Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Syllabus Design
David Nunan
Oxford University Press, 1988
Praise and gratitude we thank God Almighty for blessing and grace so that
we are still given the opportunity to complete this review with a critical book
titled Syllabus Development and Programming Language Levels Guidelines
& Syllabus Design Critical book review we created to meet the completion of
tasks in the course of development of the syllabus, hopefully this critical book
review can add insight and knowledge for the readers.
In the critical writing of this book review , we certainly can not solve it
ourselves without the help of others. Therefore, we would like to thank the
lecturer, Ibu Hj. Darmawati, S.Pd.,M.Pd. We realize that critical book riview are
still far from perfect word because there are still many short comings. Therefore,
we are humbly apologizing and expecting constructive criticism and suggestions
for improvement and refinement in the future. Last but not least, we wish to read
and hope that the material in critical book review in the form of this paper can be
useful as it should for the readers.
Group 4
Medan
2
CHAPTER II
SUMMARY
Introduction
A syllabus is that part of the curriculum jigsaw which describes the
content (goals, objectives, and activities) of the learning. Given that it will
be used as a plan to guide the teaching/learning process, it is necessary for
it to include a general statement on method, resources, assessment, and
evaluation, which shows how the syllabus relates to the other components
of the curriculum jigsaw. At the classroom level, the syllabus is interpreted
and deve'ved in greater detail into a program of work, which takes account
of the particular learner group and the context in which the teaching and
learning occur.
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4
Programming
The syllabus provides teachers with suggested goals, objectives, and
activities for a broad group of learners within a specified Stage. Teachers
use thesyllabus as a guide when selecting, organising, and recording in
detail in a program the learning experiences for a particular group of
learners. A program can be dermed as a description of the planned learning
of a class, a woup, or an individual learner over a specified period of time.
A program also stands as a record of the learning which takes place. It will
include a statement of what will be learned, and how, as well as details of
resources to be used, and assessment and evaluation procedures.
Programming is a process which enables teachers to present their subject
to its best advantage in a way that is relevant, ordered, and developmental
for the learner.
Rationale
Philosophical rationale for programming
A program which is thoughtfully, carefully, and professionally prepared
will benefit the teacher and the learners as individuals, and as partners in
the learning process. As far as teachers are concerned, such a program:
will reflect their theory about how learners learn will help to clarify and
expand their thinking about the languages curriculum will assist them to
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integrate the various components of the curriculum jigsaw will help them
to gain in confidence because of the program's direction and clarity of
purpose will contribute to their professional development can provide
accountable evidence ofgood practices.
Factors to be considered
Programming involves making decisions about classroom learning which
are fundamental to the kind of program which is to be developed.
The activity as the central unit gr teaching and learning If the best
learning conditions are le created for learners, teachers need to plan
activities and exercises (see earlie.. ction on The activities-based syllabus).
Developing a program
Programming will involve close reference to the syllabus. The program
will differ from the syllabus in that it will relate closely to the planned
learning of a particular group of learners, and will contain details of
method, resources, assessment, and evaluation. The program will begin
with a general overview of the planned learning for the specified period of
time. It will then focus increasingly on the more concrete or specific
aspects of the work to be covered as it becomes more detailed. Long-term
and short-term programs will differ only in the time-span for which the
planning is carried out and in the amount of detail they contain.
Programming tools
The following are offered as suggestions forplanning activities and short-
term units of work:
Focus wheel A tool for short-term programming is the focus wheel
(Diagram 10). The focus wheel outlines on one sheet all of the various
elements that need to be considered in programming, and at the same time
demonstrates how all of the elements are interrelated. The focus wheel can
be filled in accordance with the programming procedure already outlined.
Planning sheet The planning sheet in Table 5 contains the
sameinformation as the 'focus wheel', but it is set out as a table rathe than
as a wheel.
Planning web
The format of a planning web is provided in Diagram 1 1. The planning
web can be used in the following ways:
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Language Exponents
The term 'language exponents' refers to the actual forms that may be used
to realize a particular meaning. Thus, for example, the function 'to ask for
information' may be realized in English by the language exponent 'Can
you Please tell me . . .?' The function `to make a suggestion' may be
realized by the language exponent 'Why don't you try . . .?'
