APPLIED MECHANICS DEPARTMENT

S V NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SURAT- 395007

THEORY OF ELASTICITY &

PLASTICITY

- Prof. Johny
1
TEXT BOOKS:
1) Theory of Elasticity
- Timoshenko S P and Goodier J N (Mc graw Hill)
2) Adv. Strength of material
- E. Volterra & Gaines (Prentice Hall)
3) Theory of Elasticity
- M. Filonenko , Borodich ( Dover Publ, N.Y )

REF. BOOKS:

1) Elasticity ( Tensor, dyadic and Engg. Approaches)

- P C Chau & N J Pagano, C D Van Norstvand co.)
2) Structural mechanics with introduction to Elasticity and Plasticity
- B. Venkatraman , Sharad A Patel (Mc Graw Hill)
3) Elasticity for Engineers
- D. S. Dugdale, C. Ruiz (Mc Graw Hill )
4) Matrix Tensor method in continuum mechanics
- S. F. Borg (C D Van Norstvand co. N.Y.)
5) Applied Elasticity
-Chi-Teh-Wang (Mc Graw Hill N. Y. )
2
 INTRODUCTION

Almost all engineering material possess to a certain extent the property of Elasticity.

Assumptions -
1) The deformations are assumed to be infinitesimal.
2) The body is assumed to be perfectly elastic.
3) The body is assumed to be homogeneous. (i.e. the properties are same at each
point.)
4) The body is assumed to be isotropic (i.e. the properties are same in all directions.)

3
4
Elastic properties of the body can specified by
E = modulus of elasticity, = 1/m = Poisson ratio.

Fig. shows the tensile test diagram for a bar of constant c/s . This diagram
demonstrated the relation between tensile stress x and unit elongation x.
1) initial portion OA is straight , i.e. stress is directly proportional to strain

x = E x ------------------1)

2) portion A of the diagram correspond to the stress p is called proportional

limit, if the stress is bellow proportional limit, then the longitudinal
elongation x. Is accompanied by equal lateral contraction. y and z.

y = z = - x -------------2)

The factor of proportionality represents a constant for each material and is

called Poissons Ratio.
m = 1/ = Poisson No.
5
 FORCES

The Elastic body will be referred to a system of orthogonal Cartesian coordinate oxyz..
The forces acting on a body will be -
1) Internal forces- y
2) External forces-
o x
Internal forces z External Forces
e.g.
Cohesion between Surface Forces Body forces
particles. - are forces distributed over - are forces distributed over
the surface of the body. the volume of the body
e. g. Atm. Pressure, e.g. Gravitational forces,
Hyd. pressure, Pressure Magnetic forces,
Exerted by one body to another. Inertia forces etc ,
Their components on x, y, z Their components on x, y, z
axis will represented by- axis will represented by-
, , X, Y, Z

6
 STRESS
NORMAL STRESS
SHEAR STRESS -

Consider the body shown in figure (a) which is in equilibrium under the action of
system of external forces P1 , P2, Pn.
Now the body is cut in to two parts by a plane ( part 1 and part 2 )
In part (1) & (2) the resultant of internal force +R and R resp.
consider now element of area A ( figure (b) ) with vertical intensity R, R
can be decomposed into two components-
Rn ----------------------- normal to A
Rt ------------------------ tangent in the plane.

At point P the center of A normal component of stress at point P

= lim Rn --------------------------------------------------------------------(3)
A 0 Rt
Shear component of stress at point P
= lim Rt --------------------------------------------------------------------(4)
A 0 A

Normal stress + ve in tension

- ve in compression
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Figure-a

Figure-b

8
9
 Consider a small cube OABCDEFG with sides dx , dy and dz .
The outward normal to the face ABEF is considered as + ve ( because in the direction of x axis
+ve ) BCDE and DEFG are also +ve, Other three remaining faces are ve .
On face ABEF normal stress x ( for normal stress and x for normal stress is applied on a
face of the cube perpendicular to the x- axis )
Shear stresses xy and xz ( for shear stress and x for the stress is applied on a face of the
cube perpendicular to the x- axis and y or z for shear stress component is directed in y or z dir.
Face OCDG the direction of stresses are shown these stresses x ,xy , xz are +ve but area
OCDG is ve . Hence faces are x dy dz , xy dy dz , xz dy dz directed in the ve direction
of x, y, z now stresses

x = - x dy dz ---------------------------------------------------------- (5)
- dy dz
xy = - xy dy dz --------------------------------------------------------- (6)
- dy dz
xz = - xz dy dz ---------------------------------------------------------- (7)
- dy dz

this agrees that normal stresses are positive quantities and +ve in tension .

x xy xz

Stress tensor = yx y yz ----------------------------------(8)

zx zy z 10
11
On the face perpendicular to x and y axis .

shear stress xy and yx are acting .

