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What is constructivism?
How does this theory differ from traditional ideas about teaching and learning?
What does constructivism have to do with my classroom?
Expert interview
What is the history of constructivism, and how has it changed over time?
What are some critical perspectives?
What are the benefits of constructivism?
What is constructivism?
Constructivism is basically a theory -- based on observation and scientific study -- about
how people learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of
the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. When we
encounter something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience,
maybe changing what we believe, or maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant.
In any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge. To do this, we must ask
questions, explore, and assess what we know.
In the classroom, the constructivist view of learning can point towards a number of
different teaching practices. In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging
students to use active techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving) to create
more knowledge and then to reflect on and talk about what they are doing and how their
understanding is changing. The teacher makes sure she understands the students'
preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and then build on them.
Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the activity is helping
them gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies, students in the
constructivist classroom ideally become "expert learners." This gives them ever-
broadening tools to keep learning. With a well-planned classroom environment, the
students learn HOW TO LEARN.
The best way for you to really understand what constructivism is and what it means in
your classroom is by seeing examples of it at work, speaking with others about it, and
trying it yourself. As you progress through each segment of this workshop, keep in mind
questions or ideas to share with your colleagues.
And, in the constructivist classroom, both teacher and students think of knowledge not as inert
factoids to be memorized, but as a dynamic, ever-changing view of the world we live in and the ability
to successfully stretch and explore that view.
The chart below compares the traditional classroom to the constructivist one. You can see significant
differences in basic assumptions about knowledge, students, and learning. (It's important, however, to
bear in mind that constructivists acknowledge that students are constructing knowledge in traditional
classrooms, too. It's really a matter of the emphasis being on the student, not on the instructor.)
Curriculum begins with the parts of the Curriculum emphasizes big concepts,
whole. Emphasizes basic skills. beginning with the whole and
expanding to include the parts.
More information on the above processes is covered in other workshops in this series. For now, it's
important to realize that the constructivist approach borrows from many other practices in the pursuit
of its primary goal: helping students learn HOW TO LEARN.
Students are not blank slates upon which knowledge is etched. They come to learning situations with
already formulated knowledge, ideas, and understandings. This previous knowledge is the raw
material for the new knowledge they will create.
Example: An elementary school teacher presents a class problem to measure the length of the
"Mayflower." Rather than starting the problem by introducing the ruler, the teacher allows students to
reflect and to construct their own methods of measurement. One student offers the knowledge that a
doctor said he is four feet tall. Another says she knows horses are measured in "hands." The students
discuss these and other methods they have heard about, and decide on one to apply to the problem.
The student is the person who creates new understanding for him/herself. The teacher coaches,
moderates, suggests, but allows the students room to experiment, ask questions, try things that don't
work. Learning activities require the students' full participation (like hands-on experiments). An
important part of the learning process is that students reflect on, and talk about, their activities.
Students also help set their own goals and means of assessment.
Examples: A middle-school language arts teacher sets aside time each week for a writing lab. The
emphasis is on content and getting ideas down rather than memorizing grammatical rules, though one
of the teacher's concerns is the ability of his students to express themselves well through written
language. The teacher provides opportunities for students to examine the finished and earlier drafts of
various authors. He allows students to select and create projects within the general requirement of
building a portfolio 1. Students serve as peer editors who value originality and uniqueness rather than
the best way to fulfill an assignment.
1.
In a history class, asking students to read and think about different versions of and perspectives on
"history" can lead to interesting discussions. Is history as taught in textbooks accurate? Are there
different versions of the same history? Whose version of history is most accurate? How do we know?
From there, students can make their own judgments.
Students control their own learning process, and they lead the way by reflecting on their experiences.
This process makes them experts of their own learning. The teacher helps create situations where the
students feel safe questioning and reflecting on their own processes, either privately or in group
discussions. The teacher should also create activities that lead the student to reflect on his or her prior
knowledge and experiences. Talking about what was learned and how it was learned is really
important.
Example: Students keep journals in a writing class where they record how they felt about the class
projects, the visual and verbal reactions of others to the project, and how they felt their own writing
had changed. Periodically the teacher reads these journals and holds a conference with the student
where the two assess (1) what new knowledge the student has created, (2) how the student learns
best, and (3) the learning environment and the teacher's role in it.