To set out language exponents related to particular meanings is, of course,
a language-specific matter. In order to see how this has been done for
French and German in a school context, it may b.:. helpful to consult Clark
and Hamilton, Parts 2 and 3 (1984), which are based on the Council of
Europe's worth( on threshold levels (e.g .Van Ek 1975 and 1977, Coste et
al. 1976). Whether it is sensible to set out such lists of defamed
language exponents related to particular meanings is question to which
there seems to be no simple answer. If language exponents are set out in
advance of the teaching learning process, there is a suggestion that these
are in some sense the 'right' ones to teach. This may have dangerous
consequences, since it leads learners (and teachers) to believe that such
exponents are the only ways of realising the particular meanings, and that
there are no other ways of communicating them. There are very few
simple one-to-one relationships between lan- guage exponents and the
meanings that they can realise. Because teachers often express the wish for
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Grammar
It remains sensible for syllabus writers to attempt to set out a grammar for
each Stage. They need to keep in mind, however, that there will be a wide
difference between a receptive grammar and a productive grammar. A
description of the projected study of grammar should take some account of
the evidence emerging from studies of interlanguage development
(Johnston 1985). This description would provide teachers with suggestions
as to what grammar to focus upon deliberately at each Stage.
Grammar remains an essential focus of attention in every Stage, since it is
this that gives language its generative capacity. Setting out an appropriate
grammar for each Stage, however, is a language-specific issue.
The grammar that is set out should be based to some extent on the most
appropriate ways of expressing the functions and notions established for a
particular Stage, starting in the beginning Stages with the most simple an
general sable patterns, and moving in Iiitc; Stages to more complex ones.
In many languages, for example, it is not necessary in the beginning Stages
to focus learners' attention on inverted interrogative patterns for asking
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Vocabulary
As is the case with language exponents, it is probably counterproductive to
attempt to set out a vocabulary beyond the early Stages, in which
vocabulary can be related to the themes and topics likely to arise within the
activities suggested. Beyond the early Stages, vocabulary is difficult to
predict, and it becomes more a function of the resources used, of learners'
interests, and of activities, rather than of the syllabus itself. Any list of
vocabulary provided in a syllabus ought not to be the sole determinant of
the texts that are used, nor of the classroom activities that are undertaken.
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Other Focuses
It is less feasible to provide lists within other organisational focuses (e.g.
skills, genres, texts, projects, etc.) since these may be chosen from an
unlimited range of possibilities within each focus area. Choices will be
made at a language-specific level according to the needs of a particular
learner group.
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The syllabus content provided for Stage 5 takes the following form :
Component 1: Continuing developmentof learners' language resource,
based on work done in previous Stages
Component 2: Some suggested options (suggested specific goals,
objectives, organisational focuses, and suggested activities are
provided for each option)
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The four broad groups of language learners outlined above differ in age
and level of schooling and previous experience of the target language.
These differences will influence the choice of objectives and activities in a
syllabus prepared specifically for any one of these four groups.
The implications for teachers and syllabus writers are as follows.
Implications with regard to differences in age and level of schooling:
The choice of themes and topics will depend on differences in learners'
interests
The choice of activities to develop skills will depend on differences in
learners' skill development (e.g. Literacy skills, research skills, etc.)
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Require them to use the language in a wider range of contexts, and for
a wider range of purposes
Require a greater productive capacity
Require less selective language use on the part of the teacher and other
speakers enable them to take full advantage of the family and the local
target language community as a resource.
This Stage provides a worthwhile course for those learners who have a
general interest in the target language as well as those learners who wish to
study the target language for specialist purposes (e.g. business studies,
interpreting and translating, etc.).
Learners extend and ref-me their language resource and their ability to use
it through an integrated program involving the five broad goals:
communication, sociocultural, learning-how-to-learn, language and
cultural awareness, and general knowledge. They engage in a range of
activities covering all six activity-types and all modes of communication
(see Table 3, Table of Language Use).
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1.1.Introduction
Candlin ( 1984) suggests thar curricula are concerned with making
general srarements abour language learning, learning purpose and
experience, evaluarion, and the role relarionships of teachers and
learners. According to Candlin, rhey will also contain banks of
learning items and suggestions about how these mighr be used in
class.
