag, vacuum combination piling prestress, and is very used with light
embankment, reinforced embankment, reverse protection path.
During design calculation, maximum length of drainage plate should be assumed, and real
value should be decided with calculation result. When the length of drainage plate is close to
permeable layer below, the length should be taken as it can reach to the permeable layer for
make full use of its function. When sand bag is used, the length should not be too long in
order for convenience construction and guarantee project quality; if a longer sand bag is
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required after calculation, plastic drainage plate or similar compound drainage plate may be
adopted.
Foundation treatment with vertical drainage body should decrease the strength after
turbulence of foundation soil, which is not considered during design calculation. Therefore
required prestressed period for 6 months is to avoid decreasing of efficiency after treatment
due to difference between calculation condition and real condition.
Vacuum prestress method is to layout plastic or metal air extraction pipings in sand padding
layer in soft foundation surface. Negative pressure should be formed in sand padding layer
and foundation through air extraction from piping by vacuum pump, which can speed
concretion by combined actions of negative pressure and embankment load. Penetration factor
is generally required as 10-5~10-6cm/s when consolidation of soft soil layer. However when
the consolidate area is air leakage or water leakage (in horizontal sand layer), and permeable
factor can not meet the required conditions, cohensive soil pile may be used to isolate
consolidation area or jet pump quality or power should be increased. For example, vacuum
combination piling load prestress method is used for treatment of 57248 m2 soft foundation in
deep water port container piling area in Shantou in 1994-1995, as there is 4-12.5m fine and
course sand in foundation upper layer, 1.2m cohesive soil seal wall is applied and the vacuum
negative pressure reaches to 80kPa after air extraction for two weeks. The maximum depth of
plastic drainage plate is buried in 25m in this project. There is local horizontal sand layer,
scree mixed in base subclay in cross flyover ramp soft soil foundation in Funing expressway,
scree subclay permeable factor is 2.510-4cm/s after site water filling, but vacuum can keep
in 70kPa after increasing jet punp quantity, a good consolidation of foundation result has been
got.
No matter vacuum is big or small, it should have effective to foundation consolidation, but if
it is too low, the prestress economy should be poor. Vacuum is generally required in 70-90kPa
under seal film.
Claculation method of vacuum combined piling load prestress foundation settlement is as

same as that for piling prestress load foundation settlement, and difference is only that
prestress load adopt vacuum and embankment fill load. Vaccum prestress should introduce a
pressure forward to negative pressure along horizontal direction, makes peripheral soil body
move to prestressed area and introduce same direction consolidation with shrinking
deformation but without shearing deformation, therefore vacuum combined piling prestress
may counteract soil side extruding deformation under load prestress, which is favorable to
foundation stability and without losing foundation stability.
6 Gravel piling
Consolidation of soft foundation with gravel piling has function of replacement, drainage
concretion and stress centralization etc.
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Foundation in gravel length belongs to compound foundation, of which the basic assumption
of its theory is coordination deformation of pile and soil, generally no consideration of pile
negative friction force and group pile effect problem in design.
Gravel piling bearing capacity not only has relation with pile materials and pile density, but
also with side limitation capacity of soil around. When the soil strength consolidated is too
low, gravel pile can not be formed. There are different definitions about solid strength for pile
formation for vibration replacement crushed stone pile. It is specified in Technical
Specifications of Building Foundation Treatment (JTJ 79), that shearing resistance strength
without water drainage in soil should be not less than 20kPa. The research results approved in
China that shearing resistance strength without water drainage of foundation soil a little less
than 20kPa may use vibration replacement for pile formation. There are many successful
projects with application of big diameter course gravel measures etc in Guangdong and Fujian
provinces. It is not difficult to use vibration replacement method in foundation with shearing
resistance strength soil without drainage above 15kPa.
It is difficult to use sedment piping in lower strength soft foundation because big turbulence
should occur during construction and no effective measures to protect wall. Sedmet piping is
generally used in a low sensitive clay without collapse and shearing resistance strength
30~60kPa with no water dradinage. Some people think it is not used when vane shearing
resistance strength is less than 20kPa.
Gravel piling should disturb soil body during construction. The general idea is that soil body
strength may decrease 10-40%, and strength can be recovered in 20-30d; but with sedment
piping construction method, mud strength can be recovered after 30d, which should be
considered in check of foundation strength.
For design data, based on Japan information: internal friction angle of sand pile 25, internal
friction angle of crushed stone pile 35, pile soil stress ratio should take 3. In some domestic
experial formulas for calculation of crushed stone, most internal friction of crushed angle pile
adopts 35~4, stress ratio between gravel pile and soil around n is changed with different soil,
depth, or loads, action time. But most information recognize that n=2~5 is suitable.
7 Consolidated soil pile
Consolidaition soil pile refers to pulling limestone, cement or other materials which can
consolidate soil by a special machine to foundation deep bottom, mixing those and soil for
forming high strength vertical consolidation pile. It may be divided as dry (powder) mixing
pile and wet (slurry) mixing pile.
It is specified in Technical Specifications of Building Foundation Treatment (JTJ 79), deep

layer mixing method is only suitable to the clay foundation with bearing capacity standard
value no bigger than 120kPa. According to J.B Hansens ultimate bearing formula
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, use safety factor 2 and then allowance bearing capacity is

obtained. Based on that, the calculated shearing resistance strength without drainage
foundation should not be bigger than 47kPa. In compliance with Technical Specification of
Powder Spaying Mixing Consolidation of Soft Soil Stratum (TB 10114) issued by Ministry of
Railway, it is suitable to adopt the dry (powder) mixing pile when natural water content in
consolidated soil is 30%~70%, and pH4.
From experience of highway soft foundation treatment, strength of soft foundation with
consolidation of cement mixture is much low. It is useless to control strength with ulmost
value, but it should be controlled with the lowest strength. The strength in most current
projects is controlled with water content. It is easy to form a pile with water content
30%~60% when wet (slurry) method is used; it can also form a plie when natural wate
content is 70%~80% if dry (powder) mixture pile method is used such as in expressways in
Lanxu, Funing and Huaiyin-Jiangdu. Piles have high quality when 75~80kg/m powder
spraying full mixing pile in muddy with water content 70%~80% (some even reach to 85%).
Shearing resistance vane strength is about 6~13kPa in mud with water content 70%~80%.
Therefore it is suitable to specify vane strength not less than 10kPa for reinforcement soil pile
used in soft soil.
Reinforcement soil strength adopts 28d strength in Design and Construction Technical
Specification of Soft Soil Foundation Embankment of Highway (JTJ 017), which is mainly
considered with cooperation of obtained strength time and project schedule, but full role of
reinforcement soil strength is at the design height of fills. There is no load of piling after 28
days; therefore it is not suitable to choose 28d strength as a base. It takes 90d strength as a
standard strength in Technical Specifications of Building Foundation Treatment (JTJ 79) and
Technical Specification of Powder Spaying Mixing Consolidation of Soft Soil Stratum (TB
10114). From construction schedule of current highways, embankment can be filled at about
3m height after piling 90 days, this strength is not so big and more safety for stability
calculation. In Foundation Specification of Port Project (JTJ 250), it is suitable to specifiy that
cement strength standard value in laboratory should take pressure strength without side
limitation of 90d. However by Tianjin Port Engineering Research Institute, the design load
can not be full reached after 4 months of mixing pile, therefore it is suggested to use 120d
strength in replace of 90d for saving capital cost of the project. It sounds reasonable to
consider piling time and project schedule together in deciding the strength.
Its difficult to test indoor and monitor at site if 90d strength taken as a standard strength. One
solving method is assuming 90d strength (refer to empirical formula in Table 7-2) based on
short age strength (7d, 28d) test, monitored data and in compliance with strength increasing
rules. The second method is adopting high temperature and fast curing and makes sample
reach to standard curing 90d strength in a short time. According to research results by No.1
Highway Survey and Design Research Institute when they modified Design and
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Construction Technical Specification of Soft Soil Foundation Embankment of Highway (JTJ

017), Strength obtained under high temperature fast curing in 30h equals to the strength under
standard curing for 28d; and 96h equals 90d. For comparing strengths indoor test and site test
(press strength without side limitation). Tianjin Port Engineering Research Institute conducted
the comparison on projects of Tangu Nanjiang, Dongtu Yard, and Yantai Pork, and got results
as: under cement misture of 180kg/n^, site strength is basically higher than indoor strength
(28d, 60d and 90d); indoor strength/ site strength are in three project respectively
0.71~0.93,1.84~2.17,1.30~1.46. It should be noticed that Japanese multi-heads CDM boat is
used cement mixing pile in Dontu project and CDM boat used for Yantai project, which is
manufactured by No.1 Voyage Burea (with introduced technology from Japan). Therefore
construction machinery and technology have important affection on piling quality.
Table 7-2 Relation Formula Comparison of Cement Mixture Strength and Curing
Age in Different Areas
ASSUMPTION strengthnth
1.0Mpa,in28d
Area of information Calculation

Relation formula Calculation by Remarks
resource by relation
relation
formula
formula(Mpa)
(Mpa)
Tianjin, Fujian, qu7,qu28,qu90

Lianyungang, No.1 refers to
qu28=2.37qu7-0.19(r=0.87,n=12)
Highway Survey and 0.50 1.99 7d,28d
qu90=1.14qu28+0.85(r=0.79,n=15)
Design Research
and 90d free
Institute
sidelimitation
Powder spraying strength
consolidation of soft respectively
foundation qu28=1.49qu7;qu90=1.97qu7; r,S,n refer to
0.67 1.33
Soil Stratum qu90=1.33qu28 corresponding
Specification factors,
(TB10113-96) standard
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ASSUMPTION strengthnth
1.0Mpa,in28d
Area of information Calculation

Relation formula Calculation by Remarks
resource by relation
relation
formula
formula(Mpa)
(Mpa)
differences and
statistical
Tianjin groups
Slush:qu7=0.364qu90
Tianjin Port Engineering respectivly.
qu28=0.652qu90 0.56 1.54
Research Institute
Mucky clay:qu7=0.262qu90 0.54 2.06
Cement Feature
qu28=0.485qu90
Verification Research
Shanghai
qu7=0.56qu28(r=0.98,S=0.059,n=15)
Foundation Treatment 0.56 1.63
qu90=1.63qu28(r=0.98,S=0.143,n=9)
by Ye Shulin
According to domestic general construction level, it is considered that conditions for indoor
test mixture and curing are better than site and therefore the strength of indoor test
consolidated soil is higher than site. It should be discounted when the indoor strength is used
at site. Pressure strength without side limitation is discounted by 0.35~0.50, specified in
Technical Specifications of Building Foundation Treatment (JTJ 79). If it is calculated in
compliance with this principle, the maximum shearing strength of consolidated pile is only
0.25 times of pressure strength without side limitation. It is increased to 0.3 of shearing
strength in the Specifications.
Test of pressure module is more complex than pressure strength without side limitation;
therefore pressure module of cement consolidation soil pile can be calculated with experical
formula of pressure strength without side limitation. However there is a great difference
between empirical formula such as (For cubical sample) and
Ep=(25~50)qu etc. In addition, results of pressure strength without side limitation are different
if test conducted on cubical and cylindercal samples respectively. Strength of latter is smaller
than former one. According to research results by No.1 Highway Survey and Design Research
Institute, it is suitable to adopt circle test module for indoor cement
consolidation soil mixture ratio. Relation of pressure strength without side limitation under
the circle test module and distortion module is ; it should be converted to
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circle test module and pressure strength without side limitation by

