xvi SYMBOLS

o outlet
CHAPTER
overall
total (stagnation) conditions ONE
P projected area
R rotor INTRODUCTION
at tip
r radial
r runner
at hub
rei based on relative velocity
s isentropic
shaft
static
suc suction
tip
turbine
t-s total-to-static
t-t total-to-total
u unit quantities
1.1 DEFINITION
v volumetric
vap vapour A turbomachine can be described as any device that extracts energy from or
x tangential imparts energy to a continuously moving stream of fluid, the energy transfer
being carried out by the dynamic action of one or more rotating blade rows.
The dynamic action ofthe rotating blade rows sets up forces between the blade
row and fluid, while the components of these forces in the direction of blade
motion give rise to the energy transfer between the blades and fluid. By
specifying that the fluid is moving continuously, a distinction is drawn between
the turbomachine and the positive displacement machine. In the latter, the
fluid enters a closed chamber, which is isolated from the inlet and outlet
sections of the machine for a discrete period of time, although work may be
done on or by the fluid during that time. The fluid itself can be a gas or a liquid,
and the only limitations that we shall apply are that gases (or steam) are
considered perfect and that liquids are Newtonian.
The general definition of the turbomachine as used above covers a wide
range of machines, such as ship propellers, windmills, waterwheels, hydraulic
turbines and gas turbines, and is therefore rather loose for the purposes of this
text. We will limit ourselves to a consideration of only those types of
turbomachines in which the rotating member is enclosed in a casing, or
shrouded in such a way that the streamlines cannot diverge to flow around the
edges of the impeller, as would happen in the case of an unshrouded windmill
or aerogenerator.
The types of machines falling into our defined category and which will be
considered in detail in succeedinl! chanters are listed in Tahle 1.1 and fall into
u

2 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TUR,!lOMACHINES

INTRODUCTiON 5

Table 1.1 Types of turbomachines Q
P
Turbomachines in which

-,--
,I
Work is done by fluid Work is done on fluid - --------,
,
I
I Flow rate, Q (m 3/s)
Axial flow hydraulic Iurbine Centrifugal pump , I Speed. N (rev/s)
,I Power. peW)
Radial flow hydraulic turbine Axial flow pump
gH
, Energy difference
across turbine. {/ H (N m/kg)
Mixed flow hydraulic turbine Centrifugal compressor I
I Fluid density.p(kglm3)
Axial flow gas turbine Axial flow compressor I Fluid viscosity, Jl(Pa s)
I Diameter. D (m)
Pelton wheel hydraulic turbine Radial flow fan . I

-~---7------ ----!
. Control surface 12
one of two classes depending on whether work is done by the fluid on the Q
rotating member or whether work is done by the rotating member on the flui? Figure 1.2 Hydraulic lurbine conlrol volume
Types of turbomachines can also be defined as to the. mann~r of. flUid
movement through the rotating member. If the flow is essentially aXial with ~o
radial movement of the streamlines, then the machine is classed as an aXial
volume represents a turbine of diameter D, which develops a shaft power P at a
flow machine; whereas if the flow is essentially radial, it is classed as a radial
speed of rotation N, then we could say that the power output is a function of all.
flow or centrifugal machine. Other special types of turbomachines exist, e.g. the other variables, or
the Minto wheel or Baki turbine, but they will not be considered in this text.
Considering the two classes of machines listed in Table 1.1, some broad P = !(p, N, jJ., D, Q, (gH)) (1.1)
generalizations may be made. The first is that the left-hand column consists?f
In Eq. (1.1),! means 'a functionof' and g, the acceleration due to gravity, has
machines in! which the fluid pressure or head (in the case of a hydraulic
been combined with H to form the energy per unit mass instead of energy per
machine) or the enthalpy (in the case of a compressible flow mac~ine)
unit weight. We now assume that Eq. (1.1) may be written as the product of all
decreases from inlet to outlet, whereas in the right-hand column are listed
the variables raised to a power and a constant, such that
those macnines which increase the head or enthalpy of the fluid flowing
through them. This decrease or increase in head, when multiplied by the (1.2)
weight flow per unit time of fluid through the machine, represents the energy
Ifeach variable is expressed in terms of its fundamental dimensions, mass
absorbed by or extracted from the rotating blades, which are fixed onto a shaft
M, length L and time T, then, for dimensional homogeneity, each side of
The energy transfer is effected in both cases by changing the angular
Eq. (1.2) must have the same powers of the fundamental dimensions, so the
momentum of the fluid. It might therefore be reasonable to assume that
indices of M, Land T can be equated to form a series of simultaneous
different types of turbomachine would exhibit differing shapes of blades and equations. Thus
rotating members, and this indeed is the case, as is shown in Fig. 1.1. In
2
addition, because turbomachines have developed historically at different (ML /T3) = const(M/L3)O(1/T)b(M/LTY(L)d(L 3/T)"(L 2 /T 2V (1.3)
times, names have been given to certain parts of the machines as well as to and equating the indices we get
different types of machines, and these are now defined.
M l=a+c
Turbine. A machine that produces power by expanding a continuously L 2= -3a-c+d+3e+2!
flowing fluid to a lower pressure or head; the power output is usually
T -3=-b-c-e-2!
expressed in kW. .
Pump. A machine that increases the pressure or head of a flowing liquid, and There are six variables and only three equations. It is therefore possible to
solve for three of the indices in terms of the remaining three. Solving for a, b
a
INTRODUCTION 7
6 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOMAC~;IINES

Q/ND 3
and d in terms of c, e and f we get
a=1-c ~ gH/N 2 D2
/
b= 3 -c-e-2f P/pN 3 D"
d = 5 - 2c - 3e - 2f P/pN 3 D"

Substituting for a, band d in Eq. (1.2),

P = const[pl -c N 3-c- e- 2f Jlc D5 - 2c- 3e- 2f Qe(gH)f]

and collecting like indices into separate brackets, gH/N 2 D2 Q/ND 3

P = const[(pN3D5)(Jl/pND2),(Q/ND3)'(gH/N2D2)fJ (1.4) (a) (b)

The second term in the brackets will be recognized as the inverse of the Perform~nce c~aracteristics
Figure .1.3 of hydraulic machines drawn in terms of dimensionless
Reynolds number and, since the value of c is unknown, this term can be groups. (a) hydrauhc turbme; (b) hydraulic pump
inverted and Eq. (1.4) may be written as
P/pN3D5 = const[(pND2/Jl)C(Q/ND3)e(gH/N2D2)f] (1.5) characteristics of any other combination of P, N, Q and H for a given machine
Each group of variables in Eq. (1.5) is truly dimensionless and all are used in or for any other geometrically similar machine of different diameter. Since
hydraulic turbomachinery practice. Because of their frequent use, the groups these groups are dimensi~nles~, they may be divided or multiplied by
are known by the following names: th~mselve~ to form oth~r dImensIOnless groups depending on the type of test
bem~ carned out, and It therefore follows that while in this particular case
P/pN 3D5 = P the power coefficient
solutIons for a, band d were found in terms of c, e and f, other solutions could
Q/ND 3 = tjJ the flow coefficient have been determined ~hich give different dimensionless groups. Each set of
gH/N 2D2 = t/J the head coefficient g:oups taken together IS correct, although they will of course be related by
dIfferently shaped curves.
The term pND 2/Jl is equivalent to the Reynolds number Re = p VD/Jl, since the For the turbine, the hydraulic efficiency is defined as
peripheral velocity Vis proportional to ND. Hence Eq. (1.1) may be rewritte~
. Power delivered to runner
as '1 (1.7)
(1.6) Power available to runner
p = f(Re, tjJ, t/J)
which states that the power coefficient of a hydraulic machine is a function of = P/pgQH
Reynolds number, flow coefficient and head coefficient. It is not possible to say Then substituting for P and rearranging gives
what the functional relationship is at this stage, since it must be obtained by
experiment on a particular prototype machine or model. In the case of a '1 = P(ND 3/Q)(N 2D2/gH)
hydraulic machine, it is found that the Reynolds number is usually very high =P/tPt/J (1.8)
and therefore the viscous action of the fluid has very little effect on the power
output of the machine and the power coefficient remains only a function of t/J For a pump
and tjJ. To see how P could vary with tjJ and t/J, let us return to Fig. 1.2. (1.9)
To determine the relationship between P, t/J and tjJ, the head across the
machine can be fixed, as is usually the case in a hydroelectric installa60n. For a
fixed value of inlet valve opening, the load on the machine is varied while the !.3.2 Model Testing
torque, speed and flow rate are measured. From these measurements, the . ~an.y hydraulic machines are so large that only a single unit might be
power may be calculated, and P and tjJ plotted against t/J. (pqUlre?, as for example a hydraulic turbine in a hydroelectric installation
Typical dimensionless characteristic curves for a hydraulic turbine and ,p,roducmg many megawatts (MW) of power. Therefore, before the full-size
_.. ~ 1 ,,\.. _~"~A~t;"pl" Thp."p' curves are also the
 8 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOMACHINES
INTRODUCTION 9
machine is built, it is necessary to test it in model form to obtain as much POI
T T
information as possible about its characteristics. So that we may accurately
transpose the results obtained from the model to the full-size machine, three
I criteria must be met. The first is that the model and prototype must be
, geometrically similar; that is, the ratio of all lengths between the model and
PO.
prototype must be the same. The second requirement is that of kinematic
similarity, where the velocities of the fluid particles at corresponding points in.
02s 02
the model and prototype must be related through a fixed ratio. The third 01
requirement is that of dynamic similarity, where the forces acting at
corresponding points must be in a fixed ratio between model and prototype. (a) s s
(b)
For a geometrically similar model, dynamic similarity implies kinematic
similarity. Figure 1.4 Compression and expansion in compressible now machines: (a) turbine; (b)
In order to ensure the above criteria, the values of the dimensionless compressor
groups in Eq. (1.5) must remain the same for both the model and the P = p/RT and it therefore becomes superfluous since we already have T and
prototype. Therefore if the curves shown in Fig. 1.3 had been obtained for a P as .varia?les, so deleting density, and combining R with T, the functional
completely similar model, these same curves would apply to the full'-size relatIOnshIp can be written as
prototype machine. It can then be seen that these curves apply to any size
machine of the same family at any head, flow rate or speed. P02 = f(POI,RToI ,RTo2 ,m,N,D,p.)
and writing P02 as a product of the terms raised to powers,
1.3.3 Compressible Flow Machines P02 = const [(Poda(R TOI)b(R T 02 )'(m)d(NY(D)f(p.)g] (1.11)
Not all turbomachines use a liquid (hydraulic fluid) as their fluid medium. Gas Putting in the basic dimensions
turbines and axial flow compressors are used extensively in the jet engines of 2
aircraft where the products of combustion and air respectively are the working (M/LT ) = const [(M/LT 2)a(L 2jT2)b(L 2jT2)'(MjT)d(ljT)e(L)f(M/LT)g]
fluids, while many diesel engines use centrifugal compressors for supercharg- Equating indices
ing. To accommodate the compressibility of these types of fluids (gases), some
new variables must be added to those already mentioned in the case of M l=a+d+g
hydraulic machines, and changes must be made in some ofthe definitions used. L - 1 = - a + 2b + 2c + f - g
With compressible flow machines, the parameters of importance are the T - 2 = - 2a - 2b - 2c - d - e - g
pressure and temperature increase of the gas in a compressor and the pressure
and temperature decrease of the gas in the turbine plotted as a function of the and solving for a, band f in terms of d, c, e and g we obtain
mass flow rate of the gas. In Fig. 1.4, the T -5 charts for a compression and a=l-d-g
expansion process are shown.
In isentropic flow the outlet conditions of the gas are at 02s whereas the b = dl2 - C - e/2 + gl2
actual outlet conditions are at 02. The subscript 0 refers to total conditions and f=e-2d-g
1 and 2 refer to the inlet and outlet points of the gas respectively. The s refers to Substitute for a, band f in Eq. (1.11), then
constant entropy.
Now the pressure at the outlet, P02' can be written as a function of the P02 = const [pA~d-g(RToI)d/2-c-e/2 +g/2(RT02)'mdNeDe-2d-gp.g]
following variables: = const x POI {(RTo2/RTolnm(RTol)I/2/POID2]d[ND/(RTo~)1/2y

