Daniel Eka Raenata/6215028

Dimas Saptoaji/6215036

Joseph Trihardian/6215088

LITERATUR
James H. Gary, Glenn E. Handwerk, Mark J. Kaiser, Petroleoum Refining: Technology and
Economics, 5th Edition, CRC Press, 2007.

3.2.2 OLEFINS

Olens do not naturally occur in crude oils but are formed during processing. They are very
similar in structure to parafns, but at least two of the carbon atoms are joined by double
bonds. The general formula is CnH2n. Olens are generally undesirable in nished products
because the double bonds are reactive and the compounds are more easily oxidized and
polymerized to form gums and varnishes. In gasoline boiling-range fractions, some olens are
desirable because olens have higher octane numbers than parafn compounds with the same
number of carbon atoms. Olens containing ve carbon atoms have high reaction rates with
compounds in the atmosphere that form pollutants and, even though they have high research
octane numbers, are considered generally undesirable. Some diolens (containing two double
bonds) are also formed during processing, but they react very rapidly with olens to form high-
molecular-weight polymers consisting of many simple unsaturated molecules joined together.
Diolens are very undesirable in products because they are so reactive they polymerize and
form lter- and equipment-plugging compounds.

6.3 CRACKING REACTIONS

The products formed in catalytic cracking are the result of both primary and secondary
reactions [10]. Primary reactions are designed as those involving the initial carboncarbon bond
scission and the immediate neutralization of the carbonium ion [11]. The primary reactions can
be represented as follows:

Thomas [12] suggested the mechanism that carbonium ions are formed initially by a small
amount of thermal cracking of n-parafns to form olens. These olens add a proton from the
catalyst to form large carbonium ions, which decompose according to the beta rule (carbon
carbon bond scission takes place at the carbon in the position beta to the carbonium ions and
olens) to form small carbonium ions and olens. The small carbonium ions propagate the
chain reaction by transferring a hydrogen ion from an n-parafn to form a small parafn
molecule and a new large carbonium ion [3,13]. As an example of a typical n-parafn
hydrocarbon cracking reaction, we may look at the borrowing sequence for n-octane

6.1 FLUIDIZED BED CATALYTIC CRACKING

The FCC process employs a catalyst in the form of very fine particles [average particle size
about 70 micrometers (microns)], which behave as a fluid when aerated with a vapor. The
fluidized catalyst is circulated continuously between the reaction zone and the regeneration
zone and acts as a vehicle to transfer heat from the regenerator to the oil feed and reactor.
Two basic types of FCC units in use today are the side-by-side type, where the reactor
(separator) and regenerator are separate vessels adjacent to each other, and the Orthoflow, or
stacked type, where the reactor is mounted on top of the regenerator. Typical FCC unit
configurations are shown in Figure 6.1 to Figure 6.8 and Photos 6 and 7, Appendix E.

One of the most important process differences in FCC units relates to the location and
control of the cracking reaction. Until about 1965, most units were designed with a discrete
dense-phase fluidized catalyst bed in the reactor vessel. The units were operated so that most
of the cracking occurred in the reactor bed. The extent of cracking was controlled by varying
reactor bed depth (time) and temperature. Although it was recognized that cracking occurred
in the riser feeding the reactor because the catalyst activity and temperature were at their
highest there, no significant

http://nptel.ac.in/courses/103107082/module6/lecture5/lecture5.pdf

LECTURE 5
CATALYTIC CRACKING
Catalytic cracking process was developed in19 20 by Eugene Houdry for upgradation of residue
was commercialized latter in 1930. Houdry process was based on cyclic fixed bed configuration.
There has been continuous upgradation in catalytic in catalytic cracking process from its incept
of fixed bed technology to latter fluidized bed catalytic cracking (FCC).The feed stock for
catalytic cracking is normally light gas oil from vacuum distillation column. Catalytic cracking
cracks low value high molecular weight hydrocarbons to more value added products (low
molecular weight) like gasoline, LPG Diesel along with very important petrochemical feedstock
like propylene, C4 gases like isobutylene, Isobutane, butane and butane.

FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING

Fluid catalytic cracking is now major secondary conversion process in Petroleum refinery since
1942. there are more than 400 FCC units in world. The process provides around 50 percent of all
transportation fuel and 35percent of total gasoline pool. FCC is a multicomponent catalyst
system with circulating fluid bed reactor system with reactor regenerator system configuration.
FEED STOCK
Vacuum gas oil (VGO), Hydro-treated VGO, Hydro-cracker bottom, Coker gas oil (CGO), De-
asphalted oil (DAO), Reduced crude oil (RCO), Vacuum residue (VR)
Typical feedstock consists of Vacuum and Atmosphere gas oil but may include other heavy
stream.
Major contaminant in the feed includes carbon residue and metals.
While FCC process feed containing up to 4% Conradson carbon MSCC can process all kinds of
feed.
Process Steps
Three basic functions in the catalytic cracking process are:
Reaction - Feedstock reacts with catalyst and cracks into different hydrocarbons;
Regeneration- Catalyst is reactivated by burning off coke; and recerculated to reactor
Fractionation - Cracked hydrocarbon stream is separated into various products like LPG and
gasoline, like light cycle oil and heavy cycle oil are withdrawn as side stream.

Typical operating parameter of FCC

Raw oil feed at heater inlet : 114 cubic meter /h
Furnace outlet temperature : 291oC
Reactor feed temperature : 371oC
Reactor Vapour temperature : 549oC

Product Obtained
Light gas -H2, C1, and C2s
LPG C3sand C4s includes light olefins (etylene)
Gasoline C5+ high octane component for gasoline pool or light fuel
Light cycle oil (LCO) blend component for diesel pool or light fuel
Heavy cycle oil (HCO) Optional heavy cycle oil product for fuel oil or cutter stock
Clarified oil (CLO) or decant oil: slurry for fuel oil
Coke by-product consumed in the regenera
tor to provide the reactor heat demand

http://nptel.ac.in/courses/103107082/module6/lecture5/lecture5.pdf

Fluidized Catalytic Cracking Process Characteristics

The catalyst is a fine powder with an average particle size of 50-60 microns. The catalyst,
although a solid, is maintained in suspension, or fluidized by the reaction products, steam or
air in the vessels and catalyst transfer lines. In this state, the catalyst behaves much like a fluid
and flows back and forth between the reactor and regenerator.

In addition, to catalyst and chemistry, brief descriptions of the following are given in this
section: process; feeds; products; operating conditions; process variables, yields, and severity
(temperature, catalyst/oil ratio, catalyst activity, pressure, space velocity); FCC reactor section
(reactor, regenerator); and revamping an existing FCC unit for olefin production.

http://database.thinking.nexant.com/about/cs/news/items/PERP%200708S5_Olefins%20via%2
0FCC.cfm
Catalytic cracking is the most important and widely used refinery process for converting heavy
oils into more valuable gasoline and lighter products, with 10.6 MMBPD (over 1 million
tons/day) of oil processed in the world [1]. In the United States today, fluid catalytic cracker
(FCC) naphtha provides 35 to 45% of the blending stocks in refinery gasoline blending pools.
Originally, cracking was accomplished thermally, but the catalytic process has almost
completely replaced thermal cracking because more gasoline, having a higher octane and less
heavy fuel oils and light gases, is produced [2]. The light gases produced by catalytic cracking
contain more olefins (etylene) than those produced by thermal cracking

The catalytic cracking processes in use today can all be classified as either moving-bed or
fluidized bed units. There are several modifications under each of the classes depending upon
the designer or builder, but within each class, the basic operation is very similar. The FCC units
can be classified as either bed or riser (transfer line) cracking units, depending upon where the
major fraction of the cracking reaction occurs. Today, almost all of the FCC units have been
reconfigured to operate with riser cracking.