Taking moment about z axis ,( force x distance)-

( xy dy dz ) * dx - ( yx dx dz ) * dy = 0

therefore;

xy = yx
similarly, yz = zy ------------------------------------ (9)
zx = xz

12
STRAIN AND STRAIN DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS (CAUCHYS EQUATIONS )

13
 The small displacement of the points in a deformed body will be resolved into
Components u, v and w. Parallel to x, y and z axis .

consider an unstrained elastic solid points P of the coordinates x, y and z.

points P1 ( x+dx, y, z )
P2 ( x, y+dy, z )
P3 ( x, y, z+dz )

The coordinate of all four points before and after stretching are given in table as
below -

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STRAIN AND STRAIN DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS (CAUCHYS EQUATIONS)

Before deformation After deformation

Points coordinates Points Coordinates
P x P x+u
y y+v
z z+w
P1 x+dx P1 x + u + dx + u dx
x
y y + v+ v dx
x
z z + w+ w dx
x
P2 x P2 x + u+ u dy
y
y+dy y + v+ dy +v dy
y
z z+ w+ w dy
y
P3 x P3 x + u+ u dz
z
y u+ v+ v dz
z
z+dz z + w+dz+ w dz
z
15
The stretching of P P1 in the x direction is given by-

( x + u + dx + u dx ) ( x + u + dx )
x

= u dx
x
Therefore we get,

x = u
x
Similarly,
y = v ------------------------------------- ( 10)
y

z = w
z

16
The change in angle due to elastic deformation

17
 Consider an angle P1P P2 as shown in figure,
Before deformation angle P1P P2 = 90
After deformation angle P1 P P2 = 90- xy
while , (shear strain )

xy = u + v --------------------------------------(11)
y x
similarly, considering the deformation of the angle P2 P P3 and P1 P P3

yz = v + w
z y
------------------------------------(11)
xz = u + w
z x

x xy xz

Strain tensor = yx y yz -------------------------------(12)

zx zy z

18
 xy = yx

yz = zy

zx = xz

The signs of strains x , y and z are assumed to be + ve if they corresponds

Extension and ve if they corresponds contractions.

The signs of shear components of the strains xy , yz and zx are assumed to be

+ ve if they correspond to the reduction of the angle during deformation and ve if
the corresponding angle increases during deformation.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESSES AND STRAINS:-
( GENERALIZED HOOKS LAW )

20
 Consider a small cube, subjected to the normal stress x, y and z.

Normal strain x = x + x + x

(x- due to x, x- due to y, x - due to z)

x = -

Where, = = poison ratio

x = (x (y + z)

Similarly,

y = (y (z + x) --------------------------- (13)

z = (z (x + y)

Now,

e = x + y + z
And, = x + y + z

e = x + y + z = (x + y + z)
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e= ) -------------------------------------------- (14)

(y + z) = x ----------------------------------- (15)

Substituting eqn. (15) in eqn. (13)

x = {x (y + z)}

= {x ( - z)}

= - +

x + = (1+ )

x = (x + )

22
 x = e + 2G x

Similarly,

y = e + 2G y -------------------------------- (16)

z = e + 2G z

Where,

G= = shear modulus or modulus of Rigidity.

And,

= =Lames constant.

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 Now suppose hydrostatic pressure P acting on the cube-
x = y = z = p
Eqn. (14) is-

x + y + z = e = )

= x + y + z
= - p - p p = - 3p

e= --------------------- (17)

-p =

= ( + )e=Ke

Where, K = ( + )

= compressibility of fluid / modulus of volume expansion = Bulk Modulus

24
 RELATION BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTANTS

constant G, K, G G, E, E, G

-Lames K-
constant
G-Modulus of
rigidity G G G G

K-
Compressibilit + K
y of fluid

E-Modulus of
elasticity 2G(1+) E E

- Poissons
ratio -1

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 EQUATIONS OF EQUILLIBRIUM :-
(NAVIERS EQUATIONS / LAMES EQUATIONS)

26
 Consider a small cube and express the condition of equilibrium of the forces
(Body forces and surface forces) acting on it.
In x- direction

X dx dy dz x dy dz + (x + ) dy dz yx dz dx

+ (yx + ) dx dz - zx dy dx + (zx + ) dy dx = 0

Dividing equation by dx dy and dz.