P02 = f(D, N, m, POI> TOl> T o2 , POI' P02' p.) (1.10) x [/J(RToI )I/2IpOID]g} (1.12)

Here the pressure ratio P02/POI replaces the head H in the hydraulic machine, "0 ,Now if~hel~:st term in the brackets in Eq. (1.12) is multiplied top and bottom
while the mass flow rate m (kg/s) replaces Q. However, by examining Eq. (1.10) "i?y (RToI ) and noting that PodRTol equals POI' then
"''' t'<>n c"" th<>t \lcina thp pn\l~tion of ~t~tp thp clensitv mav he written as IIRT. In. fllT. \1/2n _ ,,/(1)7' \1/2 n n
10 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOMAC~INES INTRODUCTION 11

. 1/2 L/T which is a velocity, and therefore the last take place, a significant reduction in Re can occur, and this must then be taken
But the umts of (RT01 ) a~e 'R Id mber Thus the functional into account. For a particular constant-diameter machine, the diameter D may
term in brackets is expressIble as a eyno s nu '
relationship may be written as , 1/2 be ignored and therefore, in view of the above considerations, function (1.13)
becomes
_ fRT /RT ) (m(RTol)1/2/pOID2),(ND/(RTod ),Re)(1.13)
P02 / POI - 02 01 , ,
. 3) t be obtained by expenmental P02/POI = fTOl/ToI ), (mT5~2 /PoI),(N/TW)) (1.14)
The exact form of the functIOn (1.1 t ~us tests For a particular machine.
where it should be noted that some of the terms are now no longer
measurements taken from model ordPlro ? gYPthee sa~e fluid as the prototype, R
, . 1 fl' d orfor a mo e usm dimensionless. It is usual to plot POl/POI and T02 /Tol against the mass flow
usmg a partIcu ar UI, ., d Th Reynolds number is in most cases so rate parameter mTW /POI for different values of the speed parameter N/TW
is a constant and may be ehmma~e . h e 'n this parameter over the usual
for a particular machine. But for a family of machines, the full dimensionless
high and the flow so tburbulelnt : :t ~:::::/ where large changes of density groups of Eq, (1.13) must be used if it is required to change the size of the
operating range may e neg ec e , ,
machine or the gas contained. The term N D/(RTo1 )1/2 can be interpreted as
the Mach-number effect. This is because the impeller velocity V oc ND and the
acoustic velocity aOI oc(RT01 )1/2, while the Mach number M = V/aOI' Typical
performance curves for an axial flow compressor and turbine are shown in
Figs 1.5 and 1.6.

Surge line
0.9 1.4 PROTOTYPE AND MODEL EFFICIENCY

Increasing N/ni2 Before leaving this introduction to the use of dimensionless groups, let us look
at the relationship between the efficiency of the model and that of the
prototype, assuming that the similarity laws are satisfied.
We wish to build a model of a prototype hydraulic turbine of efficiency '1 p '
Now from similarity laws, denoting the model and prototype by subscripts m
and p respectively,
(a) (b)
Hp/(N pDp)2 = H m/(N mDm)2 or Hp/H m= (N p /N m )2(D p /D m )2
Figure 1.5 Axial flow compressor characteristics: (a) pressure ratio; (b) efficiency
Qp/N pD~ = Qm/N mD~ or Qp/Qm = (N p/N m)(D p/D m)3
Pp/N~D~ = Pm/ N~D~ or Pm/Pp = (N m /N p )3(D m/D p )5
Now

----r-
Choking
mass flow '
T ur b me ffi' _ Power transferred from fluid
e IClency -, Fl'd 'I bl
U1 power aval a e

09 = P/pgQH (1.15)
Therefore
'"
'1m1'1 p = (PmlPp)(Qp/Qm)(Hp/Hm) = 1
and the efficiencies of the model and prototype are the same providing the
(b) similarity laws are satisfied, In practice, the two are not the same due to scaling
(a) effects, such as relative surface roughness, slight Reynolds-number changes
Figure 1.6 Axial flow gas turbine characteristics: (a) pressure ratio; (b) efficiency and Mach-number effects at higher blade speeds.
12 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOMACHINES
INTRODUCTION 13
1.5 DIMENSIONLESS SPECIFIC SPEED If the diameter is eliminated from these two equations, then

We have seen in Sec. 1.3 that the curves showing the functional relationship D = (gHNo)1/2/N and cPo = QN 2(t/Jo/gH)3/2
or
between dimensionless groups for a particular machine also apply to machines
of the same family (similar design), providing the similarity laws are obeyed (1.16)
when changing to a smaller-diameter machine, at perhaps a different speed
and head. It is therefore possible to obtain curves of many different types of
1.0,--- --.
machines, and to use these curves to select a machine design for a particular
operating requirement. Typical curves that might be obtained for different
types of hydraulic pumps are shown in Fig. 1.7, where it is seen that each
machine type lies in a well-defined region of head and flow coefficients, it being
possible in some cases to choose two or more impeller types for a specific flow 0.9
coefficient. There are of course an infinite number of designs that could be
produced, but for each design only one point exists on its characteristic curve
where the efficiency is at a maximum. Thus for each design of pump unique
values of cP and t/J exist at the maximum efficiency point. In the case of turbines,
0.8
the unique values would be P and cP at maximum efficiency. f
11
The specifications for a pump design are usually expressed in terms of a
required head H, at a flow rate of Qand speed N, the speed being specified since
'n) "'"
~
motors are usually only avail;;lble in fixed speed intervals. No mention has .;"
~t
u
l::
<>
been made concerning the diameter or type of machine, both of which must be ., 'u 0.7
IS
determined. For the best design point, constant values of cPo and t/Jn will exist ..~
;,~.
Ul

corresponding to the maximum efficiency point, or

and
0.6

Radial
0.5
Mixed flow

0.5 I 2 3 4 5
Dimensionless specific speed, N. (rad)

QIND 3
Centrifugal
~DO~
Mixed flow Axial
Figure 1.8 Variation of hydraulic pump impeller design
 INTRODUCTION 15
14 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOM~CHINES
Putting H 2 = 1 (un,it head) then
N is known as the dimensionless specific speed, the units peing revolution or
l 2
s
radians depending on the units of N, and must not be confused with specific . . N 2 -N
- 1 /H 1 / = N u ' (1.17)
speed. and thiS IS the unit speed of th t b' .
Since D was eliminated at the maximum efficiency point, the dimension- similarly obtained to give e ur me. Umt quantities for Q and P may be
less specific speed acts as a design parameter, which indicates the type of
machine that should be used for the given N, Hand Q. Equation (1.16) shows (1.18)
that a pump with a high N s will have a low head and high flow tate, and implies and
an axial flow pump with a large swallowing capacity. A low N s implies a high P u = p/H 3 / 2 (1.19)
head and low flow rate, and a centrifugal type of pump. Figure 1.8 shows the . .For a turbine, the dimensionless specific speed is found b
variation of N with pump impeller type, and indicates the optimum slmdar to that for pumps except that D' r ' d y a procedure
s
efficiencies to be expected. 3
what is often referred to as the power ,
s~~~~~~np~~~ ~om
Phand
sp' were
IjJ to yield
In practice, N s is often expressed as N Q1/ 2/ H /4, the 9 being dropped since
it is a constant, and the resulting value of N s will therefore be different. It may . N sp = NPI/2/pl/2(gH)5/4 (1.20)
also be found that consistent sets of units are not always used for N, Q and H,
speeds aiong with thei~ opYti:u IC turdbm.e runffine~ sh~pes for different specific
Figure 1 9 shows typic I h d u r'
so that when a value of N s is expressed, it should be ensured that the definition . m or eSlgn e IClencles.
being used is known. In this text the SI system will be used and N s will therefore
botth~~~:~~~g:n1 ~~~~~:::~~: ~om low ~~ high values of ~peci~c speed for ,
I,
be dimensionless.
However, as a point of reference, conversion factors are listed in Table 1.2 1..11, where it will be noted that ~:w~s~~c~~~~s~~ee~h~:~~i::Slg~a~;Oand
so that the reader may calculate the dimensionless specific speed from specific
speeds using Q, Nand H in other units. The fluid contained is water and, where
diameters and high-specific-speed machines have small diameters. In ge~:;:~
quoted, gpm are US gallons per minute, ftis foot, cfs are cubic feet per second, I
and hp is horsepower.
Terms that are often used in hydraulic flow machines are those of unit
~ '1X( ~
head, unit speed, unit power and unit quantity. They arose from the need to be
0.6 1.\ 1.6
able to compare hydraulic machines tested under a set of standard conditions.
In turbine work, the speed, power output and flow rate are determined for a
turbine operating under an assumed unit head of say 1 m or 1 ft, its efficiency 0.98
remaining constant. For instance, consider a turbine tested under a head HI Pelton wheel
and speed N I rpm. Then from Eq. (1.6), for any other speed and head,
0.94
H I/Ni = H2/N~
Francis turbines
or ~
Axial flow turbines
~ 0.90
"
~ ,
0.86 .:
Table 1.2 Conversion factors for specific speed
Dimensionless specific speed, N.(rad)
Specific speed
0.82
N.=SP./129
SP. = rpm(cfs)'12 /ft 3 / 4
4 N. = SP l /53
SP l = rpm(m 3 /sj'l2/ m 3 / o 2 3 4
N. = SP 3 /2730
SP 3 = rpm(gpm)1/l/ft 3 /4 . Dimensionless specific speed, N. (rad)
N.=SPJ42
SP. = rpm(hp)l/l/ft s/, Figure 19 . t'IOn 0 f h ydrauhc
N.=SP s/187 . . Va na ' turbme
. runner design with dimensionless specific speed
CP _ rnmlme:tric ho)'ll/ ms/4
~ ~~=~~-:-'-:~ '~~~. ~'\-~--~~~
=o.-==~_- __-.. . . . . "., -~ . --- --
.

16 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOMACHINES

INTRODUCTION 19
N. (rad)
0.05 0.10 0.20 0.50 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0 20.0
I

Pelton wheel single jet _I Francis turbines I

Kaplan
If+'-~~~=':":";=-:---.j. I -I
slow normal fast turbines
Pelton wheel Propeller
I'
multi-jet
1 t~~bin~ls
Centrifugal pumps Mixed flow Propeller
I" '1- '1- -I
(radial flow) pumps pumps
Radial compressors
,.. . -I
and fans Axial flow compressors, blowers
I'
and ventilators
Axial flow
,. -I Control volume
steam and gas turbines

