Energy Efficiency of New Res Buildings

ThesisforthedegreeofLicentiateofPhilosophy
inthesubjectofEcotechnologyandenvironmentalscience
stersund2014
ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF NEW

RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS IN SWEDEN
Design and Modelling Aspects
Itai Danielski
FacultyofScience,Technology,andMedia
MidSwedenUniversity,SE83125stersund,Sweden
ISSN16528948,
MidSwedenUniversityLicentiateThesis105
ISBN9789187557101

Akademisk avhandling som med tillstnd av Mittuniversitetet i Sundsvall
framlggs till offentlig granskning fr avlggande av teknologie licentiatexamen
mndag5maj,2014,klockan10:00isalQ221,Mittuniversitetetstersund.
Seminarietkommeratthllaspengelska.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF NEW RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS IN

SWEDEN - Design and Modelling Aspects
Itai Danielski
ItaiDanielski,2014
Department of Ecotechnology and Sustainable Building Engineering,

FacultyofScience,Technology,andMedia
MidSwedenUniversity,SE83125stersund,Sweden
Telephone: +46(0)771975000
PrintedbyMidSwedenUniversity,Sundsvall,Sweden,2014
IllustrationofcoverpagebyLivDanielski
i
ABSTRACT
EnergysecurityandclimatechangemitigationhavebeendiscussedinSweden
since the oil crisis in the 1970s. Sweden has since then increased its share of
renewable energy resources to reach the highest level among the EU member
states, but is still among the countries with the highest primary energy use per
capita.Notleastbecauseofthat,increasingenergyefficiencyisimportantanditis
part of the Swedish long term environmental objectives. Large potential for
improving energy efficiency can be found in the building sector, mainly in the
existingbuildingstockbutalsoinnewlyconstructedbuildings
In this thesis, criteria for energy efficiency in new residential buildings are
studied,severaldesignaspectsofresidentialbuildingsareexamined,andpossible
further analysis from an energy system perspective discussed. Three case studies
ofexistingresidentialbuildingswereanalysed,includingonedetachedhouseand
multistorey apartment buildings. The analysis was based on both energy
simulationsandmeasurementsinresidentialbuildings.
Theresultsshowthatthecalculatedspecificfinalenergydemandofresidential
buildings,beforetheyarebuilt,istooroughanindicatortoexplicitlysteersociety
toward lower final energy use in the building sector. One of the reasons is
assumptionsmadeduringcalculationbeforethebuildingsisbuilt.Anotherreason
is the interior building design. A design that includes relatively large areas of
heated corridors, service and storage rooms will lower the specific final energy
demand without improving the building energy efficiency, which might increase
both the total final energy demand and the use of construction materials in the
buildingsector.
Efficient thermal envelopes are essential in construction of energy efficient
buildings,whichincludethethermalresistanceandalsotheshapeofthebuilding.
The shape factor of buildings was found to be an important variable for heat
demandinbuildingslocatedintemperateandcolderclimates,particularlyifthey
areexposedtostrongwinds.
Fromasystemperspective,energyefficiencymeasuresandtheperformanceof
theenduseheatingtechnologyinbuildingsshouldbeevaluatedtogetherwiththe
energysupplysystem,includingthedynamicinteractionbetweenthem.
ii
SAMMANFATTNING
Energiomstllning har diskuterats i Sverige sedan oljetillfrselkrisen p 1970

talet,bdefratttryggaenergitillfrselnochfrattmotverkaklimatfrndringar.
Sverigeharsedandesskatandelenfrnybarenergi,ochnttdenhgstanivni
Europa, men r fortfarande ett av de lnder i Europa som har hgst
primrenergianvndning per capita. Inte minst drfr r kad
energieffektiviseringviktigt,ochdetutgrendeliSverigesnationellamiljml.I
byggnadssektornfinnsenstorpotentialfrenergieffektivisering,srskiltibefintlig
bebyggelse,menvenfrnybyggnation.
I denna avhandling studeras kriterier fr energieffektivitet i nybyggda
bostadshus.Fleradesignaspekterpbostadshusstuderasochytterligaretnkbara
analyser ur ett systemperspektiv diskuteras. Fallstudier av bde smhus och
flerbostadshus anvnds och bde byggnadssimuleringar och faktiska mtningar
liggertillgrundfranalyserna.
Resultatenvisarattspecifikenergianvndningberknadinnanhusenbyggsr
enfrgrovindikatorfrattsnabbtstyrasamhlletmotlgreenergianvndningi
byggnadssektorn. Det beror delvis p de oskra antaganden man tvingas gra,
menockspbyggnadensinterirautformning.Endesignmedstoraytorutanfr
lgenheterna dr temperaturen r lgre, ssom korridorer, teknikrum och frrd
ger en lgre specifik energianvndning, utan att byggnadens energieffektivitet
frbttras. Istllet kan det leda till att bde total energianvndning och mngden
anvntkonstruktionsmaterialkar.
Klimatskaletr viktigt nr energieffektiva byggnader ska konstrueras, och det
inkluderarsvlUvrdensomformenphuset.Resultatenvisarattformfaktorn
r en viktig parameter fr vrmebehov i byggnader i kallare klimat, srskilt p
blsigaplatser.
Nr energieffektiviseringstgrder i byggnader analyseras i ett

systemperspektiv visar resultaten att bde tgrderna och byggnadernas
vrmesystem br utvrderas med hnsyn till interaktionen med
energitillfrselsystemet.
iii
PREFACE
This work was carried out within a doctoral research project in the
Ecotechnology research group at Mid Sweden University. It is a part of the
interdisciplinary subject of environmental science. My main aim in this research
wastogainabroadviewovertheinterconnectionbetweenthebuildingsector,the
energy production and the environment. It is a complex system that demands
systemthinkingandtheuseofdifferentanalyticaltoolsandmethods.
This thesis compendium is only a summary of a journey. A journey for
knowledge and new discoveries in which my life perspective has shifted in so
manyways,thankstothemanypeoplewhomIhavemetalongtheway.
Iwouldliketostartbythankingmysupervisors,ProfessorIngaCarlmanand
Doctor Anna Joelsson. Your guidance, advices and contribution to this research
arehighlyappreciatedandyoursignatureisapparentintheentiretext.Iwould
also like to thank Professor Leif Gustavsson for opening the door for me to the
research community. A special thanks to Magnus Rindberg from Nrhus and
Daniel Kbi from Jmtkraft for their engagement and support for the energy
monitoringofthepassivehouse.
Many thanks to my colleagues in the Department of Ecotechnology and

Sustainable Building Engineering, and a special thanks to fellow PhDs and PhD
students: Ambrose Dodoo, Bishnu Poudel, Felix Dobslaw, Gireesh Nair, Kerstin
Hemstrm and Truong Nguyen (alphabetical order) for the inspiring discussions
andmanylaughs.Youmadetheseyearsabitlighter.
Finally but not least, I am thankful to my wifeandchildren who have shared
this journey with me during both good and more difficult periods. And to my
parents,ontheothersideoftheMediterranean,Ihopetomakeyouproud.
FinancialsupportforthisresearchhasbeenreceivedfromtheEuropeanUnion
Regional Development Fund, the Swedish Energy Agency and Jmtland County
Councilandisgratefullyacknowledged.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................II
SAMMANFATTNING...................................................................................................III
PREFACE..........................................................................................................................IV
TABLEOFCONTENTS..................................................................................................V
LISTOFPAPERS..........................................................................................................VII
1. INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................1
1.1 Theroleofenergyinthebuildingsector........................................................2
1.2 EnergyandbuildingsinSweden.....................................................................2
1.3 Theaimofthethesis..........................................................................................3
2. METHODOLOGY......................................................................................................4
2.1 Systemanalysis..................................................................................................4
2.1.1 Systemboundariesandmarginaltechnologies.........................................4
2.1.2 Unitsforcomparisonandsystemexpansion.............................................5
2.1.3 Definitionofconcepts...................................................................................6
2.2 Casestudies........................................................................................................7
2.2.1 TheWlluddenbuilding................................................................................7
2.2.2 TheStockholmprogramforenvironmentallyadaptedbuildings..........8
2.2.3 TheRdaLyktanbuilding..............................................................................9
2.3 Finalenergybalanceinbuildings..................................................................10
2.3.1 Energysimulationprogram.......................................................................10
2.3.2 Inputdata.....................................................................................................11
2.3.3 Measurements..............................................................................................11
3. BUILDINGDESIGNTOMEETFINALENERGYREQUIREMENTS..........12
3.1 Energyrequirements.......................................................................................12
3.2 Discrepanciesbetweendesignedandmonitoredvalues...........................15
3.2.1 ResultsDetachedhouses..........................................................................15
3.2.2 ResultsMultistoreyapartmentbuildings.............................................16
3.3 Causesfordiscrepancies.................................................................................17
v
3.3.1 Assumptionduringfinalenergycalculations.........................................17
3.3.2 Systematicerrors.........................................................................................20
3.3.3 Timeelapsebeforethestartoftheenergymonitoring..........................21
4. THEBUILDINGINTERIORLAYOUTDESIGN..............................................23
4.1 Thespecificfinalenergydemand..................................................................23
4.2 Theimpactofrelativesizeofcommonareas...............................................24
4.3 Results...............................................................................................................25
5. THEBUILDINGEXTERIORDESIGN................................................................27
5.1 Theshapefactorconcept.................................................................................27
5.2 Theimpactoftheshapefactorindifferentclimateconditions.................29
5.3 Results...............................................................................................................30
6. BUILDINGDESIGNINANENERGYSYSTEMPERSPECTIVE..................33
6.1 Energyefficiencymeasures............................................................................33
6.2 Referenceheatandpowerproductionplant................................................34
6.3 Environmentaltaxationscenarios.................................................................34
6.4 Results...............................................................................................................36
7. DISCUSSION...........................................................................................................37
8. CONCLUSIONS.......................................................................................................41
REFERENCES...................................................................................................................42
vi
LIST OF PAPERS
This thesis is based on the following four papers, herein referred to by their
Romannumerals:

PaperI Primaryenergyimplicationsofenduseenergyefficiencymeasures
indistrictheatedbuildings
LeifGustavsson,AmbroseDodoo,NguyenTruong,ItaiDanielski
EnergyandBuildings,43(1)(2011)3848

PaperII Large variations in specific final energy use in Swedish apartment
buildings:Causesandsolutions
ItaiDanielski
EnergyandBuildings,49(0)(2012)276285

PaperIII TheImpactoftheshapefactoronfinalenergydemandinresidential
buildingsinNordicclimates
ItaiDanielski,MorganFrling,AnnaJoelsson
WorldRenewableEnergyCongress2012,Denver,Colorado,USA

