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FLUID MECHANICS
Chapter 2 Fluids at Rest
- Pressure and its Effect
MAIN TOPICS
Pressure at a Point
Basic Equation for Pressure Field
Pressure variation in a Fluid at Rest
Standard Atmosphere
Measurement of Pressure
Manometry
Mechanical and Electronic Pressure Measuring Devices
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
Pressure Prism
Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface
Buoyancy, Floating, and Stability
Rigid-Body Motion
2
xyz xyz
F Z P y xy PS xscos -
2
2
az
y s cos z s sin
z y
PZ PS a Z Py PS a y
2 2
x=0y=0z=0 PZ Py PS
4
F ma
There are two types of
forces acting on the mass
of fluid: surface force and
body force.
m V
6
10
p p p
F s F X i FZ j FZ k i j k xyz
x y z
p p p
gradp p i j k
x y z
11
p P
g x 0...x direction 0
x g x 0,g y 0, x
p gz g P
g y 0...y direction 0
y y
p P
g z 0...z direction
z z
13
Pressure-Height Relation
The basic pressure-height relation of static fluid :
Integrated to determine the
pressure distribution in a
static fluid with appropriate
boundary conditions.
Restriction:
Static fluid.
Gravity is the only body force.
The z axis is vertical and upward.
How the specific weight varies with z?
14
p1 p2 = (z2z1)=h
p1=h +p2
17
Solution 1/2
Since we are dealing with liquid at rest, the pressure distribution will be
hydrostatic, and therefor the pressure variation can be found from the equation:
p = h + po
With po corresponding to the pressure at the free surface of the gasoline, then
the pressure at the interface is
p1 SG H 2O h p0 (0.68)( 62.4lb / ft 3 )(17ft ) p0
721 p0 lb / ft 2
If we measure the pressure relative to atmosphere pressure (gage pressure), it
follows that po =0, and therefore
721lb / ft 2
p1 721lb / ft 2
2 2
5.01lb / in 2
144in / ft
2
p1 721lb / ft
11.6ft
H 2O 62.4lb / ft 3
18
Solution 2/2
We can now apply the same relationship to determine the pressure at the tank
bottom; that is,
p2 H 2O h H 2O p1 (62.4lb / ft 3 )( 3ft ) 721lb / ft 2 908lb / ft 2
908lb / ft 2
p2 2 2
6.31lb / in 2
144in / ft
p2 908lb / ft 2
14.6ft
H 2O 62.4lb / ft 3
19
p2 dp p g z1 dz
p1 p
ln 2
p1 R z2 T
20
10
g ( z1 z 2 )
T=T0=constant p 2 p1 exp
RT o
T=To-mz pg pg
dp gdz dz dz
RT R( To mz )
dpp z gdz
p1 p
0 R( T mz )
o
p g mz
ln ln( 1 )
p1 mR To
mz g / mR T g / mR
p p1( 1 ) p1( )
To To 21
22
11
Solution 1/2
For the assumed isothermal conditions, and treating air as a compressible fluid,
Eq. 2.10 can be applied to yield
p2 g ( z1 z 2 )
exp
p1 RT o
(32.2ft / s2 )(1250ft )
exp 0.956
(1716ft lb / slug R )[( 59 460 ) R ]
If the pressure is treated as an incompressible fluid we can apply Eq. 2.5.
In this case
p 2 p1 z 2 z1 or
p2 z 2 z1 (0.765lb / ft 3 )(1250ft )
1 1 0.955
p1 p1 (14.7lb / in 2 )(144in 2 / ft 2 )
23
Solution 2/2
Note that there is little difference between the two results. Since the pressure
difference between the bottom and top of the building is small, it follows that the
variation in fluid density is small and, therefore, the compressible fluid and
incompressible fluid analyses yield essentially the same result.
By repeating the calculation, for various values of height, h, the results shown in
figure are obtained.
24
12
Standard Atmosphere1/2
Standard atmosphere was first developed in the 1920s.
The currently accepted Standard atmosphere is based on a
report published in 1962 and updated in 1976.
The so-called U.S. standard atmosphere is an idealized
representation of middle-latitude, year-around mean
conditions of the earths atmosphere.