Figure 1.10 Correlation of rotor designs with dimensionless specific speed (courtesy of Escher Figure 1.12 Control volume for linear momentum
Wyss Ltd)
the surroundings is JoY, then

the smaller the diameter the lower will be the cost of the machine, and therefore Q - W = m[(P2jp2 - PIjpd + (C~ - Ci)/2 + g(Z2 - Zd + (u 2 - udJ (1.22)
the design usually aims for the highest possible specific speed. where pjp = pressure energy per unit mass (J/kg) C2 /2 k' ,
unit mass (J/kg), u = internal energy of th fl 'd' =. metIc energy per
= potential energy per unit mass (Jjkg) _e UI flPer Ulllt mass (J/kg), gZ
' ' m - mass ow rate (kg/s) W - k
1.6 BASIC LAWS AND EQUATIONS d one on surroundmgs ( + ve) (W) d Q _ h ' - wor
I d an - eat transfer to system ( + ve) (W)
n wor s, Eq. (1.22) states that in steady flow through any region: .
The basic laws of thermodynamics and fluid mechanics are used in turboma-
chines although they are usually arranged into a more convenient form. All or He,at added to Shaft work done Increase in I '
flUid per unit b th fl 'd ncrease m
some may be used under any set of circumstances and each will be briefly dealt - y, e UI per = pressure energy + kinetic energy
mass Ulllt mass ' mass
per Ulllt per unit mass
with in turn.
Increase in Increase in
1.6.1 Continuity + potent~al energy + internal energy
per Ulllt mass per unit mass
For steady flow through the control volume, the mass flow rate m remains
The steady flow energy eq t' l' '.
constant. Referring to Fig. 1.12, well as to real flu'd h ' ua .lOn ~pp les to lIqUids, gases and vapours as
because man I s avmg no vIscosIty. It may be simplified in many cases
(1.21)
shown in th y lf the term~ are zero or cancel with others, and this will be
e re evant sectIOns.
where the velocity vectors C I and C 2 are perpendicular to the cross-sectional
areas of flow Al and A 2 In compressible flow machines the mass flow (kg/s)
is used almost exclusively while in hydraulic machines the volume flow rate Q . Newton's Second Law of Motion
(m 3 /s) is preferred,
:This law states that the f 11 h ~ .
particular direction is p'~~~ ~" ~hptr:t"O~~~s.. ~:t~~g_~~_a con~rol vo!u.me jna
20 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOMACHINES INTRODUCTION 21

causes the power developed by a turbine to be less than the ideal isentropic
power developed and why the work input to a pump is greater than the
isentropic or ideal work input (Fig. 1.4). In theory the entropy change might
/ also be zero for an adiabatic process but it is impossible in practice. For a
/ reversible process the seconp law is expressed as
I
A ---.-- J B dqjT = !is (1.26)
w
I where dq = heat transfer per unit mass (Jjkg), T = absolute temperature at
\ which heat transfer occurs (K) and !is = entropy change (Jjkg K).
\
In the absence of motion, gravity and any other effects, Eq. (1.22) has no
\
\
potential or kinetic'energy terms, and so '
" Q- W = m(u 2 - ut ) or dq - dw = du
where the units are Jjkg. Substituting for dq and rearranging,
Figure 1.13 Control volume for angular momentum
!is = dqjT = (du + dw)jT
Equation (1.23) applies for linear momentum. However, turbomachines Putting dw = p dv, where dv i~ an infinitesimal specific volume change, then
have impellers that rotate, and the power output is expressed as th~ product of
torque and angular velocity, and therefore angular momentum IS the more Tds = du + pdv (1.27)
useful parameter. . ' Defining specific enthalpy as h = u + pv and substituting for du in Eq. (1.27),
Figure 1.13 shows the movement of a fluid particle from a pomt A t~ a
point B while at the same time moving from a r~dius rt to r2 If the tangential
Tds = dh - vdp (1.28)
velocities of the fluid are C xt and Cx2 respectively, then the sum of all the and this equation is used extensively in the study of compressible flow
torques acting on the system is equal to the rate of change of angular machines.
momentum, In the following chapters, use will be made of the concepts discussed in this
introduction. This chapter should have acted as a reminder of the many
LT = m(r 2Cx2 - r t Cxt)
separate concepts learned in thermodynamics and fluid mechanics, and has
If the machine revolves with angular velocity w then the power is shown how these two separate subjects combine to form the subject of
turbomachinery.
ITw = m(U 2Cx2 - U tCxt)
For a turbine
W=m(UtC xt - U 2Cx2 O (1.24) EXERCISES
and is known as Euler's turbine equation.
1.1 A radial/low hydraulic turbine is required to be designed to produce 30 MW under a head of
For a pump 14 m at a speed of 95 rpm. A geometrically similar model with an output of 40 kW and a head of
(1.25) 5 m is to be tested under dynamically similar conditions, At what speed must the model be run,
W = m(U 2Cx2 - U t Cxt) > 0
what is the required impeller diameter ratio between the model and protoiype and what is the
which is Euler's pump equation. volume now rate through the model if its efficiency can be assumed to be 90 per cent?
1.2 The performance curves of a centrifugal pump are shown in Fig. 1.14. The impeller diameter is , ,I
127 mm and the pump delivers 2.831/s at a speed of 2000 rpm. If a 102 mm diameter impeller is
1.6.4 Entropy (Second Law of Thermodynamics) filled and the pump runs at a speed of 2200 rpm, what is the volume /low rate? Determine also the
new pump head.
This law states that for a fluid undergoing a reversible adiabatic process, the i.3 An axial now compressor is designed to run at 4500rpm when ambient atmospheric
entropy change is ;ero, while for the same fluid undergoing ~n a?iabatic or ",~onditions are 101.3 kPa and 15C. On the day when the performance characteristic is obtained,
rothpr nr(){'p~~ thp pntrnnv inp,re::tses from inlet to outlet. It IS thIs fact that "lhe atmospheric temperature is 25C. What is the "nrr""t,."",,<l ~t ",hi"h thp M~n.p ~ n' ... _ry
n. ..
22 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOMACHINES
INTRODUCTION 23

turbines. with a specific speed of 180 rpm are investigated. The normal running speed is to be
50 rpm m .both schemes. Determine the dimensionless specific speeds and compare the two
20 proposals msofar as the. number of machines are concerned, and estimate the power to be
developed by each machme. The units in either installation are to be of equal power and the
efficiency of each type may be assumed to be 0.9.

16 _1.9 A customer approach~s a salesman with a particular pump requirement and is quoted fot an
aXial flow pump of rotor diameter 152.4 mm. Running at a speed of980rpm th h"'d
d r 0183 3 , e mac me IS sal to
e Iver m Is.o~water agamst a head of9.1 m at an efficiency of85 per cenl. Are the claims of
t he sa lesman reahslIc?
12
l.lO A Francis
h turbine runs at 180rpm under a head of 146m wI'th a n effi'
IClency 0 f935
. per cent
Eslimate t e power output of the installation. .

SOLUTIONS
4

Exercise 1.1 Equa~ing head, flow and power coefficients for the model and
OL-_----'---_----I._ _.L.-_----'---_----1_ _-'--_----'--_----' protot~pe and notmg that the density of the fluid remains the same, then, if
o 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 subscnpt 1 refers to the prototype and subscript 2 to the model,
Volume flow rate, Q x 10 3 (m 3 Is)
PI Pz
Figure 1.14 N 3D5 = N3D5
PI I 1 pz Z Z
where PI = pz
Then
If an entry pressure of 60 kPa is obtained at the point where the normal ambient condition mass
flow would be 65 kgfs, calculate the mass flow obtained in the test.
1.4 Specifications for an axial flow coolant pump for one loop of a pressurized water nuclear
reactor are:
Head 85m
Flow rate 20ooom 3 jh
Speed 1490 rpm
Diameter 1200mm
Water density 714kg/m 3
Power 4 MW (electrical) Also
The manufacturer plans to build a model. Test conditions limit the available electric power to
500 kWand flow to 0.5 m 3 Is' of cold water. If the model and prototype efficiencies are assumed
equal, find the head, speed and scale ratio of the model. Calculate the dimensionless specific speed
of the prototype and confirm that it is identical with the model. Then
1.5 A pump with an available driven speed of 800 rpm is required to overcome a 1.83 m head
while pumping 0.2 m 3 Is. What type of pump is required and what power is required? Dz= (Hz )1/Z(N 1) = (2)I/Z(N1)
1.6 A reservoir has a head of 40 m and a channel leading from the reservoir permits a flow rate of
D1 HI Nz 14 Nz
34m 3 /s. If the rotational speed of the rotor is 150 rpm, what is the most suitable type of turbine to Therefore equating the diameter ratios
use? .
1.7 A large centrifugal pump contains liquid whose kinematic viscosity may vary between 3 and 6
times that of water. The dimensionless specific speed of the pump is 0.183 rev and it is to discharge (N
. Nz
1
0.266 _ )3/5 (5 )1/Z(N )
= _
14
_1
Nz
2m 3 /s of liquid against a total head of 15m. Determine the range of speeds and test heads for a
one-quarter scale model investigation of the full size pump if the model uses water.
1.8 In a projected low-head hydroelectric scheme, 10 000 ft3 Is of water are available under a head N )Z/5
of 12 ft. Alternative schemes to use Francis turbines having a specific speed of 105 rpm or Kaplan I ( N~ = 2.25
 INTRODUCTION 25
24 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOMACHINES

and diameter D are dropped to yield Eq . (1 .14). C onsl'd'

enng filfSt t he speed
whence parameter,
N 2 = 2.25 5/2 x 95
N1 N2
Model speed = 721.4 rpm
)T01 = )T02
2
D = 0.266 (~)3/5
D1 721.4
N = 4500(273 + 25 )1 /2
2 273+15
Model scale ratio = 0.079 Correct speed = 4577 rpm

. Power output Considering now the mass flow parameter,

M o d eI effilClency = ----~-
Water power input
3 m1)Tol = m2)To2
0.9 = 40 x 10 POI P02
pgQH
Q= 40 X 10
3 m2 = 65 x (~)(288)1/2
101.3 298 .
0.9 X 103 'x 9.81 x'5
Mass flow obtained = 37.85 kg/s
3
Model volume flow = 0.906m /s
Exercise 1.4 Using Eq. (1.5), equate the head pow'er and flow coefficients for
Exercise 1.2 Assuming dynamic similarity exists between the first and second the model and prototype. Then
sized pumps, we equate the flow coefficients. Thus
Q1 Q2
NIDi = N2D~ or

2.83 _ Q2
N1_( 20000 )(D 2)3
N2 - 0.5 x 3600 D1
2000 X 127 3 - 2200 X 102 3

Solving we get
Q2 = 1.611/s Also
= 11.11 (~: r
From Fig. 1.14 at Q1 = 2.831/s (2.83 x 10- 3m 3/s) and 2000 rpm the head HI is
14 m and equating head coefficients for both cases gives
;: =(~:r(~:r(::)
Substitute for (N Ii N 2); then
gH l gH 2
N 21 D21 = N 2D2
2 2
~ = (11.11)3 (D
0.5
2
D1
)9 (D 1)5 (~)
D2 1000
and substituting
9.81 x 14 9.81 x H 2 D 2)4 8
(2000 X 127)2 - (2200 x 102? ( D1 =(11.l1)3 x O.714

Solving we get Scale ratio D2 /D 1 = 0.3

H 2 = 10.9 m of water hen
1\1 II.". _ 1 1 1 1 ~ ({\ 1\3
~r

, 26 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE fLOW TURBOMACHINES INTRODUCTION 27

'i.
Also supplied to the shaft we divide by the efficiency.
Shaft power required = 3.59/0.80
Shaft power = 4.49 kW
Exercise 1.6 We have

Turbine power = pgQH

= 1000 x 9.81 x 34 x 40
= 13.3 MW
From Eq. (1.16) the dimensionless specific speed is given by Power specific speed is given by Eq. (1.20)
NQl/2
Np 1 / 2
N s = (gH)3/4 N sp = -p'-:I/"'2(-'--g--::-H-)~5/C74
For the prototype 150 x (13.3 x 10 6 )1/2
=2n x 1490 x (20000)1/2(_1_)3/4(~)3/4 60 X (1000)1/2 x (9.81 X 40)5/4
N s1 60 3600 9.81 85
= 0.165 rev (1.037 rad)
= 2.37 rad
Fhro~ ~ig. 1..10 it is. see? that the Francis turbine would be the most suitable
1490 (0.5)1/2 c Olce Jor thiS applIcatIOn.
N s2 = 2n x 60 x 3.3 x (9.81 x 85)3/4
Exerci~e ~.7 Since the viscosity of the liquids used in the model and prototype
= 2.35 rad vary sl~m?c~ntl~. equality of Reynolds n~mber in Eq. (1.5) must apply for
dynam~c similarIty. Let subscripts 1 and 2 apply to the prototype and model
Therefore taking rounding errors into account the dimensionless specific respectIvely.
speeds of both model and prototype are the same. Equating Reynolds number

NIDi = N2D~
Exercise 1.5 From Eq. (1.16) VI V2
NQl/2
N s = (gH)3/4 N 2 = V 2 (D 1 )2
N1 VI D2
800 (0.2)1/2
=-x--:....~-"""";;""77 For the liquid with viscosity three times that of water
60 (9.81 X 1.83)3/4
N2 42
= 0.683 rev (4.29 rad) N =3= 5.333
I
For the given flow rate Fig. 1.8 shows that a propeller or axial flow pump is Equating flow coefficients
required and that an efficiency of about 80 per cent can be expected. Therefore QI Q2
the power required is NIDi = N2D~
P=pgQH Q2 = N2(D 2)3
= 1000 x 9.81 x 0.2 x 1.83 Ql Nj Dj
= 3.59kW j,..
5.333
.-orr;,c Ie... .\-1/\ n 'iX\.~i.?i" rlt)r.~i"vollh~-i.::.)~:t.<>::"At3\1lt l1
t hp rOwp.r th~t must be
= --.tJ = 0.0833
28 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOMACHINES INTRODUCTION 29

Equating head coefficients Dimensionless specific speed of Francis turbine

= 105/42
= 2.5rad

Z:=(Z:Y(~:Y Dimensionless specific speed of Kaplan turbine

= 180/42
= C;3Y = 1.776
= 4.3rad

From Eq. (1.16) These values may be checked against those values in Fig. 1.10.
N lQ~/2 Converting to SI units
N S1 = (gH 1)3/4 10 000 ft3 Is = 283.17 m 3Is
0.183(9.81 x 15)3/4 12ft=3.66m
N1= 21/ 2
Power delivered
Turbine efficiency
= 5.47 revls Power available
N 2 = 5.47 x 5.33 P
Model speed = 29.16 revls 0.9=--
pgQH
Q2 = 2 x 0.0833 P = 0.9 x 1000 x 283.17 x 3.66 x 9.81
Model flow rate = 0.166 m 3 = 9150kW

H 2 = 15 x 1.776 This is the total power delivered by all the turbines.