PaperIV AdaptionofthepassivehouseconceptinnorthernSweden
acasestudyofperformance
Itai Danielski, Michelle Svensson, Morgan Frling
PassivhusNorden2012,Gteborg,Sweden
vii
1. INTRODUCTION
Throughthehistoryofcivilizationhumanshavebuiltshelterstopracticetheir
socialactivities,whilehavingprotectionagainstweather,wildanimals,andother
humanbeings.Thesebuildingswerecommonlybuiltfromavailablelocalmaterials
andfollowedadesignthattookintoconsideration,e.g.thelocalclimateconditions
[1].Suchbuildingexamplesinclude,e.g.theadobehouse[2],theopencourtyard
building design [3] and the Inuit igloos in Greenland and northern Canada [1].
Newtechnologies,newmaterials,andchangesinsocietalstructureshavechanged
the way buildings are designed and constructed today. For example, heating,
ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems are widely used to compensate
for the lack of sufficient indoor comfort, which in many cases is the result of
inefficientbuildingdesignandenhancedthermalcomfortrequirementsovertime.
Since the oil crises in the middle of the 1970s the use of energy has received
great attention due to the limited amount of natural resources such as oil, and
environmental awareness, for example, concerning global warming. The
worldwide contribution of the building sector to the final energy demand has
steadily increased to about a third of the worlds final energy demand, which
makesitthemostenergyintensivesector[4].About50%ofthefinalenergyusein
thissectorisattributedtoHVACsystems[5],avaluethatisexpectedtoincreasein
thefutureduetoincreaseddemandforbetterindoorcomfortandincreasedtime
spentindoors[5],forexample,forthepurposesofeducation,business,healthand
leisure.
Human population, consumption patterns, and economic growth have
increasedthedemandonnaturalresources[6].Themodernlifestylehasreacheda
stagewhereecologicalservicesareusedfasterthanthenaturecanregenerate[7].
Buildings affect the environment during their entire life time, which include:
materialproduction,construction,operation,maintenance,disassemblyandwaste
management. During these phases natural resources are consumed, land is used,
wasteisproducedandemissionsarereleasedtotheenvironment.Wasteproducts
andemissionsmayremainmanyyearsafterbuildingdemolition.
With business as usual, the environmental impact of the building sector will
increaseinthefutureasthenumberofdwellingsisexpectedtoincreaseduetothe
global population growth. Predictions done by the UN, point at 1.0 to 3.5 billion
additional people by 2050, which is equivalent to an increase of 15% 50% for
todayspopulation[8].Itisachallengetoprovideasufficientnumberofdwellings
for a growing world population while maintaining high life standard and good
thermal comfort. Yet, it is a greater challenge to ensure that these building will
1
comply with the principle set by the global society in the WCEDreport Our
CommonFuturetomeettheneedsofthepresentwithoutcompromisingtheability
offuturegenerationstomeettheirownneeds[9].
1.1 The role of energy in the building sector

Atthesametimeastheenergyuseinthebuildingsectorriskstoincreaseinthe
future,thebuildingsectorholdsalargeenergysavingspotential.Implementation
of energy efficiency measures is calculated to result in up to 30% savings in the
building sector by 2020 [10]. This by itself corresponds to about 11% of the total
final energy demand in the EU [11]. As a measure to realize this potential, the
EuropeanparliamentapprovedtheDirectiveontheEnergyPerformanceofBuildings
[12]in2010.Thedirectivedemandsthatbytheendof2020,allnewlyconstructed
buildings in the EU should be nearly zeroenergy buildings, and that the
member states should stimulate the transformation of existing buildings under
refurbishmentintonearlyzeroenergybuildings.Althoughtheconceptofnearly
zeroenergybuildingsisnotdefined,theobjectiveofthisdirectiveistopromote
the design of buildings with improved energy performance in all EU member
states.
Building design has a significant role in the buildings future energy

performance. Decisions made at an early stage about the buildings shape,
construction material, interior layout, orientation, window sizes and placement
will steer the final energy demand for heating, cooling and ventilation. Design
decisions may also have large impact on land use, the use of resources and the
productionofwasteandemissionsduringtheentirelifecycleofthebuilding.This
thesiswillexamineafewofthesebuildingdesignaspectsandtheirimpactonthe
final energy demand and energy supply systems with focus on residential
buildingslocatedinaSwedishclimate.
1.2 Energy and buildings in Sweden

Swedenisanindustrializedcountrywithahighlivingstandard,highGDPper
capita(USD40,700)andrichinresourcesforheatandpowerproductionincluding
hydropower,biomass,wind,anduranium(currentlynotutilized).Itislocatedin
the northern part of Europe between 55 and 70 latitude with temperate to sub
arcticclimateandanaverageannualoutdoortemperaturethatrangesfrom9Cin
the south to below 0C in the north. In such climate conditions there is a
dependencyonenergyresourcestoobtainsufficientindoorthermalcomfort[13].
2
In 2013,Sweden was ranked third bythe WorldEnergy Council in their Energy
Sustainability Index [14], which includes three indicators: energy security, social
equalityandenvironmentimpactmitigation.Atthesametime,however,Sweden
was also highly ranked in terms of primary energy1 per capita [15]. A significant
cause for this high primary energy use per capita is the large share of existing
dwellingsthatwerebuiltduringthe1960sand1970s[16].Atthatperiod,energy
efficiencyinbuildingswasnotprioritizedduetolowenergyprices.Asaresult,the
residentialandservicesectorbecamethemostenergyintensivesectorwithabout
40%ofthetotalfinalenergydemandinSweden[17].
TheSwedishpopulationincreasesby0.4%peryearandisexpectedtoincrease
by an additional 2.1 million citizens by 2060 [18]. The annual rate of new
constructedresidentialdwellingsforthelast20yearswasslightlyhigherwith0.5%
on average [19]. Thus, to reach the Swedish goal of 20% lower total final energy
demand by 2020, in comparison to year 1990 [20], the design of new buildings
shouldaimforhighenergyperformance.
1.3 The aim of the thesis

This thesis focuses on design aspects of residential buildings and their final
energy demand during their service life time, and lays the basis for further
analysesinanenergysystemperspectivethatincludes:thebuildinganditsenergy
system, the energy production system and the interaction between them. The
thesisincludesfourmainresearchquestions:
Are commonly used calculation methods and requirement specifications
suitable to evaluate energy demand in buildings in the design stage? This
questionisaddressedinchapter3.
What is the impact of the interior building layout design on specific final
energydemand?Thisquestionisaddressedinchapter4.
Whatistheimpactofexteriorbuildingdesignonfinalenergydemand?This
questionisaddressedinchapter5.
Whatimpactdoesthebuildingdesignhaveondistrictheatingsupplysystem
andprimaryenergyuse?Thisquestionisaddressedinchapter6.
1
See definition for primary energy in section 2.1.3
3
2. METHODOLOGY
When analysing the built environment, modification of existing buildings and

energysystemsisnotalwayspracticalorpossible.Instead,analyticalcalculations,
modelling and monitoring of the different components of the system in question
canbeusedtoanalysetheeffectofchangesinthedesign.Thefollowingsections
describethemethodsandtheanalyticaltoolsthatwereusedinthisthesisresearch
toanalysetheimpactofbuildingdesignontheenergydemand.
2.1 System analysis

Asystemcanbeviewedasaregularlyinteractingorinterdependentgroupof
items (components) forming a unified whole [21]. The exchange of information,
material or energy among the different components is an essential part of the
systeminquestion,whichisbestdescribedbyAristotlesargumentthatthewhole
isgreaterthanthesumofitsparts.
InPapersIIandIVthesystemisthebuildingitself,whileinPaperI,asystem
analysisisusedtostudythebuildingenergyinthelargerenergydemandsupply
system. A bottomup approach is used in order to analyse how small changes
affect the system and what the interactions are among its different components.
ThesubsystemsandtheinteractionamongthemaredescribedindetailinPapersI
toIV.Theconclusionsaredeterminedbythemagnitudeofthechangesobserved
under small modification in the sub systems, thus large truncation errors are
avoided since the systems are analysed under similar conditions for the different
alternatives compared. When setting up models for system analysis, several
assumptions must be made. In the following sections the most important
methodologicalassumptionsaredescribed.
2.1.1 System boundaries and marginal technologies

The energy system in Paper I includes the entire energy chain from natural
resourcesviaheatandpowerproductionplantstoenergyservicesinaresidential
building. Residential buildings can be viewed as a sub system of the whole
national energy system and their energy demand can be modeled individually
(Papers II, III, and IV) as it is affected by many components including: design,
outdoor environment conditions, HVAC systems, water consumption, electrical
appliances, indoor thermal comfort and indoor human activities. These
componentsandtheirinteractionhaveanimpactonthedemandforfinalenergyin
thebuildingandhenceonthewholeenergysystem.

4
When it comes to use of electricity, Sweden is part of the Nordic electricity
trading market, the NordPool. The Swedish electricity grid is connected by high
voltagecablestoNorway,Finland,Denmark,PolandandGermany,viathelatter
also to the Baltic States, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Belgium, Franceand to
someextenttoAustriaandSwitzerland.Asaresult,theSwedishelectricitysystem
isnotaclosedsystembutpartoflargersystemthatextendsbeyondthephysical
borders of the country. Small changes in electricity production or consumption
patternsinSwedenmaythusaffectelectricityproductioninotherpartsofEurope.
That raises the question which technology would be affected by these marginal
changes. Today coalfired condensing plants (CST) are the dominant marginal
electricity production technology in the Nordic region [22]. However, this may
change in the future due to factors including investments, greenhouse gas
reductionpolicies,strategicandsecurityreasons[23].
Districtheatingnetworks,ontheotherhand,arelocalsystemsthatcanvaryin
size from a few buildings to large urban areas. In a district heating power plant,
the marginal production technology is the technology that is the most costly to
operateperunitofenergyoutput.Themarginaltechnologyisnotconstantintime
andmayshiftbetweenbaseloadandpeakloaddemandwithinthesamedistrict
heating network (Paper I). The district heating system analyzed in this thesis is
confined to the city of stersund, Sweden, with its local climate condition and
localheatdemand.
2.1.2 Units for comparison and system expansion

In a life cycle assessment, the functional unit is a quantified performance of a
product(goodsorservice)ofasystemforuseasareferenceunit[24].Itprovidesa
reference to which the inputs and outputs can be related. There are needs for
similarunitsalsoinsystemenergyassessments.Indirectivesandstandardenergy
demandofbuildings,buildingdesignisoftengivenbytheannualenergydemand
forelectricity,spaceanddomesticwaterheatingperunitoffloorarea(m2),which
enablesthecomparisonofenergydemandamongbuildingswithdifferentsizes.
In Paper I, the parameter of interest is the primary energy used for different
heat demands and heat production technologies in a district heating plant. Co
generation of heat and power (CHP) is a multifunctional process with two
products, which induces allocation difficulties. That is, how much of the inputs
andoutputsoftheprocessareattributabletoeachoftheproductsorserviceunder
assessment. There are several allocation methods, in which the analysed
parameters(primaryenergy)couldbeallocatedtoeachoftheproductsinadistrict
heatingnetworkwithaCHPplant[25].Accordingtothe ISO14040standard[26],
Allocation should be avoided, wherever possible, either through subdivision of the
5
multifunction process into sub-processes, and collection of separate data for each sub-
process, or through expansion of the systems investigated until the same functions are
delivered by all systems compared.
Systemexpansionisanadequatemethodforavoidingallocation[25].Itcanbe
used with the subtraction method and assuming that the secondary product (e.g.
cogenerated electricity in a CHP plant) would replace a similar product that
insteadwouldhavebeenproducedinastandaloneprocessusingthesameinput
(e.g. fuel or primary energy) [27]. In Paper I, the district heating system is
expandedtoincludeastandalonepowerplant.Thesecondaryproduct,i.e.theco
generated electricity, is assumed to replace the electricity production in this
standalone power plant. The total amount of primary energy used in the district
heatingplantisthencreditedwiththeamountofprimaryenergyusedtoproduce
thesameamountofelectricityinthestandalonepowerplant.
2.1.3 Definition of concepts