70.770.770.7mm square test module; Strength of circle test module equals to 0.87 of the
strength of square test module.
Although consolidation soil pile includes pile with consolidation limestone in design
calculation of projects, it is seldom to use limestone as consolidation agent in expressway soft
foundation. Regulations in the specification can not be used for limestone mixture pile, it
should be studied and tested specially when limestone pile is used.
8 Forced ram
Forced ram of foundation was initiated by Lousi Menard Technique in 1969 and it was first
time used only for consolidation of sand soil and crushed stone soil foundation and developed
to consolidation of fine soil foundation. It was transferred to China in 1978 and experiences of
projects approved successful results when forced ram method is used in crushed stone soil,
sand soil, low satuarated powder soil and clay, collapse loess, various fills, and fills without
reinforcement etc foundations. For saturated soft clay foundation result by forced ram, there
are two kinds of views, one is conversional consolidation theory, which considers that forced
ram is not suitable for soft soil foundation, and second considers that it is possible to to use
forced ram on soft soil foundation. Soft construction is broken under ram of heavy hammer
and longitudinal craks occur around rammed point, which forms permeable pass of crack
water and creates conditions for dispatching of super static water pressure. A great ram force
turns to soil shrinking deformation instantly and soil mass strength increases along with
cumulative energy of ram. If soil stratum has powder fine sand layer, increasing horizontal
permeable capacity should get obvious effect of consolidation. In recent years, filling block
stone, crushed stone and other course materials to rammed pit for forced ram replacement
obtaines good results and there are many examples in China.
Combined with experiences at home and abroad, it is regulated in the specifications, that
forced ram can be used for replacement in saturated soft clay foundation where there are
multi-powder and sand layers or filled with block stone, crushed gravel, screes etc. But it
should be used carefully; design reasonability must be verified through ram test.
Effective consolidation depth of forced ram can be calculated with Menard empirical formula,
but there is a difference between calculation result and actual condition. Therefore some
researcher suggested the effective consolidation depth may be corrected with correct factor.
The factor has relations with soil condition, underground water level, ram energy, bottom area
of hammer etc. The correct factors are different but 0.34~0.80 is recognized by the most. The
effective consolidation depth in Technical Specifications of Building Foundation Treatment
(JTJ 79) may be referred, see Table 7-3.
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Effective Consolidation Depth by Forced Ram
Single Single
ram Crushed soil, Powder soil, clay, ram Crushed soil, Powder soil, clay,
energy sand soil collapse loess etc. energy sand soil collapse loess etc.
(kNm) (kNm)
1000 5.0~6.0 4.0~5.0 4000 8.0~9.0 7.0~8.0
2000 6.0~7.0 5.0~6.0 5000 9.0~9.5 8.0~8.5
3000 7.0~8.0 6.0~7.0 6000 9.5~10.0 8.5~9.5
Notice: Effective consolidation depth is based on rammed ground surface.
Ram energy (total ram energy on unit area) has relations with single ram energy, ram times,
and space between ram points. Same unit ram energy can be got through different
combinations of single ram energy, ram times and space between ram points. In other words,
different treatment effects may be got under same unit ram energy, for example depth by
decreasing single ram energy but increasing ram times can not reach the depth by increasing
single ram energy but decreasing ram times. Therefore unit ram energy is not suitable to be a
design index.
When deciding of optimization ram energy (ram times at ram point) through test ram, ram
times can be evaluated through crack water changing by buried crack water meter for suitable
ram times. When crack water pressure is nearly same in last twice or three times of ram, that
means receiving capacity of soil mass is saturated, which is optimized ram energy. The
optimized ram energy can also be obtained through curve of ram times and rammed ground
settlement, because ram pit becomes deeper along with increasing of ram times and pit depth
difference by adjacent twice rams is little and when value difference reaches a certain value
(50~100mm is popularly recognized at present), utmost status of receiving capability of soil
mass is reached.
It is not simpler to monitor crack water than to monitor ram settlement, therefore relation
curve of ram times and ram settlement is used to verify optimized ram energy. Experience
engineer can evaluate optimized ram energy directly by surface upheaving around ram point.
Space between ram points should not be so small in order to disappear super static crack water.
When foundation is rammed, radiation crack should occur around ram pit, which is a pass to
disappear crack water. If the space is so small, these cracks should be closed again, which is
not favorate to disappear crack water. At same time, smaller space should make upper layer
form density layer after overlap of adjacent effective in shouldow layers, which affects energy
transferring to deep layer. Smaller space should also cause upper soil extruding to adjacent
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ram pit, leading to collapse, inclining ram hammer and affecting ram effect. The practical
space is 3.5~4.9m (square layout)after completing of main and auxiliary ramming with
orginal space 5~7m. If two times of hammer diameter is considered as plan effective
consolidation area, normal ram effective consolidation area may be connected or overlapped.
Super crack water disappearing time should be reserved between twice rams on whole ground.
Reversed time can be decided through monitoring crack water pressure in test ram. If it is lack
of monitored information, 3-7 days may be considered (under conditions of replacement in
saturated soft clay foundation where there are multi-powder and sand layers or filled with
block stone, crushed gravel, screes etc.)
7.6.6 Embankment section design
Due settlement of foundation, section form of embankment should change, including concave
of embankment top, shirinkage of top and bottom width, and slow of side slope etc. But the
research results show it is little of shrinkage of embankment top due to settlement, no
additional width of embankment top is considered, but with consideration of additional width
of embankment bottom. Refer to Fig. 7-2 for calculation mode.
Fig.7-2 Calculation Mode for Additional Width of Embankment
This mode is a preciser calculation mode considered with foundation settlement, side slope
change and top deformation. According to this mode, embankment top becomes arc surface
after settlement of embankment, of which settlement at center is big and settlement of
shoulder is small. Flexibility of arc line is S0-S1. With assumption of non-extension of soil
mass, horizontal width must be less after horizontal width B changes to arc line. If the
horizontal width is required to keep unchanged, the arc line should be 2Ub+B in length. Its
not difficult to get arc length in integral method after parabola line replacing of arc line after
deformation.
Where: a=B/2;b=S0-S1
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Assumtion of several settlement S0, its easy to calculate supplement width b. For example
when B=24.5m,Sl/S0=0.7, S0=2m, the supplement width should be b=19.5mm. It means its
unnecessary to consider this width. In fact it is recognized with monitored result in test project,
there is little space change between embankment center and shoulder in pre-stress process.
From Fig. 7-2, slide slope foot ground is settled in S2 due to settlement, which makes slope
foot shrink d, d=S2m. When m=1.5,S2=0.2m, then d=0.3m, this width should be
considered.
Based on Fig. 7-2, its easy to get side slope relative formula before and after settlement.
7.6.7 Monitoring design of settlement and side displacement (stable)
Stability and settlement is an outstanding problem in building of road on soft foundation.

Dynamic change of subgrade must be monitored during construction. Dynamic monitoring
items, except required in design, should be decided in compliance with importance of project,
and foundation properties, and affection degree on construction by monitoring. Design speed
and pavement level is required high in expressway, highway class I and II, therefore
settlement and stability must be monitored during construction. This monitoring can
guarantee safety and stability of embankment during construction and also predict settlement
after project completing and make the settlement scope in design control.
There are many monitoring methods for soft foundation deformations, of which horizontal
deformation can be monitored with displacement monitor, side displacement pile, or incline
monitor etc; properties of incline monitor are to monitor deformations at different depths,
which is favorable to study deformation at different stratums. Foundation sliding trend and
and sliding surface locations can be seen directly with protracted monitoring curves.
Therefore high embankment on deep soft foundation monitored by incline monitor is more
effective, but cost is also much higher than side displacement pile. It is not recommended
widely.
Settlement monitoring should use S1 and S3 water level, S1 is used in project class 2
monitoring of work pile or check pile elevation and S3 for class 3 for monitoring settlement
during filling.
7.6.8 Soft foundation test project is used for checking design and guiding of construction.
Test project is suitable to be conducted before building of expressway, class 1 highway and 2
on soft foundations in order to guarantee project quality. As the test project is initial has
project and a function of guiding, the test results must be got before full project starting.
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New technology, new materials, new transferred and promoted technique used and difficult
problems met in the project should be studied and researched.
Location of the test project on soft foundation should be selected in the area which has less
affection on test, or convenient construction, smaller longitudinal slope or straight road
selected as possible, but it should be located in a section with worse engineering geology.
With consideration of embankment width, length of the test project road should be at least
twice of embankment bottom width.
7.6.9 Time for paving
Settlement after coompleting of road construction or settlement ratio at any time can be
calculated through monitored settlement curves. Settlement after service is an important
design index definated in article 7.6.4 of the Specifications, but settlement ratio is not design
index which has no corresponding relation with settlement after construction. It is very
popular to take settlement ratio as a settlement stable control standard in building of
expressway in soft foundation in China, which is approved effective. For example, prestressed
soil was moved in Jingjintang expressway when settlement ratio reached to 8mm/month,
pavement starts; Settlement for Funing expressway is definated as 5mm/month; road slot top
is taken as calculation height in Huning expressway, and when settlement ratio reaches to
5mm/month, remove prestressed soil and take it as bottom and base layers, then continuously
prestress on base, pavement starts till settlement reaches to 3mm/month.
7.7 Subgrade in lateriteand high-liquid Limit Soil area
7.7.1 Laterite refers to brown-red and brown-yelow high plastic clay, which is a rock fater
explosion of carbonate and laterization, with normal liquid limitation bigger than 50%. It is
called secondary laterite which remains basic feature of laterite after removing and with liquid
limitation bigger than 45%.
Laterite is mainly allocated in southwest, central China and east China, the most and typical
areas are in Guizhou, Yunnan and Guanxi etc. It is also allocated in Anhui, Chongqing, Yuebei,
Exi and Xiangxi. It is normally located on hillside, piedmont, basin and billabong. It is a
local special soil of slop cumulative and eluvium types. Physical characteristic index of
laterite is referred to Table 7-4:
Table 7-4 Physical Characteristic Index of Laterite
Water Liquade Water Pressure Free

Crack Plastic Saturation Permeablefact
content limitation content index expanding
ratio limitation% % -1
cm/sec
% % ratio MPa ratio (%)
20~75 0.7~2.1 40~110 20~60 80~100 0.5~0.75 0.1~0.4 i10-8 25~69
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From the above table, it can be seen that laterite has high natural water content, crack ratio
and liquid limitation, but with higher mechanical strength and lower pressure index, lower
expanding trend, free load expanding ration less than 20%; expanding pressure less than
30kPa; the lowest expanding; line shrinkage ratio 1%~10%; mass shrinkage 5%~28%,
shrinkage factor 0.1~0.8 at weak and medium shrinkage properties.
Laterite stratum changes from hard to soft from surface to deep, denseness of soil mass
changes from hard, plastic hard to plastic soft and plastic flow; water content, crack ratio and
water content ratio increases along with the depth while soil strength decreases and shrinkage
feature increases in steps.
Cracks in laterite is developed quickly and it is dry formed during interval wet and hot climate
conditions. Most cracks are vertical chap type on ground surface and become close net type in
depth with smooth on crack surface. Strong shrinkage lateritehas big crack in scruded,
sunlight and less vegetation, long extending, with normal depth of 3-4m some even reaches
more than 10m. Crack damages soil mass integrity, decrease soil strength, increase soil water
permeability, form soil mass soft structure surface which are reverse factors of soil stability. ,
Soil with liquid limitation w1 higher than 50% is called high-liquid Limit Soil. Its formation is
complex and mainly with characteristics mother rock, and is distinguished from laterite on
engineering properties, but similar with the laterite in general so that the design principles for
laterite can be refered during design.
7.7.2 Laterite and other high-liquid Limit Soil with CBR less than 3 have a worse water
stability, which can not be filled for subgrade directly. Two problems should be resolved when
laterite and other high-liquid Limit Soil used for filling subgrade, one is improving subgrade
soil feadture and control compacting and second is islation of water affection to subgrade soil
for guarantee subgrade stability.
Water content should be decreased from laterite and other high-liquid limit soil because of
natural high water content in them, by drying in sun or other measures for meeting
requiremtns of subgrade compact. When natural denseness is in 1.05~1.3, use wet heavy
compact test and when denseness is bigger than 1.3 use dry heavy compact test.
Laterite and other high liquid limit soil is a special fill material, but with poor compaction and
big compress property after compact, bigger deformation of subgrade after pressure, longer
time required till road complete stability and so that it is limitted to use. Stressed class and
usage of soil may be decided according to stress test. Low stressed soil with
factor may be used for filling embankment with height lower than 15m;
medium stressed soil with factor used for filling embankment with
height lower than 6m; high stressed soil with factor should be used after
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further evaluation of embankment pressure deformation.
7.7.3 The main problem of excavation of laterite subgrade is side slope stability of road
cutting. For evaluation and verification of calculation data in laterite especially for side slope
stability of road cutting in class 1 laterite with rehydration properties, engineering feature of
laterite and worse affection of soil quality change caused by excavated soil suface cracks and
rehydration soaked. It is suitable to conduct saturated shearing test and repeat slow shearing
test strength index etc.
Stability losing in excavation of laterite side slope is mainly caused by water. So that it should
be strengthened to the design of comprehensive discharge system on subgrade, and discharge
leakage ditch in longitudinal and horizontal should be arranged below side slope. For central
flow from side slope, advancing to rise discharge hole should be provided; for no obvious
water coming from side slpe but rich wate content in soil, side slope crushed stone or free
sand big hole concrete leakage ditches should be provided and connected with discharge
leakage ditch forming a comprehensive discharge system.
Stability losing in excavation of laterite side slope begins from softing of side slope foot soil.
Pay attention to stability of side slope foot; obey a principle of strength upper part based on
consolidation of bottom. Suppot project (slide retain wall, prestressed anchor and sliding pile
etc) should be constructed in foot of road cuttings. For full enclosed mortary protection
(protection wall, sliding wall), 0.15~0.30mm thick discharge padding should be provided on
back side of the wall.
7.8 Subgrade of expansion soil area
7.8.1 Expansion soil is a clay with bsic mines of Montmorillonite, grundite or grundite
-Montmorilinite, expanded after absorbing water and shrinking after water losing, one special
clay with expanding structure of expanding and shrinkage feature.
There is no unified standard evaluation for expansion soil at home and abroad. According to
project experiences and engineering geology properties, clay with free expansion ratio more
than 40% and liquid limit bigger than 40% may be primarily evaluated as expansion soil, but
this is not sole standard. The final and valuable decision is based on total expansion ratio,
expansion cycle deformation feature and combination with other index.
1) Table 7-5 Geological classification of expansion soil in original code JTJ013-95
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Table 7-5 Geological Classification of Expansion Soil
Free Total
Geological feature Main miners >0.002 clay
Classification expansion expansion-shinkage
at site content content(%)
ratio (%) ratio (%)
Hoar, celadon, fine

clay with strong
smooth and
developed net Montmorillonite,
High >50 >90 >4
cracks, cere suface, Yilimorillonite
easily weathering to
fine size in squama
form.
Mainly brown, red,

and gray, alittle
powder sand in clay,
developed net Montmorillonite,
Mediaum 35~50 65~90 2~4
cracks, cere surface, Yilimorillonite
crushed size,
contain calcrete.
Mainly filemot,
much powder sand
in clay, smooth,
developed crack,
Montmorillonite,
Lower Yilimorillonite,ka <35 40~65 0.7~2.0
crushed size,
olinite
contain more
calcrete and
iron-manganese
concretion
Note: Total expansion-shinkage ratio refers to total value of expansion and shrinkage under soil pressure of
50Kpa.
2) Classification standard Table 7-6, 7-7 in Survey Code of Railway Project Special
Rock (TB 10035)
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Table 7-6 Evaluatin Index of Ezpansion Soil
Name Evaluation index
Free swelling rate (%) Fs40
Montmorillonite content M(96) M7
Cation exchange CEC(NH+4) (mmol/kg) CEC(NH+4)170
Table 7-7 Classificatin of Expansion Soil Latent Trend
Classification index Lower Medium High
Free swelling rate (%) 40Fs<60 60Fs<90 Fs90
Montmorillonite content
7M<17 17M<27 M27
M(96)
Cation exchange CEC(NH+4)