+ + +X = 0

+ + +Y = 0 ------------------------ (18)

+ +Z = 0

Eqn. (18) are Naviers equations. of equilibrium for an elastic solid.

27
Applying DAlemberts principle to the elastic body in motion.
= mass density of the elastic body.

Inertia forces in x, y, z direction Resp.

F=ma

= (density x volume x accln.)

- dx dy dz

- dx dy dz

- dx dy dz

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By adding body forces to equation (18) we get,

+ + +X=

+ + +Y= ----------------------- (19)

+ +Z=

Equation (19) are Naviers Equations of motion.

Now,

x = e + 2G x

y = e + 2G x -------------------------------- eqn. (16)

z = e + 2G x

29
 G u + ( + G) +X=0

G v + ( + G) + Y = 0 --------------------------------- (20)

G w + ( + G) +Z=0

Substituting the values in equation (19)

G u + ( + G) +X=

G v + ( + G) +Y= ------------------------ (21)

G w + ( + G) +Z=

Where, = Laplacian operator

= + +

30
And Hooks law for shear stresses and strains,

xy = G xy
yz = G yz
zx = G zx

Substituting in eqn. (18) and,

x= xy =

y= yz =

z= zx =

We get Lames equation of equilibrium in terms of components elastic displacements .

31
 COMPATIBILITY EQUATIONS :-
(SAINT VENANTS EQUATIONS)
BELTRAMI-MICHELLS EQUATIONS

Refer eqns. (10) and (11)

x= xy =

y= yz =

z= zx =

It follows that the components of strain are not independent. (I.e. they can not be
taken as arbitrary functions of the variables x, y, z but are related by relationship called
compatibility Eqns.) They are first derived by Saint Venant and are valid if body is
simply connected.

From equation (10) & (11) differentiating twice -

32
 =

And,

Hence,

Similarly,

= --------------------------- (22)

33
From equation (10) and (11)

Hence,

- + =2

=2

34
 [ - + ]=2

[ - + ]=2 ------------------------ (23)

[ - + ]=2

Substituting
x = (x (y + z)

y = (y (z + x)

z = (z (x + y)

xy = = xy

yz = = yz

zx = = zx
35
In eqns. (22) and (23).
And putting the values in Eqns. (18) we get,

Beltrami- Michell compatibility Eqns:-

x + =- + + )-2

y + =- + + )-2 ------------------------------ (24)

z + =- + + )-2

yz + =- + )

zx + =- + ) ------------------------------- (25)

xy + =- + )
36
Now here,

x = ( + + ) x

= Laplacian operator

= + +

= x + y + z

= + + ) ------------------------------ (26)

If there are no Body forces i.e. X=Y=Z=0 substituting in Eqn. (24) & (25).

x + =0

y + =0 -------------------------------- (27)

z + =0
37
 yz + =0

zx + =0 ----------------------------- (28)

xy + =0

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 SAINT VENANTS PRINCIPLE
Principle of the elastic equivalence of statically equipollent system of loads.

In 1855 Saint Venant enunciated the Principle of the elastic equivalence of

statically equipollent system of loads.
According to this principle if system of forces acting on a portion of the boundary
of an elastic body is replaced by a statically equivalent system of forces acting on the
same portion of the boundary then the stresses, strains and elastic displacements in parts
of the body sufficiently far removed from this portion of boundary remain approximately
same.
To explain the Saint Venants principle consider the different system of loading
acting on bar with rectangular cross section of area A. Although the three system of
external forces acting at two ends of the bar are different.
In the first case, these being uniformly distributed load of intensity po. ( with total
UDL = P)
In the second case, a concentrated load of intensity P is acting.
In the third case, a variably distributed load of total value P is acting.
But the longitudinal stress x on the section at the center of the bar is the same and is
expressed by-
x = P / A

39
SAINT VENANTS PRINCIPLE :-

SYSTEM-1
(U. D. L.)

SYSTEM-2
(Concentrated load)

SYSTEM-3
(Variable
distributed load)

40
 BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS OF ELASTICITY:-

Refer Eqns. (10) and (11) strain displacement relations,

Refer Eqns. (18) of body forces, Refer Eqns. (13) and,

xy = , yz = , zx =

And putting in equation (18) & (16)

+ G (2 + + +X=0

Now, G = and =

[ +2 + + +X=0

Where,

e= + +

41
Substituting-

x = , y = , z = ,

xy =

yz =

zx =

[ + +X=0

Refer eqns. (18)

42
 + (1-2) u + X=0

+ (1-2) v + Y=0 ------------------------------------ (29)

+ (1-2) w + Z=0

Where, = Laplacian operator

= + +

Equation (29) gives Equilibrium eqns. In terms of displacement, and are known as Navier
Equations. And solution of these equations, are referred as Boundary conditions.