The constructivist classroom relies heavily on collaboration among students. There are many reasons
why collaboration contributes to learning. The main reason it is used so much in constructivism is that
students learn about learning not only from themselves, but also from their peers. When students
review and reflect on their learning processes together, they can pick up strategies and methods from
one another.
Example: In the course of studying ancient civilizations, students undertake an archaeological dig.
This may be something constructed in a large sandbox, or, as in the Dalton School's "Archaeotype"
software simulation, on a computer. As the students find different objects, the teacher introduces
classifying techniques. The students are encouraged to (1) set up a group museum by developing
criteria and choosing which objects should belong, and (2) collaborate with other students who worked
in different quadrants of the dig. Each group is then asked to develop theories about the civilizations
that inhabited the area.
The main activity in a constructivist classroom is solving problems. Students use inquiry methods to
ask questions, investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources to find solutions and answers. As
students explore the topic, they draw conclusions, and, as exploration continues, they revisit those
conclusions. Exploration of questions leads to more questions. (See the CONCEPT TO CLASSROOM
workshop Inquiry-based Learning)
Example: Sixth graders figuring out how to purify water investigate solutions ranging from coffee-filter
paper, to a stove-top distillation apparatus, to piles of charcoal, to an abstract mathematical solution
based on the size of a water molecule. Depending upon students' responses, the teacher encourages
abstract as well as concrete, poetic as well as practical, creations of new knowledge.
Students have ideas that they may later see were invalid, incorrect, or insufficient to explain new
experiences. These ideas are temporary steps in the integration of knowledge. For instance, a child
may believe that all trees lose their leaves in the fall, until she visits an evergreen forest.
Constructivist teaching takes into account students' current conceptions and builds from there.
What happens when a student gets a new piece of information? The constructivist model says that the
student compares the information to the knowledge and understanding he/she already has, and one of
three things can occur:
The new information matches up with his previous knowledge pretty well (it's consonant with
the previous knowledge), so the student adds it to his understanding. It may take some work,
but it's just a matter of finding the right fit, as with a puzzle piece.
The information doesn't match previous knowledge (it's dissonant). The student has to
change her previous understanding to find a fit for the information. This can be harder work.
The information doesn't match previous knowledge, and it is ignored. Rejected bits of
information may just not be absorbed by the student. Or they may float around, waiting for
the day when the student's understanding has developed and permits a fit.
Expert interview
Interview with Jacqueline
Grennon Brooks
.Concept to Classroom: What are the .Concept to Classroom: What are the
implications of constructivism for the implications of constructivism for the
school administrator? child's parents, guardians, and
community?
The concept of constructivism has roots in classical antiquity, going back to Socrates's dialogues with
his followers, in which he asked directed questions that led his students to realize for themselves the
weaknesses in their thinking. The Socratic dialogue is still an important tool in the way constructivist
educators assess their students' learning and plan new learning experiences.
In this century, Jean Piaget 1 and John Dewey 2 developed theories of childhood development and
education, what we now call Progressive Education, that led to the evolution of constructivism.
1. 2.
Piaget believed that humans learn through the construction of one logical structure after another. He
also concluded that the logic of children and their modes of thinking are initially entirely different from
those of adults. The implications of this theory and how he applied them have shaped the foundation
for constructivist education.
Dewey called for education to be grounded in real experience. He wrote, "If you have doubts about
how learning happens, engage in sustained inquiry: study, ponder, consider alternative possibilities
and arrive at your belief grounded in evidence." Inquiry is a key part of constructivist learning.
Among the educators, philosophers, psychologists, and sociologists who have added new perspectives
to constructivist learning theory and practice are Lev Vygotsky 3, Jerome Bruner 4, and David
Ausubel 5.
3. 4. 5.
Vygotsky introduced the social aspect of learning into constructivism. He defined the "zone of proximal
learning," according to which students solve problems beyond their actual developmental level (but
within their level of potential development) under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable
peers.
Bruner initiated curriculum change based on the notion that learning is an active, social process in
which students construct new ideas or concepts based on their current knowledge.
Seymour Papert's 6 groundbreaking work in using computers to teach children has led to the
widespread use of computer and information technology in constructivist environments.