Whendiscussingenergyandenergydemand,avarietyofenergyconceptsand
terms can appear. In the research described in this thesis the following energy
termsareused:
Finalenergydemandinabuildingdenotesthetotalenergysuppliedtothe
householdforelectricity,spaceheatinganddomesticwaterheating.
Primaryenergyrepresentstheentireamountofenergyresourcesthatare
needed in order to deliver an energy service in a building. It hence
includes all the energy losses along the energy chain from natural
resourcestoenergyservices.
Specific final energy demand is the amount of final energy supplied per
unitofbuildingfloorarea.
6
2.2 Case studies
Casestudyresearchcanbringunderstandingofacomplexissuebyanalysinga
numberofselectedcases.Johansson[28]distinguishesbetweenthreetypesofcase
study practices: the explicative, which focuses on one unit of analysis but with
many variables and qualities; the experimental, which focuses on one or a few
units of analysis and a few isolated variables; and reductive, which focuses on
manyunitsofanalysisandafewvariables.
The last two types of case study practices were used in this thesis research
using different cases (units of analysis) of existing residential buildings. The
experimentalcasestudyisusedinPaperIandIV.Eachofthesepapershasone
object of analysis: the Wlludden respectively, the Rda Lyktan project, and one
variable: the final energy demand, which is monitored or calculated. The
reductive case study is used in Paper II and III by correlation analysis of few
variables among 22 multistorey buildings constructed in Stockholm. The Rda
Lyktan, Wlludden and Stockholm program case studies are described in the
followingsections.
2.2.1 The Wlludden building

The Wlludden building, in Paper I, is a fourstorey apartment building with
woodenframefoundation.Ithas16apartmentsandatotalheatedareaof1190m2.
It was constructed in 1995 in Vxj, Sweden, but was analysed with the climate
data of stersund. The roof consists of two layers of asphaltimpregnated felt,
woodpanels,400mmmineralwoolbetweenwoodenrooftrusses,polythenefoils
andgypsumboards,givinganoverallUvalueof0.13W/(m2K).Thewindowsare
doubleglazedandhaveaUvalueof1.90W/(m2K).TheexternaldoorshaveaU
valueof1.19W/(m2K)andconsistofframingwithdoubleglazedwindowpanels.
The externalwalls haveaUvalue of0.20W/(m2 K)and consist of three layers: 5
cm plastercompatible mineral wool panels, 120 mm thick timber studs with
mineral wool between the studs, and a wiring and plumbing installation layer
consistingof70mmthicktimberstudsandmineralwool.Twothirdsofthefacade
is plastered with stucco, while the facades of the stairwells and the window
surrounds consist of wood panelling. The ground floor consists of 15 mm oak
boardingon16cmconcreteslablaidon70mmexpandedpolystyreneand150mm
macadam,resultinginaUvalueof0.23W/(m2K).Detailedinformation,including
drawingsandthermalpropertiescanbefoundinPersson(1998)[29].
7
2.2.2 The Stockholm program for environmentally adapted buildings
Twentytwomultistoreyapartmentbuildingswereusedasacasestudy,20of
theminPaperII(thebuildingsinlocations18inTable1)andfiveoftheminPaper
III (the buildings in locations 2, 4, 6, 9, 10 in Table 1). All the buildings were
constructed according to the Stockholm program for environmentally adapted
buildings [30] (hereinafter called the Stockholm program). They were chosen
becauseofthesimilaritiesinthermalproperties,energysystemsandtheabsenceof
areasforcommercialpurposes(Table1).Thebuildingsheatsourceforspaceand
domesticwaterheatingisthelocaldistrictheatingnetworkinStockholm,Fortum
Vrme.Thebuildingsfinalenergydemandoveroneyearwasmonitoredbothby
thebuildingsproprietorsaftersettlingandbyFortumduring2005and2006.These
monitoredvalueswereusedtoanalysetheimpactoftheinteriordesign,PaperII,
andbytheexteriordesign(PaperIIandIII)onthefinalenergydemand.
Table 1. Description of the residential building that participate in the Stockholm program
Floorarea No.of No.of No.of Ventilation

Locationname
(m2) buildings storeys apartments system
1 Sundet1 4,900 2 5 39 Forced
2 Fladen1 3,200 2 5 31 Forced
3 Fjrden1 3,200 2 5 31 Forced
4 Spinnsidan4 1,613 2 3,4 16 Forced
5 Tjrnen1 5,895 3 57 60 Forced
Installation1&
6 6,571 3 57 62 Forced
Hologrammet1
7 Polygripen2 4,146 2 3 38 Forced
8 Tjockan1 9,700 4 4 91 Forced
9 Fljetongen1 567 1 3 6 Forced
10 Tjoget1 975 1 4 12 Forced
ThelocationFladen1includestwoidenticalbutmirroredbuildings.Oneofthe
buildingswasusedasareferenceexampletostudytheeffectsoftheshapefactor
and the relative size of the common area on the specific final energy demand
(PapersIIandIII).Thereferencebuildingisafivestoreyapartmentbuildingwith
atotalfloorareaof1600m2.Theroofconsistsoftwolayersofasphaltimpregnated
feltover25mmplywoodsheet,with300mmofmineralwoolbetweenthewooden
roof trussesand 150 mm of concrete, providing an overallUvalue of0.13W/(m2
K). The external walls have a Uvalue of 0.25 W/(m2 K) and consist of 8 mm of
plaster,150mmofmineralwoolbetweenwoodenstudsand150mmofbrick.The
facadeconsistsof33%tripleglazedwindowsanddoorswithanoverallUvalueof
1.20 W/(m2 K). The ground floor consists of 20 mm oak boarding on a 180 mm
concrete slab laid on 150 mm of expanded polystyrene and 100 mm of asphalt,
resultinginaUvalueof0.24W/(m2K).
8
2.2.3 The Rda Lyktan building
Thiscasestudyisasemidetachedhousewithtwoidenticaldwellingslocatedin
stersund. It was constructed during 2010 with a design that meets the
requirements for Swedish passive houses as defined by the Forum for energy
efficiencybuildings(FEBY)[31]andtheCentreforzeroenergybuildings(SCNH)
[32]. It is the first construction project that meets the passive house criteria in
Northern Sweden (latitude 63N), climate zone I (see Figure 3 in section 3.1). To
date,thenumberofpassivehousesinclimatezoneIregionisstilllessthan1%of
thetotalpassivehousesinSweden[33].
The two dwellings were inhabited by families with different characteristics: a
couple in one unit and a couple with two young children in the other. Each
residentialunithastwostoreysandatotalfloorareaof160m2,whichincludes:a
cloakroom, hall, a kitchen, a living room, a toilet, a bathroom, a laundry room, a
storage room and four bedrooms, as illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2. In
addition,awoodenterrace,abalcony,anadjacentgarageandagarbageroomare
locatedoutsidethethermalenvelopeofthebuildingandthereforenotconsidered
aspartofthefloorarea.

Figure 1. Drawing of the first floor Figure 2. Drawing of the second floor
ThisRdaLyktanbuildinghasawoodenframeonconcreteslabwithsteelmesh
on foam sheets (cellular plastics). The outer walls are made of several layers
including:gypsumboard,175mmstonewool,240mmcellulosefibresandwood
panelattheexterior.Theroofismadeofmetalsheetsontopofcompositewood
board, cellulose fibres, stone wool and a gypsum board at the interior. The ratio
betweenthebuildingsthermalenvelopeanditsfloorarea,i.e.theshapefactorof
thebuilding,isabout2,whichindicatesarelativelycompactbuilding.Thethermal
propertiesofthedifferentelementsarelistedinTable2.
9
Table 2. The thermal properties of the Rda Lyktan building
Area U-average U Area

Building component
m2 W/(m2 K) W/K
Roof 168.0 0.078 13.1
Externalwall 242.5 0.093 22.6
Windows 57.6 0.750 43.2
Doors 4.2 0.800 3.4
Slabonground 163.3 0.110 18.0
Coldbridgestotal 8.9
Thermalenvelopetotal 635.6 0.172 109.2
The heating system includes a waterbased preheater coil in the ventilation

systemandfloorheatinginthebathroomandintheentrancehall.Themainsource
for heat is the local district heating plant for both space and domestic water
heating.Asecondaryheatsourceisawoodfuelstoveinstalledinthelivingroom.
The stove can be used by the occupants according to their wishes. A balance
ventilationunitwitharotaryheatexchangerisinstalledineachofthedwellingsto
reduceventilationheatlosses.
2.3 Final energy balance in buildings

Finalenergybalanceinbuildingsdescribesalltheenergyflowstoandfromthe
building and includes: solar radiation, internal heat from occupants and
appliances, space and domestic water heating, air leakage and ventilation heat
losses, conduction heat losses, and sewage heat losses. Each of the energy flows
includes many variables that can vary with time, which is why an energy
simulationprogramwasused.
2.3.1 Energy simulation program

TheVIPEnergysimulationprogram[34]wasusedtocalculatethefinalenergy
demandinthebuildings.TheVIPEnergyisadynamicenergybalancesimulation
program that calculates the energy performance of buildings hour by hour
consideringthebuildingsthermalproperties,orientation,heatingandventilation
systems,indoorandoutdoorconditions,andoperationschedule.TheVIPEnergy
has been validated by IEABESTEST, ASHRAEBESTEST and CEN15265
validationtests.
10
2.3.2 Input data
Monitored metrology data for wind, solar radiation and humidity were
obtained from the NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory and from
temperatur.nu [35]. Architectural drawings of the buildings were gathered from
theStockholmcityarchives,literature[29]andpersonalcommunication[36].The
finalenergydemandfortheStockholmprogrambuildingswasobtainedfromthe
local district heating network in Stockholm, Fortum Vrme. The daily heat
production for the year 2008/2009 was obtained from the local district heating
provider in stersund, Jmtkraft, and was used as a reference; see Figure 16 in
section6.4.
2.3.3 Measurements
In the Rda Lyktan study, described in Paper IV, a one year final energy
monitoring started in May 2012, after a period of individual adjustments for the
indoor comfort levels for each of the two residential units, and about two years
afterthecompletionofconstructionwork.Separatemeasurementswereperformed
for space heating, domestic water heating, household electricity and forauxiliary
electricityincludingelectricityforthewaterpumpsandtheventilationsystem.The
measurement equipment was installed by Jmtkraft and was collected by remote
reading. The amount of wood fuel used in the stove was registered by the
occupants. Indoor thermal conditions were monitored in three locations in each
residential unit: the main bed room, the bathroom and the corridor. The outdoor
thermal conditions were measured as well. The sensors are of type Laskar EL
USB2+ with a temperature and relative humidity reading error of 0.3C and 2%
respectively. The ventilation aggregate is of type EnerventPandion with builtin
temperaturesensorsforextractair,exhaustair,beforeandaftertheheatexchanger
andbeforeandaftertheheatingcoil.
11
3. BUILDING DESIGN TO MEET FINAL ENERGY
REQUIREMENTS
Final energy calculations already in the design stage of buildings are used in
order to make sure to meet the building code requirements, local environmental
targets and voluntary goals such as passive house certificates or environmental
certification. The compliance of the building to energy targets is usually done by
calculationsduringthedesignstageofthebuilding,beforeitisbuilt.Theaccuracy
ofsuchcalculationsisdescribedinsection3.2basedontheanalysisdoneinPaper
IIandPaperIV.
3.1 Energy requirements

