Introduction
Bearing Selection Criteria and
Bearing Life determination.
Why was a particular bearing chosen to do the
job? Sometimes the wrong bearing is selected
for the application. Causes for improper bearing
selection include lack of application knowledge
and unanticipated parasitic loads.
The General Catalog provides guidance for
designers in choosing the correct bearing
type(s) to meet application requirements.
Power density is roughly the amount of load
that can be carried by a bearing in a given
space. Generally, designers prefer greater
power density, as it is more economical.
Bearing Selection Factors
The application engineer must consider many
factors when determining the best bearing
selection for a given application. The most
obvious and straightforward include
load/direction of load, speed, space,
misalignment, required life, and operating
conditions.
This example is for deep groove ball bearings
with shields, in the d 25 70 mm range.
Depending on its design, each type of bearing
displays characteristic properties that make it
more, or less, appropriate for a given
application. For example, deep groove ball
bearings can accommodate moderate radial
loads along with axial loads. They have low
friction and can be produced with high
precision. Therefore, they are preferred for
small- and medium-sized electric motors.
Spherical roller bearings can carry very heavy
loads and are self-aligning. These properties
make them popular for application in heavy
engineering, where heavy loads produce
deformations and .
However, in many cases several factors must
be considered and weighed against each other
when selecting bearing type. No general rules
can be given. Special catalogs are available for
bearing types that are not included in the SKF
General Catalog (e.g. fixed section bearings).
Example: Catalog Selection

The bore size (d) denotes the bearing size. The
other boundary dimensions are the outside
diameter(D) and width (B).
The basic load ratings are shown next
dynamic (C) and static (C0). The fatigue load
limit shows the dynamic load, below which
infinite life applies (under ideal operating
conditions).
Next are the recommended speed ratings for
grease and oil, then the bearing mass, and
finally the designation.
Available Space
In many cases, one of the principal dimensions
of the bearing, generally the bore diameter, is
predetermined by machine design.
For small-diameter shafts, all types of ball
bearings can be used, the most popular being
deep groove ball bearings. Needle roller
bearings are also suitable. For large-diameter
shafts, cylindrical, spherical, and taper roller
bearings are available, along with deep groove
ball bearings.
When radial space is limited, bearings with a
small cross section, particularly those with a low
cross-sectional height must be chosen (e.g.
bearings of Diameter Series 8 or 9). Special
mention can be made of needle roller and cage
assemblies, drawn cup needle roller bearings,
and needle roller bearings without (or with)
inner ring. Certain series of deep groove and
angular contact ball bearings, cylindrical and
spherical roller bearings; CARB, and the
bearings listed in the SKF catalog Thin section
bearings are all suitable.
When space is limited in the axial direction,
certain series of single row cylindrical roller
bearings and deep groove ball bearings can be
used for radial and combined loads. For purely
axial loads, needle roller and cage thrust
assemblies, needle roller thrust bearings, and
certain series of thrust ball bearings and
cylindrical roller thrust bearings can be used.
Introduction
Bearing Downsizing
Bearing size has decreased as bearings have
improved. The newer bearings can handle the
same load, at higher speeds, than older
designs. Maintenance-wise, however, more
caution is necessary with these bearings. The
same amount of contamination or handling
damage to newer, smaller bearings will cause a
greater reduction in life than on a larger, older
design.
Bearing Life Determination
What is a cyclic shear stress? Cyclic shear
stress is a similar to the concept of breaking a
wire. In order to break a wire, it needs only to
be bent repeatedly. The metal fatigues, then
breaks. Bearings work the same way. For
example, there are two pieces of wire of the
same diameter. By bending one quickly and
the other slowly, using the same bending angle,
the wire being bent quickly undergoes more
stresses (fatigue cycles) over the same period
of time, and will break first. Bearings fatigue
the same way with respect to speed - bearing
life is inversely proportional to speed. If we
double the speed, life is halved.
With two new wires, one is bent 90 degrees, the
other ten degrees, at the same speed. Since
the wire being bent 90 degrees had a greater
load, it will fail much earlier. In the case of
bearings, the life changes at a much greater
rate when load is altered than from a similar
change in speed. As will be seen during the
exploration of the life equations, small changes
in the applied load result in large variations in
predicted life. However, the SKF New Life
Method also predicts that if we stress the
bearing below a specific minimum load, it may
never fail.
Bearing Fatigue Failure

Rolling loads generate cyclic elastic

deformation in the raceways and rolling
elements. The resultant shear stresses, which
occur just below the surface, cause
metallurgical changes. These promote Bearing Life Calculation
fractures to progress to the surface, causing
small pieces of the bearing material to become
detached. As damage increases, the failed
bearing will eventually need to be replaced.