170CEC(NH+4)<260 260CEC(NH+4)<360 CEC(NH+4)360
(mmol/kg)
3) Expansion soil trend is classified with free expansion ratio in Building Technical
Specifications for Expansion Soil Area (GBJ 112). The current free expansion evaluation
index is obtained from the test with standard volume 10cm3 soil sample of natural dry soil
after rolled and sieved, and then dried in 105-110 till constant weight, and cooled in dryer.
Beacause there are many artificial factors during test, such as 10cm3 Yanggao sample with
1-2m size is about 5g, while kaolinite sample is about 4g. That means denseness of soil
samples y taken by standard graduate is quite different. It is always quarreled about the
reliability of the index and its degree reflecting of expansion soil feature. Some people
thought that the test method makes binding force between gravel lose and make full play of
expansion role, therefore the test result can not reflect real latent trend of expansion soil.
4) Accordign to above mentioned, its too difficult to definite expansion soil

classification as its more complex. If Montmorillonite and action exchange is taken as
verification index, monitoring and test is difficult. Ministry of Communications researched
specially in one scientific and research project in order to resolve a key problem in subgrade
construction in expansion soil area. No.2 Highway Survey and Design Research Institute put
forward primarily judgment and classification method of absorbing water content and plastic
index through its research in highway survey technical study, comparing of advantages and
weakness of judgment and classification, and research expansion soil geology and internal
relations in China. The standard can be referred to.
Physical meaning of standard absorbing water content: water content after expansion soil
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reaching to constant weight under standard temperature (25C) and relative humidity (60%).
Linearity relation is existed among standard water absorbing content and surface area, action
exchange quantity, Montmorillonite content.
Relative formula between standard water absorbing content and specific surface area:
Relative formula between standard water absorbing content and action exchange quantity:
Relative formula between standard water absorbing content and Montmorillonite content:
Detailed judgment and evaluation of expansion soil should be based on three indices: free
swelling rate; standard absorbing water content and plastic index. See Tables 7-8 and 7-9
Table 7-8 Evaluating Index of Expansion Soil
Name Evaluation index
Free swelling rate Fs(%) Fs40
Max. absorbing water content (%) M2.5
Plastic index 15
Note: it can be judged as expansion soil if two index in table are satisfied.
Table 7-9 Classificatin of Expansion Soil Latent Trend
Nonexpansion soil Lower Medium High
Free swelling rate Fs(%) Fs<40 40Fs<60 60Fs<90 Fs90
Max. absorbing water content

f<2.5 2.5f<4.8 4.8f<6.8 f6.8
(%)
Plastic index Ip<15 15Ip<28 28Ip<40 Ip40
Note: Nonexpansion soil refers to soil which does not reach definite expansion soil degree.
In addition to physical feature of normal clay, the important geology of expansion soil are
more cracks, super consolidation, high expansion and shrinkage, strong attenuation, fast
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collapse and belt weathering, which reflect special rules of expansion soil from differenct
viewpoints. Therefore changing of environment, hydrology and geology conditions must
specially be considered in design of expansion soil subgrade in addition to soil itself
properties for avoiding any damages to subgrades.
If a large amount of excavation work is for expansion soil subgrade, it is difficult to guarantee
stability of subgrade. If any damages occur, its difficult to treat and costs great. A proper
scheme should be adopted during design comparing with bridge and tunnel schemes.
7.8.2 In consideration of fills with expansion soil for subgrade, there is a great difference
of density between compacted expansion soil and natural expansion soil, the former is 5-8
times bigger than latter, some even 20 or 30 times bigger. The more density of fills the less
water content is in soil, and after its soaked, the expansion quantity and force are bigger.
Under same compact water content, the more density, the bigger expansion quantity and force
are. Expansion soil has higher primary structure strength during original status and its
difficult to compact. Its strength decreases greatly after imerging and expansion. Therefore
strong expansion soil should not be taken as fill. Should the high expansion soil be taken as
fill, special research and evaluation should be conducted. If medium expansion soil is taken as
subgrade fill, different treatment methods should be adopted in accordance with highway
classes, soil expansion properties, fill layer, pavement types etc.
The most effective method for changing expansion soil feature is mixing limestone, which is
verified in projects in different places. Under normal conditions, mixed lime is suitable to be
controlled within 4%~10%. The most optimization mixing ratio is that expansion and
shrinkage ratio is not over 0.7. That is a controlled index below weaken expansion soil and
can be taken as nonexpansion soil.
Affection degree on expansion soil by atmosphere can be calculated, on base on Building

Technical Specifications for Expansion Soil Area (GBJ 112), with geeting humidity factor of
expansion soil first and then with soil water content and statistic climate information at local
above 10 years. If there is no such information, the following formula may be used:
Where:
-Humidity factor of expansion soil. Under natural climate affection, soil water
content 1m underground is possible to reach the ratio of its minimum value and
plastic limit value:
a -Ratio of total vaporation from Sep. to next Feb. and whole year vaporation.
c -Sum of differnece between vaporation in months of which dryness is bigger than

1.00 and precipitation in those months.
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Affection degree by atmosphere should be decided by deformation monitoring in deep

stratum, or water content monitoring and ground temperature monitoring at each climate area.
If there is no such information, Table 7-10 should be used.
Table 7-10 Affection Degree by Atmosphere(m)
Affection degree by Soil humididty factor: Affection degree by

Soil humidity factor: w
atmosphere: da w atmosphere: da
0.6 5.0 0.8 3.5
0.7 4.0 0.9 3.0
7.8.3 Design of expansion side slope cutting is more complex with engineering geology.
Based on the current investigation results, slope ratio is usual 1:2-1:3, but its not stable
especially when there is soft interlayers even with slope 1:5~1:8. Slope ratio is not only factor
for guarantee of side slope stability, that means conversional soil mechanical analysis can not
resolve side slope stability of expansion soil cutting properly.
There are many types of damages of expansion soil cutting. In view of damage depth, there
are two kinds of damages, one is shallow damage and another depth damage. Shallow damage
refers to damage in stratum affected by atmosphere, and damage beyond this stratum called
depth damage. Two kinds of damages should be treated respectively when consideration of
side slope stability.
Due to shallow damages caused by atmosphere change, weathering degree, cracks

development degree etc. its shearing strength is obviously much lower than deep strength. For
stability of integrated side slope (including shallow and deep), it is only considered with
shallow soil characteristics if without consideration of side slope protection and reinforcement;
when with reinforcement of side slope protection, the shallow engineering geology is resolved
basically and side slope is only considered with deep stratum strength. Therefore the design of
side slope of expansion soil cutting should consider with water proof, water drainage, wet
remaining and weathering resistance etc, and in combination with protection, support and
decreasing excavation surface and other comprehensive treatment measures. It is emphasized
in the Specificationss, that side slope should be protected and covered no sooner after
excavation for prevent shallow stratum from damage.
Deeper excavation and backfill method is adopted for roadbase excavation in expansion soil
area at present. The specification regulates that deeper excavation and fill is 0.8m with
consideration of subgrade & pavement comprehensive design and dynamic load of heavy
vehicle. For cuttings with high expansion soil, underground water developing, and service
road which are difficult to be treated, depth of roadbase deeper excavation and fill is suitable
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to increase to 1.0~1.5m, and take underground water drainage measures.
Protection of expansion soil cutting side slope is used for prevent side slope deformation from
changing of water content, it is also a treatment for damaged side slope. Reinforcement
measures in Table 7.8. 3-2 is approved experience for treating road damages in recent years
and be reference for design. Selection of side slope protection measures should be based on
expansion soil engineering characteristics, necessary conditions of side slope stability and
satisfying the protection principles as follows:
(1) Keep relative stability of side slope natural water content status; prevent surface
water and underground water from leakage to cutting side slope.
(2) Retain relative integrity of side slope soil mass, prevent soil weathering;
(3) Keep adequate shearing strength of side slope soil mass and prevent soil strength
from attenuation;
(4) If there is expansion soil interlayer in side slope, sliding should be prevented;
(5) Protect engineering should accommodate itself to possible expansion deformation

