True Stress (T)

True stress is the stress determined by the instantaneous load acting on the
instantaneous cross-sectional area
True stress is related to engineering stress:
Assuming material volume remains constant Aol o = Al
P P Ao P Ao
T = = * = *
A A Ao Ao A
Ao +l P
=
l
= o
= + 1 = (1 + ) T = (1 + ) = (1 + )
A lo lo lo Ao
True Strain (T)
The rate of instantaneous increase in the instantaneous gauge length.
dl l
T = l
= ln
l o


l o + l l l
T

= ln
ln o
+
l o l o l o
T = ln( 1 + )
 Strain Hardening Parameter (n)

T = K T n

Strain hardening parameter

d 0<n<1
T
n = T

T d T
True Stress-Strain Curve

F l
T = ; T = ln( )
Ai lo

F l lo
= ;=
Ao lo
 Instability in Tension
Necking or localized deformation begins at maximum load, where the increase in stress due to
decrease in the cross-sectional area of the specimen becomes greater than the increase in the
load-carrying ability of the metal due to strain hardening.
This conditions of instability leading to localized deformation is defined by the condition P = 0.
P = A P = T A + A T = 0 A T
T =
A T
From the constancy-of-volume relationship,
V = Aolo = Ai li l A
= = T
l A
so that at the point of tensile instability

T T T
=T But T = K T n
= Kn T = n
n 1
T T T
Instability occurs when = n
The necking criterion can be expressed more explicitly if engineering strain
is used. T L / Lo L
= = = = (1 + ) = T
T T L / L LO
T
=
1+

1
1+
 Fracture Behavior
Ductile material Significant
plastic deformation and
energy absorption
(toughness) before fracture.
Characteristic feature of
ductile material - necking
Brittle material Little
plastic deformation or energy
absorption before fracture.
Characteristic feature of
brittle materials fracture
surface perpendicular to the
stress.
Steel
Before and after fracture
Ductile Fracture (Dislocation Mediated): Extensive plastic deformation.
Necking, formation of small cavities, enlargement of cavities, formation
of cup-and-cone. Typical fibrous structure with dimples.

Crack grows 90o to applied

stress

(a) Necking,
(b) Cavity Formation,
45O - maximum shear
(c) Cavity coalescence to form a
stress crack,
(d) Crack propagation,
(e) Fracture
Scanning Electron Microscopy:
Fractographic studies at high resolution.
Spherical dimples correspond to micro-
cavities that initiate crack formation.
Brittle Fracture (Limited Dislocation Mobility): very little deformation, rapid
crack propagation. Direction of crack propagation perpendicular to applied
load. Crack often propagates by cleavage - breaking of atomic bonds
along specific crystallographic planes (cleavage planes).
Brittle fracture in a mild steel
Intergranular fracture: Crack propagation
is along grain boundaries (grain
boundaries are weakened or embrittled
by impurities segregation etc.)

Transgranular fracture: Cracks

pass through grains.
Fracture surface has faceted
texture because of different
orientation of cleavage
planes in grains.
 Stress-Strain Behavior of Ceramics
Flexural Strength: the stress at fracture under the bending tests. Its
also called Modulus of rupture, fracture strength, or the bend
strength
3-point Bending tests

3F f L
fs = 2
2bd
Ff L
fs =
R 3
 Brittle
Ductile