25
Standard Atmosphere2/2
For example, in the troposphere,
the temperature variation is of
the form
T = Ta z
where Ta is the temperature at
sea level (z=0) and is the
lapse rate (the rate of change of
temperature with elevation).
g / R
z
p pa 1 Pa is the absolute pressure at z=0.
Ta 26
13
27
28
14
Solution 1/2
The pressure in the lake at any depth, h , is given by the equation
p h p 0
Where p0 is the pressure at the surface. Since we want the absolute pressure, p0 will
be the local barometric expressed in a consistent of units ; that is
P barometric
598 mm 0.598 m
Hg
And for 133kN / m 3
Hg
29
Solution 2/2
From Table B.2, H 0 9.804 kN / m3
2
at 10 0C and therefore
p (9.804 kN / m 3 )( 40 m ) 79.5 kN / m 2
392 kN / m 2 79.5 kN / m 2 472 kPa (abs)
(Ans)
This simple example illustrates the need for close attention to the units used in the
calculation of pressure ; that is, be sure to use a consistent unit systm,and be careful
not to add a pressure head (m) to a pressure (Pa).
30
15
Barometers
Mercury Barometer is used to measure atmosphere
pressure:
Patmh +Pvaporh
Pvapor0.000023 lb / in2@68oF
specific weight of mercury
the height of a mercury column is
converted to atmosphere pressure by
using
p atm p vapor gh
31
Manometry
A standard technique for measuring pressure involves the
use of liquid column in vertical or inclined tubes.
Pressure measuring devices based on this technique are
called manometers.
Piezometer Tube.
U-Tube manometer.
Inclined-Tube manometer.
32
16
Piezometer Tube
The fundamental equation is
P = P0 + h >> PA = 1 h1
PA : gage pressure ( P0=0)
1 :the specific weight of the liquid in the
container
h1: measured from the meniscus at the upper
surface to point(1)
Only suitable if the pressure in the container is
greater than atmospheric pressure, and the pressure to
be measured must be relatively small so the required
height of the column is reasonable. The fluid in the
container must be a liquid rather than a gas.
33
A(1)(2)(3)Open
PA + 1 h 1 2h 2 = 0
>> PA =2h 2 1 h 1
If pipe A contains a gas
then 1h 10
>> PA =2h 2
EXAMPLE 2.4 34
17
35
Solution 1/2
Following the general procedure of starting at one end of the manometer
system and working around to the other, we will start at the air-oil interface in
the tank and proceed to the open end where the pressure is zero. The pressure
at level (1) is
p1 pair oil ( h1 h 2 )
This pressure is equal to the pressure at level (2), since these two points are at the
same elevation in a homogeneous fluid at rest. As we move from level (2) to the
open end, the pressure must decrease by Hgh3, and at the open end the pressure is
zero. Thus, the manometer equation can be expressed as
pair oil ( h1 h 2 ) Hg h 3 0
or
18
Solution 2/2
For the values given
36 6 9
pair (0.9)( 62.4 lb/ft 3 ) ft (13.6)( 62.4 lb/ft 3 ) ft
12 12
So that pair 440 lb/ft 2
Since the specific weight of the air above oil is much smaller than the specific
weight of the oil, the gage should read the pressure we have calculated; that is,
440 lb/ft 2
p gage 3.06 psi (Ans)
144 in. 2 /ft 2
37
A(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)B
PA1h12h2 3h3 PB
The pressure difference is
PA PB2h23h31h1
EXAMPLE 2.5 38
19
pipe and nozzle size. The pressure drop is frequently measured with
a differential U-tube manometer of the type illustrated.
(a) Determine an equation for pA pB in terms of the specific
weight of the flowing fluid, 1, the specific weight of the gage fluid,
2, and the various heights indicated. (b) For 1= 9.80kN/m3 , 2 =
15.6 kN/m3 , h1 = 1.0m, and h2 = 0.5m, what is the value of the
pressure drop, pA pB?