and prevent damages from changing expansion forces.
7.9 Subgrade in loess areas
7.9.1 Loess is mainly of powder, multicracks, little natural water content, yellow-red and
calcium clay. Loess area accounts for 6% in China, and most allocated in north altitude
34~41 mainland dry and semisry areas. The loess area is at middle reaches of Yellow rive in
noth of Qinling mountain, south of the Great Wall, west of Taihang mountain, east of Riyue
mountain, and the most typical loess plateau is at Nothen Shaanxi, Ningxia, Westen Henan,
East and middle Gansu, which is allocated continuously, thicker and cumulated by wind.
Loess collapsibility is a collapse deformation caused by outer load or self weight after
imerging. The collapsibility should be decreased along with increasing of depth, water content,
and dry unit weight or decreasing of porosity. When depth is bigger than 10m, dry unit weitht
bigger than 15kN/m3 and porosity ratio is smaller than 0.8, loess collapsibility trends to
disappearance. Old loess has no collapsibility while new loess has wet or strong collapsibility.
Normal slope, flood and new cumulative loess have wet collapsibility, and wet collapsibility
of slope and wind cumulative loess is bigger than alluvium and flood cumulative loess.
Noncollapsibility or collapsibility of loess, self weight of nonself weight, and collapsibility
degree can be distinguished by pressure tests.
Drainage and protection design in loess areas should take flooding, leakage proof and
favorable to water and soil conservation, environment friendly protection as a target. Prevent
earlier and taking a long term measures are bases, and key work is well dealing with inlet and
outlet of water, otherwise it should cause soil mass collapse, alluvium at slope and foundation
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wet collapse.
Old loess is not suitable for roadbed fill due to its high content of clay, poor leakage, easy soft
in water, fast decreasing of strength, easy deformation of subgrade, and easy sliding of road
shoulder and side slope. More attention should be paid to those factors, especially for
construction of expressway and road class 1.
7.9.2 There is little deformation of integrated side slope although high embankment is
much used in loess areas. That shows section form and slope used for current high
embankment is suitable. Stability of integrated side slope can be guaranteed as long as the
compact quality satisfies design requirement.
When fill side slope height is more than 30m, the subgrade is possible to deform greatly or
cause troubles to construction or curing, therefore it should be compared comprehensively
with retain wall, bridge on one end or flyover above ditch on capital cost, construction
conditonss, maintenance and curing, as well as treatment of settlement. If fill subgrade has to
be adopted in the area, side slope ratio and form should be definated after evaluation of side
slope stability analysis combining with local landform, stratum and hydrology etc.
For fill subgrade higher than 20m, much research work of settlement has been done in
construction of expressways and railways in loess areas, but no more suitable calculation
method has been got. Settlement of high embankment can be properly controlled after service
owe to increased power compact machinery and shock rolling techinique application.
Residual settlement of foundation after service is 0.7%~1.5% which can be neglected except
foundations in wet collapsibility loess or in high pressure loess areas.
7.9.3 Design of excavation side slope should consider side slope stability, wearing and
economics of excavation section and meeting requirements of construction and curing. Side
slope form should be decided with consideration of loess form cause, location land relief,
structure knit, side slope height, surface and underground water conditions, natural side slope
stability form etc.
Natural loess generally has vertical knit and steep loess wall is of vertical, therefore loess
excavation is often designed to steep slope, which is favorable with:
Small subgrade earth work:
Loess has strong permeability, poor resistance for eroding. Steep slope can reduce
area eroded by rainfall and is favored to side slope stability.
However, the steep slope should be easy flacked, leading to unstable.
Data in Table 7.9.3-2 is analysed and summarized on bases of research results from highway
research institutes and construction companies, and with reference of railway and water
conserverncy agents, which is suitable for highway construction in sections with equal quality
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soil and no poor engineering geology. Therefore the data should be choosen in accordance
with local detailed condition of side slope. For deep cutting, when excavation is over 30m in
depth, it is more economic and reasonable to adopt tunnel for expressway and road class I.
Engineering geology analogic method is used to compare with adjacent natural or artificial
stable side slopes, which has a similar natural condition, stratum. Comparing them on
engineering geology, hydrology, side slope height and slope ratio etc is for deciding cutting
side slope ratio in designed road section. Side slope designed with this method is general
stable but the stability needs verification with mechanism, which is used for correction of
primary slope ratio and makes the design more reasonable. However the precise of
verification with mechanics is limited by shearing strength data selected, and a small amount
of samples can not full reflect real strength of different stratums because of poor typicality. In
addition, landform, land relief and hydrology etc can not be reflected by a small amount of
soil samples. Therefore it is recommended to take engineering geology analogic method
mainly and with help of stability check calculation for side slope ratio decision.
Design platform of side slope should not only atomize slope runoff and dividing of flow, but
also intercept a small amount of exfoliation soil blocks from side slope for convenience
curing and maintenance. Space design of small platform should consider influence on side
slope stability from excavation work quantity, precipitation, slope degree etc. In accordance
with investigation information, small space platform should be adopted when heavy
precipitation, slow slope and eroding critical height is small; while eroding critical height is
big, big space platform should be adopted. When side slope height is more than 30m, a big
platform should be provided at middle of side slope in order to reduce concentrate stress at
slope foot. Finite element analysis and experience of loess side slope approve that big
platform may increase side slope stability factor.
7.9.4 Because requirements for pavement stability and deformation of expressway are
strict for vehicles driving, and some existing highways in loess areas are deformed and
structures collapsed, consolidation measures have to be taken on those roads. Survey on loess
collapsibility and treatment of loess foundation has been strengthened in recent years when
expressway is built in loess areas in order to eliminate or release loess wet collapsibility.
This revision of the specifications considered with principles of loess collapsibility treatment
by current building and railway sections, and with summarized construction of highways in
loess collapsibility areas. It is very important to regulate principles and standards because wet
collapsibility loess is allocated widely in one project and treatment principles and standards
affect greatly on project cost and construction schedule. The principles and standards should
meet requirements of subgrade on unequal settlement, release subgrade deformation, increase
reliability of subgrade stability, and in consideration of influence on project cost from
foundation treatment.
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Table 7.9.4-2 in the Specifications regulates foundation treatment depth on wet collapsitility
loess, with reference of standards of building and railway sections, combination with highway
construction properties, importance of structure and embankment, structure properties and
hazard degree after water imerging and maintenance work quantity.
Wet collapsibility loess is usually allocated widely and with high cost for treatment. The
treatment scheme for collapsibility loess is decided with comprehensive technical and
economical comparison and analysis, and based on requirements of highway class on
foundation treatment, collapsibility loess property, construction condtions, and material
resources etc. Padding layer method, heavy ram method and shock rolling can eliminate
collapsibility at shallow loess, increase foundation bearing capacity. It has more fast and high
efficiency advantages when shock rolling technique is used in a large area of shallow
foundation treatment of collapsibility loess and heavy compact on loess embankment. Forced
ram is mainly used in consolidation treatment of self weight collapsibility loess above
thickness III, nonsaturated high pressure and new cumulative loess and artificial piling loess
foundation, of which effective treatment depth is not bigger than 8m. Hole deep force ram has
an advantage of combination of heavy hammer compact, forced ram, soil piling foundation
treatment with high power, high pressure and forced compact in one, is suitable for
consolidation of thick high shrinkage collapsibility loess foundation. Flyash and soil packing
pile is effective for eliminating of loess collapsibility and increasing bearing capacity, but
when water content is bigger than 23% and saturation is over 65%, neck is easy to be
shrinkage and encruding in pile hole and around its circumference when pile is formed. The
efficiency of packing is low so that it is not suitable used below underground water level.
Loess sinkhole is a special physical geology phenomina of loess (has properties of vertical
knit, multiholes, big hole and contains of soluable salt etc) after water eroding and solution. It
hurts subgrade greatly and treatment width and depth should be decided according to road
class, sinkhole location and development trend. The treatment and available conditions for
loess sinkhole are as follows: fill and compact is used for open sinkhole; open excavation, fill
and compact for shouldow hidden sinkhole; support, fill and compact for deep hidden
sinkhole; sand fill for small and straight hidden sinkhole; slurry fill for big and deep hidden
sinkhole.
In order to prenvent new loess sinkhole occurs, for surface water flowing towards sinkhole,
intercepting and draining measures should be used while for crack on cutting top and
waterlogged depression, it should use tamping and compacting for preventing rainfall from
entering into loess; for fill subgrade, drainage engineering should be done well in mountain
side, fill, compact waterlogged depression; compact soil or paving clay or other non leakage
materials or plant grass.
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7.10 Subgrade in Saline Soil Area
1 Design of saline soil subgrade in saline areas should be, in addition to obey
requirement of general road design, pay much attention to treatment of subgrade interception
stratum, drainage facilities, subgrade height, application and treatment of existing highway.
The key work should be conducted before subgrade design as follows; monitoring and
investigation of natural conditions, hydrology and usage condition of exsiting highway.
2 In high underground water level sections, subgrade height should be considered with
strong capillarity height of underground water, salt heaving depth functions etc, possible
secondary saline subgrade and vaparation depth.
1) Strong capillarity increasing height has relation with soil size, mineral content and
underground mineral content. Increasing height of capillarity is shown in Table 7-11 based on
monitored information, which can be refered when there is no test information.
Table 7.11 Increasing Height of Capillarity
Coarse and
Classification Gravelsoil Drift sand Powder soil Clay
medium sand
Height of capillarity(m) 0.40 0.60 0.80 3.00-4.00 2.00-3.00
2) Salt heaving depth refers to effective depth of salt heaving in pavement in sulphate
saline soil influnced by temperature decreasing. Salt heaving is formed in condition of low
solution sodium sulfate in soil in low temperature and absorbing water to crystal. Test shows
salt heaving is introduced when sodium sulfate in soil bigger than 0.5% and soil temperature
decreases below to 5; when sodium sulphate reaches above 1.2%, the obvious salt heaving
can be monitored on pavement. Salt heaving increases along with temperature decreasing.
When soil temperature is within 5~5, saling heaving increases quickly. In addition,
temperature change under pavement changes smaller along with depth increasing, the most
effective influence to salt heaving by low temperature is at about 1.50m underground.
Therefore 1.50~1.60m depth should be considered for highway at or below Class II; 2.0m for
expressway and Class I road.
Pay attention to drainage in saline soil sections, keep drainage smoothly and free cumulative
water on both sides of subgrade. If cumulative water can not be avoided, water intercepting
and leakage proofing measures should be taken.
7.10.2 Saline Soil Classification
There are many methods for classification of saline soil. It is classified in the Specifications in
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accordance with salt property and saline degree. Based on original specification (JTJ 013-95),
salt heaving degree of coarse soil is supplemented in classification in the Specifications. Salt
content property is generally classified according to anion content, and its characters by ratio
of CI- /SO4-;,
Boundary of chlorin salt and sulphate salt whenCI- /SO4- equals to 1;
Chlorin saline soil when CI- /SO4- bigger than 2;
Chlorous saline soil when CI- /SO4-is 2~1;
Sulfite soil when CI- /SO4- is 1~0.3;
Sulphate saline soil whenCI- /SO4- is less than 0.3.
Regulations of above boundaries have relations with rules of salt ion turning to salt.
Sulphate saline soil takes ratio 0.3 of as a division boundary.
When it is bigger than 0.3, soil mass is of alkalescence and should expand after absorbing
water.
Salt heaving degree is classified in fine and coarse size soil respectively because they have
different salt contents and application in highway engineering is different too. Therefore it is
classified in two kinds in the Specifications.
1) Degree of salinity of fine soil is classified with average salt content in applied
stratum and saline soil engineering property is changed along with salt property and salt
content. when chlorine saline content is over 0.5% in soil, it is easy to solute after wetting and
decreases subgrade strength; when sulphate soil content is over 0.5%, subgrade should be salt
heaving; therefore damage degree on road based on saline soil is devided into four kinds;
weak, medium, strong and excess strong. It is strictly definite on weak saline soil, which
contends 0.3%~1% chlorine saline and 0.3%~0.5% sulphate saline because most general
highway takes this soil as fills; requirement of medium saline soil is not strict for chlorine
saline, below 5% is suitable, butrequirement of sulphate saline is strict ,below 2%, which is
divided by critical phenomina of subgrade deformation, therefore medium saline soil should
be selected according to road classifications; boundary of strong and excess saline soil is
chlorine salt content 8% and sulphate salt content 5%. Strong sulphate and excess saline soil
can not be used and strong chlorine and excess saline soil may be used carefully accodingn to
the conditions.
2) Based on salt content in gravel and sand soil, degree of coarse soil saline is divided
into four kinds; weak, medium strong and excess. Because a great difference between size of
coarse and fine soil, a method for measuring salt content in coarse soil should be decided
when classication of degree of coarse saline soil. Influnece on road by coarse saline soil
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should be studied and then classification boundary should be definated. Salt solution test in
coarse soil should be tested with soil pass 1mm screen and ratio 1:5 of soil and water
specified in Highway Erath Work Test Code (JTJ 051). Some construction companies
measured respectively according to size of fine and coarse soil but the results are quite
different.
7.10.3 Filling subgrade
1 Subgrade height in saline soil area is decided according to soil property, local climate
and hydrology geology conditions. Table 7.10.3-1 shows a minimum height of subgrade and
that is a necessary height for wet areas with poor drainage and high undergoing water level,
strong and excess saline soil areas. If there is no evaluation data on class II and above roads
influenced by underground water and or in water depression areas, design subgrade heigh
should be meet regulataions in Table 7.10.3-1.
For highway salt heaving, when embankment is high and its surface is larger and influenced
by interval cold and hot air, it is easy to introduce salt heaving. On this view point,
embankment may not be over high in order to guarantee subgrade and roadbed oil mass in dry
or medium wet stability. Therefore in soil borrow or excavation sections, isolation layers are
often provided for decreasing embankment height, which is not limited by table 7.10.3-1.
2 Sodium salt in saline soil should damage highway pavement greatly. Much damage
to highway in saline soil areas are caused by excess sodium salt in subgrade or pavement
mixture materials. It is strictly required in the Specifications for sodium salt content in
susbgrade fill of Class I and II, but not strict in Class III and IV road. However in very dry
areas, no limitation for NaCI content for class II and below road, because in less precipitation
and high vaporation areas, the subgrade with NaCI content is often in dry status and less
chance for NaCI solution in water. In other side, NaCI wet absorbing property may keep
gravel materials in subgrade or basement stability. There should be easy solution salt analysis
and salt analysis data for analysis of sodium salt content in saline soil and verify availability
of fills.
When saline soil used as subgrade fills, it has close relation with subgrade stability. There are
many failures in past when fills were not strictly controlled in road construction. Therefore, it
is required in Table 7.10.3-2 in the Specifications to strictly control subgrade fills according to
different layers of different class highways and fill classifications.
1) No saline soil is allowed to use as fill in 0~0.80m under subgrade surface in express,
class I and II highways. For fill under 0.80m, it should be distinguished with sulphate saline
soil and chlorine salien soil respectively, of which sulphate salt content in not over 0.5m in
fine gravel soil under 1.5m grbecause salt heaving influence should reach to about 2.00m in
depth. Salt heaving is not allowed to occur, neither secondary saline condition in upper part of
subgrade, so it should be controlled strictly.
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2) Fill requirements are also definated in sthree layers for class 2 highway; medium
saline soil in chlorine and sulfinte coarse soil, and weak saline soil fine gravel soil are allowed
to fill in 0~0.80m under subgrade surface; weak and medium saline soil is allowed to fill in
0.80~1.50m; sulphate salt content is not allowed over 2.0% in fine gravel soil below 1.50m.
Because subgrade height is changed along with various of hydrology conditions in sections.
Fill quality should be guaranteed for road basement in Class 2 highway and at same time salt
content can not be transferred in lower part and should be favored to use saline soil as a part
of fill. So that requirements are divideded in two stratums under 0.80m but it limits
application of fine and strong saline soil.
3) Although technical standard for class III and IV is lower, fills for 0~0.80m should be
strictly controlled and it can be flexible for fills under 0.80m according to conditions.
However when state highway or provincial highway are designed with standards for Class III
road, it should be strictly controlled on fine gravel soil for fill under roadbed. Drift sand of
river sand may be used as subgrade fill if there is possible
3 All vegetation, salt shell, humus and soil with salt content over allowance must be
removed from fill basement and replace by new fills; excavation depth and fill thickness
should be decided according to road class, basement soil property and fills, but not less than
0.30m.
4 Slope ratio of saline subgrade side slope should be designed according to soil
classifications and salt heaving degree. Soaked embankment side slope ratio may be 1:2~1:3.
7.10.4 Protection measures
1 There are many treatment methods for saline soil subgrade, such as increasing
subgrade height, exchange gravel soil, drift sand or river sand, set sand or gravel isolation
layers and soil work cloth (film) isolation layer, which have good efficiency on construction
of highway and may be adopted according to conditions.
2 Increasing subgrade height is suitable for road class III and IV, of which subgrades
are little lower and with drift or river sand foundation, or longer dissonance from sand gravel
material resource. For reconstruction of road class II, comprehensive design should be
conducted with other measures but not with increasing of subgrade height.
3 Exchanging of subgrade should be conducted in poor soil property section and