43
 AIRYS STRESS FUNCTION:

It is assumed that in case of gravitational forces.

= density of elastic body
g = acceleration due to gravity. x
X = 0, Y = Y0 = g
Hence Eqns. Of Plane stress Eqns. (31)
y + ve

=0

=0

Equation of equilibrium
In the absence of body forces
X=Y=0

44
( + ) (x + y) = - (1+) ( + )

( + ) (x + y) = 0 -------------------------- (41)

Equation of Compatibility,

G. B. Airy introduced a stress function,

= (x, y)

This is related to components of stress by following equation

x = , y =

xy = - y0 x

45
In the absence of body forces

xy = -

Substituting in eqns. (41)

( + ) ( + )

= =0

= 0------------------------------ (42)
Airys Stress Function.

46
POLAR COORDINATES:-

47
 In polar coordinates r and will be used in showing two dimensional elasticity problems.
Consider the system of Cartesian coordinates o x y and Orthogonal system o r t the r axis
being inclined at the angle wrt x- axis.
Consider also the two faces which are perpendicular to r and t axis . on these faces the normal
stresses r and and Shearing stresses r = r will be acting.
r = r
Airys stress function- (x, y)
= 0

For polar coordinates, Laplacian operator

+ +

PROOF-

Laplacian operator = +

In polar coordinates r and , consider functions

F (x, y) = F [r (x, y); (x, y)] --------------------------- (43)

48
Now,
r2 = x2+y2 = tan-1

= = cos

= = sin

= =

= =

Differentiating eqns. (43)

= +

49
 =( )( )

= cos2 - cos sin ( ( )+ (

cos2 + sin2 ( ) - 2 sin cos (

Similarly-

sin2 + cos2 ( ) + 2 sin cos (

f = +

f + +

Laplacian operator in polar coordinates

+ + ------------------- (44)

50
Hence Airys stress function- (x, y) will be-
=0

( + +

+ + ) = 0 --------------------------- (45)

- + + +

+ + + - ------ (46)

+ - - -

Above eqns. are correlating derivatives in rectangular and polar coordinates.

51
From fig- it is clear that when = 0
r = x

= y

r = xy
Hence eqns. (46) will be

r = = +

= =

r = - ( -------------------- (47)

= - +

52
If and component of stress are independent of the variable then eqns. (45) and (46) will be

Eulers Eqns.

( + )( +

= + + =0

Putting in eqns. (47) independent of

, =0

r =

= -------------------- (48)

r = 0

53
And polar component of strain:

r = = (r- )

r = +

= (- )

r = -

= =0

54
 TWO DIMENSIONAL ELASTICITY

PLANE STRESS
One has a state of plane stress when stresses satisfy following condition
z = xz = yz = 0.

Hence stress tensor =

x xy
yx y ----------------------------(30)
As for example-

The state of stresses in the thin plate which is subjected to force applied at the boundary,
parallel to the plane of plate and uniformly distributed over the thickness
In the case of plane stress the equilibrium equation (18) will becomes
55
 +x=0

= 0 ---------------------- (31)

And the compatibility eqns. (22) will be

= ---------------------- (32)

Equation (13) will reduced to-

x = (x y)

y = (y x) --------------------------- (33)

z = - (x + y)

Note- it should be noted that in the case of plane stress z = 0 but z # 0

Eqns. of shear strains and shear stresses
xy =

yz = zx = 0----------------- (34)
56
Substituting eqns. (33) and (34) in eqns. (32)

(y - x) + = 2(1+) ----------------- (35)

In eqns. (31)
Differentiating the eqns. with x and the second eqns. with y and adding-

=- ( + )( + )

Substituting in eqns. (35)

( + ) (x + y) = - (1+) ( + )

57
BOUNDARY CONDITION-

58
 Consider the small tetrahedron OABC if the n is the normal to the face ABC and nx, ny
and nz are the angle between n and the x, y, z axis respectively. And if the A is the area of
the face ABC and Ax, Ay and Az are the area of the faces OBC, OAC, OAB, respectively.