New residential buildings in Sweden are required, by the Swedish building
code (BBR) [37], to fulfil a set of goals concerning safety, energy efficiency and
thermal comfort. These goals, listed in Table 3, include among others the
maximumspecificfinalenergydemandofthebuildingaccordingtothreeclimate
zones,aslistedinFigure3.
Table 3. The energy requirements by the Swedish building code by climate zone [37]
Climatezone I II III
Thebuildingsspecificfinalenergydemand*kWh/(m2year) 130(95) 110(75) 90(55)
Installedpowerratingforheating**kW 5.5 5 4.5
Averagethermaltransmittance***W/(m2K) 0.4 0.4 0.4
* Household electricity is not included. Values in brackets are for dwellings with electric
heating.
2
** For dwellings with electric heating and a heated floor area up to 130 m .
2
For each additional 1 m heated floor area, 0.035 kW should be added.
*** Watt per buildings envelope area and degree Kelvin.
Stricter energy requirements than the Swedish building codes are encouraged
bydifferentcertificationschemeswithlabelsissuedbyathirdparty.Thesecanbe
divided between Environmental and energy only certification schemes.
Environmental certification schemes evaluate a range of issues concerning the
building,theinstalledsystems,andinsomecasesthebuildingsiteandoccupants
possibilities for sustainable behaviour. Large international environmental
certificationsareBREEAMandLEED.Yet,manycountrieshavenationalschemes
suchastheMiljbyggnadschemeinSweden,providedbytheSwedenGreenBuilding
Council[38].
12

Figure 3.
3 Illustratio
on of the three climate zones
s used in the Swedish
S buildding code
The Miljbyggnad certification system is developed

d fo
or the Sweddish climate
conditions..Thescheme eisbasedonntheSwedisshconstructionpractice..Itincludes
16differen ntperformanceindicatorss,wheretwo oconcernenergyuse:theebuildings
specific fin
nal energy demand and the maximu um heat load d demand/flloor area as
gradedbythrreelevels:Brronze,Silver andGold.
listedinTaable4.Eachindicatorisg
Table 4. The Miljby

yggnad certificcation grading scheme for energy demandd indicators
Indicators Brronze Silveer Gold
Thespecificcfinalenergy demand 10
00%* 75%** 65%*
Heatloaddemand/Floorarea(W/m2) Withelectrich
heating 4
40 30 20
Other 6
60 40 25
* % of the en
nergy requirem
ments in the B
BBR, according
g to Table 3.
13
In addition to the environmental certification schemes there are the EU Green
building and the Passive house criteria, which only focus on energy. The EU
GreenBuildinglabelisintendedforexistingbuildingsthatachievea25%reduction
in final energy demand by implementing energy efficiency measures or new
buildingswith25%lowercalculatedenergydemandincomparisontotheSwedish
building code. The GreenBuilding and the Miljbyggnad certification systems are
usedin88%ofthetotalcertifiedbuildingsinSweden[38].Itisworthnotingthat
final energy demand has large weight in the different certification schemes and
policies.However,reducingthefinalenergydemanddoesnotguaranteeloweruse
of energy resources or less environmental impact. The dynamics of the energy
systemmustbeconsidered,asindicatedinPaperI,andwillbediscussedfurtherin
chapter6.
TheFEBYreport[31]publishedbytheSwedishEnvironmentalResearchInstitute
(IVL),providescriteriaforzeroenergy,passiveandminienergyhouses.IVLisan
independent, nonprofit research institute, owned by a foundation jointly
establishedbytheSwedishGovernmentandtheSwedishindustry.Thesecriteria
are a modification of the international Passive house criteria, developed by the
PassiveHouseInstitute[39],andincluderequirementsconcerningthermalresistance
and air tightness of the building envelope, and two requirements for energy
demand:(i)theratioofheatloaddemandtotheheatedfloorareaofthebuilding;
and(ii)thespecificfinalenergydemand.ThetwocriteriaarelistedinTable5for
thedifferentclimatezonesillustratedinFigure3.
Table 5. The Swedish energy criteria for passive houses by heating system and
climate zone
Climatezone: I II III
Heatloaddemand/Floorarea W/m
2 19 18 17
Fornonelectricheatingsystems kWh/(m2year) 63 59 55
Forelectricheatingsystems kWh/(m2year) 31 29 27
Foracombinationofdifferenttypes kWh/(m2year) 78 73 68
ofheatingsystems
14
3.2 Discrepancies between designed and monitored values
The buildings energy requirements need to be fulfilled before the building is
built, already in its design stage. Thus, the final energy demand has to be
calculated, which can lead to large discrepancies with the monitored values
measured during the operation phase of the building. Such discrepancies were
observedinthreeconstructionprojectsinSwedenaslistedinTable6andwillbe
discussedmoreindetailinthefollowingsections.
Table 6. Monitored and required specific final energy demand in kWh/(m2 year)
Monitoredvalues
Requiredvalues
Project kWh/(m2year)
kWh/(m2year)
Minimum Maximum
Stockholm[40]
Heating
System
DH* 111 242 140

DH+VHR** 109 334 125
Electricheating 70 121 90
Bo1[41] 118 356 105
Linds[42]*** 45 97 Passivehouse
standard****
* DH - District Heating
** VHR - Balance Ventilation with Heat Recovery
*** The values include household electricity, in average 31.8 kWh/m2, was monitored.
**** According to table 5 with climate zone III and electric heating.
Two examples of large discrepancies between designed and monitored values

of final energy demand have been analysed in detail. These include the Rda
Lyktan case study (Paper IV), a semidetached house, and the Stockholm project
casestudy,whichincludesmultistoreyapartmentbuildings(PaperII).
3.2.1 Results - Detached houses

Large differences were found between the calculated and monitored final
energydemandoftheRdaLyktancasestudy(PaperIV),asillustratedinFigure4.
Differences were found in all the four energy categories: (i) space heating was
underestimated by 22% 37%; (ii) domestic water heating was overestimated by
40% 170%; (iii) household electricity was overestimated by more than twofold;
and (iv) auxiliary electricity was overestimated by 50% in comparison to the
monitored values. In total, the annual final energy demand was 28% and 33%
higherthanthecalculatedvaluesforhouseholdIandhouseholdII,respectively.
15
110
100
Householdelectricity
90
Specificfinalenergydemand
80 38.3
39.3
Auxilaryelectricity
70
kWh/(m2 year)
18.7
60 7.4
10.7 6.9 5.8 Domesticwater
50
11.1 6.7 heating
40 15.5
10.0 Woodstove
30
20 42.6
31.0 29.5 Spaceheating
10
0
Calculatedvalues HouseholdI HouseholdII

Figure 4. The designed and monitored final energy demand by energy type of the two
households in the Rda Lyktan project (Paper IV).
3.2.2 Results - Multi-storey apartment buildings

The Stockholm program for environmental adapted buildings [40] involved multi
storey apartment buildings that were constructed in 77 locations within the
Stockholmmunicipalityduringtheperiodof1996to2005.Eachlocationcontained
atleastonemultistoreyapartmentbuilding.Thespecificfinalenergydemandwas
calculated before the buildings were constructed, by their proprietors, as a
controlling mechanism to achieve the project energy requirements (Table 6). In
addition, one year final energy monitoring was conducted during the operation
phaseofthebuilding,bythebuildingsproprietors,asafeedbackmechanism.
The monitored specific final energy demand was found to be significantly
higherthanthecalculatedvaluesin66%ofthelocations(Figure5),andin78%of
the locations, apartment buildings failed to accomplish the Stockholm program
finalenergyrequirementsaslistedinTable6.SimilarresultswerefoundintheBo1
constructionprojects[41]inthecityofMalm,Sweden(Table6).
16
400
Monitored values in buildings with forced ventilation
Specific final energy demand
350
Monitored values in buildings with ventilation heat recovery (VHR)
300
Monitored values in buildings heated with heat-pump
kWh/(m2 year)
250
Calculated values
200
150
100
50
0
Locations
Figure 5. The calculated and monitored specific final energy demand of apartment
buildings in 77 locations that participated in the Stockholm program. Each
value represents an average value of all the apartment buildings in each
location.
3.3 Causes for discrepancies

This section explores how the discrepancies between the calculated and
monitoredvaluesoffinalenergydemandinresidentialbuildingsdescribedinthe
previoussectioncanbeexplained.ThreemaincauseswereidentifiedinPaperII:
(i) assumption during final energy calculations; (ii) systematic errors in
calculations; and (iii) the time elapsed since construction completion and the
beginningoftheenergymeasurementoftheenergymonitoring.
3.3.1 Assumption during final energy calculations

The discrepancies between the designed and monitored final energy can to a
largeextentbetheresultsofdifferentassumptionsmadeduringthecalculations,
for example,assumptionsregardingoutdoor conditions, performance ofinstalled
systems, and residence behavior. The difficulty to predict resident behaviour is a
generalproblemwhenestimatingthefinalenergydemandofresidentialbuildings.
According to Pettersen [43], it is impossible to predict the total energy
consumption with better accuracy than 1520%, if the behaviour of a buildings
inhabitantsisunknown.Performingsuchcalculationmayleadtolargerdifferences
in comparison to the monitored values, than the use of different calculation and
simulationmethods[44].
17
The Forum for Energy Efficient Buildings (FEBY) [31] tries to overcome the
problem of diversity ofassumptions by defined specific values andmethodsthat
aim to represent the average final energy demand for different energy flows in
Swedish buildings. It includes values for: domestic water heating, household
electricity, etc. The values are based on monitored data from several studies and
are currently suggested to be used for certifying zeroenergy /minienergy/ and
passivebuildings.
3.3.1.1 Results Detached houses

ThemonitoredfinalenergyofthetwodwellingsintheRdaLyktancasestudy
revealedtwomaindifferencesinoccupantsbehaviour.Thefirstistheoccupants
preferences for indoor thermal comfort. The average indoor temperature in
householdIwasfoundtobe2.5Clowerduringtheheatingseason(Figure6).Both
families were pleased with their indoor thermal comfort during the monitoring
period, which indicates that the differences were purely due to diversity in
preferenceofthermalcomfortbetweenthefamilies.Thesedifferenceswerefound
tobethemaincauseforthe25%higherdemandforspaceheatinginhouseholdII
incomparisontohouseholdI,asillustratedinFigure4.

