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Colonial Policies 1763-75.

Britain was too much occupied to give serious attention to the 13 colonies in America. Britain was having troubles
with France and Ireland, and the radical agitation and the Cabinet instability.

Imperial Problems in 1763.the acquisition of huge new territories in the Seven Years War demanded immediate
attention.

The American Revolution:

13 Colonies

Before the American Revolution, there were several British Colonies in the Americas. Not all of them participated in
the revolution. There were 13 colonies which ended up rebelling

French and Indian War

The French and Indian War took place between the American colonies and New France. Both sides allied with
various Native American tribes. This war lasted from 1754 to 1763. British troops not only helped the colonists to
fight the war, but were stationed in the colonies for protection after the war. These troops weren't free and Britain
needed money to pay for the troops. The British Parliament decided to tax the American colonies to help pay for the
troops.

Paying for the War

The French and Indian War was fought between the British American colonies and the French, who had allied with
the American Indians. It lasted from 1754 to 1763. The American colonies eventually won the war, but only with the
help of the British army. The British government felt that the colonies should share in the expense of the war and
help to pay for the British troops in the Americas. The Stamp Act of 1765 was a tax to help the British pay for the
French and Indian War. The British felt they were well justified in charging this tax because the colonies were
receiving the benefit of the British troops and needed to help pay for the expense. The colonists didn't feel the
same.

Representation

One of the main reasons that the colonists rebelled against Great Britain is that they felt they were not represented
in the British government. The British government was making new laws and taxes on the colonies, but the colonies
had no say. They wanted to have some say in the British government if they were going to pay high taxes and have
to live by British law.

Taxes, Laws, and More Taxes

Prior to 1764, the British government had pretty much left the colonists alone to govern themselves. In 1764, they
began to impose new laws and taxes. They implemented a number of laws including the Sugar Act, Currency Act,
Quartering Act, and the Stamp Act. The colonists were not happy with the new taxes. They said they should not have
to pay British taxes because they had no representatives in the British Parliament. Their motto became "No Taxation
without Representation."

No Representation

The colonists felt that the British government had no right to tax them because there were not any representatives
of the colonies in the British Parliament. The colonies had no say in how much the taxes should be or what they
should pay for. They didn't think this was fair. They called this "taxation without representation".
What was the Stamp Act?

The Stamp Act was a tax put on the American colonies by the British in 1765. It said they had to pay a tax on all sorts
of printed materials such as newspapers, magazines and legal documents. It was called the Stamp Act because the
colonies were supposed to buy paper from Britain that had an official stamp on it that showed they had paid the
tax.

The Stamp Act Congress

The American colonies felt so strongly against the Stamp Act that they called a meeting of all the colonies. It was
called the Stamp Act Congress. Representatives from the colonies gathered together in New York City from October
7 to October 25 in 1765. They prepared a unified protest of the Stamp Act to Britain.

Townshend Acts

Prior to the Boston Massacre the British had instituted a number of new taxes on the American colonies including
taxes on tea, glass, paper, paint, and lead. These taxes were part of a group of laws called the Townshend Acts. The
colonies did not like these laws. They felt these laws were a violation of their rights. Just like when Britain imposed
the Stamp Act, the colonists began to protest and the British brought in soldiers to keep order.

Townshend Acts
What were the Townshend Acts? The Townshend Acts were a series of laws passed by the British government on the
American colonies in 1767. They placed new taxes and took away some freedoms from the colonists including the
following:
New taxes on imports of paper, paint, lead, glass, and tea.

Established an American Customs Board in Boston to collect taxes.


Set up new courts in America to prosecute smugglers (without using a local jury).
Gave British officials the right to search colonists' houses and businesses.
How did they get their name?

The acts were introduced to the British Parliament by Charles Townshend.

Why did the British make these laws? The British wanted to get the colonies to pay for themselves. The Townshend
Acts were specifically to pay for the salaries of officials such as governors and judges. The British thought that the
colonists would be okay with taxes on imports. They had repealed an earlier tax called the Stamp Act because of
colonial protests, but thought that taxes on imports would be okay. They were wrong, however, as the colonists
once again protested these taxes.