exsiting roadbed of which salt content is over regulations, or excess wet of roadbed,
compaction degree is not satisfied or shallow excavatin and fill area where subgrade elevation
is limited. Fills are generally from adjacent sand gravel or drift sand (river sand). Thickness
for fill is general 0.80m for road class II and below; for road class I, it should be carefully
decided according to surveyed information, but at least 1.0m.
4 Isolation layer is an effective measure for preventing water and salt from entering
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upper part of subgrade and treatment of road salt heaving and slump hazards. Materials used
for isolation layer consist of soil work cloth (film), drift sand or river sand, gravel (crushed
stone) and bituminious sand, bituminious paper etc. Soil work film, bituminious film,
bituminious sand and bituminious paper are of non permeable layer, which can isolate
callibarity water and gaseity water increasing. Sand gravel and drift sand belong to petrating
layer, wchich can only isolate increasing of callibarity water.
Main considerations for setting of isolation layer are as Under what conditions the isolation
layer need; Which materials should be selected and location of isolation layer.
Isolation layer needs in areas: medium saline soil especially sulphate soil section, subgrades
influnced by surface water or underground callibarity water, excavation cuttings of which
elevation is limitted or salt content is over requirement in utilization of existing subgrade, and
subgrades for which isolation layer and other cooperated comprehensibe measures.
Materials used for isolation layer should be decided in compliance with considerations of
local matererials, road classifications, subgrade height, hydrology and geology conditions,
after technical and economical comparison. For expressway, and road class I and with
subgrade higher than 1.8m, gravel stone, drift sand (river sand) should be selected as
permeable isolation layer which can not only isolate leakage water from upper part of
subgrade but also isolate increasing of capillary water from bottom. However when subgrade
is not 1.8m high, soil work film etc. are suitably adopted for isolation layer of nonleakage in
order to prevent the secondary saline in upper subgrade when capillary water and gaseity
water increase.
If location of isolation layer is not suitable, expected target can not be reached or with low
economic benefit. For guarantee of roadbed fill qulity and stability, isoloation elevation of fill
subgrades in new builging expressway and road class I should be 1.5m lower than the
designed elevation, and meet distance requirement of maximum frozen depth +0.25m.
Pavment thickness of high grade highway in saline soil areas is general about 0.7m and it can
prevent influence from bottom salt and water and guarantee subgrade stability. For road class
II and below, top surface of isolation layer should be at 0.8m at least below subgrade edge and
meet frozen depth requirement, and higher than flow level of side ditch. In subgrade exchange
and fill, and comprehensive treatment road sections, isolation layer top surface location
should be at exchange and fill lower adge or lower part of layer, 0.30m at least below new
padding layer in excavation road.
5 When drift sand or river sand is used as fill or isolation layer, noncohensive property
should be considered, and soil or sand gravel should be used to protect edge. If no edge
protection, side slope should be slow to 1:2~1:3 for side slope stability.
6~8 Drainage for subgrade in saline areas is mainly discharging cumulative ground water,
decreasing and intercepting underground water. It is very important to design subgrade
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drainage, which should be considered with geology, hydrology, ground and underground
drainage facilities along the road, and cooperated with natural river, farmland irrigation
channel and formed to good drainage system. Ground water should be discharged by drainage
ditch, interception ditch, side slope ditch, evaporation pond etc, to outside of subgrade while
underground water should be isolated, drained of decreased etc for not influencing subgrade
stability.
9 There are many consolidation agents. Their different physical property and chemical
contents have different kinds, properties and consolidation methods. The optimization
efficiency may be got through tests based on road soil property, consolidation agent contents
and kinds. When sulphate soil is treated with chemical method, it can change easy salt
solution content and property in soil, decrease salt heaving. The usural chemical supplements
are CaCL2,BaCL2. Isolation layer should be provided at bottom for prevent treated saline soil
from influence by water and salt in lower stratum.
7.10.5 Subgrade in Dry Salt Lake Region
1 Dry lake surface in enclosed basin in dry areas generally has no water, but has only
thicker salt cover and salt rock. Low minerization bearing water and latent water spillover and
permeable, which makes salt cover and rock salt corroding long time and then form cave,
karren and corroded pool etc. There is saturated crytal halogen and underground water in
different depths under salt lake surface.
Because all underground water in dry salt lake areas is saturated salt water (halogen), which
can not corrode salt rock, and present climate is favorable to dry water in salt lake
continuously, therefore highway can be constructed directly on dry salt lake surface.
2 Salt rock has high salt content, normaly above 20%, and some even to 95%.
Subgrade fill can be local salt rock with free limitation salt content. If it is chloride salt, the
more salt content the better.
Salt rock quality is decided by salt forming conditions, salt kinds and property, salt content,
soil size formation and structure density, hardness etc.
Rock salt fills should be crushed into small pieces and compacted with spraying salt water in
layers.
3 Normal grade highway built in dry salt lake can be low embankment, even without
embankment or no pavement laidout. It needs salt water spraying and crystal formation in
steps, and hard, density and flat surface should be formed after vehicle driving.
For expressway or class 1 highway in drying up salt lake sections, it should be constructed by
stages. Soil embankment and rock salt embankment should be adopted in the first stage.
Availability of road may be increased after usage, curing with consolidation with soil, then the
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second stage project may be begun to increase embankment and layout pavement.
4 When there is saturated salt water under dry salt lake surface, drainage ditch and
berm subgrade sections may be provided for accelerating evaporation of underground water
and centralizing of salt, crystal and decreasing underground water.
5 For undeveloped karst cave, karren and corroded pool, if it is exposure, rock salt or
gravel, sand gravel materials may be use as fill to be compacted; if it is hidden cave and
thickness between cave top and ground surface is less than 0.3~0.5m, the cave should be
excavated and filled; if corrosion area is large and continuously developed, bypass or other
measures (filled with sand and stone materials) should be taken.
7.11 Subgrade in Permafrost Area
7.11.1 General Provision
1 Soil frozen continuously for two or more years is called permafrost soil, which may
be divided into, based on ice content in unit volume, ice frozen soil, multi ice frozen soil, rich
ice frozen soil, saturated ice frozen soil and ice content layer; and it can also be divided, based
on ice content in frozen soil and yearly average temperature, stable, basic stable and nonstable
frozen soil, refer to attachment C for detail.
2 In frozen soil swamp (swamped wetland) area, because of nonstable foundation after
solution of surface mud, difficult drying and discharge of depression water, and in
development section of water below or above thick underground ice layer, embankment
should be avoidd to bypass.
When embankment is bypassed through thermokarst lake section, which is formed after thick
underground ice solution, continuously karst bottom ice solution influence on embankment
stability should be considered and necessary measures should be taken.
3 Concrete design principles should be, based on frozen soil kinds and yearly average
soil temperature, protection, general protection and general subgrade design. Protection refers
to taking effective measures to keep frozen soil conditions and original status; general
protection refers to taking measures and controlling melting speed of permafrost soil, i.e.
certain allowance of frozen melting but in a limited scope; general subgrade design refers to
taking permafrost soil as a general status, allowance to melting, even eliminating frozen
conditions first or speeding melting and making it to general construction conditions.
Section design principle should be decided according to geology and relief unit, permafrost
average ground temperature, yearly average climate temperature, frozen soil buried depth
change and other local conditions; field design principle should be decided in accordance with
foundation soil types, ice content in permafrost soil and upper limit buried depth etc.
4 When subgrade is in less ice frozen soil, much ice frozen soil sections, road may be
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designed according to general subgrade conditions as there is no hazard to subgrade because

of less settlement due to melting; however special design should be conducted in areas where
there is rich frozen soil, saturated ice frozen soil and stratum with ice as well as various poor
geology conditions, which should be damaged seriously due to sudden, serious, continuous,
uneven and larger melting settlement or ice hazards.
7.11.2 Rich ice frozen soil, saturated frozen soil and stratum ice content are called high ice
content frozen soil.
1 Melting settlement and pressure settlement calculation may refer to Manual of

Highway Design-Subgrade. Residual height and width is used for avoiding reversed arc and
narrowing of subgrade top after deformation of subgrade.
2 Minimum fill height in permafrost soil area should meet requirements for preventing
freezing heaving and tumbling. In sections where permafrost soil is protected and controlled,
the requirements for preventing hot melting and controlling settlement should be satisfied.
Minimum fill height for preventing permafrost soil without settlement upper limitation is
called bottom critical height, symbol hL and calculated with following two formulas:
Sand gravel pavement hL=1.41-0.31hn (7-12)
Bituminious pavement hL=2.88-0.42hn (7-11)
Where:hn-refers to natural upper limitation
In view of investigation and theory analysis, subgrade height has close relation with hazards.
If subgrade in over high, heat absorbing surface increases, upper limitation of frozen soil
under sunlighting side slope decreases greatly, which increases corroding, longitudinal cracks
and cumulative length should increase along with increasing of subgrade height, which
influences driving safety. Therefore embankment may not be over high. It is recommended to
calculate embankment critical height (hu) with following formula:
Sand stone pavement: hu=7.17-1.76hu (7-12)
Bitumious pavement: hu=5.03-0.81hu (7-13)
A special design should be conducted when subgrade height is within hL~hu
3 When embankment is higher in frozen areas, geogrid or geochamber may be

provided for keeping embankment stability and highway soil compound material specification
should be refered for design method.
7.11.3 Subgrade of poor permafrost geology section
1 For embankment in drumlin, ablation cone areas, it should be bypassed under though
and embankment height is not lower than max. height of drumlin and ablation cone, and
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filling with leakage soil for preventing frozen heaving. Drainage measures should be
strengthened. Water should be intercepted in upper stream and when landform is not allowed
interception may be conducted beside subgrade.
Frozen structure may be provided at 20m outside of embankment (including berm) foot in
drumlin areas, section may be enlarged and deepened; in foundation of embankment base,
mud and ice layer of drumlin should be removed and filled with permeable soil. If drumlin is
near embankment foot, embankment on one side of drumlin may be widened, reverse pressure
berm may be supplemented or so as clay isolation tooth wall at embankment foot and other
measures.
In ablation cone areas, concrete measures should be verified according to water outlet location,
spring water types, water amount, temperature, ice cumulation scope and height etc. When ice
cumulation is not much, water cumulation pit may be set up; excavated soil may be used to
construct ice retain embankment in cooperation with water cumulation pit building. When
underground water amount is big, permeable ditch may be set up vertical to underground
water flow direction for leading the water. Bridge may be built when embankment is cross a
wider valley.
2 When building embankment in thermomelting lake (pool), investigation should be

verifired if underground ice under lake is melted completely and continuously melting should
influence embankment stability. The secondary consideration is influence on embankment
stability by accumulated water. Generally permeable soil or stable soil (powder and clay size
content is less than 30% crushed stone soil) should be filled. Berms on both sides of
embankment should be provided in deep water or soft foundation areas. Consolidation
measures should be taken for embankment slope if water surface is wider and with wave. If
embankment may continuously settle after construction, embankment should not only be
widened and enhanced but also increased 0.5m above accumulated water level after
embankment settlement when verify top level of filling permeable soil.
3 In frozen drumlin sections, cutting should be avoidd, or with shouldow fill and
excavation and no fill or excavation. If cutting is not avoidable, mud and humic soil on
basement or on side slope should be replaced. Both sides of cutting top should be provided
with interception beam for preventing ground water from entering cutting. If there is
underground water, interception or leading water measures should be made. Side ditch on
water inlet side may be widened and deepened as an ice pit. The ice retain wall may be set up
at road shoulder edge or permeable ditch set up at a section of large flow for decreasing of
discharging underground water.
7.11.4 When design of permafrost subgrade, influence of water permeable in foundation

should be considered. Accumulated water at side slope foot may cause upper limitation of
permafrost soil to decrease and serious settlement of embankment. Therefore measures should
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be taken for draining grond surface water and preventing water from cumulation at
embankment foot or penetration to foundation.
Drainage ditch section size should have adequate flow capacity after calculation. Bottom
width should not be less than 0.6m and side slope steep not bigger than 1:1 for avoiding block
and easy cleaning. Side slope may be consolidated by planting grass or with clay.
In drumlin section with thick underground ice and frozen soil, retain beam may be used
instead of drainage ditch, which does not damage surface vegetation and favorable to
protection of permafrost soil. In longitudinal gurgitation section where not suitable for
excavation of drainage ditch, combination of drainage ditch and retain water beam may be
used, but distance from drainage ditch edge for slope foot of retain water beam may not be
less than 1m for guarantee completing and stability of drainage system.
For cutting section, with application of protection permafrost soil design principles, retain
water beam should be considered for draining. If it is difficult to borrow soil for building the
beam, interception ditch may be provided but distance from the ditch edge to the cutting top
may not be less than 5m.
When cutting slope is consolidated with heat insulation, water retain beam may be located at
cutting top and when flow is big, interception may be supplemented on outside of water retain
beam.
For cutting side ditch, concrete precast plate or slip stone may be mortared. Limestone soil or
three-in-one soil may be used as padding for preventing eroding and leakage.
7.12 Subgrade in sand storm area
1 Sand storm area is a general name of desert and sandlot, widely allocated in China
and mainly located in inland dry, over dry areas, with main types of semi-fixed and moving;
there is a little allocation in semi-dry and local wet and dry areas but with main types of fixed,
semi-fixed sand dunes. It can be divided into four kinds based on humidity factor; slight wet
sandlot, semidry sandlot, dry desert and over dry desert.
Main characteristics:
(1) Dry climate, less precipitation
(2) Big different temperature, acute interval of hot and cold:
(3) Strong wind and much sand;
(4) Easy solution salt in soil;
(5) Less and low vegetation..
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Survey of subgrade in sand storm areas is mainly on collection of local meterology,

engineering geology, hydrology, road construction and protection materials as well as
entironment. Meterology information should consist of climate temperature, ground
temperature, precipitation, evaporation, humidity, wind direction, wind speed, wind rose, and
vectorgraph of sand wind etc. Investigation of engineering and hydrology geology mainly
consists of wind resource allocation, sand storm relief forming conditions, sand dune moving
property (moving direction, type, and speed and drift sand quantity). Sand mechanical
compound, physical and chemical property, ground surface runoff underground water depth
and quality etc.
A large number of road construction and protection materials and subgrade protection type is
often decided in accordance with local material resources. Therefore, a full investigation
should be conducted for kinds, quality, and quantity and transportation distance of subgrade
pavement and protection materials.
Environment investigation in conducted on local plant site conditions, measures for sand
protection by plant which mainly consists of plant covering area, desert plant kinds and
ecosystem features, grow land stratum structure, soil quality, nutrient and water content,
saline degree etc.
2 During investigation, seriously learn and study local experiences for sand storm
treatment with different desert kinds (flow, semifixed, and fixed) and then apply them road
construction in compliance with road classifications, line types and subgrade types etc.
In order to prevent sang hazard, pay attention first to select routing. Reasonable route should
be selected when the road bypasses sand hazard sections, in consideration of sand storm relief
features, moving rule, landform, wind direction, wind force, angle between line and wind
direction etc.
Main hazard on sand storm road is sand bury and sand eroding, and sand bury is more serious.
There are two kinds of sand bury; one is when sand storm is passing road, it should fall down,
piling or buries road as wind speed becomes lower; and second is because desert dune moving
leads to bury subgrade. Wind eroding is caused by direct sand storm on subgrade, when sand
storm bypasses subgrade, it should take sands or soil from subgrade leading to subgrade
depressing, empty and collapse etc. which decrease subgrade width and height. Wind eroding
degree has relation with wind force, wind direction, subgrade types, fill material compound
and protection measures etc. Therefore, suitable subgrade section type should be selected in
compliance with sand storm relief features, sand storm moving property, wind direction and
force, angle between wind direction and routing in order to prevent sand bury hazard.In sand
flow areas, embankment or cuttings are built with loose sand, so that side slope and platform
should be protected completely with engineering and biological methods for preventing wind
eroding.
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3 There are complex types of deserts in our country. Protection methods should be
decided according to featrures and types of local climates and deserts. In serious wind sand
areas, and overdry deserts or flow desert areas, a completing sand protection systems should
be set up on both sides of road including leveling belt, protection belt and evergration plant
protection belt in addition to protection of road subgrade itself. For dry desert or semifixed
desert area with better condition of water and steam, engineering and biological combined
protection methods should be adopted and then transferred to full bialogical protection
methods; for slight wet with better conditions of water and steam, and semidry desert or fixed
desert areas, bialogical protection measures should be taken for recovering local ecosystem
and guarantee normal road transportation.
4 Comprehensive design of sand protection and treatment is a main task for subgrade
design in sand storm areas, mainly consists of sand storm protection general arrangement,
design of subgrade section, sandstorm protection for subgrade and both sides of road etc. but
it also should pay attention to subgrade fills as there is much drift sand in desert. However if
clay in sand is much, or over 30%, the strength should decrease. Because of its lower cohesive
property, integrited strength and stability requirement should be satisfied through engineering
or chemical consolidation methods during design. Future maintenance and management of
road should also be considered in design because of high cost and difficulties for maintenance
and curing of road after service.
5 In dry and overdry sand flow desert, precipitation is less but with good permeability
and side ditch or culvert is easy to be buried, therefore there is no side ditch and culvert or
other drainage facilities provided by subgrade sides. For wet and semi-dry desert areas, side
ditch and other drainage facilities should be provided according to precipitation, and its form
should be designed to streamline, wide and shouldow for increasing moving air upward,
which is favorable to bypass sand flow, decreasing sand cumulation in side ditch and other
drainage facilities. Bridge and culvert with big aperture should be provided for easy curing
and clean out accumulative sand.
6 Environment in desert is very weak. Protect the existing vegetation and ground
duricrust on both sides of the subgrade. The local fragile ecology should not be damaged at
should when constructing the desert highway. Earth borrowed and abandoned should not be
piled up at should for preventing road from sand bury or wind eroding.
7.12.2 Fill subgrade
1 Wind direction and speed change over embankment has relation with embankment
height, side slope and angle between wind direction and routing. When the angle is
perpendicular between route and wind direction, wind speed is accelerated obviously along
with embankment height increasing. Therefore there is seldom hazard of sand bury on higher
embankment. When embankment is parallel to wind direction, wind speed on subgrade top
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surface is bigger than sand area on both sides of road because embankment has a certain
height and smooth surface, so that no drift sand on road generally. Subgrade without
excavation and fill is easy to have drift sand no matter what an angle between subgrade and
wind direction. However overhigh embankment should increase wind eroding. Therefore a
certain height should be guaranteed but with limitation for general road, it is recognized that
1m is suitable. For large and high compound sand beam or sand dune link sections, subgrade
height should be decided with principle that fill is sligh higher than excavation or keep equal
after comprehensive consideratation of longitudinal slope, project quantity and sand
protection system etc.
2 Slow slope and streamline subgrade sections may be adopted for low embankment
side slope in accordance with landform, relief conditions of road side for sand flowing over
road fluently. For keeping road section smooth and sand passing over smoothly, central
isolation belt and road edge should be kept same level with road surface, road shoulder, slope
foot and slope top which have direct angle should be arc type. Separation subgrade may be
adopted for expressway and road class I.
3 Side slope degree may be definited according to the real conditions, the slope may be
a little steep when protection measures taken on road sides. For higher embankment or small
angle crossing between wind direction and routing, side slope may be 1:2-1:3 because of sligh
sand bury hazard, which can reduce side slope protection engineering quantity; for
expressway and road class I in areas with good conditions of water and steam sligh wet,
semidry or fixed desert, 1:3 side slope should be adopted for embankment in order to recover
entironment, evergration growing and meeting requirement of sand preventing.
4 Long term test and survey shows that pure wind accumulated sand has a good water
keeping property, high integrated pressure and good road building materials, but no cohesive
force and difficult to be shaped. It can be consolidated with geotextile etc for reinforcing and
constructing of subgrade. The vibration roller and pedrail tractor may be used to compact in
layers: for subgrade in short water areas, vibration and dry compaction technology may be
used.
5 For preventing sand storm, borrow soil should be from sand dune on upward side of
excavation section for fill, and remain the excavated section open in order to make airflow
smoothly. When the distance for borrow soil is far and when soil must be borrowed from road
side, the borrow pit should be beyond 5m from subgrade foot of backward wind side as
possible for avoiding wind eroding. When the soil must borrowed from both sides of road, the
borrow pit facing wind direction should be closed or leveled; When machinery is used for
construction, borrow pit should be excavated in arc shouldow slot (wide and deep ratio is
10-25) and connected with subgrade in smoothly for sand storm flow easily. Borrow soil from
flat sand land should damage sand structure and cause sand hazard, therefore it is not suitable
to borrow soil from both sides of subgrad in general.
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6 Subgrade protection should be conducted with local conditions, borrow economic