Figure 6. The outdoor temperature and the indoor temperatures monitored in different
rooms for the two households in the Rda Lyktan case study.
Theseconddifferenceisthetimespentindoors.HouseholdIwasunoccupiedfor
two weeks during the winter, and household II was unoccupied for four months
during the summer. In both periods relatively low indoor temperatures were
18
monitored.ThelongunoccupiedperiodinhouseholdIIisthecauseforthelower
yearly energy demand for domestic hot water in comparison to household I.
Highervaluesfordomestichotwaterandhouseholdelectricitywouldbeexpected
inhouseholdIIiftheapartmentwasoccupiedtheentireyear,andthiswouldalso
have resulted in larger differences in final energy demand between the two
households.
Applying the FEBY average values may not be representative for one or two
apartment units in detached houses. The behaviour of the residents can vary
significantlyandhavelargeimpactontheresult.Forexample,theannualenergy
demand for domestic hot water, in the Rda Lyktan case study, was found to be
11.1 kWh/(m2 year) and 5.8 kWh/(m2 year) in comparison to the FEBYs average
valueof20kWh/(m2year).Thatcouldbeexplainedbythelongperiodinwhichthe
dwelling of household II was unoccupied and the low population density in
householdI,i.e.80m2perpersonincomparisontotheSwedishaveragevalueof44
m2 per person [19]. On the other hand, the energy for household electricity was
about30%abovetheSwedishaveragevalue;38.3kWh/(m2year)and39.3kWh/(m2
year)incomparisonto30kWh/(m2year)asproposedbyFEBY.
3.3.1.2 Results Multistorey apartment buildings

Figure 7 illustrates the distribution of the discrepancies between the designed
and monitored values among the residential buildings that participated in the
Stockholmproject.Thestandarddeviationwasfoundtobe15%,whichmeansthat
about 32% of the simulations deviated from the expectation value by more than
15%. The reason is most likely large variation in assumed values for unknown
variables among the different energy simulations, for example variables
concerningoccupantsbehaviour,outdoorconditions,etc.

Figure 7. The X-axis represents the deviation of the simulated values from the monitored
specific final energy demand (in percent). The Y-axis represents the number of
location in each interval among the 77 locations that participated in the
Stockholm program.
19
3.3.2 Systematic errors
Themagnitudeoferrorsinanycalculationshouldbeempiricallyvalidatedand
assmallaspossible.Thatincludestheresultsfromenergysimulationprograms.A
validationtestcanassesstheprogramsperformanceofrealdesignproblems[45].
Examples of validation tests are: the IEABESTEST by the International Energy
Agency, the ASHRAEBESTEST by the American Society of Heating and Air
Conditioning Engineers and the CEN15265 by the European Committee for
Standardization.

The expectation value of the normal distribution in Figure 7 was found to be
equalto19%,whichimpliesthatthecalculatedvaluesinallthesimulationsareon
average19%lowerthanthemonitoredvalues.Sucharesultcouldbeobtainedbya
similar error done in all simulations or by a similar error within the calculation
algorithm.
The Stockholm program recommended the Enorm 2004 simulation program
[46], as the calculation method, which was also used by most of the buildings
proprietors.Theprogramisnotvalidatedbyanyvalidationtest.Accordingtothe
softwaredeveloper,theEnorm2004includesasimplifiedmodelofsolarradiation
andexcludestheeffectsofheataccumulationinthebuildingandoverheating[46],
whichcouldbethereasonsforthelowexpectationvalue.
The monitored specific final energy demand of the multistorey apartment
buildings that participated in the Stockholm project were found to have large
variationsevenamongbuildingswithsimilarheatingsystems.Thehighestvalues
reached nearly three times as high as the lowest ones, as illustrated in Figure 5,
despite of the similar requirements for final energy demand. These variations
could partly be explained by differences in residents behaviour. However, other
factors were found to affect the results as well. These include the time elapsed
beforethestartoftheenergymonitoring,therelativesizeofthecommonarea,and
theshapefactor,whichwillbediscussedinsections3.3.3,4and5,respectively.
20
3.3.3 Time elapse before the start of the energy monitoring
Energy monitoring conducted shortly after the completion of a building may
notgiverepresentativevalues,andmayresultindiscrepanciesbetweenmonitored
andcalculatedvaluesofthefinalenergydemand.Possiblereasonsare:
Highmoisturelevels,originatedfromtheconstructionwork,maystillremain
in the building structure. The evaporation process of this moisture requires
additionalenergyandmaytakeuptotwoyears[47].
Highmoisturehasanothernegativeeffect.Itreducestheeffectivenessofthe
buildingsinsulation[47].Asaconsequence,higherfinalenergydemandmay
bemeasuredduringtheearlyserviceperiodofabuilding.
Torcellini et al. [48] concluded that post occupancy monitoring of energy
performance is essential to ensure that the goals of the design are met. This
should be done under normal operation conditions, while the system is
optimizedfortheenergydemandandoutdoorconditions.Energysystemsin
newly constructed buildings require a period of adjustment to meet the
desired energy demands. As the complexity of the energy systems in
buildings increases, maintenance and system control become more difficult
[49] and may require a longer time to adjust. The length of the adjustment
period can depend on the knowledge and skill of the operator. During this
period, the final energy demand may be higher or lower than the demand
duringnormaloperationconditions.
Buildingsmaynotbeoccupiedinstantaneously.Unoccupiedapartmentshave
nodemandfordomestichotwaterandindoortemperaturemaybelowerthan
thermal comfort levels [42]. Therefore, final energy demand measurements
duringaperiodwithpartialoccupancymayresultinlowervalues.

TheeffectofthemonitoringtimeperiodisillustratedinFigure8,usingmulti
storey apartment buildings from the Stockholm program. The results show that
finalenergymonitoring,whichstartedlessthantwoyearsafterthecompletionof
the building, had 15%34% differences in comparison to measurements from
posterioryears.Theenergydemandwasfoundbothtoincreaseanddecreasewith
time.Thefinalenergydemandinbuildingsthatweremonitoredtwoyearsormore
after completion had less than 7% differences in comparison to posterior
measurements. This small change can be regarded as normal variations among
differentyears,forexample,duetovariationsinoutdoorconditions.
21
1st measurement 2nd measurement 3rd measurement
250
Specific final energy demand
200
kWh/(m2 year)
150
100
50
LessthantwoyearsMorethantwoyears
0
Locations
Figure 8. Monitored final energy demand for space and domestic water heating in three
different years and for eight case studies from the Stockholm program (Paper
st
II), see section 2.2.2 for case study description. The 1 measurement, after
building completion, was conducted by the building proprietors. The 2nd and 3rd
measurements were conducted by the local district heating provider for years
2005 and 2006, respectively. The time elapsed since the building completion
and the 1st measurement is indicated above the X-axis. The location
Polygripen2 had no start date for its energy monitoring, thus the elapse time in
unknown.
3.3.3.2 Results Detached houses

TheenergymonitoringintheRdaLyktancasestudystartedabouttwoyears
after the completion of the construction work and after a period of system
adjustment to the individual thermal comfort preferences of each family. During
theenergymonitoringperiod,bothfamiliesreportedthattheywerepleasedwith
theirindoorthermalcomfortconditions.Itismostlikelythat,priortothesystem
adjustment, different final energy demand would have been obtained, as the
homeowners of household I and household II experienced respectively too high
andtoolowindoortemperaturesduringthatperiod(PaperIV).
Vacancy was also observed during the monitoring period of the Rda Lyktan
casestudy.Asmentionedinsection3.3.1.1,thedwellingunitofhouseholdIwas
vacant for two weeks during winter and the dwelling unit of household II was
vacantforaboutfourmonthsduringsummer.Suchperiodsofvacancycontribute
to the discrepancies between the calculated and monitored values, since they are
notcommonlyincludedinthecalculations.
22
4. THE BUILDING INTERIOR LAYOUT DESIGN
The interior design in multistorey apartment buildings can affect the specific
finalenergydemand.ThisisdescribedinPaperII.Theresultsareconfirmedboth
byenergysimulation,usingthecasestudyFladen1asareferencebuilding,andby
final energy monitoring of the 20 buildings that participated in the Stockholm
program.Thesebuildingsweredescribedinsection2.2.2.
4.1 The specific final energy demand

The specific final energy demand is commonly used as an indicator for the
energy performance of a building in different energy certification schemes. It
representstheaveragefinalenergydemandperunitofabuildingsfloorareaand
itiscalculatedbydividingthetotalfinalenergydemandofabuildingbyitsfloor
area. It is used to be able to compare energy efficiency in buildings of different
sizes.
The measured floor area of a building can vary by 20% depending on the
measurementmethodthatisused[50].InSweden,thefloorareaisdefinedbythe
National Board of Housing, Building and Planning (Boverket) [51] and is measured
according to the SS 021054 standard [52]. The Swedish definition is equivalent to
theEuropeanoverallinternaldimension[50],withtheexceptionthatitexcludes
adjacentgaragesandareaswithindoortemperaturethatislowerthan10Cduring
the heating season. Including suchlowheatedareas may reducethe value of the
specific final energy demand [53] without increasing the energy efficiency of the
building.Thereasonistherelativelowcontributionofheatenergyincomparison
totherelativelargeincreaseinfloorareasize(inpercent).
TheSwedishdefinitionforfloorareacanbedividedfurtherintothreetypes
of subheated areas: apartment areas, common areas and commercial areas. The
overall specific final energy demand of a building is the weighted arithmetic
averageofthespecificfinalenergydemandofallthreesubareas.Commonareas,
hereinafter,aredefinedasalltheareaswithinabuildingsthermalenvelopethat
are not within the apartments, e.g., corridors, staircases and basements.
Commercialareas,e.g.,officesandsmallshops,areoutofthescopeofthisthesis.
Similar to adjacent garages, the common areas in multistorey apartment
buildingmayhavelowerspecificfinalenergydemandincomparisontoapartment
areas. Possible reasons are: (i) lower indoor temperature [36], which results in
lower heat losses; (ii) lower ventilation airflow [36], which results in both lower
ventilation heat losses and a lower amount of electricity consumed by the
ventilation system; (iii) lower demand for domestic water heating in common
areas; and (iv) lower electricity consumption in the common areas by occupants.
23
The reasons for the lower electricity can, for example, be the use of efficient
lightningandtheabsenceofwhitegoodsandmultimediadevices,whichtogether
compriseabout70%ofthehouseholdelectricity[54].
4.2 The impact of relative size of common areas