Now
Model head = 26.67 m ':

where N is in revls
Similarly for the case when the prototype viscosity is six times that of
water
For the Francis turbine
N 2 = 14.58 revls
I
50 x 2 x n x p 1 / 2
H 2 =6.67m 2.5 = -=-=-----,-,.---::-::-~:;;_:_---~
I 60 x (1000)1/2(9.81 X 3.66)5/4

For one-quarter scale model whence

14.58 <model speed < 29.16rev/s p= 1761 kW
6.67 m < model head < 26.67 m N urn ber 0 f F ranCIS
. b' Total power required
tur mes= ---::::---=-------=-:-:--
Power per machine
9150
Exercise 1.8 The dimensionless specific speed is obtained from the conversion =--
factors for specific speed given in Sec. 1.5. In this case for the non-SI units used 1761 I
:I
NtZ,7)= SPI42
r=====================--------r----------. ii

30 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOMACHINES

For the Kaplan turbine

CHAPTER
50 x 2 x 1t X pl/2
4.3 = 60 x (1000)1/2(9.81 X 3.66)5/4 TWO
whence HYDRAULIC PUMPS
p= 5209.7kW
9150
Number of Kaplan turbines = 5209.7.

= 1.76 (say 2)

Exercise 1.9 From Eq. (1.16) for dimensionless specific speed

NQ1/2
Ns = (gH)3/4 rev
2 x 1t x 980 X 0.283 1/2 d
- ra
- 60 x (9.81 X 9.1)3/4
2.1 INTRODUCTION
= 1.88 rad

The term 'hydraulics' is defined as the science of the conveyance of liquids

Referring to Fig. 1.10 it is seen that axial flow pumps only begin at a through pipes. Most of the theory applicable to hydraulic pumps has been
dimensionless specific speed of approximately 2.0 rad. It is therefore unlikely derived using water as the fluid medium but this by no means precludes the use
that the salesman's claims are realistic. of other liquids. Two types of pumps commonly used are centrifugal and axial
A suitable pump would be of the mixed flow type which gives the stated flow types, so named because of the general nature of the fluid flow through the
efficiency at the required flow rate and calculated dimensionless specific speed. impeller. Both work on the principle that the energy of the liquid is increased
by imparting tangential acceleration to it as it flows through the pump. This
Exercise 1.10 Using Fig. 1.9 the Francis turbine has an efficiency of 93.5 per energy is supplied by the impeller, which in turn is driven by an electric motor
cent at a dimensionless specific speed of 2.0 rad. From Eq. (1.20) the or some other drive. In order to impart tangential acceleration to the liquid,
dimensionless power specific speed is rows of curved vanes or blades move transversely through it and the liquid is
Npl/2 pushed sideways as it moves over the vanes as well as retaining its original
N sp = pl/2(gH)5/4 forward component of velocity. Figure 1.1 showed typical centrifugal and
axial flow pump impellers, while between these two extremes lie mixed flow
whence pumps, which are a combination of centrifugal and axial flow pumps, part of
pl/2 = 2.0 X (1000)1/2 x (9.81 X 146)5/4 x 60 the liquid flow in the impeller being axial and part radial.
The centrifugal and axial flow pumps will be dealt with in turn in the
180 x 2 x 1t
following sections. However, before considering the operation of each type in
= 29 563 detail, we will look at a general pumping system, which is common to both
types. This is shown in Fig. 2.1 where a pump (either axial or centrifugal)
and
pumps liquid from a low to a high reservoir. .
P=874MW .. At any point in the system, the pressure, elevation and velocity can be
',hpressed in terms of a total head measured from a datum line. For the lower
',.1_ .
~\2 I-IYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOMACHINES HYDRAULIC PUMPS 33

. h_'o~ 0

.--__+- --==,..E. ~hout Pump total inlet head = pi/po + Vf /2g + ZI

F +-.--==:::::::::=4-1 Pump total outlet head = Po/PO + V~/2g + Zo
i.1 dlld Iwud developed by pump = [(Po - Pi)/ pg] + [(V; - Vf)/2g] + (Zo - Z,)
=H (2.1)
Total energy line

~
lltlil il' I he head that would be used in Eq. (1.12) for determining the type of
UP Iltnl Nhould be selected, and the term 'manometric head' is often used.
'>111111' h\;ad 11 s is the vertical distance between the two levels in the
\1111 Ii iI ud rrom Fig. 2.1 it can be seen that for the pipeline
/I
11 = 11. + ~::tosses
1/"
= H. + hfi + hCII + h,n + houl
h nol ing here that, for the same size inlet and outlet diameters , V0
jq \Vlll't
Ihe same, and in practice (Zo - Zl) is so small in compariso\;l to (Po
I"

'V lIulI il is ignored. It is therefore not surprising to find that the'static

IInld 1Il.:ross the pump is often used to describe the total head
II liv llw pnlllp. .

c )~N l'UWII(iAL PUMPS

1/...

,_ _-:L Datum -L ~ ..,..~

t,
li'illllr~ 2.1 Diugram of a pumping system
thI: free surface above the datum line since the velocity and slalk IJIIlI
pn;ssure at A are zero. The liquid enters the intake pipl: clIusing lh,) Iwad 1'1~~
"III' with the result that the total hcad line drops to point n, As the null! fh,wJ!'
l'nllll the intake to the inlelilangli of the pump at elevation hi' the 101111 Ill\llr1:.
f4hll\VN till: three important parts of a centrifugal pump: (1) the
1111' vollll\: casing and (3) the diffuser ring.
,lIljlliWI IN oplional and mayor may not be present in a particular
(,(,jld 1111\ npnn I he size and cost of the pump, The impeller is a rotating
:\,\iHh III i vl~d blades sla nding out verlically from the face ofthe disc.
fH lilt bllldl'l' arc SOlllclillles covered by another flat disc to give
IJ!/Hdwi, ullw!wisL'. I he bladc tips are left open and the casing of the
l!Jolin'. I hl' .'illliil olilcr wall or Ihe blade passages. The advantage of
.'"II.hh!l1 iii Iltal nl)W i.s prevented from leaking across blade tips
HIl!\1iI1lI 1,f\ 1\1 a 1Ii11 11 ..'1'. As Iltl: impeller rotates, the fluid that is drawn

"rop~l further 10 the point (~dlle to pipe friction lind other losst:s "II'
Thl'.lhlUi
\'lIkni the PUIllP lind ,'nenw is imparled to it. whkh rllism; tI\( InIal IIl~f\l,1 hl
poinl I> lit the pllmp oulh:\. I"lowing 1'1'(11) the (11101(1 oul!cl II' till' II I'll", ,
n'i1,'rvoil'. l'ril.:tion lind otl\('1' losfR~s ";1':';1111111 for n Illtal IWlId IOWI "Iii
dllWII Itt
1111 1111 H. wlwn fill ,"xii IlHm h"111 ot:nlrs wlwll I.hl\ lIquid "1111'111 tl\l' IIt1PF"
lI"II'lvl~il.llI'ill,iIlH 111i' tlltlll !I,'od Ht till' llpper l'l,m'IVI"1 1r11'IIillt I" 1I111H' Iii'\-
.-1I11l11 (',.
11'1111' Plllill' j,llnl Ilth'l I(ld plllh'l IWl!h liP: 1I11.~i"illll11 nl till' IlIh'l ,,,III
! Pll~qll.',\~ al 1111' iuqll:lkl' inlet or eye is accelerated as it is forced
..P'"".",," III 1111:, WHY, tht ~latic pressure at the outer radius is much
III ill! ('\'\' illll,1 I'lIdills.
1111" Ii Vf'l V111//,11 vdocity at the outer radius of the impeller, and, to
llll,'l\l 1"\l'II\Y hy rhannill/l, it inlo presslll'c energy, diffuser blades
II diflllhJ.l tillp, lIIay hI' IIS\~\1. TIlt: stalionary blade passages so
\nlilil llll"li Ig ,'llJ'W ~i('t.'1 l(llllli a !'I'll :1,': I h~~ !lllid moves throllgh
I.IHI ~!y !II IIw Ihdd being, "dlll;l'd Ivhill' t h\l I'I'CSSlll'\l l'IWI'/',.v is

null,'! I1HlIlltllt 1l'~IWttlvHy, whil'lI iH wilmll" IIII' IUIII.' hil' l\ rllHllll1l1i1lH11I11i IlliI, VlliIL.k'l," di.llll/Wl i'il'.r;nl~l"{ III IV al!1tl hI' \dilil'.nl.
 ................. I Ott .' 'I'll' '1\1/\1 11I1""lt;"t
HYDRAULIC PUMPS 35

Stationar} y
diffuser
vanes v, = C, (radial velocity of fluid)