and reasonable materials from local. See Table 7-12 for requirements of various protections.
Agricultral debris and grass service life is short and with a big amount of consumption, which
is also very rare in sand storm areas. It is not the most suitable protection materials but its
economic and easy for construction. Clay is also shortage and rare in sand storm areas.
Polymer geogrid or geochamber is used for protection materials in subgrades in sand storm
areas instead of agricultural debris and grass with good efficiency by railway and highway
sections in recent years. If conditons are allowed, these new materials may be used by
highway section, but selected geogrids must have good property to resist weathering and
aging.
Tabel 7.12.2-1 Various Types of Subgrade Protection
Available
Protection types Protection thickness(cm)
scope
Materials
Classification of Road
Type Side slope
protection shoulder
Laying paving wheat stway, bulrush, 5~10 5~10
Paving plant Tree branch, bulrush,

5~10 5~10 Normal
Grass profileor precarious grass
highway
Paving or Tile paving Tile paving
Grass
overlaping grass 5~15 5~15
Clay with plastic index

Paving sloi 5~15 5~15
Soil more than 10
Paving salt cover Crushed salt cover 5~15 5~15
Paving gravel, scree gravel. scree 5~15 5~15

Gravel, scree
and slip stone Paving grid gravel,
Gravel, scree and slip stone 5~15 5~7
scree, slip stone
Expressway
Precast plate, block, hollow and class 1
Concrete Precast plate 5~10 10~30
grid net highway
Paving bituminous
Bituminous sand 5 5
sand
Bituminous
Spray bitunous Low grade bitumous
2 2
emulsion amulsion
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Pave geogrid
Geotextile Polymer geotextile -
Geochamber
Bialogic Planting Grass
7.12.3 Excavation subgrade
1 Change of wind direction and speed within road cutting is related with cutting side
slope ratio, depth and angle between wind direction and routing. When routing is
perpendicular to wind direction, speed in the road cutting should decrease, the more steep and
depth of side slope, the lower of wind speed decreases; As wind speed decrease further more
on backward wind side, drift sand is usually accumulated from backward wind direction and
extended to forward wind direction side slope. When it is serious, bottom of the cutting
should be full filled by sand. When routing is parallel with wind direction, there is no
accumulative sand in cutting as the cutting has a function of wind focus.
When side slope steep is more than 1:4, wind flow should occur along with cutting direction
(generally called valley forming wind). When cutting is short, sang is brought to outside of
cutting under force of same direction air flow and when cutting is long, sand should be
accumulated within cutting.
When cutting is over steep, accumulated sand may be cleaned out through curing but its not
economic it more slow side slope is excavated. Therefore its better to avoid longer and
deeper cutting, if it is unavoidable, subgrade should be open or sand accumulative step be
widened for convenience to protect sand hazard and sand cleaned out.
2 Wind is smaller in shallow cutting when wind direction is along with routing but
when side slope ratio is more than 1:4, more sand is accumulated. When side slope is slower
than 1:4, most sand may be brought beyond cutting as air flow over cutting smoothly.
Therefore, its better to adopt open section in shallow cutting. It is not economic and no more
sand is accumulated in cutting because of big wind force along with direction of valley if
open section is adopted for deep cutting. So that normal slow side slope subgrade section
should be adopted for deep cutting, but sand accumulative step may be provided at slope foot
for easy curing of road.
For expressway and road class I in well condition of slight wet, semidry or fixed deserts,
embankment usually adopts 1:3-1:6 side slope, which is favorable to recovery ecosystem
evegration.
3 When routing is perpendicular to wind direction, there are various degrees of

accumulative sand, the deeper cutting is the more sand is accumulated. For shallow cutting,
adopting open subgrade may decrease sand cumulation, and open subgrade section is not
economic for deep cutting but when cutting top width and depth ratio is 20~30, it has
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advantage of slow slope cutting.
4 It is easy for semi-excavation and semi-fill subgrade to accumulate sand on road

pavement and erode on shoulder under action by functions of uproad wind and downward
road wind. Side slope on both sides of road may be slow side slope and arc type is provided at
slope change point for airflow bypassing smoothly. Subgrade as excavation side may be
widened properly at same time, accumulative platform is provided for easy cleaning out sand.
Consolidate upper and lower side slopes for preventing eroding.
7.12.4 Sand prevention at road side
1 Sand project engineering on road side may be generally divided into four kinds,
consolidation, bloking, discharging and guiding, it may be engineering or biological measure.
Measures may be used in a single or in combination. In order to make all measures effective,
there must be a general arrangement for making measures be a perfect and comprehensive
protection system, of which width and durability should be decided properly according to
road classifications.
2 Vegetation is a basic measure for consolidation of sand, it does not only decrease
wind speed, weaken and control sand flow but also consolidates sand around its root because
sand vegetation has developed root. The felled leaves may be favored to organic compound
forming, promoting soil introducing, improving sand land and make it fixed. After the sand
consolidation by plant, its advantage is incomparable among other protection measures. It
should be used in priority if possible and other protection measures may be adopted when
there is no condition to plant vegetation.
3 Vertical sand barrier is one of effective measures to consolidate sand and has a better
function of sand blocking. Arbor and shrubs may be planted to make it as a plant sand barrier
if possible. Vertical sand barrier should keep a certain distance from subgrade and its not
suitable if it is too near to subgrade. Land near the subgrade is generally covered by gravel
stone, clay or other materials in order to prevent subgrade from eroding. It can get a better
efficiencies when two measures are adopted together.
4 Sand blocking measures are used for blocking sand or limiting sand moving, which
may be divided into five kinds; wall type, embankment, grid type, belt type and wind
protection forest. They are suitable for rich sand flow area and should be located at 100m
beyond facing wind side of subgrade, and generally planted at top of sand dune. The higher
and larger space of sand barrier, and perpendicular to prevail wind direction, the more
effective of san bloking should be. Arbor and shrubs may be planted together to form density
wind protect forest when possible and form permanent sand blocking system.
5 Sand discharging measure is used to enhance wind force or change land property, and
make bypass sand flow smoothly without depositing. Discharging sand mainly includes
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shallow slot and wind embankment, shallow slot discharge, focus plate discharge sand etc.
may be referred to Manual of Railway Engineering Design-Subgrade for design of all sand
discharge measures.
6 When route is 25-30 bevel to prevail wind direction, it is easy for sand to deposit in
adjacent area of subgrade. In order to let sand deposit in area where no hazard to subgrade,
guiding sand measure is adopted at facing wind side in virture of wind force to change sand
flow of dune moving direction. Sand guiding facilities may adopt engineering facility or
combination of arbors and shrubs dense forest.
7 Leveling belt is an important part of sand protection system by road sides, especially
in sand flow and semi-fixed sand dune areas when route is 45-90 perpendicular to prevail
wind direction. Leveling belt provided in 20-30m within road scope on both sides is favored
to sand flow smoothly bypassing subgrade, avoiding deposit sand hazard.
8 Comprehensive plant protection belt system building needs a certain conditions and
longer time, and is difficult to manage. Therefore it requires to consider the local sand
pretection plan, cooperate with agriculture and forest departments, with active participation of
local mass. Protection forest structure and wind preventing and sand consolidation have close
relations. It should be combined with planting arbors, shrubs and grass for sand protection.
For road sand protection, its better to plant dense forest near both sides of embankment and
locate sparse forest on outside edge.
9 In flow sand dune or semi sand dune areas, vegetation belt should be planted outside
of protection belt for boundary in order to protect plant to reproduce and grow naturally.
Width vegetation belt for flow sand dune, facing wind direction 400-600m; backward wind
200-300m; for semi fixed sand dune, facing wind direction 300-400m, backward wind
100-200m.
In fixed sand dune areas, vegetation protection belt may be provided on both sides of
subgrade, on facing wind direction the width may be 300-500m and on backward side
100-200m.
Vegetation plant should be strictly protected, cutting and browsing is prohibited. Vegetation
should be improved through naturally reproducing gradually.
10 There are many requirements for plant prevention of sand hazards, especially plant
growing land, selection of plant, reasonable plant combination and plant types, irrigation
measures and management methods, which are vital for success. The final target can be
realized only with consideration of local conditions, and after complete investigation, analysis
and study of plant prevention of sand hazard.
11 Chemical consolidation method for prevention of sand cumulation has not been used
in a large scale because of high capital cost, more difficult construction or strict reqiuremnts
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on strength, easy breaking etc. But in dry desert areas there is shortage of road building
materials, chemical consolidation or protection of road subgrade in deserts can be used after
test verification in order to decrease capital cost.
7.13 Subgrade in snow hazard areas
1 A principle Prevention is more important than curing should be obeyed in road

survey and design in serious snow and ice areas. After primarily decision of routing corridor,
detail collection of local natural geography, climate, hazard, snow cumulation, prevail wind
direction and ecosystem condtions etc must be conducted, analysed and compaired, and then
correct routing may be verified through snow hazard areas.
Snow cumulation consists of natural snow cumulation and drif snow. Natural snow
accumutlation refers to snow accumulating on road equally under conditions of slight wind or
without wind. Snow hazards mainly consist of wind blow snow and snow fall. No engineering
measure is taken for natural cumulation snow. When natural snow is thicker on road and its
difficult for driving, mechanical snow removing should be used or by snow moving agent, i.e
spraying CaCl2 , NaCl1 and MgCl2 on snow road. Subgrade may be widened properly on
heavier snow road.
After general classification of snow hazards, a futher investigation should be conducted for
individual issue.
2 Snow collapse is accumulated snow falling down from hillside by gravity. When
survey of mountain road in snow hazard areas, main investigation and collection should be
done on snow collapse landform (hillside slope ratio and moving routing), main climate
conditions (temperature, snow quantity), hillside conditions (soil, evergration and kinds), for
avoiding landslide due to snow collapse and for preparation of biological prevention of snow
hazard and verifying tree quick and suitable growing in local conditions.
3 Wind drifting snow means whole process from wind-snow flow to accumulated snow
drifting, that is during snowing or after snow and when wind force reaches a certain strength
(4-5m/s), wind drifts snow and forms wind-snow flow. The hazard is mainly on blocking of
driving or influence of sight. When suvey of road in wind drifting snow hazard areas, the
main investigation work should be done on landform, structures, evergration etc. along the
routing, monitoring snow removing quantify, wind force, direction, frequency and duration in
winter, snow precipitation, depth of deposit snow, winter temperature, frozen and melting
time, wind drifting snow types and hazard degree etc.
4 Different preventing and treatment principles and measures (engineering and