The impact of the relative size of a common area on the specific final energy
demand was analysed by energy simulation using Fladen1 (a building within the
Stockholm program), as a reference building. The final energy demand of the
referencebuildingwassimulatedwithfivedifferentsizesofcommonareas(Table
7). In Simulation number 1, the first floor contains four apartments. Each
subsequentsimulationallocatesanareaofasingleapartmenttothecommonarea,
whichincreasestherelativesizeofthecommonareaby5%,untilthecommonarea
occupies the entire first floor in Simulation number 5. Simulation number 3
representsFladen1asitisbuilt,with20%commonareaofthetotalfloorareaofthe
building.
Table 7. The dimensions used for simulating the reference building in each of the five
scenarios. The first and second values represent the apartment and common
areas, respectively.
Simulation Therelativesizeof Floor Wall Window Roof Ground

number commonarea area area area area floorarea
% m2 m2 m2 m2 m2
1 10 1,475/163 805/7 472/21 404/24 331/97
2 15 1,392/246 771/57 450/28 404/24 248/180
3 20 1,310/328 733/116 428/29 404/24 166/262
4 25 1,229/409 710/153 405/38 404/24 83/345
5 30 1,146/492 687/190 381/47 404/24 0/428
Thefollowingparameterswerekeptconstantinallsimulations:(i)theshapeof
thebuilding;(ii)thefloorareasizeineachfloor;(iii)thepercentageofthewindow
area to floor area (10% in the common area and 32% in the apartment area); and
(iv) the minimum indoor temperature was assumed to be 22C and 18C in the
apartmentandcommonareas,respectively.Heattransferbetweentheapartment
andthecommonareas,duetothetemperaturedifferences,wasalsoconsidered.
Each energy simulation calculated the following: (i) the specific final energy
demandintheapartmentarea,i.e.thefinalenergydemandintheapartmentarea
divided by the apartment floor area; (ii) the specific final energy demand in the
common areas, i.e. the final energy demand in the common area divided by the
24
commonarea;and(iii)thespecificfinalenergydemandofthebuilding,whichwas
calculatedbytwomethods:MethodI,thefinalenergydemandwasdividedbythe
total floor area of the building, which is the method that is currently used in the
building sector; and Method II, the final energy demand was divided by the
apartment area only. The simulation results were compared with the monitored
specific final energy demand of the 20 apartment buildings in the eight case
studies.
4.3 Results
The simulation results, illustrated in Figure 9, shows that the specific final
energy demand in the common areas is significantly lower by up to sixfold in
comparison to the apartment areas. As a result, the total specific final energy
demandofthebuilding,whichistheweightedarithmeticaverageofthetwo,will
bereducedifbuildingsaredesignedwithlargerrelativesizeofcommonarea.This
was also confirmed by the monitored values of the multistorey apartment
buildings that participated in the Stockholm project, i.e. 20 buildings from eight
different locations with different relative size of common areas, as illustrated by
the circles in Figure 9. Increasing the relative size of common areas from 10% to
30%wasfoundtoreducethespecificfinalenergydemandby30kWh/(m2year).
240
Simulatedspecificfinalenergy
200
demandintheapartmentarea
160 Simulatedspecificfinalenergy
kWh/(m2 year)
demandofthebuilding,
120 MethodI
Monitoredspecificfinalenergy
80 demandofthebuilding,
MethodI
40 Simulatedspecificfinalenergy
demandinthecommonarea
0
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
The relative area size of the common areas
Figure 9. A comparison between calculated and monitored specific final energy demand
of multi-storey building modelled with different ratios of common-area to total
floor-area.
25
Designingbuildingswithalargershareofcommonareasdoesnotincreasethe
energyperformanceofthebuilding.Onthecontrary,theheatingdemandperunit
of apartment area may even increase, as larger common areas may result in
additional heat losses, e.g. through ventilation and by conduction. This is
illustrated in Figure 10 by both simulated and monitored specific final energy
demand calculated according to method II, for the same buildings illustrated in
Figure9.
240
200
MethodII
Monitoredspecificfinalenergy
160
kWh/(m2 year)
MethodII
120
demandintheapartmentarea
80
40 demandinthecommonarea
0
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
The relative area size of the common areas
Figure 10. Similar to Figure 9, but the specific final energy demand is calculated by the
ratio between the total final energy to the total apartment area (instead of the
total heated floor area of the building).
26
5. THE BUILDING EXTERIOR DESIGN
5.1 The shape factor concept

The thermal envelope of a building is the area that separates the conditioned
andunconditionedareasofabuilding,oralternatively,theindoorandtheoutdoor
environment,andisthecauseforalargepartoftheheatlosses.Heatlossescanbe
reduced by designing buildings with smaller thermal envelope area. The ratio of
thethermalenvelopetothevolumeofabuildingiscalledtheshapefactorofthe
building and is a measure of the buildings compactness. Buildings with higher
shapefactorsarelesscompactandthereforehavealargerthermalenvelopeareain
proportiontotheirvolume.
Figure 11 illustrates the concept of the shape factor and explains the three
factorsthataffectitsmagnitude:(i)theshapeofabuildingforagivenvolume,as
compared by building A and B in Figure 11. Different building shapes design
resultindifferentshapefactorsforagivenvolume.Thelowestshapefactorcanbe
obtainedbyasphere,butthatisnotacommonbuildingshape;(ii)theshapefactor
willbelowerforbuildingswithsimilarshapebutlargervolumes,ascomparedby
buildingAandbuildingC;and(iii)irregularsurfacedesignwithtrenchesand
bulgesalsoincreasestheshapefactorofabuilding,ascomparedbybuildingsA
andD,forexample,heatedbalconiesthatareextendedbeyondthefaade.

A B C D
Volume a3 a3 8a3 a3
Thermalenvelope 6a2 7a2 24a2 7a2
Shapefactor 6/a 7/a 3/a 7/a
Figure 11. The causes for differences in buildings shape factors: the shape of the building,
its size and irregular faades. The parameter a symbolizes a unit of length.
27
The relation between the shape factor and the buildings specific final energy
demandisexplainedbytheexampleillustratedinFigure12.Apartmentbuildings
EandFareassumedtohavesimilarthermalproperties,equalfloorareasineach
floor,equalfloorheights,equalnumbersoffloorsandequalvolumes.Becauseof
the equal building volumes, it is possible to assume similar ventilation heat loss
and similar facility electricity. Because of the equal floor areas, it is possible to
assume a similar number of apartments designed for a similar number of
occupantsandtherefore,similarfinalenergydemandforhouseholdelectricityand
domesticwaterheating.However,buildingFhaslargersizeofthermalenvelop
forthesamevolume,i.e.alargershapefactor.Thethermalenvelopeaccountsfora
large percentage of the heat losses of buildings in cold climates and is the only
majordifferencebetweenthetwobuildings.Asaresult,buildingFisexpectedto
havehigherspecificfinalenergydemand.
E F

E F
Envelopearea =2400m2 =2800m2
Floorarea =2800m2 =2800m2
Volume =8000m2 =8000m2
SFV =0.3 =0.35
SFF =0.85 =1
Figure 12. Illustration of the shape factor concept. SFV and SFF are the shape factors
calculated by the envelope-area-to-volume ratio and the envelope-area-to-floor-
area ratio, respectively.
The shape factor of a building or the ratio between the thermal envelope and
the building volume has a drawback as it does not consider the floor height. For
example, two buildings with equal sizes, shapes and thermal properties would
have different specific final energy demand if the floor height of one of the
buildings is twice as high, resulting in half of the total floor area and therefore
twicetheheatlossesthroughthethermalenvelopeperunitoffloorarea.Theeffect
of the floor height could be integrated by modifying the definition of the shape
factor to be the ratio between the thermal envelope and the floor area,instead of
28
thebuildingvolume.Inbuildingswithsimilarfloorheight,thetwodefinitionsare
equivalentanddifferbyaconstantthefloorheightasillustratedinFigure12.
5.2 The impact of the shape factor in different climate

conditions
Several studies confirm that in climates with heating demand, buildings
designed with lower shape factors have lower heat losses through the external
wallsperfloorarea,resultinginlowerspecificheatingdemand.AksoyandInalli
[55]studiedthedifferenceinfinalenergydemandbetweenthreebuildingsinthe
climateinElaziinTurkey,withbuildinglengthtobuildingdepthratiosof:1:1,2:1
and 1:2 respectively. They found that the rectangular shape (1:1) had the lowest
heatingdemand.Rattiatel.[56]calculateda10%differenceinspecificfinalenergy
demandbetweenbuildingsinToulouseandBerlinonlyduetodifferencesintheir
buildings morphology. Depecker et al. [57] arrived with a similar conclusion by
calculating the final energy demand of 16 identical dwellings units that were
arrangedindifferentconfigurationsandthus,differentshapefactors.BothRattiet
al.[56]andDepeckeretal.[57]suggestthatcolderclimateconditionsmayincrease
theimpactoftheshapefactoronthefinalenergydemand.
The thermal envelope of a building may include both opaque (e.g. walls) and
transparent areas (e.g. windows). Transparent areas enable free heat from solar
radiationtoenterthebuilding,resultinginlowerheatingdemandduringthecold
periods. In climates with high intensity of solar radiation during the heating
seasons,theeffectofthesizeofthetransparentareamaybestrongerthantheeffect
oftheshapefactor.Catalinaetal.[58]performedenergysimulationsfordifferent
buildingshapeswithclimatedatafromNiceandLyoninFranceandfoundlower
heating demand with a higher shape factor. Parasonis et al. [59] obtained similar
resultsbycalculatingtheoptimumshapeforamultidwellingresidentialbuilding
with900m2offloorareainKaunas,Lithuania.
Inwarmclimates,theoptimalratiobetweentheexternalwallsandthevolume
ofbuildingsisuncertainandfurtherstudiesareneeded.Ourghietal.[60]analysed
theimpactoftheshapefactoronthecoolingdemandofanofficebuildinginTunis
andKuwait.HecomparedrectangularandLshapebuildingsandfoundastrong
correlation between the shape factor, the window size and the cooling demand.
Florides et al. [61] compared buildings with similar volumes but different shape
factors,usingtheclimateconditionsofNicosiainCyprus.Theimpactoftheshape
factor on the cooling demand was minor in comparison the change in heating
demand.Depeckeretal.[57]concludethatthereisnocorrelationbetweenthefinal
energydemandandtheshapefactorofbuildingsinwarmclimate.Intheirstudy
theyusedtheclimateconditionsinParisandCarpentrasinFrance.
29
5.3 Results
During winter time, average normal outdoor temperatures in Sweden varies
from about 0C in the south to about 20C in the north and solar irradiance is
week. These climate conditions stress the importance of the shape factor in new
designedbuildings.AccordingtoPaperII,thedifferencesinshapefactorsamong
multistorey buildings were one reason for the large variations in specific final
energydemand,asillustratedinFigure13.
Figure 13. The monitored specific final energy demand of multi-family buildings with
different shape factors (listed at the X-axis) and the calculated specific final
energy demand for the same buildings when their size of thermal envelope is
modified so that all buildings have a shape factor of 1.23. The buildings were
built according to the Stockholm program for environmentally adapted
buildings and had similar thermal properties.
The impact of the shape factor on the specific heat demand in multifamily
buildings for different Swedish climate scenarios and different buildings thermal
envelope properties is modelled in Paper III. The impact of the shape factor is
significant. The calculations resulted in up to a 55 kWh/(m2 year) difference in
specific final energy demand per unit change of shapeed factor, Figure 14. The
value decreases for buildings with improve thermal envelop efficiency and for
buildinglocationswithhigheroutdoortemperatureduringtheheatingperiod.
30
80
Lowthermalenvelope
70
Mediumthermalenvelope
60
Highthermalenvelope
50
kWh/(m2 year SF)
40
30
20
10
0
3 1 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Annualaverageoutdoortemperature
Figure 14. The change in specific heat demand per unit difference in shape factor (Y-axis)
for different scenarios of thermal envelope efficiencies and climate conditions.
The trend line does not include the red points, representing locations with 60%
higher wind velocity.
Theimpactoftheshapefactorincreaseswithhigherwindvelocity(PaperIII).
Theeffectofthewindisshownbytheredcolouredsymbolsincomparisonwith
the trend lines, in Figure 14. These points represent the climate conditions in
Malm,Sweden,with7.7Caverageoutdoortemperature.Malmisacoastalcity
withanaverageof60%higherwindvelocitythanthethreeotherlocationsinthe
model.
For the buildings modelled in Paper III, the impact of the shape factor on the
specific heating demand is expected to nullify in climates with average outdoor
temperatures between 10.8C and 14.2C depending on the thermal properties of
thebuildingenvelop.Theimpactoftheshapefactorisexpectedtonullifyinhigher
outdoortemperaturesifexposedtorelativelyhighwindvelocity.
The effect of the amount of transparent area on the final energy demand
depends on latitude, cloud formation, the outdoor thermal conditions and the
propertiesofthethermalenvelope,bothforexternalwallsandwindows.Sweden
isanelongatedcountrystretchedover15latitude.Boththeoutdoortemperature
and the amount of solar energy, during the heating season, decrease with higher
latitude. Increasing the relative size of the transparent area would have no
significant impact on the heating demand as long as the heat gains from solar
radiation is equal to the difference in heat losses between the transparent and
opaqueareas.
31
For the local conditions in Sweden the effect of the transparent area on the
heating demand is minor in comparison to the effect of the shape factor, as
illustratedbythehorizontalslopsinFigure15.Thesameconclusionwasobtained
byPersson[62].Thefinalenergydemandmayincreaseslightlyforbuildingwith
low thermal efficiency located in the colder Swedish climates, and may slightly
decrease for buildings with high thermal efficiency located in warmer Swedish
climate,Figure15.

