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enough detail to communicate the shapes of the real-world and structural properties in a concise and clear manner, but
objects they represent, but may exclude finer details such as are inefficient and inconsistent at communicating abstract
color and texture. Ideally, the inclusion and exclusion of concepts without the use of specialized encoding systems
detail should match the needs of the task to be performed (Ware, 2004). As such, combining text and graphics in a
with the visualization (Wickens et al., 2004). Occasionally, meaningful and calculated way allows communicators to
distortion of shape or space can be used as part of the take advantage of each mediums strengths and diminish its
abstraction, in an attempt to convey structures and weaknesses. Research has shown such combinations to be
organizations that may not be easily perceived in a more particularly effective in a variety of learning, instructional,
realistic representation (Mishra, 2002; Petterrson, 1989). and persuasive tasks (Zacks et al., 2001)
Research has shown that in instructional materials as well, Through the work of various researchers, a taxonomy of
somewhat abstract line drawings can produce more effective different text and graphic combination options has emerged
performance than more realistic representations (Schmidt (Schriver, 1997). The following are four of the most
and Kysor, 1987). common combination types:
The greatest amount of abstraction can perhaps be found
in icons, such as seen in Figure 1. Icons are effective in tasks Redundant
requiring the communication of broader concepts rather than
Redundant combinations involve the presentation of the
specific real-world instances (Dewar, 1999). A downside of
same exact content through both textual and graphic means.
this level of abstraction is that, compared to photographs and
Research suggests that such a combination is beneficial in
line drawings, they are more dependent on viewers
some contexts, in that the dual coding of information
familiarity with culturally learned symbols (Olmstead,
helps create multiple connections to the same concepts in
1999). As such, they have been shown to produce
long-term memory; this is commonly referred to as
misinterpretations across culturally diverse viewing
redundancy gain (Paivio, 1990; Wickens, 2004).
populations (Brugger, 1999).
Redundant combinations arent always optimal however,
because they dont necessarily cater to the unique
communicative strengths of the two communication options
and can inhibit performance when the redundancy causes
viewers to lose interest (Schriver, 1997).