Why were they important? The Townshend Acts continued to push the American colonists towards revolution. They
showed that the British didn't understand that "taxation without representation" was a really big deal to many of the
colonists.

Why were the American colonists so upset? The American colonies were not allowed any representatives in the
British Parliament. They felt that it was unconstitutional for the Parliament to place taxes and laws on them without
representation. It was not about the cost of the taxes, but more about the principle.

Results of the Acts

The acts caused continued unrest in the colonies. John Dickinson, who would later write the Articles of the
Confederation, wrote a series of essays against the acts called Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania. He stated that
the taxes set a dangerous precedent and, if the colonists paid them, more taxes would be coming soon. Many of the
merchants in the colonies organized boycotts against British goods. They also began to smuggle in goods to avoid the
taxes. Finally, protests in Boston turned violent when British soldiers panicked and killed several people in what
would become known as the Boston Massacre.

Protests in Boston

Many colonists began to protest against these new British taxes and laws. A group called the Sons of Liberty formed
in 1765 in Boston and soon spread throughout the colonies. During one protest in Boston, a fight broke out and
several colonists were shot and killed. This incident became known as the Boston Massacre. In 1773, the British
imposed a new tax on tea. Several patriots in Boston protested this act by boarding ships in Boston harbor and
dumping their tea into the water. This protest became known as the Boston Tea Party.

Boston Massacre

The Boston Massacre occurred on March 5, 1770 when British soldiers in Boston opened fire on a group of American
colonists killing five men.

What happened at the Boston Massacre?

The Boston Massacre began the evening of March 5, 1770 with a small argument between British Private Hugh
White and a few colonists outside the Custom House in Boston on King Street. The argument began to escalate as
more colonists gathered and began to harass and throw sticks and snowballs at Private White.

Soon there were over 50 colonists at the scene. The local British officer of the watch, Captain Thomas Preston, sent a
number of soldiers over to the Custom House to maintain order. However, the sight of British soldiers armed with
bayonets just aggravated the crowd further. They began to shout at the soldiers, daring them to fire.

Captain Preston then arrived and tried to get the crowd to disperse. Unfortunately, an object thrown from the crowd
struck one of the soldiers, Private Montgomery, and knocked him down. He fired into the crowd. After a few seconds
of stunned silence, a number of other soldiers fired into the crowd as well. Three colonists died immediately and two
more died later from wounds.

After the Incident

The crowd was eventually dispersed by the acting governor of Boston, Thomas Hutchinson. Thirteen people were
arrested including eight British soldiers, one officer, and four civilians. They were charged with murder and put in jail
awaiting their trial. British troops were removed from the city as well.

The Boston Tea Party occurred on December 16, 1773. It was one of the key events leading up to the American
Revolution.

Was it a big, fun party with tea?

Not really. There was tea involved, but nobody was drinking it. The Boston Tea Party was a protest by the American
Colonists against the British government. They staged the protest by boarding three trade ships in Boston Harbor
and throwing the ships' cargo of tea overboard into the ocean. They threw 342 chests of tea into the water. Some of
the colonists were disguised as Mohawk Indians, but the costumes didn't fool anyone. The British knew who had
destroyed the tea.

Why did they do it?

At first, throwing tea into the ocean dressed as Mohawks might seem a bit silly, but the colonists had their reasons.
Tea was a favourite drink among the British and the colonies. It also was a major source of income to the East India
Trading company. This was a British company and the colonies were told they could only buy tea from this one
company. They were also told they had to pay high taxes on the tea. This tax was called the Tea Act. This didn't seem
fair to the colonies as they were not represented in British Parliament and didn't have a say on how the taxes should
be done. They refused to pay taxes on the tea and asked that the tea be returned to England. When it wasn't, they
decided to protest Britain's unfair taxes by throwing the tea into the ocean.

Was it planned?

It's unclear to historians if the protest was planned. There had been a big town meeting earlier that day led by
Samuel Adams to discuss the tea taxes and how to fight them. However, no one is quite sure if Samuel Adams
planned the destruction of the tea or if a bunch of people just got mad and went and did it unplanned. Samuel
Adams did later say that it was the act of people defending their rights and not the act of an angry mob.