Modern educators who have studied, written about, and practiced constructivist approaches to
education include John D. Bransford 7, Ernst von Glasersfeld 8, Eleanor Duckworth 9, George
Forman 10, Roger Schank 11, Jacqueline Grennon Brooks 12, and Martin G. Brooks 13.
6. 7. 8. 9.
. It's elitist. Critics say that constructivism and other "progressive" educational theories have been
most successful with children from privileged backgrounds who are fortunate in having outstanding
teachers, committed parents, and rich home environments. They argue that disadvantaged children,
lacking such resources, benefit more from more explicit instruction.
. Social constructivism leads to "group think." Critics say the collaborative aspects of constructivist
classrooms tend to produce a "tyranny of the majority," in which a few students' voices or
interpretations dominate the group's conclusions, and dissenting students are forced to conform to the
emerging consensus.
. There is little hard evidence that constructivist methods work. Critics say that constructivists, by
rejecting evaluation through testing and other external criteria, have made themselves unaccountable
for their students' progress. Critics also say that studies of various kinds of instruction -- in
particular Project Follow Through 1, a long-term government initiative -- have found that students
in constructivist classrooms lag behind those in more traditional classrooms in basic skills.
1.
Constructivists counter that in studies where children were compared on higher-order thinking skills,
constructivist students seemed to outperform their peers.
What are the benefits of constructivism?
. Benefit
Children learn more, and enjoy learning more when they are actively involved, rather
than passive listeners.
. Benefit
Education works best when it concentrates on thinking and understanding, rather than on rote
memorization. Constructivism concentrates on learning how to think and understand.
. Benefit
. Benefit
Constructivism gives students ownership of what they learn, since learning is based
on students' questions and explorations, and often the students have a hand in
designing the assessments as well. Constructivist assessment engages the students' initiatives and
personal investments in their journals, research reports, physical models, and artistic representations.
Engaging the creative instincts develops students' abilities to express knowledge through a variety of
ways. The students are also more likely to retain and transfer the new knowledge to real life.
. Benefit
. Benefit
Constructivism promotes social and communication skills by creating a classroom environment that
emphasizes collaboration and exchange of ideas. Students must learn how to articulate their ideas
clearly as well as to collaborate on tasks effectively by sharing in group projects. Students must
therefore exchange ideas and so must learn to "negotiate" with others and to evaluate their
contributions in a socially acceptable manner. This is essential to success in the real world, since they
will always be exposed to a variety of experiences in which they will have to cooperate and navigate
among the ideas of others.
Constructivism (philosophy of education)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article has an unclear citation style. The references used may be made
clearer with a different or consistent style of citation, footnoting, or external
linking. (November 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Individual[edit]
The formalization of constructivism from a within-the-human perspective is generally attributed to
Jean Piaget, who articulated mechanisms by which information from the environment and ideas from
the individual interact and result in internalized structures developed by learners. He identified
processes of assimilation and accommodation that are key in this interaction as individuals
construct new knowledge from their experiences.
When individuals assimilate new information, they incorporate it into an already existing framework
without changing that framework. This may occur when individuals' experiences are aligned with
their internal representations of the world, but may also occur as a failure to change a faulty
understanding; for example, they may not notice events, may misunderstand input from others, or
may decide that an event is a fluke and is therefore unimportant as information about the world. In
contrast, when individuals' experiences contradict their internal representations, they may change
their perceptions of the experiences to fit their internal representations.
According to the theory, accommodation is the process of reframing one's mental representation of
the external world to fit new experiences. Accommodation can be understood as the mechanism by
which failure leads to learning: when we act on the expectation that the world operates in one way
and it violates our expectations, we often fail, but by accommodating this new experience and
reframing our model of the way the world works, we learn from the experience of failure, or others'
failure.
It is important to note that constructivism is not a particular pedagogy. In fact, constructivism is a
theory describing how learning happens, regardless of whether learners are using their experiences
to understand a lecture or following the instructions for building a model airplane. In both cases, the
theory of constructivism suggests that learners construct knowledge out of their experiences.
However, constructivism is often associated with pedagogic approaches that promote active
learning, or learning by doing. There are many critics of "learning by doing" (a.k.a. "discovery
learning") as an instructional strategy (e.g. see the criticisms below).[7][8] While there is much
enthusiasm for constructivism as a design strategy, according to Tobias and Duffy "... to us it would
appear that constructivism remains more of a philosophical framework than a theory that either
allows us to precisely describe instruction or prescribe design strategies.(p.4)".[7]
If students have to present and train new contents with their classmates, a non-linear process of
collective knowledge-construction will be set up.