Figure 15. The effect of the relative size of transparent area on the specific heat demand in
different climate scenarios and for buildings with Low (left hand side) and High
(right hand side) efficient thermal envelope.
Increasing the relative size of transparent area in buildings located in high

latitude, as in Sweden, has a drawback. A larger transparent area increases both
theconductiveheatlossesandheatgainsfromsolarradiation,butnotnecessarily
at the same time. Large solar heat gains will occur during the hot season, when
thereislittleornodemandforspaceheating.Overheatingmayoccur,whichmay
leadtoincreasedenergyuseforcoolingpurposes.
On the other hand, the largest conductive heat losses will occur during the
coldestwinterdays,whenthecontributionoffreeheatfromsolarradiationhasits
lowestvalue.Asaresult,higherpeakloaddemandforheatingisexpected.Froma
systemperspective,highpeakloadsarenotdesiredastheymayreduceproduction
efficiency and increase consumption of fossil fuels, for example fossil fuels based
boilersindistrictheatplantsorcoalsteamturbinesinpowerproduction.Thiswill
bediscussedfurtherinsection6.4.
32
6. BUILDING DESIGN IN AN ENERGY SYSTEM PERSPECTIVE
Thissectionhighlightstheimportanceofanalysingthefinalenergydemandin
buildingswithrespecttotheenergyproduction.Thechoiceofsupplysystemand
type of fuels has significant impact on the primary energy [63]. The change in
primaryenergyduetodifferencesindesigndependsonthecharacteristicsofthe
energy production system. Therefore, demand and supply sides and their
interaction need to be analysed in order to minimize the primary energy. In
Sweden, these interactions are interesting as 90% of the multistorey apartment
buildings [17] and 12% of the detached houses [64] are connected to district
heating. Thus, the demands of electricity and heat are interconnected. The
importanceofsuchinteractionandsystemdynamicswasstudiedbyJoelsson[65],
Difs[66]andinPaperI.
6.1 Energy efficiency measures

Paper I analyses how the energy system is affected by implementing energy
efficiencymeasuresinresidentialbuildings,decreasingtheirfinalenergyuse.The
Wlludden case study, described in section 2.2.1, was analysed with different
energy efficiency measures including: water savings taps, energy efficient
windowsanddoors,anadditional100mmand250mmmineralwoolinsulationin
the roof and walls respectively, and a balance ventilation with heat recovery
insteadofforcedventilation.Thechangesinthermalpropertiesduetotheenergy
efficiencymeasuresarelistedinTable8.
Table 8. Energy efficiency measures

UvalueW/(m2K)
Energyefficiencymeasures
Before After
Energyefficientwindows 1.90 0.85
Energyefficientdoors 1.19 0.85
Additional100mmmineralwoolinsulationintheroof 0.13 0.11
Additional250mmmineralwoolinsulationinthefacade 0.20 0.11
33
6.2 Reference heat and power production plant
Theheatproductionofthelocaldistrictheatingplantinstersund,duringthe
12month period from1stMay2008 to30th April2009, wasusedasa reference in
PaperI,andillustratedinFigure16.Duringthatperiod,thetotalproductionwas
210 GWh of electricity and 612 GWh of heat. The heat and electricity production
systemconsistsofacombinedheatandpowerplant(CHP)with80MWheatand
40 MW electricity, a flue gas condenser with 30 MW of heat and two heat only
boilers (HOB) with 25 MW of heat each. A water accumulator tank with a total
capacity of 26,000 m3 reduces the daily variation in heat production, and thus
increasesthetotalefficiencyoftheheatandelectricityproduction.TheCHPplant
andtheHOBarefuelledbypeat(~10%)andbiomassresidues(~90%)suchasbark,
sawdust,loggingresidues,andrecoveredwood.
6.3 Environmental taxation scenarios

Thedistrictheatproductionandprimaryenergysavingswereanalyzedunder
fourenvironmentaltaxationsscenarios,describedbelow.Thedesignofthedistrict
heat production, under the different taxation scenarios, is based on the heat load
duration curve of the reference production plant (Figure 16), and the production
units, which give the lowest heat production cost for each scenario among
technologiesthatconsistofCHPplantsandheatonlyboilers(HOB).
The environmental taxations scenarios are: (i) the No tax scenario with the
Swedish fuel price of 2008; (ii) the Swedish tax scenario with the Swedish fuel
prices and taxes of 2008, comprising of a carbon tax of 386/tCO2 for emissions
related to nonelectricity production, an energy tax that varies for different fossil
fuels used for nonelectricity production, and an average green electricity
certificate(GEC)benefitof12.5/MWheofproducedgreenelectricity[67];(iii)the
Socialcost550ppmscenariowiththefossilfuelpricesexcludingtaxesof2008,plus
a carbon damage cost of 20.55/tCO2 corresponding to the 550ppm emission
scenario by Stern [68];(iv) the Social cost businessas usual (BAU) scenario with
the fossil fuel prices excluding taxes of 2008, plus a carbon damage cost of
58.23/tCO2correspondingtotheBAUemissionscenariobyStern[68].
34