It was just tea, what's the big deal? It actually was a lot of tea. The 342 containers totalled 90,000 pounds of tea! In
today's money that would be around a million dollars in tea.

Fun Facts about the Boston Tea Party

The three ships that were boarded and had their tea dumped into the harbor were the Dartmouth, the
Eleanor, and the Beaver.
The Beaver had been quarantined in the outer harbor for two weeks due to a case of smallpox.
Paul Revere was one of the 116 people who participated in the Boston Tea Party. Party on Paul!
The actual location of the Boston Tea Party is thought to be at the intersection of Congress and Purchase
Streets in Boston. This area was once under water, but today is a corner of a busy street.
The tea that was destroyed was originally from China

Intolerable Acts

What were the Intolerable Acts?

The Intolerable Acts were five laws that were passed by the British Parliament against the American Colonies in
1774.

How did they get their name?

They were given the name "Intolerable Acts" by American Patriots who felt they simply could not "tolerate" such
unfair laws.

Why did Britain impose these new acts?

The British passed these acts as punishment for the Boston Tea Party.

The Five Acts

1. Boston Port Act: The Boston Port Act was the first Intolerable Act passed. It was direct punishment to the city of
Boston for the Boston Tea Party. The act closed the port of Boston to all ships until the colonists paid for the tea they
dumped into the harbour. Many felt that this punishment was unfair because it punished all the citizens of Boston
for a crime that only a few committed. Many of the other American colonies sent supplies to Boston.

2. Massachusetts Government Act This act changed the government of the colony of Massachusetts. It gave more
power to the governor (who was appointed by Great Britain) and took away power from the colonists. Many of the
government officials that used to be elected by the people would now be appointed by the governor. The act also
said that only one town meeting a year could be held. This act angered the entire colony of Massachusetts and put
fear into the other American colonies. If the British government would do this to Boston, they may do it to all the
colonies.
3. Administration of Justice Act: This act allowed the governor to move capital trials against government officials to
Great Britain. The colonists felt that this act gave too much protection to government officials. Witnesses would
have to travel all the way to Britain to testify against an official, making it nearly impossible to convict. Some
colonists called this the "Murder Act" as they thought it would allow officials to get away with murder.

4. Quartering Act: The Quartering Act of 1774 expanded upon the original Quartering Act of 1765. It said that the
colonies had to provide barracks for British soldiers. In the case where barracks weren't available, the soldiers could
be housed in other buildings such as barns, hotels, and homes.

5. Quebec Act: the Quebec Act expanded the British Canadian territory south into the Ohio Valley. It also made the
Quebec Province a Catholic province. Although this act wasn't in response to the Boston Tea Party, it was passed at
the same time as the rest of the acts. It also angered many American colonists. They were not happy about losing
land in Ohio or at having a Catholic province to their north. Results The Intolerable Acts became a rallying cry for
patriots in America. They felt these acts took away some of their basic freedoms. In many ways, these acts helped to
unite the colonies and pushed them one step closer to revolution.

Interesting Facts about the Intolerable Acts

The meeting of the First Continental Congress was called to in response to the Intolerable Acts.
They were called the Coercive Acts in Great Britain. They are also sometimes referred to as the Punitive Acts.

The British thought the acts would help to maintain control in America, but they had the opposite effect causing
many people to firmly join the side of the rebels

First Continental Congress

In 1774, twelve of the thirteen colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress as a direct response
to the Intolerable Acts. They sent a petition to King George III to repeal the Intolerable Acts. They never got a
response. They also established a boycott of British goods.

The thirteen colonies in the America's had been at war with Britain for around a year when the Second Continental
Congress decided it was time for the colonies to officially declare their independence. This meant that they were
breaking away from British rule. They would no longer be a part of the British Empire and would fight for their
freedom.

On June 11, 1776 the Continental Congress appointed five leaders, called the Committee of Five, to write a
document explaining why they were declaring their independence

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Overview

What was the French Revolution?

The French Revolution was a period of time in France when the people overthrew the monarchy and took control of
the government. The Storming of the Bastille Signals the Beginning of the French Revolution

When did it take place?