39
Solution1/2
(a) Although the fluid in the pipe is moving, the fluids in the columns of the
manometer are at rest so that the pressure variation in the manometer tudes is
hydrostatic. If we start at point A and move vertically upward to level (1), the
pressure will decrease by 1h1 and will be equal to pressure at (2) and (3). We
can now move from (3) to (4) where the pressure has been further reduced by
2h2 . The pressure at levels (4) and (5) are equal, and as we move from (5) to B
the pressure will increase by1(h1 + h2). Thus, in equation form
p A 1h1 2 h2 1 (h1 h2 ) pB
or
p A p B h2 ( 1 2 )
(Ans)
40
20
Solution2/2
(b) The specific value of the pressure drop for the data given is
41
Inclined-Tube Manometer
To measure small pressure change, an inclined-tube
manometer is frequently used:
PA +1h1 2l2sin 3h3 = PB
PA PB =2l2sin +3h3 1h1
If pipe A and B contain a gas then3h31h10
>> l2 = ( PA PB ) /2 sin
42
21
43
44
22
Aneroid Barometer
45
46
23
47
On a Submerged Surfaces
The hydrostatic force on any
element of the surface acts
normal to the surface dF = pdA.
The resultant force
FR hdA y sin dA
A A
Where h=ysin
FR sin ydA
A
24
Resultant Force
The magnitude of the resultant force is equal to pressure
acting at the centroid of the area multiplied by the total
area.
FR Ayc sin hc A
yc is the y coordinate of the centroid of the area A.
hc is the vertical distance from the fluid surface to the
centroid of the area.
49
yR
A
y 2 dA I I
x xc yc
The resultant force does
not pass through the
centroid but is always
yc A yc A yc A below it.
25
xR
A
xydA
I xy
I xyc
xc
yc A yc A yc A
Ixy is the product of inertia wrt the x and y.
By parallel axis theorem I xy I xyc Axc yc
Ixyc is the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal
coordinate system passing through the centroid of the area and
formed by a translation of the x-y coordinate system.
If the submerged area is symmetrical with respect to an axis
passing through the centroid and parallel to either the x or y
axes, Ixyc=0. 51
26
53
Solution 1/3
(a) To find the magnitude of the force of the water we can apply Eq. 2.18
FR Ay c sin h c A
And since the vertical distance from the fluid surface to the centroid of the area is
10m it follows that
27
Solution 2/3
From the coordinate system shown, xR=0 since the area is symmetrical, and the
center of pressure must lie along the diameter A-A. To obtain yR. we have from
Figure 2.18
R 4
I xc
4
And yc is shown in Fig. b. Thus,
yR
/ 4 (2m)4
10m
0.0866m 11.55m 11.6m
(10m / sin 60)( 4m ) 2
sin 60
And the distance below the shaft to the center of pressure is y R y c 0.0866m
We can conclude that the force on the gate due to the water have a magnitude of
1.23MN and acts through a point along its diameter A-A at a distance of 0.0866m
below the shaft. 55
Solution 3/3
(b) The moment required to open the gate can be obtained with the aid of the free-
body diagram of Fig. c. In this diagram W is the weight of the gate and Ox and Oy
are the horizontal and vertical reactions of the shaft on the gate. We can now sum
moments about the shaft
M c 0
And, therefore,
56
28
57
Solution 1/3
The various distances needed to solve the problem are shown in Fig.E2.7b. Since the
surface of interest lies in a vertical plane, yc = hc = 9 ft, and from Eq. 2.18 the
magnitude of the force is
58
29
Solution 2/3
81 / 36ft 4
So that yR 9ft
(9ft )( 9 / 2ft 2 )
= 0.0556 ft + 9 ft = 9.06 ft (Ans)
I xy c
Similarly, from Eq.2.20 xR xc
ycA
(3ft )( 3ft ) 2 81
And from Fig.2.18 I xy c (3ft ) ft 4
72 72
81 / 72ft 4
So that xR 0 0.0278 ft
(9ft )( 9 / 2ft 2 )
59
Solution 3/3
Thus, we conclude that the center of pressure is 0.0278 ft to the right of and 0.0556 ft
below the centroid of the area. If this point is plotted, we find that it lies on the
median line for the area as illustrated in Fig. E2.7c. Since we can think of the total
area as consisting of a number of small rectangular strips of areaA (and the fluid
force on each of these small areas acts through its center), it follows that the resultant
of all these parallel forces must lie along the median.
60
30
Pressure Prism
h
FR pav A A
2
1 h
volume ( h )( bh ) A
2 2
FR F1 F2
FR y A F1 y1 F2 y2
h1 h2 y2
2( h2 h1 )
h1
y1
2 3
EXAMPLE 2.8 61
62
31
Solution 1/3
The pressure distribution acting on the inside surface of the plate is shown in Fig.