Diffuser ----lll---i

VII = Cx (tangential

\ - _......... ~ "locity of "ld)

z
With diffuser

Volute v, "= C.
(axial velocity of fluid) -"-----1~

Wilhout dilTuser
1i11~lIn' 2.2 Centrifugal pump components

Finally, the fluid moves from the diffuser blades into the volute casing,
which collects it and conveys it to the pump outlet. Sometimes only the volute
I:llsing exists without the diffuser; however, some pressure recovery will take
place in the volute casing alone,
In dealing with the theory of hydraulic pumps, a number of assumptions
will be made. At any point within the blade passages the fluid velocity will
in I',eneral have three components, one each in the axial, radial and angular
lIil'm.:lions as indicated in Fig. 2.3.
The velocity may then be written as a function of the three components
V = f(r, (J, z)
IllIwlwel'. we will assume that the following hold:
'1'111"'1' arc an infinite number of blades so closely spaced that oVjo(J = O.
I'hlll is, Ihere is no flow in the blade passage in the tangential direction and
1'1 Il,
t TIII~ impeller blades are infinitely thin, thus allowing the pressure difference
m'l'oss them, which produces torque, to be replaced by tangential forces
I ha I act on the fluid.
I, Thl: velocity variation across the width or depth of the impeller is zero and
hence avjt7: = O.
4. The analysis will be confined t8 conditions at the impeller inlet and outlet,
and to the :lIl~~lIlar momentum change between these two stalions. No
accounl is takl:ll of Ihe condition of (he lluid hctwcen thl:fw (WII fltlilillns.
Figure 2.3 Cylindrical ccoordinates for a centrifugal pump
5. It is assumed that: at inlet the fluid is moving radially after entering the eye of
the pump.
Assumptions I and 2 mean that the velocity is a function of t~e radius only,
V = f(r), and now wiith these assumptions the velocity vectors at mlet and ~utlet
of the impeller can lbe drawn and the theoretical energy transfer ~eter~med,
Figure 2.4 showfs a centrifugal pump impeller with the .veiocity. trIangles
d rawn at inlet and ow tlet. The blades are curved between the mlet radlus r 1 and
outlet radius r2' a palrticle of fluid moving along the broken curve shown. PI is
lhe angle subtendedl by the !blade at inlet, measured from the tangent to the
inlet radius, while P: 2 is the blade angle measured from the t.angent at outlet.
The lluid enters the: blade passages with an absolute velOCity C 1 and at an
angle IX I to the impelller inlet tangential velocity vector U l' whe~e U 1 = ~r l' W
heing the angular v(elocity (])f the impeller. The resultant relatIve velocl~y of
nnw into the hladc: passage is WI at an angle p't to the tangent at mlet.
Similarly al outlet tLhe rclallive velocity vector is W2 at angle P~ from t~e
lall/w nl 10 Ihe hlader. By slIblra 'Iing the impeller outlet tangentIal velOCIty
vr,'lp, II" I Ill' :Ih',,,hlilc vdo "ily vl.:(lllr C." is oblailll.:d, thiS bCl1lgsl.:l al angle (X2
1'1'11111 till" '(:1111" 'III tlllllll' l'lnlk', IIIK }i('I'lIlhal llll: bhllk angks:11 inlet amI outlet
lin 11(11 1"1'.:11 ,It.- II'I;I,IIIV\' 11,,'\\1 "III',k:, ,II fIlh" :\11" (111111" 'I'hi~ i~ I'llI' a gl:lwral
I 1:'1', Jlml ,mil"," ( "'I' t'.11 I'11.,SI'('
III I '\.l" lVI'," '.11.111" I V,I"1' I I) , II will III' a:INlIlIll'd
 !!A'l2. Ihllll\' 1!I 01 11/', IIWI'I.::illl'llIk, 1\',' II'~ I (,.' },/I((.:osrx, then

l: elL W/2. Wi~1 <.'f)/2

r
/It(', ClISCX, (1/';

.... -- /I.~('l.COS(x],: :(U~ - W~ + q)/2

( "
W. II1Iti !lIlltntillllin/'. illto I(q. (2.3) gives
~'~, Cr.
/.: ,I IU:;- Un + (C~ - Cn + (WI - W~)]/2g (2.4)
'I'lli' lenlls ill I~q, (2.4) may now be examined in turn.
( ';. ( ..;- )/20 represents the increase of kinetic energy of the fluid across
I
(Ill: impeller, (ll i .U T)/2y represents the energy used in setting the fluid into
I I'irrutur motion anout the impeller axis and (WI - W~)/2g is the gain of static
I
Iwud due to II reduction of the relative velocity within the impeller. The flow
I

I I'ul\: is
I Q = 2nr l Crlb l = 2nr 2 Cr2 b2
I

/
'0
,
I when: ('r is the radial component of the absolute velocity and is perpendicular
(ll Ihe langent at inlet and outlet while b is the width of the blade (in the z
din:ction). It is usually the case that C I = Crl and hence (X,I = 90. In this case
( "I ': 0, where C., I is the component of the inlet absolute velocity vector
rc1solved into the tangential direction. W" and C" are often respectively called
111\: relative and absolute whirl components of velocity. When PI = p/I , this
is referred to as the 'no-shock condition' at entry. In this case the fluid moves
tungentially onto the blade. When P2 = P2 there is no fluid slip at the exit.

Fl,:ure 2.4 Velocity triangles for centrifugal pump impeller l ..l SLIP FACTOR

II was stated in the previous section that the angle at which the fluid leaves the
that the inlet and outlet blade angles are equal to their corresponding relative impdler, {/2' may not be the same as the actual blade angle P2' This is due to
flow angles. lIuid slip, and it occurs in both centrifugal pumps and centrifugal compressors,
Fr.om EUle~'s pu.mp equat~on (Eq. (1.25, the work done per second on lind manifests itself as a reduction in C"2 in the Euler pump equation. One
I he fluid per umt weight of fluid flowing is llxpillnation for slip is that of the relative eddy hypothesis.
Figurc 2.5 shows the pressure distribution built up in the impeller
E = W/mg= (U 2 C"2 - U I C"l)/g (J/s per N/s or m) (2.2) !iussllg 'S <I lie t() the motion of the blades. On the leading side of a blade there is
where C" is the component ofabsolute velocity in the tangential direction. E is u high-prcssllrc region while on the trailing side of the blade there is a low-
often referred to as the Euler head and represents the ideal or theoretical head pressure rcgion, the pressure changing across the blade passage. This pressure
developed by the impeller only. dislrihution is similar to that about an aerofoil in a free stream and is likewise
Now IIssodated with thc existence of a circulation around the blade, so that on the
low"IH'C~ISIIl'(' sid\' I he lluid vc!odty is increased while on the high-pressure side
and it ih dl'\'("I';ISl'd, and a non-uniform velocity distribution results at any radius.
Thus 11II1t'I,d, thl' now may separate from the suction surface of the blade. The mean
din'\'jipil 01 tllIl flllw Ieavin/l the impellcr is lhcrcfore {I~ and not fJ2 as is
E = (U 2 C 2 cos (X,2 - U Ie; i cos IX dig r J) ll','ilillll'd ill Ihr 1'.l'lll idip hillialiilil. Thus e'l, is l'l:dUCl:d to (':"2 and the
I
... 11"tH,,I,.,- 1\1"11" "MII(.I'.."':;IIII.I~ "'I,()W TURDOMACHINES HYDRAULIC PUMPS 39

U2 2elsin /1 2

:~
Cr2

Ideal
i'lI'lual
['
\
~W2
\
lCr2
C: 2

.- .-
, ,, Relative eddy

x'
, " C2
,,
,
,-
,

Figure 2.6 The relative eddy between impeller blades

blades is 2nr2/Z if we have Z blades of negligible thickness. This may be

approximated to 2e/sin /32 and upon rearrangement
e = (nr 2/Z) sin /32
liC" = (U 2/Zr2)(nr2 sin /32)
1(1,:111'1' 25 Slip and velocity distribution in centrifugal pump impeller blades
= (U 2 n sin /32)/Z
Now referring ba::k to Fig. 2.5 for the no-slip condition
dilll'n'lln~ I\C" is defined as the slip. Slip factor is defined as
C"2 = U 2- Cr2 cot /32
Slip factor = C~2/C"2 = CT. (2.5)
~.Ipdllllli proposed the existence of a relative eddy within the blade and substituting into Eq. (2.5) gives
l'.l!,;.j"('~, ilS shown iIi Fig. 2.6. He proposed that if a frictionless fluid passes Slip factor = (C"2 -IiC,,)/C"2
I hI 1Ill/' Ii I hr blade passages it will, by definition, have no rotation; therefore at
I hI 1111111'1 or the passage rotation should be zero. Now the impeller has an
=I - liC,,/C"2
11111'111.11 velocity w so that relative to the impeller the fluid must have an = 1- (U 2n sin /32)/[Z(U 2- Cr2 cot /32)]
1I11~\\Ildl velocity -w in the blade passages to comply with the zero-rotation
= 1-(nsin/32)/{Z[1-(Cr2 /U 2 )cotP2]} (2.6)
1111111 it it HI. If the radius ofa circle that may be inscribed between two successive
1,I"dn.at outlet and at a tangent to the surfaces of both blades is e, then the slip I'lli' purely radial hlades, which are often found in a centrifugal
Hl I',iwlI hy will he 90" and the Stodola slip factor becomes
nJlllpI'CSSIII'. /1.1,

liC,,= we (I' n/Z (2.7)

N

NIIW tlw impeller circumference is 7.11'1',. IIl1d thercnll \' IIJI' II lstance hetween
range LV" < /1 2 < 30". Other slip l'al..:(\ll's ani IIllllll'd ,1111, IIII'll 1111111'

as = [A - B(C r2 /U 2 )cotI1 2 J/l.1 (e '" ..! t ' . )I'lil/I"I (.~.Hl

where A and B are functions of P2' Z and I'l/I',. alld lll'l~ ill's I IIsed ill IlllJ
range 30 < P2 < 80. The Stanitz"3 slip facti>r givcn by
as = I - 0.63n/{ Z[1 - (C r 2/ U 2) cot 11 2 ] } (2.9)
is best used in the range 80 < P2 < 90.
1,',iIlill\"I1t1w 1",lwI'I'1I
When applying a slip factor, the Euler pump equation (Eq. (1.25
"llId, IIl1d \'111I11111, .,
becomes
W/m=a.u2CX2-U1CXl (2.10)
1"It~III" l:1 1.I'IIklll',l1 IIlld rocirculalioll ill a cClIlrirugal pump
Typically, slip factors lie in the region of 0.9, while slip occurs even if the nuid is
ideal.
II:l:1III:ialed wilh the now rate Qi through the impeller, and so the impeller
2.4 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTICS 1'"\\1('1' loss is expressed as

In Sec. 1.3 dimensionless groups were used to e<press the power, head and flow Pi = pgQihi \> (2.11)
relationships for a hydraulic machine, A well-disigned pump should operate at IllIw,wel'. while the now through the impeller is Qi> this is not the flow through
or near the design point and hence near its maximum efficiency, but the Iltr \llItkl 01' inlet nange of the machine. The pressure difference between
engineer is often required to know how the pimp will perform at off-design IIl\l'dlel' lip and eye Can cause a recirculation ofa small volume of fluid q, thus
conditions. For instance, the head against whic1 the pump is operating may be Il'dlld nl!. the now rate at outlet to Q as shown in Fig. 2.7, and then
decreased, resulting in an increase in mas! flow rate. However, before
(2.12)
examining this aspect of off-design performal ce , we will look at the losses
occurring in a pump and the differing efficiencid to which these losses give rise, II' /II is the total head across the impeller, then a leakage power loss can be
whether or not the pump is working at the desijn point. We will then examine ddined as
the effects of working at the off-design conditpn.
P1=pgHiq (Nm/s) (2.13)
hl'J:I(ion (2,12) shows that when the discharge valve of the pump is closed,
2.4.1 Pump Losses
Iltl'll Ihe leakage now rate attains its highest value.
The shaft power, P s or energy that is suppli& to the pump by the prime In 110wing from the impeller outlet to the pump outlet flange, a further
mover is not the same as the energy received 'y the liquid. Some energy is hl\ad loss he lakes place in the diffuser and collector, and since the flow rate
dissipated as the liquid passes through the m~hine and the mechanism of Illll'l\ is Q. then a casing power loss may be defined as
this loss can be split up into the following div,ions.
Pc = pgQh c (N m/s) (2.14)
I. Mechanical friction power loss, Pm due to fiction between the fixed and
rotating parts in the bearing and stuffing b<Kes. Summing Ihese losses gives
2. Disc friction power loss, Pi due to friction befieen the rotating faces of the p. = Pm + pg(hlQi + heQ + H1q + QH) (2.15)
impeller (or disc) and the liquid.
whnl' Ihe IIllal head delivered by the pump is defined as in Fig. 2.1 and
3. Leakage and recirculation power loss, PI du to a loss of liquid from the
pump or recirculation of the liquid in the iJi'Cller. Jo'q. (;1.1 I.
A IIl1ll1hl:r or cflidl'l\l'i,'s are associated with these losses:
4. Casing power loss, Pc
1"llIid Ill.wrl developed by pUinp
Impeller power loss is caused by an energy (head loss hi jn the impeller
due to disc friction, flow separation and shock ~ impeller entry. This IlIss is Shllil power input
 or
Yfo = pgQH/Ps
ffi' Fluid power at casing outlet
C asmg e IClency = -=~-~....----:-----:--_
Fluid power at casing inlet /\ II ,I fj