The French Revolution lasted 10 years from 1789 to 1799. It began on July 14, 1789 when revolutionaries stormed a
prison called the Bastille. The revolution came to an end 1799 when a general named Napoleon overthrew the
revolutionary government and established the French Consulate (with Napoleon as leader). T
The French Estates

Before the French Revolution, the people of France were divided into social groups called "Estates." The First Estate
included the clergy (church leaders), the Second Estate included the nobles, and the Third Estate included the
commoners. Most of the people were members of the Third Estate. The Third Estate paid most of the taxes, while
the nobility lived lives of luxury and got all the high-ranking jobs.

Revolutionary Government

The French Government was in constant turmoil throughout the revolution. At the start of the revolution,
representatives from the Third Estate established the National Assembly where they demanded that King Louis XVI
give them certain rights. This group soon took control of the country. They changed names over time to the
Legislative Assembly and, later, to the National Convention. After the Reign of Terror, a new government was formed
called the Directory. The Directory ruled until Napoleon took control.

Reign of Terror

The darkest period of the French Revolution is called the Reign of Terror which lasted from 1793 to 1794. During this
time, a man named Robespierre led the National Convention and the Committee of Public Safety. He wanted to
stamp out any opposition to the revolution, so he called for a rule of "Terror." Laws were passed that said anyone
suspected of treason could be arrested and executed by guillotine. Thousands of people were executed including
Queen Marie Antoinette and many of Robespierre's political rivals.

Political Clubs

Many of the new political ideas and alliances of the French Revolution were formed in political clubs. These clubs
included the powerful Jacobin Club (led by Robespierre), the Cordeliers, the Feuillants Club, and the Pantheon Club.

Outcome

The French Revolution completely changed the social and political structure of France. It put an end to the French
monarchy, feudalism, and took political power from the Catholic Church. It brought new ideas to Europe including
liberty and freedom for the commoner as well as the abolishment of slavery and the rights of women. Although the
revolution ended with thre rise of Napoleon, the ideas and reforms did not die. These new ideas continued to
influence Europe and helped to shape many of Europe's modern-day governments.
Causes
The French Revolution began in 1789 with the Storming of the Bastille. Over the next 10 years. The government of
France would be in turmoil, the king would be executed, and groups of revolutionaries would battle each other for
power. But what caused the revolution to occur in the first place?

Before the Revolution

A Commoner

To understand what caused the French Revolution, we have to understand what France was like before it all
happened. France was a monarchy ruled by the king. The king had total power over the government and the people.
The people of France were divided into three social classes called "estates." The First Estate was the clergy, the
Second Estate was the nobles, and the Third Estate was the commoners. Most of France belonged to the Third
Estate. There was little chance for people to move from one estate to another.

Major Causes
There wasn't one event or condition that led to the French Revolution, but, rather, a number of factors came
together to cause a perfect storm leading to the revolt of the people against the king

Debt and Taxes

In 1789, the French government was in a major financial crisis. The king had borrowed heavily to maintain a lavish
lifestyle. Also, the government had borrowed to fight Great Britain in the Seven Years' War and to help the
Americans in the Revolutionary War.

With such great debt, the king had no other option than to try and raise taxes. The commoners of France (the Third
Estate) had to pay the majority of the taxes. The nobles and the clergy were largely exempt from paying taxes.
Higher taxes angered the common people, especially since the nobles didn't have to pay their share.

Famine and Bread Prices

France was experiencing famine at the time. The common people mostly ate bread to survive. However, the cost of
bread skyrocketed and people were hungry and starving.

Changes in Culture

For hundreds of years the people of France had blindly followed the king and accepted their place in life. However, in
the 1700s, the culture began to change. The "Era of Enlightenment" presented new ideas such as "liberty" and
"equality." Also, the American Revolution represented a new type of government where the people ruled rather
than a king.

Politics

Before the Storming of the Bastille, King Louis XVI had been losing power within the French government. He was a
weak king and didn't realized how bad the situation was for the commoners in France. The members of the Third
Estate formed the National Assembly to force the king to make reforms. Not only was the king in conflict with the
commoners, but the king and the nobles could not agree on reforms.