E2.8b. The pressure at a given point on the plate is due to the air pressure, ps, at the
oil surface, and the pressure due to the oil, which varies linearly with depth as is
shown in the figure. The resultant force on the plate (having an area A) is due to the
components, F1 and F2 , where F1 and F2 are due to the rectangular and triangular
portions of the pressure distribution, respectively. Thus,
F1 (ps h1)A
[50 103 N/m 2 (0.90)(9.8 1 103 N/m3 )(2 m)](0.36m 2 )
24.4 103 N
63
Solution 2/3
and
h1 - h 2 0.6m
F2 ( ) A (0.90)(9.8 1 103 N/m3 )( )(0.36m 2 )
2 2
0.954 103 N
The magnitude of the resultant force, FR, is therefore
64
32
Solution 3/3
The vertical location of FR can be obtained by summing moments around an axis
through point O so that
FR y O F1 (0.3m) F2 (0.2m)
or
(24.4 103 N)(0.3m) (0.954 103 N)(0.2m)
yO
25.4 103 N
0.296m
Thus, the force acts at a distance of 0.296m above the bottom of the plate along
the vertical axis of symmetry.
Note that the air pressure used in the calculation of the force was gage
pressure. Atmospheric pressure does not affect the resultant force (magnitude or
location), since it acts on both sides of the plate, thereby canceling its effect.
65
On a Curved Surfaces
Consider the curved section
BC of the open tank.
F1 and F2 can be determined FH F2 FV F1 W
from the relationships for 2
FR FH F V
2
planar surfaces.
The weight W is simply the
specific weight of the fluid
times the enclosed volume and
acts through the center of
gravity (CG) of the mass of
fluid contained within the
volume.
EXAMPLE 2.9 66
33
67
Solution 1/3
We first isolate a volume of fluid bounded by the curved section BC, the horizontal
surface AB, and the vertical surface AC, as shown in Fig.E2.9b. The volume has a
length of 1 ft.
The forces acting on the volume are the horizontal force F1, which acts on the
vertical surface AC, the weight, W, of the fluid contained within the volume, and the
horizontal and vertical components of the force of the conduit wall on the fluid, FH
and FV, respectively.
34
Solution 2/3
and acts through the center of gravity of the mass of fluid, which accordingly to Fig.
2.18 is located 1.27 ft to the right of AC as shown. There for, to satisfy equilibrium
FH F1 281lb Fv W 441lb
and the magnitude of the resultant force is
FR ( FH ) 2 ( FV ) 2
( 281lb ) 2 ( 441lb ) 2 523lb (Ans)
The force the water exerts on the conduit wall is equal, but opposite in direction, to
the force FH and FV shown in Fig. E2.9c. This force acts through the point O at the
angle shown.
69
Solution 3/3
An inspection of this result will show that the line of action of the resultant force
passes through the center of the conduit.
In retrospect, this is not a surprising result since at each point on the curved surface
of the conduit the elemental force due to the pressure is normal to the surface, and
each line of action must pass through the center of the conduit.
It therefore follows that the result of this concurrence force system must also pass
through the center of concurrence of the elemental forces that make up the system.
70
35
BUOYANCY 1/2
Buoyancy: The net vertical force acting on an object
which is immersed in a liquid, or floating on its surface
due to liquid pressure.
Consider a body of arbitrary
shape, having a volume V, that
is immersed in a fluid,
We enclose the body in a
parallelepiped and draw a free-
body diagram of parallelpiped
with body removed as shown in
(b).
71
BUOYANCY 2/2
FB F2 F1 W
F2 F1 ( h2 h1 ) A
FB ( h2 h1 ) A ( h2 h1 ) A V
FB is the force the body exerting on the fluid.
W is the weight of the shaded fluid volume
(parallelepiped minus body).
A is the horizontal area of the upper (or lower)
surface of the parallelepiped.
36
Archimedes Principle
For a submerged body, the buoyancy force of the fluid is
equal to the weight of displaced fluid.
Fbuoyancy g V
The relation reportedly was used by Archimedes in 220
B.C. to determine the gold content in the crown of King
Hiero II.