Fluid power at casing outlet

==-:----:-:-----:--':----:-:----:--:=:----=~;----=-
Fluid power developed by impeller - Leakage loss ,."
f I

or I~I 'Iscl'ul Iluid power

" H Hi
'1c = pgQH/pgQH i = H/H j (2.17)
OJ
I~I

Fluid power at impeller exit '~

I mpe II er effiIClency = =:---:-:-----_~---_ ..l
Fluid power supplied to impeller
M L
- h.
Fluid power at impeller exit I K Casing loss 5% G
Fluid power developed by impeller + Impeller loss Impeller loss 5% hj
or F
'1i = pgQjHi/[pgQi(H i + hi)] = Hd(H i + hd (2.18) Mechanical loss 10%
C
. ffi' Flow rate through pump 3
Flow rale (m /s)
Va1umetnc e IClency = ;:;;----~--;'-;--'----:-:=_
Flow rate through impeller
IIUII' 2.M Losses in a centrifugal pump
or
'1. = Q/(Q + q) (2.19) III\1 loss lo be accounted for is the leakage loss pgHiq represented by rectangle
. I ffi . Fluid power supplied to the impeller III K I, and finally the casing loss pghcQ represented by rectangle MLGK is
M ec h amca e IClency = ----=------:-"-'=--_-:------:----:--=--_ If lIIoved. This leaves us with rectangle JBLM, which represents the fluid
Power input to the shaft
or ll'l\vcr output or power developed by the pump pgQH.
(2.20)
Therefore
1.>'1.1 The Characteristic Curve
'10 = '1c'1i'1.'1m (2.21)
hdl'r's pump equation (Eq. (1.25)) gives the theoretical head developed by the
A hydraulic efficiency may be defined as
11"1111', hUl ifit is assumed that there is no whirl component of velocity at entry
Actual head developed by pump lIH 1\ ('\'I = 0 and the actual theoretical head developed is
'1H = Theoretical head developed by' impeller E = U 2Cx2/g = (Hi + hi) (2.23)
,
(2.22) ilud if slip is accounted for, Eq. (2.23) becomes
where the theoretical head (Hi + hi) is that obtained from Euler's equation EN = u.E = u.(H j + hi) (2.24)
(Eq. (1.25)) and '1H = '11'1c'
Figure 2.8 shows how each of the power losses are subtracted from the Cx2 = U2 - Wx2
initial input power. The rectangle OABC represents the total power input to
the shaft while OADEFC is equivalent to the mechanical power loss. The =U 2 - Cr2 cot f32
impeller loss pgQih; is next removed and is represented by rectangle EFGI. The . U z -(Q/A)COtf32
 .,,".. , ,,,,,. ,"',......,1'11,", l'I.\lW IlJl(UUMI\CHINES
HYDRAULIC PUMPS 4S

according to
hshock = K 3 (Q - QD)2 (2.27)
where QD is the design flow rate. The friction losses are accounted for in the
'. form
Slip
'.'. hr = K 4 Q2 (2.28)
.... '.
'"
E Equations (2.27) and (2.28) are plotted in Fig. 2.9 and the sum of them is
Hydraulic .. ,. '" subtracted from the curve of Eq. (2.26) to give the final characteristic. This
losses
". ......
'" curve is called the head-flow characteristic of the pump.
H '" '"
Final characteristic EN = Err,
2.4.3 Effect of Flow Rate Variation
I
A pump is usually designed to run at a fixe,d speed with a design head and flow ~ 'I
rate and these conditions would normally occur at the maximum efficiency I

point. However, it is not always the case in practice that the operating point
lies at the d~sign point. This may be due to a pipeline being partially blocked, a
valve jammtfd partially closed or poor matching of the pump tQ the piping ~I
--- system. Also in general a variable-speed motor is not available to correct for r
---- any deviation from the design condition, so that in what follows it is assumed
that the speed of the pump remains constant. I
Figure 2.10 shows the velocity diagrams that pertain for three possible
Figure 2.9 Centrifugal pump characteristic flow rates: normal design flow rate, increased flow rate and decreased flow rate.
When the flow rate changes, C,2 changes, and since V 2 is constant and the
blade outlet angle fJ2 is constant (assuming fJ2 = fJ2)' the magnitude of W 2 and
where A is the flow area at the periphery of the impeller and C, is perpendicular
to it. Thus from Eq. (2.23) the energy per unit weight of flow becomes
(:2 must change along with the angle (X2' Since the effective energy transfer E
depends on C"2' then E will change accordingly. Thus a reduction in Qgives an
r
increase in C"2' while an increase in Qgives a reduction in C"2' It follows that, !
E = U 2[V 2 - (Q/ A) cot fJ2]/g should the head against which the pump operates be momentarily increased, E
and therefore C"2 increase and Q decreases to give the new operating point at
lind since V 2, fJ2 and A are constants, then the increased head. Similarly a reduction in the operating head gives an
E = K 1 - K 2Q (2.25) incrcase in Q.
lIlIdthis equation may be plotted as the straight line shown in Fig. 2.9.
If slip is taken into account, it is seen from Eq. (2.9) that as C,2 increases
IllId hence Q) then (Ts decreases, thus reducing the value of E in Eq. (2.25) to

EN = (K 1 - K 2 Q)(Ts (2.26)
'rhc loss due to slip can occur in both a real and an ideal fluid, but in a real
!Il1id account must also be taken Qfthe shock losses at entry to the blades, and
I he friction losses in the casing and impeller vanes, or indeed at any point
where the fluid is in contact with a solid surface of the pump. At the design
pointlhe shock losses are zero since the fluid would move tangentially onto the
hladc. but on either side of the design point the head loss due to shock increases lil,,,,", UU III~II ..I lI1'w !J0I1 Vlllil1lhlll 1111 111111,'1 Vl'llIdly
 .1.I.II",\UL1'-- "UIYIr'':' ... ,

"
" 'lf~ ". .. {, I

1- :
T ~ ..." /(:,~~
IV
1/

_________ H
.. --- H = a+bQ (fJr > 90)

= a (fJr = 90)

VI
.------ H = a-bQ (fJr < 90)
VI
Design flow Increased flow ,.
1/

Iil,:nn' 2.11 ElTcct of now rate variation on inlet velocity

i\llhc inlet the effect of flow rate change is to cause eddies on the suction
Q
surface of the blade for a reduced flow rate and on the pressure surface of the
hlade for an increased flow rate. The design condition is the 'no-shock' Ilin llre 2.13 Thcorctical characteristics for varying outlet blade angle
rlltlllilion, which corresponds to the flow Qo in Fig. 2.9. The corresponding
Vdllcity diagrams can be seen in Fig. 2.11. In all cases it is assumed that Cx1 is
",~~rll.
Writing E as a head,
H=a-bQ (2.29)
-"
2.4.4 l~ffect of Blade Outlet Angle and for pumps #2 typically lies between 15 and 90.

The characteristic curve will also be affected by the blade angle at outlet, the ('/lSI' (;;). Radial blades, {32 = 90
I hree types of blade settings being backward-facing, forward-facing and radial H=a (2.30)
hlades. Figure 2.12 shows clearly the velocity triangles for each case with
(',\'1 ' : O.
Forward-facing
I'. /I
( '/IS(' (i). Backward-facing blades, fJ2 < 90 .
Cx2 = U 2 - C,2 cot fJ2
'I'hercfore
E = U2(U 2 - C,2 cot fJ2)/g
Ill'
E = (UVg) - (QU 2 cot fJ2/gA)

Vr v2
Wr wr
cr Cz
/1r < 90

1llll'kwIII'd HIIIIIIII Forward

"'"rwurdlnp.. fllcing vanes Radial vanes BackwllnHi,,!tI/1 vllnes Q

1"llllrt.].. a.1 AI'llIill,11I1I'h",lrtll"110" \'III\ltlV I,hul.""tll-\ un",11l

1+'11\11... 2.12 t \lIltrifugal pump outlet velocity triangles for varyin/\ "hull- 111111, I 11.1\
11 1
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _--:=-.::-
.. ::-:
...7:.. ~.-:-.~
... " I' 1l\. .."tvl/\L.... INE:S
HYDRAULIC PUMPS 49

i '" ...... ( iii), "III'WIII'Ii II II' i II/" VII III'''', 11 2 > 90

If;; a + bQ (2.31)
whcl'c 112 would be typically 140" for a multi-bladed centrifugal fan,
These equations arc plolled in Fig. 2.13 as characteristics and they revert
III their more recognized curved shapes (for the reasons previously discussed)
as shown in Fig. 2.14.
For both radial and forward-facing blades the power is rising cont-
inuously as the flow rate is increased. In the case of backward-facing vanes the
Impeller
maximum efficiency occurs in the region of maximum power, and if, for some
reason, Q increases beyond Qo, this results in a power decrease and therefore
the motor used to drive the pump may be safely rated at the maximum power.
This is said to be a self-limiting characteristic. In the case of the radial and Volute of
Figure 2.15 Simple volute or
forward-facing vanes, if the pump motor is rated for maximum power, then it y - - - - increasing
cross section scroll collector
will be under-utilized most of the time, and extra cost will have been incurred
rill' the extra rating, whereas if a smaller motor is employed rated at the design
point, then if Q increases above Qo the motor will be overloaded and may fail. where P = radial force (N), H = head (m), D 2 = peripheral diame~e~ (m), B~ =
II therefore becomes more difficult to decide on a choice of motor for these impeller width (m) and K = constant determined from the followmg equation
laller cases. for a particular value of Q:
K =0.36[1 - (Q/QO)2] (2.33)
2.5 FLOW IN THE DISCHARGE CASING A cross section of the volute casing is shown in Fig. 2.16. The circul~r
section is adopted to reduce the losses due to friction and impact ~hen th~ flut.d
The discharge casing is that part of the casing following the impeller outlet. It
hits the casing walls on exiting from the impeller. Of the avatlable kInetic
has two functions: (i) to receive and guide the liquid discharged from the energy at impeller outlet, 25-30 per cent may be recovered in a simple vdllute.
impeller to the outlet ports of the pump, and (ii) to increase the static head at
I he outlet of the pump by reducing the kinetic energy of the liquid leaving the
impeller. These two functions may be called collector and diffuser functions. 2.5.2 Vaneless Diffuser
'!'he former function may be used alone while the latter can occur either before
Diffusion takes place in a parallel-sided passage and is go~erned by the t
Ill' after the collector function. Tn addition diffusion can take place in a vaned

,~
principle of conservation of angular momentum of the flutd. The Qlutlet
Ill' vaneless diffuser.
I
I,'I'
2.5.1 Volute or Scroll Collector I'
I

A simple volute or scroll collector is illustrated in Fig. 2.15 and consists of a

l'in:lIlar passage of increasing cross-sectional area. The advantage of the
~limplc volute is its low cost. The cross-sectional area increases as the
illl'l'ement of discharge increases around the periphery ofthe impeller and it is
lillllHI that a constant average velocity around the volute results in equal
Jlressures around the pump casing, and hence no radial thrust on the shaft.
AllY deviation in capacity (flow rate) from the design condition will result in a
l'Ildialthrust, which if allowed to persist could result in shaft bending. Values of
radial thrust are given by the empirical relationship 4
(2.32)
 .......... wll! I, /. I', Iltr 1\'1.1 Iii III (1,\ d 11111",'1 IIiINSIlI',(' pl:rpelldiclilar to the peripheral area
,01 IIII' 1II1t1l'II"1 :llId ", u:,u:dly lite same as the impeller width. Letting the
"llhrwl'il't!'d variables represent conditions at the impeller outlet and the
Diffuser IIIHllllilll'l'ipled variables represent conditions at any radius r in the vaneless
passage
dilflllWl', (111:11 from continuity

b Q
,-
, rbpC r = r2 b2P2 Cr2
/ Free vortex flow III

= r2b2P2Cr2/rbp

n
/ in diffuser passage Cr (2.34)
I~_-

II fl'i\;l iOllless now is assumed, then by the conservation of angular momentum

Cx = Cx2 r2/r
11111 (',\ .) ('r (usually) and therefore the absolute velocity C is approximately
,'qllal to ex or
Figure 2.17 Vaneless diffuser passage
C = CX2 r 2/r (2.35)
tangential velocity is reduced as the radius increases, while the radial
component of absolute velocity is controlled by the radial cross-sectional area 1''''11111':4. (2.35),for C to be small, which is what we are trying to achieve, then r
of flow b. A vaneless diffuser passage is shown in Fig. 2.17. III1IS( he large and therefore, for a large reduction in the outlet kinetic energy, a
With reference to Fig. 2.18 the size of the diffuser may be determined as diffuser with a large radius is required. \'\
follows. The mass flow rate m at any radius r is given by 1'01" an incompressible fluid, the inclination of the absolute velocity vector
III (he radial line remains constant at all esince at the outlet from the impeller
m = pACr = 2nrbpCr (l'il',. 2.1 H)

tan IX~ = Cx2/Cr2 = constant = tan IX'

r~illce r( 'r is constant from the constant mass flow rate requirement, and Cxr is
I"Ollstant from the conservation of angular momentum requirement. Thus the
Ilmv in the diffuser remains at a constant inclination IX' to radial lines, the flow
pa t h Iracing out a logarithmic spiral, and if for an incremental radius dr the
IIl1id moves through angle de, then from Fig. 2.18
r de = (tan IX') dr
Ililegrating,
(2.36)
Pulling IX' = 78 and (r/r 2 ) = 2, the change in angle of the diffuser is almost
IXO", giving rise to a long flow path, which may result in high frictional losses,
whiCh in turn gives a low efficiency. So it is seen that the length of the diffuser
Illust be balanced by the pressure recovery that is required and an optimum
poinl is usually found based on either economic or hydraulic friction loss
\'llllsidcral ions.