2. Points of Departure
2.1. Introduction
If we had consensus on just what it was that we were supposed to teach
in order for learners to develop proficiency in a second or foreign
language; if we knew a great deal more than we do about language
learning; if it were possible to teach the totality of a given language,
and if we had complete descriptions of the target language, problems
associated with selecting and sequencing content and learning
experiences would be relatively straightforward. As it happens, there is
not a great deal of agreement within the teaching profession on the
nature of language and language learning. As a consequence, we must
make judgements in selecting syllabus components from all the
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options which are available to us. As Breen (1984) points out, these
judgements are not value-free, but reflect our beliefs about the nature
of language and learning. In this and the other parts in this section, we
shall see how value judgements affect decision-making in syllabus
design.
there are certain aspects of language which are peculiar to the context s
in which it is used and the purposes for which it is used .
3. Product-Oriented Syllabuses
3.1. Introduction
In 2, I drew a distinction between product-oriented and process-
oriented syllabuses. We saw that product syllabuses are those in which
the focus is on the knowledge and skills which learners should gain as
a result of instruction, while process syllabuses are those which focus
on the learning experiences themselves.
new syllabus. [i.e. ordering the syllabus in the same order in which
items occur in the learners' repertoire.] On the other hand, if learners
pass through developmental stages in a fixed sequence, then it might
seem equally lo.gical to disregard the question of how the syllabus is
written - at least as regards structure - since learners will organize this
aspect of learning for themselves. (johnston 1 985: 29)
Pienemann and Johnston use their speech-processing theory to explain
the order in which grammatical items are acquired. They suggest that
structures will be acquired in the following stages:
Stage 1
Single words and formulae.
Stage 2
Canonical or 'standard' word order, e.g. for English, Subject + Verb +
Object.
Stage 3
Initialization/ finalization. Final elements can be moved into initial
position or vice versa, e.g. words such as adverbs can be added to the
beginning or end of clauses.
Stage 4
Semi-internal permutation. Internal elements can be moved to initial or
final position, e.g. words can be moved from inside the clause to the
beginning or end of the clause.
4. Process-Oriented Syllabuses
4.1. Introduction
We saw that syllabuses in which the selection and grading of items
was carried out on .a grammatical basis fell into disfavour because
they failed adequately to reflect changing views on the nature of
language. In addition, there was sometimes a mismatch between what
was taught and what was learned. Some SLA researchers have claimed
that this mismatch is likely to occur when the grading of syllabus input
is carried out according to grammatical rather than psychplinguistic
principles, while others suggest that the very act of linguistically
selecting and grading input will lead to distortion.
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departure for the syllabus, is usually derived from some fairly well-
defined subject area. This might be other subjects in a school
curriculum such as science or social studies, or specialist subject
matter relating to an academic or technical field such as mechanical
engineering, medicine, or computing.
In a recent publication, Mohan ( 1 986) argues for content-based
syllabuses on the grounds that they facilitate learning not merely
through language but with language. We cannot achieve this goal if we
assume that language learning and subject-matter learning are totally
separate and unrelated operations. Yet language and subject matter are
still standardly considered in isolation from each other. (Mohan 1 986:
iii)
5. Objectives
5.1. Introduction
It may come as some surprise to those familiar with the theory and
practice of syllabus planning to find that we are only now getting
around to discussing objectives. I have postponed consideration of
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6.1. Introduction
In 6 we shall look at some of the ways in which the concepts and
processes introduced in 2 have been applied.
at the school level. The goals were not derived directly from learners,
but from an analysis carried out by syllabus planners, experienced
teachers, and educational authorities.
7.1. Introduction
8.1. Introduction
In particular we shall look at examples and applications of the ideas
presented in 4. First, we shall look at the relationship between goals,
objectives, and tasks. We shall then look at tasks which have been
proposed in relation to the various process-oriented syllabuses
discussed in 4. Finally, we shall examine a range of task types.
possible in order that the listener can identify in what way his
photograph differs from the one which the speaker is describing.
2. The speaker has a diagram. The listener has a blank sheet of paper,
a black pen, and a red pen. The speaker has to instruct the listener to
reproduce the diagram as accurately as possible on his sheet of
paper.
3. The speaker has a cartoon strip story. The listener has a set of
pictures which show scenes or the. characters from the story and
some from different stories.
4. The speaker has a set of photographs depicting a sequence of events
leading up to a car crash. The listener has a set of photographs,
some ofwhich show details of the particular car crash being
described and some for another car crash.
5. The learner watches a short piece of video film in which a teacher
expresses a fairly strong opinion that corporal punishment is
necessary in school to ensure that teachers can do their work and
that students can learn.