Now = cos (nx)

= cos (ny)

= cos (nz)

If , , represents the components of the surface forces applied per unit area of face
ABC,

Following boundary condition can be derived-

x cos (nx) + xy cos (ny) + xz cos (nz) =

yx cos (nx) + y cos (ny) + yz cos (nz) =

zx cos (nx) + zy cos (ny) + z cos (nz) =

59
Hence in the case of plane stress the boundary condition will be-

x cos (nx) + xy cos (ny)

yx cos (nx) + y cos (ny)

60
MOHRS CIRCLE FOR STRESS:-

Figure-a

61
 Suppose a cube of side dx and dy and unit thickness in z- direction. The stresses are x, y
And xy .i.e. Perpendicular to xy plane. x and y are + ve (tension),

xy - is the +ve (clockwise)

xy - is the -ve (anti-clockwise )

The prob. Is to find the intensity of the normal stress and shear stress acting on the plane
whose normal makes an angle with the x- axis , vary an a function of the angle .

By expressing the condition of equilibrium of force acting on the small prisom of sides
AC=dx, BC=dy, AB=ds and thickness unity.

(Along the direction of n i.e. perpendicular to AB)

Fn =0

ds = x dy cos + y dx sin -xy dy sin - yx dxcos

but = sin , = cos , xy= yx

= x cos2 + y sin2 -2 xy sin cos ------------------- (36)

62
from, trigonometry

cos2 = (1+ cos2)

sin2 = (1- cos2) as(cos2- sin2=cos2)

sin2 = 2sin cos

hence equation (36) can be return as

= + cos2 xy sin2------------------------ (37)

Similarly Ft =0

ds = x dy sin - y dx cos + xy dy cos - yx dx sin

= x cos sin - y sin cos + xy cos2 - yx sin2--------------(38)

= sin2 + xy cos2 ------------------------ (39)

63
Rewriting the equation (37)

- = cos2 xy sin2

Squaring both the sides-

( - )2 = cos2 xy sin2)

Now squaring both the sides of equation (39)

2 = ( sin2+ xy cos 2 )2

Adding both the equation

( - )2 2 = )2 + xy2

Compare with the equation of circle

(x-a)2 + y2 = r2

Hence x = , y=

64
Figure-a figure-b

65
a= and r=

each points on the circle the state of the stress on a plane passing through point o, then
point x represents the state of stress on the vertical plane passing through point o , point n
represents the state of stress on the plane passing through point o,

from the figure we know that max. And min. stress will occur on planes where shear
stress is zero.

max = OM = OC + CM

min = ON = OC - CN

max = +

min = -

Extreme value of shear stress

max/min = r

= 66
PLANE STRAIN:-
u = u(x, y)

v = v(x, y)

w=o

Components of strain- refer eqns. (10) and (11)

x = , y = , z = =0

xy =

yz = =0

xz = =0

Strain tensor = x xy

yx y -------------- (40)

67
TYPICAL EXAMPLES-

Constrained at both ends subjected to internal pressure

68
Refer eqns. (18) - will be

+ +X = 0

+ +Y=0

Refer eqns. (13)

x = (x (y + z)

= (x (1 ) - y)

y = (y (z + x)

= (y (1 ) - x)

z = (x + y)

69
 Refer eqns. (26)-

= + + )

( + ) (x + y) = - (1+) ( + )

Now here, = Laplacian operator

= +

= x + y + z = (1+ ) (x+y)

Boundary condition-

x cos (nx) + xy cos (ny)

yx cos (nx) + y cos (ny)

70
MOHRS CIRCLE FOR STRAINS:-

max = +

min = -

( )max/min =

71
 ENERGY PRINCIPLE AND GENERAL THEOREMS

1. Strain Energy
2. Strength theory or theory of failure
3. Principle of virtual work
4. Bettes and Maxwells reciprocal theorem

BETTES RECIPROCAL THEOREM

72
BETTES RECIPROCAL THEROM

The indirect or mutual work done by a system of external forces A elastic solid during the application
of a new system of external forces B, if they were already acting during the application of a new system
of a external forces A.

Assume the system A is applied first, it will produce work LA , then force system B is applied, it will
produced work LB , while forces A produce the mutual work LAB

Total work L = LA + LB+LAB

If the order is reversed

L = LB+ LA +LBA

Therefore, LAB = LBA

MAXWELLS RECIPROCAL THEROM:-

The displacement of a point A in direction produces by unit force acting at point B in

direction produces by unit forces acting at point A in the direction.

73