Interesting Facts about the Causes of the French Revolution

The commoners resented a tax on salt called the "gabelle." They needed salt to flavour and preserve their
food.
The political system of France before the French Revolution was called the "Ancient Regime."
Each year peasants had to work a few days for their local landlord for free. This labour tax was called the
"corvee." They typically worked on improving roads or building bridges.
The nobles held all the powerful positions in the government and the church, but didn't have to pay many of
the taxes.
Estates General

The Estates General was the legislative body of France up until the French Revolution. The king would call a meeting
of the Estates General when he wanted the advice on certain issues. The Estates General didn't meet regularly and
had no real power.

What were the French Estates?


The Estates General was made up of different groups of people called "Estates." The "Estates" were important social
divisions in the culture of ancient France. What estate you belonged to had a major impact on your social status and
quality of life.

First Estate - The First Estate was made up of the clergy. These were people who worked for the church including
priests, monks, bishops, and nuns. This was the smallest estate in terms of population.

Second Estate - The Second Estate was the French nobility. These people held most of the high offices in the land,
got special privileges, and didn't have to pay most of the taxes.

Third Estate - The rest of the population (around 98% of the people) were members of the Third Estate. These
people were the peasants, craftspeople, and labourers of the land. They paid taxes including the gabelle (a tax on
salt) and the corvee (they had to work a certain number of days for free for the local lord or the king each year).

The Estates General of 1789

In 1789, the King Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estates General. It was the first meeting of the Estates General
called since 1614. He called the meeting because the French government was having financial problems.

How did they vote?

One of the first issues that came up at the Estates General was how they would vote. The king said that each estate
would vote as a body (each estate would get 1 vote). The members of the Third Estate did not like this. It meant that
they could always be outvoted by the much smaller First and Second Estates. They wanted the vote to be based on
the number of members.

The Third Estate Declares the National Assembly

After arguing over how they would vote for several days, the Third Estate began to take matters into their own
hands. They met on their own and invited members of the other estates to join them. On June 13, 1789, the Third
Estate declared itself the "National Assembly." They would begin making their own laws and running the country.

Tennis Court Oath

King Louis XVI did not condone the formation or the actions of the National Assembly. He ordered the building
where the National Assembly was meeting (the Salle des Etats) closed. The National Assembly was not to be denied,
however. They met on a local tennis court (called the Jeu de Paume). While at the tennis court the members took an
oath to keep meeting until the king recognized them as a legitimate government body.

National Assembly

The National Assembly played a major role in the French Revolution. It represented the common people of France
(also called the Third Estate) and demanded that the king make economic reforms to insure that the people had food
to eat. It took over control of the government and ruled France in some way for around 10 years.

How it was first formed?

In May of 1789, King Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estates General to address France's financial crisis. The Estates
General was made up of three groups the First Estate (the clergy or church leaders), the Second Estate (the nobles),
and the Third Estate (the commoners). Each group had the same amount of voting power. The Third Estate felt that
this wasn't fair as they represented 98% of the people, but could still be outvoted 2:1 by the other two estates.
When the king refused to give them more power, the Third Estate created its own group called the National
Assembly. They began to meet on a regular basis and run the country without the help of the king.

Political Groups

Although the members of the revolutionary assembly all wanted a new government, there were many different
factions within the assembly that were constantly fighting for power. Some of these groups formed clubs like the
Jacobin Club, the Cordeliers, and the Plain. There was even fighting within the clubs. The powerful Jacobin Club was
divided into the Mountain group and the Girondins. When the Mountain group gained control during the Reign of
Terror, they had many of the Girondins executed.

Left and Right Politics

The terms "left-wing" and "right-wing" politics originated with the National Assembly at the start of the French
Revolution. When the assembly met, the supporters of the king sat to the president's right, while the more radical
revolutionaries sat on the left.

Storming of the Bastille

The Storming of the Bastille took place in Paris, France on July 14, 1789. This violent attack on the government by the
people of France signalled the start of the French Revolution.

What was the Bastille? The Bastille was a fortress built in the late 1300s to protect Paris during the Hundred Years'
War. By the late 1700s, the Bastille was mostly used as a state prison by King Louis XVI.

Who stormed the Bastille? The revolutionaries who stormed the Bastille were mostly craftsmen and store owners
who lived in Paris. They were members of a French social class called the Third Estate. There were around 1000 men
who participated in the attack.