The importance of context[edit]
The social constructivist paradigm views the context in which the learning occurs as central to the
learning itself (McMahon 1997).
Underlying the notion of the learner as an active processor is "the assumption that there is no one
set of generalised learning laws with each law applying to all domains" (Di Vesta
1987:208). Decontextualised knowledge does not give us the skills to apply our understandings to
authentic tasks because, as Duffy and Jonassen (1992) indicated, we are not working with the
concept in the complex environment and experiencing the complex interrelationships in that
environment that determine how and when the concept is used. One social constructivist notion is
that of authentic or situated learning, where the student takes part in activities directly relevant to the
application of learning and that take place within a culture similar to the applied setting (Brown et al.
1989). Cognitive apprenticeship has been proposed as an effective constructivist model of learning
that attempts to "enculturate students into authentic practices through activity and social interaction
in a way similar to that evident, and evidently successful, in craft apprenticeship" (Ackerman
1996:25).
Holt and Willard-Holt (2000) emphasize the concept of dynamic assessment, which is a way of
assessing the true potential of learners that differs significantly from conventional tests. Here the
essentially interactive nature of learning is extended to the process of assessment. Rather than
viewing assessment as a process carried out by one person, such as an instructor, it is seen as a
two-way process involving interaction between both instructor and learner. The role of the assessor
becomes one of entering into dialogue with the persons being assessed to find out their current level
of performance on any task and sharing with them possible ways in which that performance might be
improved on a subsequent occasion. Thus, assessment and learning are seen as inextricably linked
and not separate processes (Holt and Willard-Holt 2000).
According to this viewpoint instructors should see assessment as a continuous and interactive
process that measures the achievement of the learner, the quality of the learning experience and
courseware. The feedback created by the assessment process serves as a direct foundation for
further development.
The selection, scope, and sequencing of the subject matter[edit]
Knowledge should be discovered as an integrated whole[edit]
Knowledge should not be divided into different subjects or compartments, but should be discovered
as an integrated whole (McMahon 1997; Di Vesta 1987).
This also again underlines the importance of the context in which learning is presented (Brown et al.
1989). The world, in which the learner needs to operate, does not approach one in the form of
different subjects, but as a complex myriad of facts, problems, dimensions, and perceptions
(Ackerman 1996).
Engaging and challenging the learner[edit]
Learners should constantly be challenged with tasks that refer to skills and knowledge just beyond
their current level of mastery. This captures their motivation and builds on previous successes to
enhance learner confidence (Brownstein 2001). This is in line with Vygotsky's zone of proximal
development, which can be described as the distance between the actual developmental level (as
determined by independent problem-solving) and the level of potential development (as determined
through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers)
(Vygotsky 1978).
Vygotsky (1978) further claimed that instruction is good only when it proceeds ahead of
development. Then it awakens and rouses to life an entire set of functions in the stage of maturing,
which lie in the zone of proximal development. It is in this way that instruction plays an extremely
important role in development.
To fully engage and challenge the learner, the task and learning environment should reflect the
complexity of the environment that the learner should be able to function in at the end of learning.
Learners must not only have ownership of the learning or problem-solving process, but of the
problem itself (Derry 1999).
Where the sequencing of subject matter is concerned, it is the constructivist viewpoint that the
foundations of any subject may be taught to anybody at any stage in some form (Duffy and
Jonassen 1992). This means that instructors should first introduce the basic ideas that give life and
form to any topic or subject area, and then revisit and build upon these repeatedly. This notion has
been extensively used in curricula.
It is important for instructors to realize that although a curriculum may be set down for them, it
inevitably becomes shaped by them into something personal that reflects their own belief systems,
their thoughts and feelings about both the content of their instruction and their learners (Rhodes and
Bellamy 1999). Thus, the learning experience becomes a shared enterprise.
The emotionsand life contexts of those involved in the learning process must therefore be
considered as an integral part of learning. The goal of the learner is central in considering what is
learned (Brown et al. 1989; Ackerman 1996).