2.~.3 V11llCd Diffust~r

'I'hr VHII\'l1 dilTIIN1'1' ~11l '\VII ill 1,'1/'" .'.1 1) is able 10 diffuse the outlet kinetic energy
Figure 2.18 Logarithmic spiral now in vaneless space III II IIl1wh lIi/'.kl 1'01,'.11I11 1,11,111 111'111'111 and with a higher efficiency than the
 Collector

\
Throa' III .1,1111'." \,II/1rIIlI\C

Diffuser

Delivery ;;
""~'
"
/I
lP, ' I )i 11'' :11: I' VIIIIl:S
1\ ' Impeller
1 ~':

IllIpeller Casing

Ilil~lIn' 2.20 Ilead rise across a centrifugal pump

The collector and diffuser operate at their ma"imum efficiency at the

.ksign point only. Any deviation from the design discharge will alter the outlet
Vl'locity triangle and the subsequent flow in the casing, Figure 2.2Q shows the
"I lilt ri bu lion of each section of the pump to the total head developed by the
pUlllp,
,:
L
l,() CAVITATION IN PUMPS
\1
Figure 2.19 A vaned dilTuser
('nvitation is a phenomenon that occurs when the local absolute static
pn.:ssurc of a liquid falls below the vapour pressure o~ th~ liquid ~nd th~re~y
vaneless diffuser. This is very advantageous where the size of the pump is ,'Iluses vapour bubbles to form in the main body ofhqUld, that IS the hqUld
important. hili Is, When the liquid flows through a centrifugal or axial flow pump, the
A ring of diffuser vanes surrounds the impeller at the outlet, and after iilalic pressure (suction pressure) at the eye of the impeller is reduced and the
leaving the impeller the fluid moves in a logarithmic spiral across a short vdllcity increases. There is therefore a danger that cavitation bubbles may
vaneless space before entering the diffuser vanes proper, Once the fluid has 1(lrm at the inlet to the impeller. When the fluid moves into a higher-pressure
entered the diffuser passage, the controlling variable on the rate of diffusion is I'q.don, these bubbles collapse with tremendous force, giving rise to pressures
the divergence angle of the diffuser passage, which is of the order of 8-10 and mi high as 3500 atm. Local pitting of the impeller can result when the bUbbl~s
should ensure no boundary-layer separation along the passage walls. The I'llliapse on a metallic surface, and s~rio~s damage ,ca? occur from th.ls
number of vanes on the diffuser ring is subject to the following considerations: prolonged cavitation erosion, as shown 111 Fig.. 2.~1. NOise IS also generated 111
Ihe form of sharp cracking sounds when cavitatIOn takes place. , .
1. The greater the vane number, the better is the diffusion but the greater is the Referring to Fig. 2.1, cavitation is most likely to occur on t~e suc~lOn ~I~e
friction loss. Ill' lhe pump hetwcen the lower reservoir surface and th~ pU,mp 1I11et smce It ~s

2. The cross section of the diffuser channel should be square to give a in lhis I'l:gion that the lowest pressure will occur, A cavitatIOn parameter (1 IS
maximum hydraulic radius (cross-sectional area/channel perimeter). t1d'ined as
3. The number of diffuser vanes should have no common factor with the Pump tolal inlet head above vapll~_IJrcssure
number of impeller vanes. This is to obviate resonant or sympathetic (I' .
11~~l\d Ik;vclopcd by pUI\\P
vibration.
 'lin 11t~ud
11',hIl'IIOIl

1/ ~
ti
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Figure 2.21 Cavitation erosion in centri- QI Q2 Qa Q
fugal pump impeller

and at the inlet flange

a = (p;/ pg + Vt 12g - Pvapl pg)1H (2.37) N/'SH

where all pressures are absolute. The numerator of Eq. (2.37) is a suction head Measured

~
NPSH
and is called the net positive suction head (N PSH) of the pump. It is a measure ..... --------------
. .. - - - - - - - - - - I
of the energy available on the suction side of the pump. ... - - - - - I I I
I I I
Every pump has a critical cavitation number a c, which can only be I I
I
I
I Figure 2.22 Critical NPSH plotted on the
I I '

determined by testing to find the minimum value of N PSH before cavitation pump characteristic
occurs. Various methods exist for determining the point of cavitation
inception, and a c, and therefore the minimum NPSH required by the pump,
will depend upon the criteria chosen to define a c as well as the conditions placcd at the lower reservoir surface, then ZA is also zero and Eq. (2.38)
under which the test is carried out. One method is to determine the nonnal bel:omes
head-flow characteristic of the pump and then to repeat the test with the inlet PAlpg = p;/pg + Vr/2g + Hsuclion
to the pump progressively throttled so as to increase the resistance to flow at
whcrc
the inlet. It will be found that for different throttle valve settings the
Z i + hin + hn = H suction
performance curve will fall away from the normal operating curve at various
points and one definition of the occurrence of minimum NPSH is the point at Substituting for p;/ pg in Eq. (2.37) gives
which the head H drops below the normal operating Characteristic by some a = (PAl pg - Pvapl pg - Hsuction)! H (2.39)
arbitrarily selected percentage, usually about 3 per cent. At this condition,
static inlet pressure Pi and inlet velocity Vi are measured, and a c is then Providing a is above ae' cavitation will not occur, but, in or~er to achieve
I:alculated from Eq. (2.37). The minimum required NPSH or a c may then be this, il may be necessary to decrease Hsuction by decr~asing Zi and m some ca~es
I
plotted for the different degrees of inlet throttling to give a curve of ac versus thc pt'lmp may have to be placed below the ~eservolr or pump.free s~rface, I.e.
now coefficient (Fig. 2.22). IIcgative ZI. especially if hn is particularly hIgh due to a long mlet pIpe. ~hus '\
w';en the pump is connected to any other inlet pipe system, a as detenn~ned
In Fig. 2.1, the energy loss between the free surface (A) and the inlet side of
Ihe pump (i) is given by the steady flow energy equation as 1'1'1111I Eq. (2039) may be calculated and providing a(available) > O"e(reqUlred)
I
"

then cavitation will bc avoided.

Energy at A - Energy at i = Energy lost between A and i
Writing the cncrgy in terms of heads
2.(t.1 Suction Specific Speed
(1',,1/11/+ V~/2(J+Z,,)=(Pl/p{/+ Vt/2{J+Zi)+(h," I "Ill (2.:'X) II h. rrll:.llIllllllr '1l11~llITI tll11ltlwl'l'ncil~Il\':Y will be dependent nO,tl\l~ly u~~n
wlll'l'l~ (/'111 -, "ll) rcprcsents thc losscs, Now VA cquals I.l~I:II11lld, illl\l dllllllli is 11\1' lIow I'll ,lilt \l'lil hili Uli'!l 1ll'PIl I\nothl~1' I'lIl1dinll dun to cavllatlOIl. I he
 ...... "", .. ,'. "111 ""lil'l't III" :.1"'1-11:11111 il~ 111'11111'1/ :IN

N"",, NUl './ ,'IN)SJI) j.II1 (2.40) .11 ,

Thus I , ,

. II f(I/" N"",.) (2.41) Ii .. . i

\",
I ('. 'C,"
It IS found from experimcnis'\ lllal lllc nception of cavitation Occurs "It r Impeller
~o~stan; values of N sue and empirical results how that N "" 3 for N in rad;s ". ",
z
10 ~ Is and ~(!,,~SH) in mZls . The caritation pa;::n~ter rna also b~
I '"
..I II'
"
"

View on
X-X -
dete!'mmed ~y dlVId10g the dimensionless s~cific speed by the d' Y . I (I
suctIon specIfic speed: ImenSlOn ess

NslNsue = [NQI/2/(gH)314J/{N~I/ZI[g(NPSH)]3/4}
=(NPSH) 3/4IH 314
=ug l4
(2.42)
Also from the similarity laws

NPSHt/NPSH 2 = (Nt/N z )ZOt/D z )2 = ut/uz

Outlet
guide
2.7 AXIAL FLOW PUMP vane

An axial flow pump consists of a pro II . . .

with fine clearances between the blacfeeti er tyPo ~flmp~ller runnmg m a casing
of secondary flows, fluid particles do is ~n(Jt e c~smg walls. In the absence
the .h . no c anle radIus as they move through
will~~:f; u~::sv:~::;~:~d;:~~il~e~~ou~.t o.f:wirl in th~
tangential direction
.
/
This is usually done by fitting outlet gu~;el:::steTthheeflSWlrl on t~e 0hutlet side.
\

." . ow area IS t e same at Ili'lllrl' 2.24 Axial now pump velocity triangles

Stationary inlet Stationary outlet illiel and outlet and the maximum head for this type of pump is of the order of
guide vanes guide vanes mnl. It may be seen in Fig. 1.7 that the dimensionless specific speed of axial
III IW pumps lies at the right-hand side ofthe pump spectrum, its characteristics
hdng one of low head but high capacity. The usual number of blades lies
111'1 wecn two and eight, with a hub diameter/impeller diameter ratio of 0.3-0.6.
III Illany cases the blade pitch is fixed but most large hydroelectric units have
variable-pitch blades to allow for load variations.
R, Figure 2.23 shows an axial flow pump impeller. The section through the
hlade at x-x is shown enlarged with the inlet and outlet velocity triangles
tHlper;mposed in Fig. 2.24. If will be noticed that the blade has an aerofoil
fit~~li(ln and that the inlet relative velocity vector WI does not impinge
langentially but rather the blade is inclined at an angle of incidence i to the
rdativc velocity vector WI' This is similar to the angle of attack of an aerofoil
ilia frec stream. It is assumed that there is no shock at entry and that the fluid
kav\ls the hlade tangentially at exit.
Impeller ( 'hanges in the condition of the fluid take place at a constant mean radius;
Figure 2.23 An axial now pump I IH.:rd'orc
{/ I ":: U 2 = U = cor
 till' 1I11id III .. ~il 1"1'11111 11m 1IIIld,~ ill rdativdy slIlali. resliltillg ill a low kinetic
l'lu'r,..\, 1\1';:;. 1\11 axial 1I0w ptlltlp therefore lends to havc a higher hydraulic
l'ITkirHI:Y I hllli 111I~ \;\:111 riftl/'lal pUlllp.
and noting that the flow area is thl<.allllUllls li'l'lIlcd betwcen the hub and the
blade tips, then we may write
2.7.1 nluclc Il:lcmcnt Theory
m= pCan(R~ - R~)
From Eq. (2.2), 1\11 axillll10w pump impeller may have a large number of blades spaced closely
together or a fcw hlades spaced far apart, while for m~chanical s~rength
(2.43) cOllsidcrations, thc blade chord will vary from hub to hp. The penpheral
and for maximum energy transfer C XI = 0, i.e. IX I = 90 and C I = Ca, the distall(;c between similar points on two adjacent blades is the pitch, and the
absolute flow velocity at inlet being axial for maximum energy transfer. ratio nlade chord/blade pitch at a given radius is known as the solidity ratio a:
Now I
a = cIs (2.46)
or IL is therefore possible to have high- or low-solidity blades, an impeller
Cx2 =U - Ca cotf:J2 with a low number of blades implying a low solidity, Where the blades have a
low solidity, flow interference from one blade to the next is low and the blade
Hence substituting for C X2 in Eq. (2.43) with Cd = 0, the maximum energy
Illay be considered to be acting alone in a free stream and is analysed as such.
transfer or head is
II owever, for high-solidity blades implying very closely spaced blades, the flow
E = U(U - Ca cot f:J2)/g (2.44) between the blades will be greatly influenced by the adjacent blades and we
must resort to cascade data for an analysis of the forces acting on them. Since
For constant energy transfer, Eq. (2.44) applies over the whole span of the
axial flow pump impellers invariably have less than six blad~s,. it is usu~l to
blade from hub to tip; that is it applies at any radius r between R\ and Rh For E
consider only isolated blade element theory for them and thiS IS now bnefly
to be constant over the whole blade length it is obvious that, as U 2 increases
with radius, so an equal increase in UCa cot f:J2 must take place and since C is
a
constant then cot f:J2 must increase, and the blade must therefore be twisted as
the radius changes. C
-~