73
Example 2.10 Buoyant Force on a
Submerged Object
74
37
Solution1/2
We first draw a free-body diagram of the buoy as is shown in Fig. E2.10b, where FB is
the buoyant force acting on the buoy, W is the weight of the buoy, and T is the tension
in the cable. For Equilibrium it follows that
T FB W
From Eq. 2.22
FB V
and for seawater with = 10.1 kN/m3 and V = d3/6 then
75
Solution2/2
Note that we replaced the effect of the hydrostatic pressure force on the
body by the buoyant force, FB. Another correct free-body diagram of the
buoy is shown in Fig. E2.10c. The net effect of the pressure forces on the
surface of the buoy is equal to the upward force of magnitude, FB (the
buoyant force). Do not include both the buoyant force and the hydrostatic
pressure effect in your calculationsuse one or the other.
76
38
77
Stability
Stability? Stable? Unstable?
A body is said to be in a stable
equilibrium position if, when
displaced, it returns to its
equilibrium position. Conversely, it
is an unstable equilibrium position
if, when displaced (even slightly), it
moves to a new equilibrium
position.
78
39
80
40
Rigid-Body Motion
The entire fluid moves as if it were a rigid body
individual fluid particles, although they may be in motion,
are not deforming. This means that there are no shear
stresses, as in the case of a static fluid.
The general equation of motion
p
p k a 0
x
a x
Based on rectangular p
coordinates with the a y
positive z axis being
y
vertically upward. p
a z
z 81
Linear Motion
p
a x 0
x
p
a y
y
p
( g az ) dp
p
dy dz
p
z y z
The change in pressure dp a y dy ( g a z )dz
between two closely
spaced points located at y, Along a line of constant pressure, dp=0
z, and y+dy , z+dz dz ay
dy g az
EXAMPLE 2.11 82
41
Angular Motion1/2
In terms of cylindrical coordinates, the pressure gradient
can be expressed
p 1 p p
p er e ez ar rw2er a 0 az 0
r r z
p p
The differential pressure is dp dr dz r 2dr dz
r z
83
42
Solution1/3
(a) For a constant horizontal acceleration the fuel will move as a rigid body,
and from Eq.2.28 the slope of the surface can be expressed as
dz a
y
dy g
Since az = 0. Thus for some arbitrary ay, the change in depth, z1, of liquid on the right
side of the tank can be from the equation
z1 a
y
0.75ft g
or
a
z 1 (0.75ft ) y
g
86
43
Solution2/3
Since there is no acceleration in the vertical, z, direction, the pressure along the wall
varies hydrostatically as shown by Eq.2.26. Thus, the pressure at the transducer is
given by the relationship
p h
Where h is the depth of fuel above the transducer, and therefore
ay
p (0.65)( 62.4lb / ft 3 )[0.5ft (0.75ft )( a y / g)] 20.3 30.4
g
For z10.5 ft. as written, p would be given in lb/ft2.
87
Solution3/3
(b) The limiting value for (ay)max (when the fuel level reaches the transducer)
can be found from the equation
(a ) 2g
0.5ft (0.75ft ) y m ax or (a y ) m ax
g 3
And for standard acceleration of gravity
2
(a y ) max (32.2ft / s2 ) 21.5ft / s 2
3
Note that the pressure in horizontal layers is not constant in this
example since p/ y=-ay 0. thus, for example , p1p2
88
44
89
Solution 1/2
The height, h, of the free surface above the tank bottom can be determined from
2 r 2
h h0
2g
The initial volume of fluid in the tank is equal to
Vi R 2 H
The volume of the fluid with the rotating tank can be found with the aid of the
differential element shown in Fig. b. This cylindrical shell is taken at some
arbitrary radius, r, and its volume is
dV 2rhdr
90
45
Solution 2/2
The total volume, is , therefore
R r 2 R 4
2 2
V 2 r h 0 dr R 2 h 0
0
2 g 4 g
Since the volume of the fluid in the tank must remain constant, it follows that
2 R 4 2 R 2
R H
2
R 2 h 0 or H h0
4g 4g
This is the relationship we were looking for. It shows that the change in depth
could indeed be used to determine the rotational speed, although the relationship
between the change in depth and speed is not a linear one.
91
46