9.1. Introduction
We shall now look at applications of the ideas presented in 5. In
particular, we shall look at the distinctions between product-oriented
and processoriented objectives, and real-world and pedagogic
objectives.
A. KEUNGGULAN BUKU I
Bahasa yang digunakan sederhana
Tampilkan cover sederhana
Banyak memunculkan kreasi baru
Inspiratif
Pembahasan isi buku mudah dimngerti
Memberikan contoh-contoh yang sederhana namun sesuai dengan
perkembangan teknologi
Menjelaskan secara rinci
Buku ini termasuk kategori berisi lengkap, deskripsi dari bagian isi
yang menjabarkan segala penjelasan secara detail .
Di setiap materi tertera table dan contoh yang jelas
B. KEUNGGULAN BUKU II
Buku ini memiliki materi-materi yang dijangkau luas, sehingga para
pebaca yang tidak menyukai bahasa yang sulit akan suka memiliki
buku ini
Di setiap materi terdapat contoh yang lengkap
Banyak terdapat contoh soal
Prosedure silabus yang dijelaskan sangat jelas
Menjelaskan level disetiap tingkatan
Tersedia glossary pada akhir buku
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CHAPTER IV
KELEMAHAN BUKU
A. KELEMAHAN BUKU I
Buku ini tidak memiliki sumber referensi yang banyak dalam
penjelasan materi materinya, sehingga tidak mampu membuka
pemikiran para pembaca.
Buku ini memiliki sangat sedikit sekali diagram-diagram penerapan
model pembelajaran.
Lebih banyak membahas pada belajar dan pembelajaran dari pada
pembahasan silabus.
Materi-materi yang di sampaikan hanya dijelaskan dalam jangkauan
sempit.
Buku ini hanya memuat 164 halaman.
B. KELEMAHAN BUKU II
Terlalu banyak tabel sehingga para pembaca susah di pahami
Terlalu banyak Task dan sedikit pembahasan
Buku ini hanya memuat 165 halaman.
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CHAPTER V
IMPLIKASI
A. IMPLIKASI BUKU I
a. Teori/konsep
Program silabus adalah rencana pembelajaran pada suatu dan atau
kelompok mata pelajaran/tema tertentu yang mencakup standar
kompetensi, kompetensi dasar, materi pokok/pembelajaran, kegiatan
pembelajaran, indicator pencapaian kompetensi untuk penilaian,
penilaian, alokasi waktu, dan sumber belajar.
Pengembangan silabus:
1. Guru kelas/mata pelajaran, atau
2. Kelompok guru kelas/mata pelajaran, atau
3. Kelompok kerja guru (MGMP)
b. Analisis Mahasiswa
Dengan focus silabus yang menyarankan kemungkinan konten pada
tahap intruksional yang berbeda dan menjelaskan prosedur untuk
perenanaan silabus. Silabus berisi sebuah pengantar yang mendalam
dari semua perangkap proyek dan kerangka kerja deskrisi rinci tentang
orgaisasi dan konten bahasa asing, termasuk tahap instrusional
karakteristik pelajar yang mempengaruhi isi silabus pada tahap yang
berbeda, contoh studi kasus, tujuan umum, dan spesifik, konsep silabus
berbasis kaum muda, tipe aktifitas sebagai unit pengorganisasian
design silabus, dan untuk mengurutkan silabus berisi aktifitas kasar
pada ikhtisar proses pengembangan silabus dan isu-isu termaksud
factor yang perlu dipertimbangkan, alat pengembangan program, pro-
berguna dan pembrograman.
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B. IMPLIKASI BUKU II
a. Teori/konsep
Desain silabus menurut David Nunan yaitu untuk memberi para guru
alat dan teknik untuk menganalisis dan tunduk pada pemeriksaan kritis
terhadap silabus yang mereka gunakan. Hal ini juga dimaksudkan untuk
memberikan konsep dan prosedur bagi guru-guru yang berada dalam
posisi untuk berperan dalam pengembangan silabus yang mereka
gunakan.
b. Analisis Mahasiswa
Tujuan umum dari buku ini adalah untuk mendorong pembaca untuk
mendorong pembaca untuk memperdalam pemahaman mereka tentang
konteks pengajaran dimana mereka bekerja. Secara khusus, diharapkan
tugas membantu pembaca mengembangkan sikap kritis terhadap silabus
atau silabus yang dengannya mereka berkerja.
BAB VI
KESIMPULAN & SARAN
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