Fatigue Life
Bearing fatigue life is defined as the moment
when the onset of fatigue spalling on either the
raceways or rolling elements occurs. It is
impossible to determine exactly when any
individual bearing will fail, but it has been
established by testing that in any representative
batch of identical bearings, a pattern of failure ISO Life Rating
will emerge that is statistically significant. The
first 10 percent of bearing failures establish the
L10 life. The spread of subsequent failure is
such that the median of failure will be ISO Catalog Rated Bearing Life (C) is
approximately five times greater than the first determined by the overall size of the bearing,
10 percent. Some bearings will continue to run size, shape and number of rows of rolling
for much longer. These tests are conducted elements, the contact angle of rolling element
under controlled conditions and do not with the raceway, and the materials used in the
represent actual service life, which can be bearing.
influenced by many other factors.
Basic Load Ratings
The basic dynamic load rating C is used for
calculations involving dynamically stressed
bearings (e.g. when selecting a bearing which
is to rotate under load). It expresses the
bearing load that will give an ISO basic rating
life (defined below) of one million revolutions.
The basic dynamic load ratings of SKF bearings
have been determined in accordance with the

methods prescribed by ISO 281:1990 /
Amd.1:2000 and ABMA Stds. 9 and 11. Values
are based on the material and manufacturing
techniques used for SKF standard production.
They apply to loads that are constant in
magnitude and direction, for radial bearings
radial loads, and for thrust bearings axial loads
that act centrically.
The basic static load rating C0 is used in
calculations when bearings are to rotate at very
slow speeds, to be subjected to very slow
oscillating movements, or to be stationary under
load during certain periods. It must also be
taken into account when heavy shock loads of
short duration act on a rotating (dynamically
stressed) bearing.
The basic static load rating is defined in
accordance with ISO 76-1990 as the static load
which corresponds to a calculated contact
stress at the center of the most heavily loaded
rolling element / raceway contact of:
- 4,600 MPa for self-aligning ball bearings
The L10 life of a rolling bearing in a given
application can be established using the ISO
basic life equation:
p
C C 1/p
L10 or L10
P P
where
Introduction
- 4,200 MPa for all other ball bearings
- 4,000 MPa for all roller bearings
This stress produces a total permanent
deformation of rolling element and raceway that
is approximately 0.0001 of the rolling element
diameter. The loads are purely radial for radial
bearings and centrically acting axial loads for
thrust bearings.
Load Carrying Capacity and Life
The size of a bearing used for an application is
initially selected based upon its load carrying
capacity in relation to the loads to be carried
and the requirements regarding life and
reliability. Numerical values for basic load
ratings are used in the calculations to express
load carrying capacity. Values for the basic
dynamic load rating C and the basic static load
rating C0 are quoted in the General Catalog
bearing tables.
L10 = basic rating life, millions of revolutions
C = basic dynamic load rating
P = equivalent dynamic bearing load
p = exponent of the life equation
p = 3 for ball bearings
p = 10/3 for roller bearings
For bearings operating at constant speed it may
be more convenient to deal with a basic rating
life expressed in operating hours using the
equation:
p
1 000 000 C
L10
60 n P
or
1 000 000
L10h L10
60 n
where
L10h = basic rating, operating hours
n = rotational speed, r/min
When the speed is doubled, life is reduced by
. When the load is doubled, life is reduced
almost 90 percent. A 20 percent increase in
load reduces roller bearing life by 54 percent. A
general conclusion can be made: altering the
applied load dramatically affects the life of the
bearing, changes in speed affect life linearly.
The P value for average applications is five
to ten percent of the C value, with the result that
designers generally choose load ratios (C/P) in
the normal range, between eight and 20. This
meets the applications required life without
applying more bearing than necessary to do the
job.
Adjusted Life Equation
With the adjusted rating life equation, the
influence of bearing load on the life of a given
bearing is considered. Where the rolling
bearings listed in this catalog are used in
conventional applications, a calculation of the
basic rating life L10 is adequate, since the
recommendations regarding requisite life are
based on experience and, in fact, consider
factors such as lubrication.
It may, however, be desirable to consider other
factors influencing bearing life in more detail.
ISO and ABMA introduced a revised life
equation to this end. This adjusted rating life
equation is
p
C
Lna a1a2 a3
P
or simply
Lna a1a2 a3 L10
where
Lna = adjusted rating life, millions of
revolutions (the index n represents the
difference between the requisite reliability1) and
100 percent)
a1 = life adjustment factor for reliability
a2 = life adjustment factor for material
a3 = life adjustment factor for operating
conditions
This life method was more frequently used prior
to 1989. For historical purposes, the adjusted
rating life is explained below.
A calculation of the adjusted rating life
presupposed that the operating conditions were
well defined and that the bearing loads could be
accurately calculated, i.e. the calculations
should have considered the load spectrum,
shaft deflection, etc.