biological methods) should be taken in compliance with natural landform, relief in snow
collapse areas, and with consideration of local conditions, use local materials. It should
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prevent snow hazard and also keep environment friendly.
When the road has to bypass possible snow collapse areas, principles of stabilizing deposit
snow on hillside, change of snow collapse direction, decreasing of snow collapse speed and
clean out of deposit snow should be obeyed with adopting of horizontal steps, guiding snow
dam (wall), soil dune, snow retain wall, and snow preventing forest belt etc. In serious snow
collapse expressway, road class I and other roads with special requirements, snow preventing
corridor, open tunnel, tunnel and other shelter structures may be adopted.
5 Wind drift snow hazard is mainly caused due to wind speed decreasing and snow
depositing on road, therefore the hazard has close relation with wind drift snow, landform,
structures and subgrade forms. Subgrade taking embankment type and with proper height can
guarantee snow flow over road smoothly.
6 Open and flat area is favored to air flowing smoothly. Its easy for snow to deposit
when snow removing is saturated. Deposit snow may be less when routing direction is
parallel to prevail wind direction as a flow field is formed over road and deposit snow on road
is decreased. Therefore its better to select routing in open and flat areas with less deposit
snow, and routing is better parallel with prevail wind direction or small angle is kept as
possible.
Embankment should keep a certain height over local maxmum snow deposit height, which
may be verified according to road adjacent landform, wind force, wind direction and snow
precipitation etc. When snow hazard is slight, bottom value is taken or ceiling value taken for
serious snow hazard.
7 Slowing side slope, 1:3 embankment side slope should be adopted in lower fill side
slope in grassland and agriculture pasturing areas for guarantee residents and livestocks safety
and keep width of embankment after trampled by cows and sheep. 1:4 embankment side slope
should be adopted in shallow excavation, wasteland and lower fill embankment. Slow side
slope to streamline type may guarantee no deposit snow on road pavement. It is an effective
method to slow side slope of embankment for prevent road from sand storm hazard in open
and flat areas, which may also be used in mountain areas if it is possible.
8 Preventing snow storm should start from eliminating condition of wind snow and
make snow content in wind snow decrease to degree with no influence to sight. Based on long
term investigation in snow hazard areas and indoor wind tunnel test, any barriers within 20m
by both sides of embankment should introduce deposit snow on road much or little.
9 Deep cutting should be avoided in wind drift snow excavation section, open subgrade
or adopt semi fill and semi excavation sections, avoid deep road slot. If there are any residual
steps outside of excavation subgrade, they shoud be excavated for decreasing deposit snow in
wind backward. If excavation section is longer, a gap should be remained in short distance for
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easy cleaning out deposit snow. In poor sighting section and if no sight distance monitoring
platform, all barriers should be removed for opening sight distance and providing deposit
snow area. In serious snow hazard sections, subgrade may be added 1-2m width, road arc
slope may not be bigger than 1.5%, and excess horizontal slope at turn may not be bigger 4%.
Hard shoulder is better adopted if it is possible.
If it has to construct cutting, slow cutting side slope according to local snow removing
quantity and make subgrade in cutting as embankment type. Embankment side slope may be
1:4, or reserve deposit snow site, moat or valley etc in order to open subgrade and snow flow
over road smoothly.
10 It is easy to deposit snow in weak wind areas due to influence each other by prevail
wind direction in mountain excavation section and local cyclone, therefore subgrade section is
designed to smooth flow wind snow section and deposit snow is provided, which can
guarantee no snow or little snow deposited on road pavement. It is easy to deposit wind drift
snow in mountain side slope cutting, especially at the cutting where angle between routing
and prevail wind direction is bigger than 30. Deposit snow quantity and area is derect
propotion to facing wind mountain side slope area. Suitable type cutting should be adopted in
design with consideration of snow hazard degree.
7.13.2 Preventing and treatment principles
Biological preventing method is a very popular and priority applied measure for curing snow
hazards, turn bad thing into good one and with muliti benefits. When adopting engineering
protection, pay attention to protect environment, prevent water and soil losing and create
conditions for application of biological treatment method and realize the utmost biological
treatment target.
7.13.3 Measures for preventing snow hazards
1 Comprehensive treatment is the best measures for preventing of snow collapse. It can
protect plant growing while preventing snow collapse. Any artificial protection project should
be lower efficiency till useless along with time flying, and it should be replaced by biological
project. Experiences show that engineering protection project is a must but biological
treatment is incomparable with any other protect projects, and it is the best measures without
replacement.
Road snow hazards may be devided into engineering treatment and biological treatment.
Engineering treatment mainly adopts stable, blocking and guid treatment measures. For
treatment of wind drift snow hazard and snow collapse, some measures are success and some
are failure at present because of limitation of past technical level, monitoring means and
national finance conditions, some are eliminated in the world and some has no suitable
conditions. From a view of ecosystem recovery, bialobical treatment, combination of
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biological and engineering treatment projects are needed to be further completed
2 Preventing measures for snow collapse
1) Horizontal steps are mainly used to prevent slight snow collapse. Building
horinzontal steps along with hillside contour may change hillside slope and stabilize deposit
snow. Break point of snow collapse described in specification refers to highest point of wind
drift snow collection area.
2) Stable snow barrier and horizontal steps may be alternatively used in areas if possible.
Snow brim in the Specifications refers to the thick hang snow mass of wind drift snow at
wind backward internal coteau. It should break and collapse when itself weight reaches a
certain value.
3) Snow protection forest efficiency has close relation with forest structure (section type,
height, and wind penetrating capacity). Combination of arbor and shrub protection forest
should be selected, which is dense from bottom to top and difficult for snow collapse to pass
through.
4) Soil dune and wedge are suitably used in slow side slope, where there is a large scale
groove snow collapse and most of them are located in snow collapse moving area and top of
deposit snow area.
5) Maximum frontage edge height may be calculated with following formula:
Where:
h -Maximum frontage edge height
F -Snow deposit area
H -Maximum depth of snow deposit area
b -Width of groove
L -Length of snow deposit area
Snow embankment is suitably used to prevent snow collapse from groove in steep hillside.
6) Snow preventing corridor, tunnel and other shading structures are one of the most
effective means to prevent snow collapse. They are only used in higher class roads, frequent
snow collapse occurring areas and where it is difficult to adopt other measures due to a large
amount of project and high cost.
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3 Preventing measures of wind drift snow.
1) Design requirement of snow forest should decrease loss from snow and natural
hazards to minimum. It should be combined with arbors, shrubs and grass, and in belt and
network forest, multi tree species and forests, and for making snow forest suitable and stable.
2) Snow fences are widely used at home and abroad. Influences on its efficiency are
mainly on its wind penetration, fence structure and height, and land form etc. Snow fence may
be located in windward side, open and flat areas. Space between snow fence may be
calculated with reference of Manual of Railway Engineering Design-Subgrade.
3) Seal and air penetration lower air deflectior is an effective meausure for preventing
snow wind flow. In comparing with these two kinds air deflectors, the latter has advantages
in decreasing accumulative snow height in front and less consumption of deflectors.
Seal lateral air deflector (Fig. 7-3) is suitable used in windward semi-cutting with a bigger
angle between route and prevail direction wind, and angle more than 30 embankment, and
less than 40 backward wind semi-cutting. Open lateral air deflector (Fig. 7-4) is suitable used
in windward side semi-cutting of which backwind is steep slope or narrow deposit snow area
and difficult to take other protection measures.
Wind direction
Where: S1 S6-snow ridge line; H1 H6-snow depth (m); 0-monitoring location of snow
depth; -outline of deposit snow; X-axillare.
Figure 7-3 Snow Cover Shape of Enclosed Air-Guiding
Wind direction
Where: S1, S6-snow ridge line; H-snow depth (m); 0-monitoring location of snow depth;
Figure 7-4 Snow Cover Shape of Open Air-Guiding
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Lower air deflector and lateral air deflector may also be used together in road turning
sections.
4) Snow dike (wall) may be provided in windward side, where less deposit snow, worse
geology conditions and not suitable for providing of snow fence. Snow dike may be built with
soil and stone mortary.
The height of the snow prevention dikes (walls) could be determined according to the amount
of the snowfall. It usually adopts 1.0~1.5m. There may be 20~30m distance between the snow
prevention dike (wall) and the subgrade edge, but not less than 10m.
7.14 Subgrade of Saliva Drift-ice Zone
1 Saliva drift ice is divided into hillside and river valley types, mainly allocated in cold
and alpine cold areas. Hillside drift ice is formed with outcoming undergoround water in
freezing after excavation of hillside or subgrade. River valley saliva drift ice is formed with
flooding water and melting water in river valley after freezing. The main investigation content
for saliva drift ice is ice quantity formed by various water in cold season and drifting scope.
Local saliva drift ice treatment experiences are also investgaged for favorable selection of
suitable route and adoption of effective measures, decreasing hazards by saliva drift ice.
Main treatment measures and facilities should be shown in highway plan plot and
corresponding longitudinal drawings with scale 1:500~1:2000, describe drainage status and
capability.
2 Route should be located on sunny side as possible when it passes through cold or
alpine cold mountain hillside or ditch and depression land for decreasing ice hazards. When
there is outcoming underground water, verify the possibility of water freezing in winter days
when it flows on ground surface, alternative features of freezing and melting, saliva drift ice
types. Main consideration should be in investigation as follows:
(1) Bypass; Route should avoid to pass through saliva drift ice areas as long as possible
on technique and reasonable on cost, otherwise the treatment must be conducted.
(2) Adopt embankment, preventing saliva drift ice from overflow road pavement and
decrease treatment work quantity.
(3) Increase net clearance of bridge tunnel or deepen ditch for preventing saliva drift ice
from blocking tunnel.
(4) Adopt measures to drain underground water or preventing ice, combine bridge tunnel
structure etc. Designed treatment measures should be further corrected and perfected during
construction.
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3 When subgrade passes through saliva drift ice sections, natural slope ground and
stratum areas should be selected for draining water or ice in shortest distance from subgrade.
Treament measures may be devided as artificial structures, open drainage, block and
interception, enclosing, and storage methods etc. Water is a resource of saliva drift ice so that
treatment in saliva drift ice subgrade section is mainly on water and ice, making water flow
through subgrade smoothly or change water flow direction for eliminating or releasing ice
hazard on road, and at same time protectection of naturaly formed drainage system,
decreasing damage to environment and ecosystem.
4 Subgrade drainage system should be combined with existing natural drainage system,
with existing advantages, form a comprehensive drainage system. It is suitable to fill more
and excavat less in subgrade for avoiding cutting of underground aquifer during construction,
which turns to saliva drift ice. Properly widening excavation section is an effective measure to
prevent cutting from saliva drift ice, and can allocate ice blocking facilities and improve air
ventilation and get more sun lighting.
5 For treatment of spring water which cause saliva drift ice and within a certain scope
of hillside, a large amount of ice is formed because of lasting flow of spring water.
Interception, guiding and leaking methods should be adopted for the general treatement
measures. Spring water resource should be found first, if it is a single spring, heat insulation
cover ditch may be constructed leading water to place below subgrade; if there are several
springs, interception ditch or insulation cover ditch should be used for collection water from
all springs to a larger leakage pond and then discharging to the place below subgrade through
insulation cover ditch or drainage piping with favorable landform. The section size of the
leakage pond, fill size, insulation layer thickness should be decided with local hydrology and
geology conditions and natural conditions. All design data should be precise and reliable.
For saliva drift ice caused by latent underground water, carefully investigatiom must be
conducted on time of freezing, amount of latent water, alternative location, because it effuses
generally in a large area, not concentrated as saliva drift ice, changing along with annual
climate, and difficult to monitor in dry season or in summer.
Latent saliva drift ice in rolling terrain should form long and wide ice flow, which can not be
prevented by insulation cover ditch. Investigate water resource, estimate water amount,
construct lateral slope open interception ditch, intercept later water pass and lead it to ditch or
lead to adjacent bridge tunnel or lower depression land. Ice retain dike or water reservoir may
be built below interception ditch. If ice is led to bridge tunnel, tunnel size and net clearance
must meet requirement for drainage of ice and melting water in spring.
Different treatments should be adopted for road saliva drift ice in hilly terrain according to
soils. If latent water comes from worse clay, powder soil or fine soil and soil is saturated,
saliva drift ice is not main hazard but side slope collapse and landslide. Under this conditions,
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all water in ground surface and soil should be leaked out, and side slope stability be increased.
For saliva drift ice caused by leakage water from rock crack, widen and deepen side ditch if
leakage is small; and heat insulation retain wall may be adopted if leakage is big.
For saliva drift ice caused by river water, saliva drift ice should overflow to road when rive is
shouldow, subgrade lower, bridge tunnel dia, smallwer, slower slope at tunnel bottom, and
diluvial deposit at ditch mouth. The treatment of saliva drift ice should use retain dike,
guiding dam and reservoir. Verify first if net clearance of bridge tunnel satisfies height
requirement in ice cumulation in winter and melting water flow in spring, and second build
guiding ice dam at valley mouth. If it is limited by bridge tunnel height, shorter ice guiding
dam, and cooperation with widen and deepen river bed, reservoir and double tunnel may be
adopted.
6 Subgrade drainage system should be combined with existing natural drainage system,
form a comprehensive drainage system. It is suitable to fill more and less excavation in
subgrade for avoiding cutting of underground aquifer during construction, which turns to
saliva drift ice. Properly widening excavation section is an effective measure to prevent
cutting from saliva drift ice, and can allocate ice blocking facilities and improve air
ventilation and improve sun lighting conditions.
7.14.2 Preventing and treatment measures
1 Treatment of saliva drift ice should be based on subgrade, bridge culvert and other
control structures should be built with favorable topography condtions. Increasing subgrade
level and stability can eliminate or release saliva drift ice hazard to road. Increasing subgrade
level and selection of better water stable crushed gravel soil is a easy, more economic and
effective measure for treatment and preventing saliva drift ice hazard on subgrade, which is
appropraite to the area with less ice collection amount.
Subgrade height should be at least 0.5m higher than maximum saliva drift ice. Increasing
subgrade does not only avoid saliva drift ice overflow to road but also increases road resisting
hazard ability. Selection of crushed gravel soil with better water stability may prevent
subgrade damage from capillary water function of melting ice water,
2 In order to guarantee smoothly water flow, saliva drift-ice is crossed by bridges and
culverts may be adopted. Barrier ice height should be carefully calculated in design. Deepen
and cleanout river bed and other measures may guarantee barrier ice not to flow over road.
Bridge tunnel pier should be concrete casted in situ for preventing pier from freezing damage
of saliva drift ice.
3 Ice collection valley section should be 1-2m in depth and 0.8-1.0m width at bottom
decided with consideration of topography, geology, water amount and ice collection amount.
Ice retain dike should be built outside of subgrade, downstream hillside underground water
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outlet or upstream of valley bridge culvert for interception of saliva drift ice and decreasing its
flow area.
4 Ice retain wall is suitable to hillside saliva drift ice with less leakage water, and
generally cooperated with ice collection pit. It should be located outside of side ditch for
keeping ditch flow smoothly and drainage melting water from culvert.
5 Hidden ditch outlet should be located at steeper slop as possible, no less than 0.5m
above ground. Reverse filter and water isolation layer should be facilated for underground
water drainage and insulation provided at water outlet, or excavate longitudinal drainage ditch
with lsope more than 10% for preventing water flow from freezing.
Heat insulation may be bottom ash, turf and fog materials etc with good insulation property,
EPS (polystyrene foam plate) and other durable new materials may also be adopted. All
selected material should be in compliance with corresponding quality standards.
7.15 Subgrade in Goaf Area
If there is any ground surface collapse, overlapping and a large area collapse in goaf area in
steep slope, it is possible to make steep slope foot unstable and leading to landslide, which has
environment hazard property. It must be avoidd as it is difficult to be treated and with high
cost.
Ground surface deformation is large in goaf area with super thicker coal layer. It can not meet
allowance deformation value and treatment cost is high. After steep incline coat layer
exposure end is excavated at lower layere, overlap rock is easily collapsed and damage
ground surface. Therefore such two status should be avoided.
Reserve coal pillar underground
1) This article is prepared in compliance with relative regulations spedified in Coal