Figure 16. The annual heat production load curve for the Jmtkraft district heating
power plant with its different heat production units (lower graph) and the
heat load demand at the building after implementing different energy
efficiency measures (upper graph). The change in primary energy depends
on the change in heat demand allocated to each of the heat production
units, the type of fuel used and the efficiency of each unit. Peak load energy
production units are usually cheaper to construct but less efficient and more
expensive to operate.
35
6.4 Results
Theminimumcostdistrictheatproductionsystemswascalculated,inPaperI,
to consist of biomassbased CHP as base load production for all environmental
taxation scenarios (Paper I). The fossil fuels become less competitive as the
environmentaltaxationincreases.However,lightfueloilboilersforthepeakload
productionremainsviableduetolowutilizationandinvestmentcost.
According to Paper I, a significant primary energy saving can be obtained by
reducingpeakloadproductionunits,althoughtheseunitsonlycoverasmallshare
theoftotalheatload.Asaresult,abuildingdesignthatprovidesthelowestpeak
loaddemandmayresultinthelargestprimaryenergyandfossilfuelssavings.
Reducing heating demand during periods in which the CHP unit is the
marginal production technology in the district heating plant (Figure 16), will
simultaneouslyreducetheelectricityproduction.Theelectricitydeficitisassumed
to be covered by the marginal power production, i.e. a coal steam turbine power
plant[22].Asaresult,theprimaryenergysavingsatthedistrictheatingplantwill
be offset by the added primary energy at the marginal power plant, resulting in
minorprimaryenergysavings.
Theprimaryenergysavingsofenduseenergyefficiencymeasuresdependonthe
characteristics of the district heat production system and the building energy
efficiency measures. Therefore, the demand and supply sides, as well as their
interaction,needtobeanalysedinordertominimizetheprimaryenergyofdistrict
heated buildings. For example, in Paper I, it was found that balance ventilation
withheatrecovery(VHR)hadahigherfinalenergysavingpotential,butalower
primaryenergysavingpotentialthanenergyefficiencywindows.TheVHRsystem
mayincreasetheprimaryenergyiftheconfigurationofthedistrictheatingplantis
notoptimized,asinthedistrictheatingproviderinstersund.Similarresultswere
obtainedbyDodooetal.[69].Alargerrelativesizeofglazedareainthebuilding
faademayhaveasimilareffect,asdiscussedinsection5.3.
36
7. DISCUSSION
The increased demand for better indoor comfort, the increased time spent
indoors, and the increased number of residential buildings, due to population
growth and urbanization process, may continue the existing trend of increasing
global final energy demand in the building sector. Building design can play an
importantroleinreducingtheuseofnaturalresources,wasteandemissionsand
thus the global environmental impacts of the building sector as a whole. In this
thesis, the energy efficiency of several building design aspects was analysed
including: the building interior layout design, the building exterior design and
energysystems.
Buildingscanhavelonglifetime,50to100yearsorevenlonger,andtherefore
their energy performance should be thoroughly assessed before they are built.
However,calculationsmayunderestimatethefinalenergydemand.Thefollowing
discussion will first describe the problem and the causes for such incorrect
estimations,thenprovideapossiblesolutionandfinallydiscusstheimportanceof
a holistic approach that includes both a life cycle analysis and a system
perspective.
Dynamic energy simulation programs are used to evaluate buildings energy
performance.Thereisavarietyofenergysimulationprogramsonthemarketand
it is important to use one that is validated with real cases in order for results to
haveaslowerroraspossible.Upto19%variationsinfinalenergydemandwere
found between simulated and monitored values due to algorithm faults in non
validatedenergysimulationprograms.
Beforeabuildingisconstructed,manyvariablesareunknown.Thesevariables
can vary with time and location, for example, variables concerning outdoor
conditions,performanceoftheinstalledsystems,andqualityofconstructionwork.
Variables concerning occupants indoor activities and preferences are especially
difficult to predict and were found to vary considerably among different
households, even if accommodated in dwellings with similar size and design.
Unknownvariablescannotbeignoredandtherefore,theyneedtobeassumed.The
choicesofassumptionswerefoundtohavealargeimpactonthecalculatedfinal
energy demand of the building, which makes the results subjective to the
knowledge and the experience of a simulator. Standardized values for unknown
variables, as suggested by FEBY, may vary considerably from the monitored
values.Toohighmonitoredvalues,incomparisontocalculatedvalues,mayleadto
dissatisfaction among homeowners with regards to their building performance.
Assessingthecausesforhighdiscrepanciescanbetimeconsumingandcostlyfor
homeowners.
37
Thespecificfinalenergydemandiswidelyusedasanindicatorforabuildings
energyefficiency.Itisusedinbuildingcodestosetlimitingvaluesonfinalenergy
demand and in a variety of certification schemes in order to enhance efficient
building designs. However, it has a negative aspect, as it represents the average
finalenergydemandperunitofabuildingsfloorarea.Thus,itpresumesthatthe
differentzonesinabuildinghaveequalcontributiontothetotalfinalenergyofthe
buildings, which is not always the case. For example, common areas in multi
storey apartment buildings were found to have significantly lower final energy
demand in comparison to apartment areas. Increasing the relative size of such
areaswilladdlittletothetotalfinalenergydemandofthebuildingincomparison
to the added floor area. As a result, the specific final energy demand, as it is
calculatedtoday,willhavelowervalueformultistoreyapartmentbuildingswith
relative large common areas. Such buildings will be assessed as having better
energyperformance.
A high ratio of common areas to total floor area may be a necessary interior
layout design in some buildings. But such design does not increase the energy
efficiency of the building and thus should not be credited in terms of energy
performance.Suchdesignmayevenincreasethetotalfinalenergyinthebuilding
sector,ifthetotalheatlosseswillbehigherforthesameamountofapartmentarea,
duetothelargercommonarea.
Asdiscussedabove,thecalculatedspecificfinalenergydemand,asanindicator
forbuildingsenergyefficiency,werefoundtobesubjectivetotheknowledgeand
expertise of the person who performs the energy calculations and to the interior
layoutdesign.Asaresult,itispossibletoobtainlowercalculatedvalueofspecific
finalenergydemandwithoutincreasingtheenergyefficiencyofthebuilding.After
thebuildingisbuilt,itisdifficulttopointouttheoneswhoareresponsibleforthe
discrepancies between the calculated and monitored values. It could be the
designer,theconstructioncompaniesortheoccupantsthemselves.
Analternativeindicatorforenergyperformanceinresidentialbuildingscould
include only intrinsic properties of a building. For example, the overall thermal
efficiencyofthebuilding,whichincludetheaverageheattransfercoefficientofthe
thermal envelope and the buildings shape factor. The shape factor of a building
expresses the area size of the thermal envelop per unit of floor area. It depends
solelyonthebuildingexteriordesign.Buildingswithlowershapefactorswillhave
lower heat conduction losses to the environment per unit of floor area and
therefore,theywillbemoreenergyefficient.
38
The average heat transfer coefficient of the thermal envelope of a building
expressestheheatlossesthroughthethermalenvelopeofthebuildingperunitof
thermal envelop area and temperature difference between the indoor and the
outdoor temperatures, i.e. W/(m2 K). The value of the average heat transfer
coefficientcanbereducedwithbetterthermalproperties,asinthecaseofpassive
houses,andbylowratioofwindowstofacadearea.
Theoverallthermalefficiencyofthebuildingcanbecalculatedbymultiplying
the values of the average heat transfer coefficient with the shape factor of the
building. It is expressed by the heat losses through the thermal envelope of the
building per unit of floor area and unit of temperature difference between the
indoor and the outdoor, i.e. W/(m2 K). Thus, the problem of what should be
included as the floor area of the building arises again. The analysis done in this
thesis suggests that in multistory buildings, only the apartment area should be
included, excluding corridors, basements, attics, and other common areas that
havesignificantlylowerenergydemandincomparisontotheapartmentareas.
Thevalueofthethermalefficiencyofthebuildingcanbederiveddirectlyfrom
thebuildingsdrawingswithouttheneedforcomplicatedenergycalculationand
assumptions. For example, the monitored values of the Rda Lyktan case study,
presentedinthisthesis,succeedtoachievethepassivehouseenergyrequirements,
most likely because of the specific requirements for heat transfer coefficient and
because of the low shape factor design. These requirements determined the
calculatedspecificfinalenergydemand,whichwasfoundtobe23%lowerthanthe
monitored values. If the building design was based solely on requirements for
specific final energy demand, the outcome might have been higher calculated
values,lowerthermalefficiencydesignandhighermonitoredspecificfinalenergy
demand.
Thetotalenvironmentalimpactofabuildingdesignneedsaholisticapproach.
The amount of energy resources that needs to sustain a building cannot be
assessed solely by the final energy demand alone as indicator. Joelsson and
Gustavsson found, e.g. that the choice of energy supply system and type of fuel
has significant impact on the primary energy and CO2 emissions [63]. Enduse
energyefficiencymeasuresmayresultinareduceduseofexistingenergysupply
capacities, and thereby affect revenues for the energy utilities. Consequently,
reducedenergydemandinbuildingsmaybeofconcernforenergyutilitieswhere
there is no capacity constraint; particularly for district heating utilities, as such
systems are capital intensive. 50% of the energy for space and domestic water
heatinginSwedenissuppliedbydistrictheatingutilities[17],whichaccordingto
Palm(2006)[70]maynotbeeagertopromoteenergyefficiencyinbuildingsasit
will reduce their revenue. Such measures may reduce the production of
39
cogeneratedelectricity(PaperI),whichisconsideredtobeanefficientmethodto
produceelectricity.
Energy supply systems are also affected by the energy demand patterns.
Building designs that aims to reduce peak load demand were found to have the
largest savings in primary energy and fossil fuels. To quantify the impact of
building design on primary energy, the model needs to include the building, the
energy production system and the dynamic interaction between them. Such a
modelisdescribedinPaperI.
This thesis modelled how the design of a building affects the final energy
demandduringtheoperationphaseofthebuilding.Buildingdesignwillalsohave
aneffectontheamountofmaterialsandresourcesusedtoconstructabuildingand
thewasteandemissionsduringthedisposalphase.AccordingtoParasonisetal.,
[59] buildings with lower shape factors (and perhaps also buildings with low
relativesizeofcommonareas)haveapotentialtominimizeresourcesduringthe
construction stage. Therefore, a life cycle perspective is also important when
evaluating the total environmental impact of a building design. That includes all
thedifferentphasesofthebuilding,i.e.construction,operationanddemolition.
40
8. CONCLUSIONS
Swedenaimstoreducethetotalfinalenergydemandinthebuildingsectorbut
energy requirements are generally given in specific final energy demand. The
researchpresentedinthisthesisindicates,however,thatthecalculatedspecific
finalenergydemandofresidentialbuildingsbeforetheyareconstructedistoo
rough an indicator to explicitly steer society toward lower final energy use in
thebuildingsector.
Energydemandofabuildingcalculatedbeforeabuildingisconstructedoften
deviates significantly from what later can be monitored in the building,
sometimesevenexceedingtheenergyrequirements.Onereasonforthisisthe
assumptions made for variables such as e.g. climate conditions, quality of
construction work, performance of the energy systems and occupants
behaviour.Oncethebuildingisbuilt,itisoftendifficulttopointoutthecauses
forsuchdeviations,whichmayleadtodissatisfactionamongthehouseowners.
Interior design that includes relatively large areas of heated corridors, service
and storage rooms was found to lower the value of the specific final energy
demand without improving the building energy efficiency. Such design may
increase both the total final energy demand and the use of construction
materialsinthebuildingsector.
Monitoringofbuildingsfinalenergydemandshouldstartnoearlierthantwo
years after the completion of the construction work to achieve representative
values. Earlier energy monitoring may induce discrepancies in the results.
Possible reasons include: high moisture levels that originate during the
constructionwork,notyetfullyadjustedenergysystemsandvacantdwellings.
The shape factor of buildings was found to be an important variable for heat
demand in buildings located in temperate and colder climates, particularly if
theyareexposedtostrongwinds.
Intemperateandcolderclimates,buildingdesignswithalowshareofglazed
areacanreducepeakheatloaddemand,andthereforereduceprimaryenergy
useintheSwedishenergysystem,evenifitdoesnotresultinnetfinalenergy
savings.
The performance of the end use heating technology in buildings should be
evaluated together with the energy system, including the dynamic interaction
between them. Heating technologies that reduce the annual heating demand
butincreasepeakdemandofelectricityshouldbeinvestigatedcasespecifically,
astheymayincreasetheuseofprimaryenergy.
41
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Energy Efficiency of New Res Buildings

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ThesisforthedegreeofLicentiateofPhilosophy

ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF NEW

ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF NEW RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS IN

Department of Ecotechnology and Sustainable Building Engineering,

Energiomstllning har diskuterats i Sverige sedan oljetillfrselkrisen p 1970

Nr energieffektiviseringstgrder i byggnader analyseras i ett

Many thanks to my colleagues in the Department of Ecotechnology and

1.1 The role of energy in the building sector

Building design has a significant role in the buildings future energy

1.2 Energy and buildings in Sweden

1.3 The aim of the thesis

When analysing the built environment, modification of existing buildings and

2.1 System analysis

2.1.1 System boundaries and marginal technologies

2.1.2 Units for comparison and system expansion

2.1.3 Definition of concepts

2.2.1 The Wlludden building

Floorarea No.of No.of No.of Ventilation

Area U-average U Area

The heating system includes a waterbased preheater coil in the ventilation

2.3 Final energy balance in buildings

2.3.1 Energy simulation program

3.1 Energy requirements

The Miljbyggnad certification system is developed

Table 4. The Miljby

DH* 111 242 140

Two examples of large discrepancies between designed and monitored values

3.2.1 Results - Detached houses

3.2.2 Results - Multi-storey apartment buildings

3.3 Causes for discrepancies

3.3.1 Assumption during final energy calculations

3.3.1.1 Results Detached houses

3.3.1.2 Results Multistorey apartment buildings

3.3.2.1 Results Multistorey apartment buildings

3.3.3.1 Results Multistorey apartment buildings

3.3.3.2 Results Detached houses

4.1 The specific final energy demand

4.2 The impact of relative size of common areas

Simulation Therelativesizeof Floor Wall Window Roof Ground

5.1 The shape factor concept

5.2 The impact of the shape factor in different climate

Increasing the relative size of transparent area in buildings located in high

6.1 Energy efficiency measures

Table 8. Energy efficiency measures

6.3 Environmental taxation scenarios

1. C. Gallo, M. Sala, and A.M.M. Sayigh, Architecture Comfort and

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