For the generally accepted reliability of 90
percent and for bearing materials to which the
C values correspond, and for normal operating
conditions, a1 = a2 = a3 = 1 and the equations for
the basic and adjusted rating lives became
identical.
1) Reliability is the probability that a bearing will
attain or exceed a specified life.
Life Adjustment Factor a1
The a1 factor for reliability is used to determine
lives other than the L10 life, i.e. lives which are
attained or exceeded with a greater probability
than 90 percent. Values of a1 are given in the
accompanying table. This life factor is also used
with the SKF life method.
Life Adjustment Factor a2
When determining SKF basic dynamic load
ratings, the fact had been taken into account
that the standard steels used by SKF had better
life properties than the material on which the
equations given in ISO 281/I-1977 and ABMA
Standards 9 and 11 were based. When using
these load ratings (C values), therefore, a2 = 1.
Higher values of a2 could, however, be applied
to SKF bearings made of special steels.
Reliability Lna a1
90 L10a 1
95 L5a 0.62
96 L4a 0.53
97 L3a 0.44
98 L2a 0.33
99 L1a 0.21
Life Adjustment Factor a3
The operating conditions factor a3 was
essentially determined by bearing lubrication
provided bearing operating temperatures were
not excessive. Changes in material properties
at elevated temperatures were accounted for by
reducing the basic dynamic load ratings. The
efficacy of lubrication was primarily determined
Introduction
by the degree of surface separation in the
rolling contacts of the bearing. If an adequate
load-carrying lubricant film was to be formed,
the lubricant must have had a given minimum
viscosity at the operating temperature, i.e. the
temperature of the bearing in operation.
Under the cleanliness conditions normally
prevailing in bearing arrangements which were
adequately sealed, the a3 factor was based on
the viscosity ratio [kappa, ]. This is defined as
the ratio of the actual viscosity to the viscosity
1 required for adequate lubrication, both values
being kinematic viscosities at the operating
temperature. is also used with the SKF life
method.
The viscosity 1 required at the operating
temperature to ensure adequate lubrication can
be determined from the General Catalog
provided mineral oil is used. The diagram is
also valid for greases based on mineral oils
and, in this case, the value of 1 obtained gives
the requisite base oil viscosity at the operating
temperature.
For these calculations, the viscosity should
always be expressed in mm2/s (cSt -
centistokes), rather than in Saybolt Universal
Seconds (SUS), as the conversion between
these units is nonlinear.
SKF New Life Method
Practical experience and modern research have
shown that, under special conditions, SKF
bearings attain a much longer life than
predicted by standardized life calculation
methods, particularly when loads are light.
These special conditions apply when the rolling
surfaces (raceways and rolling elements) are
effectively separated by a lubricant film and
when surface damage caused by contaminants
is limited. Even infinite life is possible under
ideal conditions.
The SKF life method introduces the concept of
a fatigue load limit Pu, analogous to that used
when selecting other machine components.
This fatigue load limit represents that load
below which fatigue will not occur in the bearing
under ideal conditions.
The method represents an extension of the heavy shock loads which act during a
work of Lundberg and Palmgren, taking into fraction of a revolution.
account the fatigue load limit and several other
factors related to lubrication and contamination.
Using the SKF method, it is possible to Additional guidance can be found in the SKF
accurately predict the long bearing life referred General Catalog or contact SKF applications
to above. However, an accurate prediction can Engineering Service for assistance.
only be made if the operating conditions are
accurately known and if the full theory is
applied, which requires the use of a computer.
Due to complexity, a detailed description of the
theory is beyond the scope of this book.
However, to pass on the benefits inherent in the
deeper understanding of bearing behavior on
which the SKF life method is based, a simplified
catalog approach has been devised. This
approach enables users to exploit the
enhanced life potential of bearings, to
undertake controlled downsizing, and to
recognize the significance of contaminants. See
the SKF General Catalog for details.
These calculations account for life under
controlled conditions only. There is no
adjustment in the basic life calculation for
outside influences (contamination, poor
lubrication, vibration, etc.) These external
factors reduce actual bearing life below that
predicted by the basic life equation.

Static Loads
Bearing size should be selected on the basis of
the basic static load rating (C0) when one of the
following conditions applies:
1. The bearing is stationary and is subjected to
continuous or intermittent (shock) loads.
2. The bearing makes slow oscillating or
alignment movements under load.
3. The bearing rotates under load at very slow
speed and is only required to have a short
life (the life equation in this case, for a given
equivalent load P would give such a low
requisite basic dynamic load rating C, that
the bearing selected on this basis would be
subjected to considerable overloading in
service).
4. The bearing rotates and, in addition to the
normal operating loads, has to sustain