The structuredness of the learning process[edit]
It is important to achieve the right balance between the degree of structure and flexibility that is built
into the learning process. Savery (1994) contends that the more structured the learning environment,
the harder it is for the learners to construct meaning based on their conceptual understandings. A
facilitator should structure the learning experience just enough to make sure that the students get
clear guidance and parameters within which to achieve the learning objectives, yet the learning
experience should be open and free enough to allow for the learners to discover, enjoy, interact and
arrive at their own, socially verified version of truth.
In adult learning[edit]
Constructivist ideas have been used to inform adult education. Whereas pedagogy usually applies to
the education of children, educators of adults often speak instead of andragogy. Methods must take
account of differences in learning, due to the fact that adults have many more experiences and
previously existing neurological structures.
Approaches based on constructivism stress the importance of mechanisms for mutual planning,
diagnosis of learner needs and interests, cooperative learning climate, sequential activities for
achieving the objectives, formulation of learning objectives based on the diagnosed needs and
interests.
Personal relevance of the content, involvement of the learner in the process, and deeper
understanding of underlying concepts are some of the intersections between emphases in
constructivism and adult learning principles.
Piaget and Vygotsky, both of whom were entering the "field of child development
psychology in the early 1920s."(Matusov, p.286), were witnesses to a time where
industrialization was gaining momentum, World War I had ravaged their continent and
technology was rapidly evolving. With that said, Piaget grew up in Neuchtel, Switzerland
which was relatively untouched by the war whereas Vygotsky grew up in Belarus and then
moved to Russia and was part of a persecuted Jewish minority.
Anne-Nelly Perret-Clermont, Revisiting young Jean Piaget in Neuchtel among his partners
in learning,
Routledge, 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001, 2005. p. 70-91
Connery, C. P., John-Steiner, V., & Marjanovic-Shane, A. (2010). Vygotsky and creativity:
A cultural-historical
approach to play, meaning making and the arts. New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.
First Steps in Literacy. (2003). Linking assessment, teaching and learning (Canadian ed.).
Toronto, ON: Pearson Education Canada.
Kausar, G. (2010). Educational implication of Piaget and Vygotsky language learning
theories in
Pakistani context: A review. The Dialogue, 5(3), 254-268.
Pearson, P.D & Gallagher, M. (1983). The instruction of reading comprehension.
Washington, DC.
University of Illinois, National Institute of Education.
Piaget, J. (1932/2004). The moral judgment of the child. [trans. M. Gabain]. Glencoe, IL:
The Free Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (2004). Imagination and creativity in childhood. Journal of Russian and
Eastern European Psychology, 42(1), 7-97.
Wardle, F. (2009) Approaches to early to childhood and elementary education.
New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Creativity and Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky - Contrary to the traditional belief that creativity is to be studied independently
largely due to, predisposition, talent, apprenticeship, and recognition of prevalent trends,
Vygotsky viewed a dialectual relationship between the individual and his or her world.
Creativity exists not only where it creates great historical works, but also everywhere
human imagination combines, changes, and creates anything new.
Vygotsky saw imagination as a psychological function, located in the core of learning and
development. He believed that imagination originates within social interaction and cultural-
historical moments of a childs development. All of these are woven together with learning,
teaching, discovery, and transformational change (Connery, John-Steiner, & Marjanovic-
Shane, 2010).
Lev Vygotsky,
the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem
solving and the level of potential development as determined by problem solving under adult
guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (Kausar, 2010).
ZPD is a model for intellectual growth that involves a range of tasks that a child is in the
process of learning to complete.
Scaffolding is teacher-provided support for students working in what Vygotsky called the
zone of proximal development, the area just beyond a students level of development.
Grade 3:
Students are engaged in an activity that gives them freedom in expressing what they think,
feel or sense.
Posters, word walls, planners are visuals that help creativity.
Grade 5:
Bustling with activity with students interacting and sharing ideas. They work cooperatively
together. The noise level may be high but they are engaged and productive.
Visual, work on paper or sometimes orally expressing their ideas.
Teachers give opportunities for creativity based on students strengths.
Not allowing students to give up.
No real opportunities to be creative because curriculum are trying to be followed and only
chance students get to show creativity is when they veer away from the curriculum.
What are some of the challenges to promoting creativity within the classroom?