Why did they storm the Bastille? The Third Estate had recently made demands of the king and had demanded that
the commoners have more of a say in government. They were worried that he was preparing the French army for an
attack. In order to arm themselves, they first took over the Hotel des Invalids in Paris where they were able to get
muskets. However, they didn't have gun powder. The Bastille was rumoured to be full of political prisoners and was
a symbol to many of the oppression of the king. It also had stores of gunpowder that the revolutionaries needed for
their weapons.

Storming the Bastille

On the morning of July 14, the revolutionaries approached the Bastille. They demanded that the military leader of
the Bastille, Governor de Launay, surrender the prison and hand over the gunpowder. He refused. As negotiations
drug on, the crowd became agitated. In the early afternoon, they managed to get into the courtyard. Once inside the
courtyard, they began to try and break into the main fortress. The soldiers in the Bastille became scared and fired
into the crowd. The fighting had begun. The turning point in the fight came when some of the soldiers joined the
side of the crowd. De Launay soon realized that the situation was hopeless. He surrendered the fort and the
revolutionaries took control.

Were people killed in the battle? Around 100 of the revolutionaries were killed during the fighting. After
surrendering, Governor de Launay and three of his officers were killed by the crowd.

Aftermath
The Storming of the Bastille set off a series of events that led to the overthrow of King Louis XVI and the French
Revolution. The success of the revolutionaries gave commoners throughout France the courage to rise up and fight
against the nobles who had ruled them for so long.

What does it represent today? The date of the Storming of the Bastille, July 14, is celebrated today as the French
National Day. Similar to the Fourth of July in the United States. In France it is called the "The National Celebration" or
"The Fourteenth of July."

Women's March on Versailles

The Women's March on Versailles was an important event at the start of the French Revolution. It gave the
revolutionaries confidence in the power of the people over the king.

Leading up to the March

In 1789 France, the main food of the commoners was bread. A poor French economy had led to a scarcity of bread
and high prices. The people were hungry. In Paris, women would go to the market to buy bread for their families,
only to find that what little bread was available was very expensive.

Women in the Marketplace Riot

On the morning of October 5, 1789, a large group of women in a Paris marketplace began to revolt. They wanted to
buy bread for their families. They began to march through Paris demanding bread at a fair price. As they marched,
more people joined the group and soon there were thousands of marchers.

The March Begins

The crowd first took over the Hotel de Ville in Paris (sort of like a city hall) where they were able to get some bread
as well as weapons. Revolutionaries in the crowd suggested they head to the palace in Versailles and confront King
Louis XVI. They called the king the "Baker" and the queen the "Baker's wife."

Were there only women in the crowd?

Although the march is often referred to as the "Women's" March on Versailles, there were men included in the
crowd as well. One of the main leaders of the march was a man named Stanislas-Marie Maillard.

At the Palace in Versailles After six hours of marching in the pouring rain, the crowd arrived at the king's palace in
Versailles. Once the crowd arrived at Versailles they demanded to meet the king. At first, things seemed to be going
well. A small group of women met with the king. He agreed to provide them food from the king's stores and
promised more in the future. While some of the group left after the agreement, many people stayed and continued
to protest. Early the next morning, some of the crowd were able to get into the palace. Fighting broke out and some
of the guards were killed. Eventually, peace was restored by Marquis de Lafayette, the leader of the National Guard
Later that day, the king addressed the crowd from a balcony. The revolutionaries demanded that he return to Paris
with them. He agreed. Then the crowd demanded to see Queen Marie Antoinette. The people blamed a lot of their
problems on the queen and her lavish spending habits. The queen appeared on the balcony with her children, but
the crowd demanded that the children be taken away. The queen stood there by herself with many in the crowd
pointing guns at her. She may have been killed, but Lafayette knelt before her on the balcony and kissed her hand.
The crowd calmed and allowed her to live.

The King Returns to Paris


The king and queen then travelled back to Paris with the crowd. By this time the crowd had grown from around
7,000 marchers to 60,000. After the return march, the king went to live at Tuileries Palace in Paris. He would never
again return to his beautiful palace in Versailles.