pillar reserve and coal excavation underground of building, water mass, railway and main
laneway issued by The State Coal Bureau, 2000.
2) Protection belt width involves road safety degree and coal covered quantity.
Protection belt for coal pillar for expressway in this article is as same as that for the state
railway class I; width for highway class I is as same as that for the state railway class n.
When reserve protection coal pillar, protection belt is also reserved beyond the protection
boundary because of complex overlay rock structures and difficult to verify boundary
displacement angle. It is a safety measure for keeping protected objects are beyond
displacement boundary.
3) Highway protection coal pillar boundary is verified in compliance with relative
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regulations spedified in Coal pillar reserve and coal excavation underground of building,
water mass, railway and main laneway issued by The State Coal Bureau, 2000.
7.15.3 Goaf area treatment
1) Scope of treatment
Length and width of resovled goaf areas in the Specifications is verified in compliance with
relative regulations spedified in Coal pillar reserve and coal excavation underground of
building, water mass, railway and main laneway issued by The State Coal Bureau, 2000 and
with experiences in treatment of goaf area in years.
2) Treatment measures
Expressways have been built till now in Shanxi, Shaanxi, Henan, Hebei, Xinjiang and Jiagsu
etc. above goaf areas. A large scale of coal layers are excavated and depth is less than or equal
to 250m. Grouting method is success for treatment but no approved experiences for other
methods. Therefore complete grouting method is mainly used in goaf areas. For goaf areas
with depth more than 250m, verify if the complete grouting is adopted according to geology
property and conditions, as well as damage degree on highway and treatment cost etc.
For goaf area of a small scale coal mining and depth is less than 100m, bridge structure may
be adopted, but the technique requirement and cost is higher, which should be used carefully.
For the goaf area that the top plate doesnt collapse yet after the coal seam has been mined,
adopt the non-grouting scheme of filling, including dry masonry rubble, mortar rubble,
underground backfill, dry and wet material backfill by borehole, etc. When there is only one
laneway in goaf area and construction work can be done in the laneway, dry masonry rubble,
mortar rubble, underground backfill may be used. When goaf area is of wall or house pillar
excavation work place, dry and wet material backfill by borehole may be used first and then
grouting. Because of complex geology conditions in goaf areas, nongroutng filling and
grouting filling may be used together according to detailed local conditions for realizing
optimized economic results. Corresponding technical specifications may be refered for dry
masonry rubble, mortar rubble, underground backfill schemes.
7.16 Subgrade in Coastal Area
In addition to similar with wet subgrade in coastal and reservoir, the coastal subgrade has its
special properties. Sea is not deep, but road subgrade is influenced by tide, wave, sea current,
typhoon, tesunmi and meterology ect.; sea base foundation incline or flat, different thickness
mud; special features for different coastal subgrades because of different treatments.
1) Besides the same driving load on subgrade, the coastal subgrade should bear loads
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from sea current, and wave force which has a big strength and dynamic force. In some cold
areas the subgrade should also be influenced by ice edge. All these factors should be
considered in design.
2) Because construction work conducting in beach or on water and influenced by wind,

wave, and other hydrology and meterology factors, reasonable section and protection type
should be selected in design in consideration with local construction conditions and
geography environment.
3) In addition to eroding by sea water and biaology in a long time, subgrade is also
influenced by dry and wet because of water level change. Therefore subgrade structure
materials should have stronger durability, water stability and corrosion resistance.
4) Cost for coastal subgrade is much higher than the general road because of above
reasons. Detail comparison should be conducted on bypass, bridge and other schemes during
design.
7.16.2 Coastal Subgrade Design Elevation
Designed wave standards should include two aspects, recurrence and accumulative frequency.
Designed wave recurrence refers to a specified wave accumulative frequency recurrs once in
how many years, represents long time allocaton rule of wave factors. The standard of
designed wave recurrence is mainly to reflect usage years and importance of building.
Accumulative wave frequency refers to one wave factor (for example wave height) is not less
than a percent of wave quantity of a certain value counting for total wave quantity. Designed
accumulative wave frequency for all kinds of buildings are regulated according to Survey
Code of Railway Project Special Rock (TB 10035) and Manual of Highway Subgrade
Design (Second edition).
7.16.3 Selecton of slope section for coastal subgrade
Selecton of slope section for coastal subgrade is same as for general subgrade. It is easy
connection and construction as well as with higher integrated stability, therefore, vertical wall
section is adopted for coastal subgrade when materials are shortage and under limitted
conditions.
Vertical wall embankment is generally paved by block stone or concrete mortary, and its
basement is riprap hidden base or with revetment block mass outside of bottom for resisting
erode.
Dry masonry rubble, riprap mound or setting block stone or artificial concrete protection mass
or protection block stone ridge at slope foot should be used for slope type embankment.
7.16.4 Side slope ratio of coastal subgrade
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For coastal subgrade side slope ratio, it should be slower in outside sea slope than inside sea
because wave function is much bigger on coastal subgrade than river subgrade; Stability of
stone protection slope is weaker than artificial protection slope so that the slope should be
slower; dike head bracket is longer than dike body and wave resistance capacity is lower and
the slope should be slower.
7.16.5 Protection of coastal subgrade
Protection scope of side slope; upper scope limitation is decided by water increasing in front
of enmbankment and wave increasing on embankment under function of wind and wave;
bottom scope limitation is decided by soil capacity against water impulsion of base flow.
In order to reduce damage on embankment by wave, releasing wave and promoting silt flow
in front of embankment for decreasing protection work quantity and increasing stability of
subgrade side slope. Normal releasing wave and promoting silt flow measures are adopted by
biology, longitudinal and latent dike, float dike, air pressure and hydrolic etc. See hydrolic
works and other relative information for detail.
Safety of protection side slope has close relation with slope foot protection or base protection
in front of dike, in addition to direction relation with slope structure itself. Taking base
protection measures is a vital issue to guarantee success of project against wave damage.
Usual base protection measures are to throw stone block or layout stone buckets at dike base,
and plate pile structure against wave is also used widely.
7.17 Subgrade in Reservoir Area
7.17.1 Highway constructed along the reservoir bank or crossing its branch valley or river,
design should be considered with influences on reservoir bank and subgrade as follows:
reservoir water level fluctuation, wave invation, underground water mound, bank caving,
water flow flushing and fill up, as well as influence on strength of foundation and subgrade by
soakage and leakage. Different measures should be taken for protection in accordance with
severe degree of these factors.
7.17.2 Under leakage pressure on embankment, stability of embankment should decrease

and piping flow and soil losing should occur which is not favorable to stability of
embankment. Therefore well mixed permeable soil should be used for fills and embankment
compaction should be seriously controlled. Thicker reverse filt layer and base protection
should be provided at downstream of embankment or near slope foot in order to avoid
occurring of piping flow and soil losing.
7.17.3 When water level in the branch ditch or river above which subgrade flys over is
higher than reservoir, stable leakage flow should be introduced in subgrade. If no obvious
difference is between up and down streams, sudden change of water level should lead
unstable leakage in subgrade when reservoir discharges flooding or flood coming. Decreasing
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of water level and time in reservoir is more complex, it is recognized that when soil leakage
factor K>0.001cm/s, and decreasing speed less than 1m/d is called slow decreasing, when
speed is bigger than 3m/d is called suddenly decreasing. When water level in reservoir
decreases suddenly, internal side of embankment should leak to reservoir, produce leakage
pressure and eroding to side slope on reservoir side. When water level increasing, water
should leak to embankment and introduce leakage pressure and eroding.
Embankme stability should be lost mostly during suddenly decreasing of water level. A limit
equilibrium for slice is usually used for check calculation and assuming a breaking surface as
circle arc surface, but soaked soil mass gravity and strength index change must be considered.
In quick fill up reservoir, it is a risk period during primary water storage and there is no fill or
a little fill, added embankment capacity against sliding in future after fill up should not be
considered when check calculation of embankment.
Main deformation in embankment is caused by piping flow and soil losing. Leakafe damage
function in reservoir should be analysed on soil unbalance factors, soil size, density, leakage
factor and speed, leakage pressure and other factors.
After storage of water in reservoir, stability of side slope should be damaged along with water
level fluctuation, underground water mound, wave dynamic function, bank stratum change
due to soakage, which make bank erode, collapse, landslide or deforme. Evaluation on bank
stability should be evaluated in compliance with detail location of highway. When it is danger
to highway, reservoir bank or subgrade should be protected and consolidated.
7.17.4 Soaked side slope in reservoir should be protected on wave invation mainly. It should
be considered with water flow flushing in upstream reservoir as flow speed increases when
discharging flood.
Stronger protection projects should be provided in protection scope for resisting wave
invation. After investigation, it shows that all soaked embankment is protected with dry
mornsary stone block or with pavement of various concrete block (plate). Reserve filter
should be provided between protection buildings and soil in order to prevent soil from losing.
7.17.5 After storage of water in reservoir, landslide, collapse and deformation should ocurr
due to physical proper change in reservoir bank stratum and wave invation eroding. If
highway is near reservoir, bank deformation should influence highway subgrade stability.
Collapse speed is different based on bank soil property and locations. It should be verified in
comprehensive considerations of distance between highway and reservoir and above
mentioned factors. Treatment should be conducted in installation and on risk severe degrees.
For severe collapse and danger to subgrade recently, protection should be done on time when
construct a new highway.
288

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53

Specifications for Design of

Issued on 4th September, 2004 Implemented on 1st January, 2005

Issued by the Ministry of Communications of

Trade Standard of the Peoples Republic of China

Specifications for Design of

The Peoples Communications Press

Year of 2004 Beijing

3.1. General Provisions .................................................................................................... 6

3.2. Roadbed .................................................................................................................... 6

3.3. Fill Subgrade ............................................................................................................. 7

3.4. Excavation Subgrade............................................................................................... 11

3.5. Intersection Treatment of Fill and Excavation for Subgrade .................................. 14

3.6. Embankment of High Side Slope and Steep Slope ................................................. 14

3.7. Excavation in High Side Slope ............................................................................... 21

3.8. Rock Fill Embankment ........................................................................................... 26

3.9. Fly Ash Embankment .............................................................................................. 29

3.10. Earth Borrow for Subgrade ..................................................................................... 31

3.11. Subgrade Spoil ........................................................................................................ 31

4.1. General Provisions .................................................................................................. 33

4.2. Drainage for Earths Surface ................................................................................... 33

4.3. Underground Drainage ............................................................................................ 36

5.1. General Provisions .................................................................................................. 39

5.2. Protection for Slope Face ........................................................................................ 40

5.3. Subgrade Protection along Rivers ........................................................................... 44

5.4. Retaining Walls ....................................................................................................... 47

5.5. Side slope Anchoring .............................................................................................. 83

5.6. Soil Nailing Supporting .......................................................................................... 93

5.7. Slide-resistant Pile................................................................................................... 96

6.1. General Provisions .................................................................................................. 99

6.2. Survey and Evaluation on Existing Subgrade ......................................................... 99

6.4. Widening and Reconstructing of Existing Subgrade of Expressway and Class 1

7.1. General Provisions ................................................................................................ 105

7.2. Subgrade in Landslide Region .............................................................................. 105

7.4. Subgrade in Debris Flow Area .............................................................................. 113

7.5. Subgrade in Karst Area ......................................................................................... 115

7.6. Subgrade in Soft Soil Area .................................................................................... 118

7.8. Subgrade in Expansive Soil Area .......................................................................... 130

7.9. Subgrade in Loess Area......................................................................................... 134

7.10. Subgrade in Saline Soil Area ................................................................................ 139

7.11. Subgrade in Permafrost Area ................................................................................ 144

7.12. Subgrade in Sand Storm Area ............................................................................... 148

7.13. Subgrades in Snow Hazard Zone .......................................................................... 152

7.14. Subgrade of Saliva Drift-ice Zone ........................................................................ 157

7.15. Subgrade in Goaf Area .......................................................................................... 159

7.16. Subgrade in Coastal Area ...................................................................................... 162

7.17. Subgrade in Reservoir Area .................................................................................. 164

Appendix B Monitoring Contents and Items .............................................................. 170

Table 1.0.8 Flood Frequency Designed for Subgrade

Highway Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4

It is the excavation subgrade lower than the existing ground.

2.5. Rock Fill Embankment

2.6. California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

2.7. Degree of Compaction

It is a ratio (expressed as a percentage) of the dry density after compaction of building

2.8. Height for Design of Subgrade

design of subgrade is the height of edge outside the median separator.

2.9. Special Subgrade

2.10. Collapsibility Loess

2.12. High Liquid Limit Soil

2.13. Expansive Soil

2.14. Saline Soil