Kindergarten:
Time
Resources
Class size
Money (buses, sub days, supplies)
Internal school restraints
Curriculum pressure
Differing philosophies
Difficult to come up with ideas and activities which are not teacher directed
Space
Fine motor skills
Noise
Hearing school bells
Grade 3:
Having to follow the curriculum
Time: Many different needs within a classroom sometimes does not allow for time
necessary for creative expression.
Time to prepare materials for centers
Assessment and evaluation to determine clear outcomes
Students who feel they need assurance that they are doing it correctly.
Grade 5:
Time
Lack of resources
Trying to cover curricular outcomes
Students asking is this right
Grade 3:
Children are naturally creative. They need a safe learning environment to express
themselves.
Records and checklists
Journals and informal writing
Shared readings
Presentations
Running records
Book making
Grade 5:
Group work
Classroom discussions
Running records
Assessments
Projects (creation of models, puppet shows, triptychs, television commercials)
Assignment
Written work
Oral communication
Analyzing and critiquing (artwork or writing).
DRAMATIC ARTS
LITERARY ARTS
CHOICE
SELF-DIRECTED
the goal of education is to create men who are capable of doing new things not simply of
repeating what other generations have done, men who are creative, innovative, and
discovers (Kausar, 2010).
Pearson and Gallaghers Gradual Release of Responsibility Model (1983) details for teachers
how to support students on their way to becoming self-directed learners.
Problem Based Learning is an instructional strategy that allows students to self-direct their
learning. Students assume the role of active learners as they construct their own knowledge,
reflecting on their experiences and collaboratively solving problems.
Piaget in the classroom
Anchor charts
Visual aids
Multimedia
Manipulatives
Constructivism is a new approach in education that claims humans are better able to
understand the information they have constructed by themselves This was the first line in
The Fountain Magazine: Education issue 48 in 2004.
New approach
is questionable... it is true, constructivism is a 21st century approach, however was
introduced and built on years ago by various theorists. Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget were
two constructivists that shared the idea that classrooms must be constructivist environments,
meaning students need to be able to understand and learn, by constructing their own
learning. Therefore, learners are central to the learning process (Ozer, 2004).
The overall level of pupils creative thinking is a gradually rising trend of development
during the Grade 3 and Grade 6.
Our survey results indicated that many teachers believe that creativity simply belongs in the
realms of the visual and performance arts. Our findings suggest that Kindergarten students,
provided with play based learning opportunities, may have more opportunities to express
themselves and demonstrate understanding in creative ways. Should we be concerned that as
students get older, we sometimes do not provide a creative release for them to better express
their understanding and develop meaning?
Summary
Which type of educator are you? Do you make an effort to provide your students with
opportunities to be creative? Do you provide your students with an environment which
fosters creativity? Do you allow your students to express themselves in creative fashions and
demonstrate their understanding creatively? Is creativity left to the student's personal
development or do you provide social opportunities for your students to co-construct
creatively with others?
Food for thought
Piaget once wrote:
On the other hand, Vygotsky's theories were predicated against the backdrop of Marxist
doctrine and an appreciation of socialist ideologies. Having witnessed the necessities and
importance of war time collaboration and cooperation and the need to stand together to
overcome oppression, perhaps Lev Vygotsky's appreciation for socially constructed learning
was born from a time and place where working together was a necessity for survival and
growth.
Sir Ken Robinson shares his thoughts on Divergent thinking, Creativity and Collaboration.
We invite you to watch the entire video at: www.youtube.com/watch?v=068Xv-J7fEw
Creativity in the Chinese Classroom Continues
References
He, Kekang. (2000). Creative thinking theory: Construction and demonstration of DC model.
Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University Press.
Yu, Guoliang. (1996). Creativity Psychology. Zhejiang, China: Zhejiang Peoples Press.
References
He, Kekang. (2000). Creative thinking theory: Construction and demonstration of DC model.
Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University Press.
Yu, Guoliang. (1996). Creativity Psychology. Zhejiang, China: Zhejiang Peoples Press.
Explore the Prezi further to see how these theorists have influenced education through
constructivism from the mid 1900s to present day.
March 9, 2014
Jeff Willson
Amy MacKinnon
Vanessa Dunn
Su Dan
Constructivism
Approach
Full transcript