Reign of Terror
The Reign of Terror was a dark and violent period of time during the French Revolution. Radicals took control of the
revolutionary government. They arrested and executed anyone who they suspected might not be loyal to the
revolution.

Leading up to the Terror

The French Revolution had begun four years earlier with the Storming of the Bastille. Since then, the government
had been in a constant state of change. By 1793, the revolutionary government was in crisis. France was being
attacked by foreign countries on all sides and civil war was breaking out in many regions. Radicals led by Maximilien
Robespierre took over the government and started the Reign of Terror.

How long did it last? The Reign of Terror began on September 5, 1793 with a declaration by Robespierre that Terror
would be "the order of the day." It ended on July 27, 1794 when Robespierre was removed from power and
executed.

The Committee of Public Safety

During the Reign of Terror, France was ruled by a group of men called the Committee of Public Safety. The leader of
this group was a man named Robespierre. Robespierre was also the leader of a radical group called the Jacobins. The
Jacobins felt that it was their duty to preserve the revolution, even if it meant violence and terror.

New Laws

The Committee of Public Safety introduced several new laws. They wanted to make "Terror" an official government
policy. One of these laws was called the "Law of Suspects." This law said that anyone who was even suspected as an
enemy of the revolution was to be arrested. They created a court called the Revolutionary Tribunal for the trial of
their political enemies. At one point, the court could only determine two verdicts: the accused was either 1)
innocent, or 2)was put to death.

The Terror

Throughout the next year, France was ruled by the Terror. People had to be careful of everything they said, what
they did, and who they talked to. The slightest hint of opposition to the revolutionary government could mean
prison or even death. Sometimes revolutionaries accused people they didn't like or wanted to get rid of without any
evidence. All anyone had to do was accuse someone, and they were considered guilty.

How many people were killed? Around 17,000 people were officially executed in France, including 2,639 in Paris.
Many more died in prison or were beaten to death in the streets. Over 200,000 people were arrested.

Fall of Robespierre and the Jacobins

As the bloodshed and executions of the Terror became worse, many people realized that it could not continue.
Enemies of Robespierre organized to overthrow him. On July 27, 1794, he was removed from power and the Reign of
Terror was over. He was executed the next day.
The Directory

What was the French Directory? The Directory was the name of the government that ruled France during the final
stage of the French Revolution. The government was based off a new constitution called the "Constitution of Year
III."

How long did the Directory rule France? The Directory ruled France for four years from November 2, 1795 to
November 10, 1799. It came into power after the "Reign of Terror" when the country was ruled by the Committee of
Public Safety.

Who were members of the Directory? The Directory consisted of an executive branch called the "Five Directors" and
a legislative branch called the "Corps Legislatif." The Corps Legislatif was divided into two houses: the Council of Five
Hundred and the Council of Ancients.

-Five Directors - The Five Directors were five men who were selected by the Council of Ancients. They acted as the
executive branch and were responsible for the day-to-day running of the country.

-Council of Five Hundred - the Council of Five Hundred proposed new laws. Council of Ancients

-The Council of Ancients voted on the laws proposed by the Five Hundred.

Fall of Robespierre
before the Directory came into power, France was ruled by the Committee of Public Safety. The leader of the
Committee was a man named Robespierre. In order to preserve the revolution, Robespierre instituted a state of
"Terror. Anyone suspected of treason was arrested or killed. Eventually, Robespierre was overthrown, but only
after thousands of people were executed by guillotine.

Rule of the Directory

When the Directory came into power, it was faced with many problems including widespread famine, civil war,
internal corruption, and war with neighbouring countries. There was also a struggle for power within the directory
between royalists and radical revolutionaries. As the Directory moved from crisis to crisis, the people became
unhappy with the new government. The Directory used military force to put down uprisings. They also annulled
elections when they didn't like the results. Despite these struggles, the Directory did help France to recover
somewhat from the Terror and set the stage for future governments.

End of the Directory and the Rise of Napoleon

As the Directory became more and more corrupt, the military leaders of France grew in power. One particular
general, Napoleon, had gained many victories on the battlefield. On November 9, 1799, he overthrew the Directory
and established a new government called the "Consulate." He established himself as the First Consul and would later
crown himself emperor.

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