Strictly speaking the work done per unit weight of flow through an \
\

annulus of thickness dr should be considered and this then integrated across \

\
the whole flow area from the hub to the tip \
,,
,
E = W/mg = U(U - Ca cot f:J2)/g "-
or '\'1 ,

"- ,}dl
dW = U(U - Ca cot f:J2)dm V,
Hut the incremental mass flow rate dm is
'-'''''
"
dm = p(2nr)(Ca )dr
alld U = wr. Therefore
R'
W= 2npCaw 2
J r (wr - C cot f:J2) dr
Rh
a (2.45)

I':qua!.ion (2.45) can only be integrated if the relationship between f32 and r is
klIown.
1"01' design purposes it is usual to select conditions for use in Eq. (2.44) at
FiRurc 2.25 Circulation around an isolated
Iht'lIll'llllradillS (U h 1 1<,)/2 along thc nlade. The whirl component imparted to '"A" hlude
 de~crihed, Ih(~ Irealllll'lllllfl:IINl:lldl' ,111111.\';,;,/ 1WIIlr, l'I'ru'rvnd for IIw Nlldioll Oil
axwl /low, compress,llrs, til, which Illlldlilll~s it iN Illon~ appropriately applied. SlIhNlitllti\l1l llill. hi I' IN) ,'Iwn Ilu: drculation for the whole impeller as
, Consider. the. clrculallon " aroulld Ihe cOlltrol slIrface of the isolated
bl~de shown m FIg. 2.25, where the lengths AIi IIlld ( 'J) lire the blade pitches Bul
at mlet and outlet and AD and BC bisect the flow passages between adjacent Z"'I ,2nl'1 and
blades,
Therefore
The circulation is given by the line integral around ABCD and b
evaluated by summing the individual circulations comprising the circu~a:uc~ From Eq. (2.43),
that '

r ABCD = f V ds = f: V dS 2+ LC V dl + feD V dS l + fDA V dl (2.47)

Hence
wzr b/2ng
E= (2.50)

where the circulation is positive anticlockwise. But The Kutta 10ukowski law (L = pU or b) for lift per unit span on an aerofoil
may now be used, where U0 is the free stream velocity. Dividing this by
O.5pU~cgives the lift coefficient
f: V dl = - fDA V dl
while CL = r b/0.5Uoc
where c is the chord of the impeller blade.
and Since the appropriate free stream velocity for flow over the blade is the
Hence relative velocity W instead of U 0' and since this is different at blade inlet and
outlet, the appropriate relative velocity is usually defined as
r ABCD = S2 Cx2 - SI CXl (2.48)
For a number o~ blades shown in Fig, 2.26 the circulation around each W~ = C; + [(Wxl + Wx2 )/2]2
blade ~a~ ~ dete~nllned.' and the total circulation about Z blades is the sum = C; + [cot PI + cot P2)/2]2
0.1' the l~dlVldual cIrculatIOns, remembering that along a line such as BG the
clrcul~tl.on for .one blade is positive (anticlockwise) while for the adjacent Therefore r b = 0.5C L Woc, and substituting this into Eq. (2.50)
blade It IS negatIve (clockwise). Therefore for Z blades the total circulation is E = 0.5wZCL Wcoc/2ng (2.51 )
r ADEH = zr b (2.49) Values of lift coefficients for differing blade profiles may be determined
where r b is the circulation around a single blade. from readily available tables and charts S and an estimate for E obtained.

2.7.2 Axial Flow Pump Characteristics

Axial flow pump design has evolved empirically and it is only in relatively
modern times that aerofoil theory has been applied. Nevertheless, efficiencies
~-----~- ----~------~ of over 90 per cent were achieved using empirical data and it would seem that

/
I
I

//JI
/
/
/
//J I

/
I
I
I

/ I
I /
/ /
L- _ --
E
4
F -
Figure 2.26 Circulation around a number of isolated blades
/)1 //
I
I
/
aerodynamic design has not improved the efficiencies by much.
Typical head-flow, power and efficiency curves are shown in Fig. 2.27. A
steep negative slope is evident on the head and power curves at low flow rates.
This can he explained by considering Eq. (2.44). For a given blade design at
/ I Iixcd speed with axial flow at inlet
/ /
/ /
/ " J\ "'" U(U - Ca cotP2)/g
G- - - - -Ii
Now (J i~. PI'll po rlill IIII I IIi e'l and therefore
11/,;/,1('", dJ':/dQ'1 1I clll/l.~
 300 hll'll\illlllltwIII illllt,/i . illl'I,llItiVl'1\ <,ltI,,I1 dlld '''IW 1111'1l1'.iwl'l pllmpa! a
1',iVl'1I 1:\11'1'41 till' "I,ad flltW I'daliltllship hali a :111"'1 1 lIq\illiVl, slope, The power
N" 4111d
"lIrVl' ill SilllilllJ'ly VIH''y slellp, the pltwcr rcqllin'lIll1l1lllt shut-orf being perhaps
Head 1. \.. ,'\ liulIlS Ihal n~quircd al Ihe design poinl. This makes for a very expensive

,, l'kl'lril; nlOlor IOl;Over the eventuality ol'low Ilow rates and so the fixed-blade
,, Ilxiaillow PUIllP is limited to operation at the fixed design point. Variable-flow
,,
Illachines Illay be designed employing variable blade stagger or setting angles.
",,, Ilere the blade angle is adjusted so that the pump runs at its maximum
dl'iciency at all loads and also reduces the shut-off power requirement. Figure
), 100 = d/eSign point
;~)X shows the clfect of changing blade stagger angle.
Power ""\ In Fig, 2.27 the power and head curves are seen to enter a region of
".... " ................... instability at about 50 per cent of the design flow rate. This is due to Ca
'--' "'~ hecoming increasingly small and thereby increasing the angle of incidence of
Ilow onto the blade until separation and stalling of the blade occurs. The
fu rt her head rise at even lower flow rates and the consequent power increase is
due to recirculation of the fluid around the blade from the pressure side to the
suction side and then up onto the pressure side of the next blade. An increased
blade stagger angle will once again reduce this recirculation and thereby the
power requirement.
40 60 80 100 140
Percentage of design flow rate

Figure 2.27 Axial flow pump characteristics 2.8 PUMP AND SYSTEM MATCHING

It has been shown that a hydraulic pump has a design point at which the
overall efficiency of operation is a maximum. However, it may happen that the
pipe system in which the pump is being used is unsuited to the pump and a
Efficiency Loci of maximum different pump with a more suitable characteristic is required. This section will
1/,H
~,"d" examine how a pump and a pipe system may be matched to each other, the
effed of changing the pump speed and diameter, and finally the effect of
connecting pumps in series and parallel.
Consider the pipe system in Fig. 2.1. On the suction side the losses
I ncreasmg
'
stagger angle expressed in terms of standard loss coefficients are the sum of the minor
losses hin
Head

and the friction loss

hfi = 4fl; Vr j2gd j
where f is the Darcy friction factor, Ii is the length of the inlet pipe and di its
dilllllcicr. Thus the total head loss is
Q

Figure 2.28 Changing blade slagger angle on an axial now pump

(III IIII' t1diwr,Y !Iilli'lI\1' :lIlIlIllf thi: hend. frktilln and cxillllsses that must he
62
 II ::1111111.1 II\' 1I111\'1! 111111 if 1111'11'1:1 1111 :.111111 IlI'lId I i:a~ (II' the liquid ~e.g.
1'111111 1111 1' illlllllll'II'.lIlIllIll'il'l'lil1l~ 1l\~tW\'I'11 tW(lIl::nv"il'sallhes;.lI1~eclev~ltlOn)
'~/I" ",:(.'",/" I ~ ", I ,: I '"
II" \1,,:11 II" ill '/,l'I''' 11111\ IIw SYStl~1I1 \;lII'VI~ PlliiSI~S through Ihe origIn. ThiS has
Finally, the liquid Illust be IllIlVl:d lh 1111 th\' 111\\'1'1' Irsl'!"vllir 10 the upper illlpliclIlillllS wh\~11 SPl~l~d 1I11d diamcll:1' ~h~lnges lakc pl~ce. Because of the
reservoir through the static head-H.: hel1ce the 1lll1l11lPI1Ilsing head of the pipe Ilallil'ss "I' I'lltlldynamic pump eharaclcl'Istlcs. a poor estimate of.the sy~t~m
system that must be overcome in order to movc Ihe lluid from the lower til 11I:;::\~S call scrillusly a lIce I the flow rate and he.ad; whereas I~ pOSItive
upper reservoir is displacemcllt pUlllpS, the H-Q curve is almost vertical and, even If the head
I'h:lIlgcs sllbstantially, the flow rate stays almost constant.
H=H.+ho+h i (2.52)
Now from the continuity equation (Eq. (1.21)) the flow rate through the
system is proportional to the velocity, Thus the resistance to flow in the form of 2.~.1 Il:ffcct of Speed Variation
friction losses, head losses, etc., is proportional to the square of the flow rate t '(lllsider a pump of fixed diameter pumping liqu.id .withz~ro static lift: If the
and is usually written as ch;\racteristic at one speed N, is known, then It IS pOSSIble to ~redIct the
. 'I'esponding characteristic at speed N 2 and also the correspondmg operat-
System resistance = KQ2 (2.53) Ull . . d N
illp' points. Figure 2.30 shows the charact~nstIc at spee ,.
It is a measure of the head lost for any particular flow rate through the system. - For points A, Band C the correspondmg head and flows at a new speed
If any parameter in the system is changed, such as adjusting a valve opening, or N 1 are found thus. We have
inserting a new bend, etc., then K will change. The total system head loss ofEq.
(2.52) therefore becomes
:11111
H = H. + KQ2 (2.54) Q IN , ,= Q2 IN 2 Since D is constant (2.55)

and if this equation is plotted on the head-flow characteristic, the point at Sinlilarly
which Eq. (2.54) intersects the pump characteristic is the operating point, and
this mayor may not lie at the duty point, which usually corresponds to the
design point and maximum efficiency. The closeness of the operating and duty H ,INi = H 21Ni (2.56)
points depends on how good an estimate of the expected system losses has
been made. In Fig. 2.29 the system curve is superimposed on the H-Q i\1"P1ying Eqs (2.55) and (2.56) to points A, Band C and letting the
characteristic. cotresponding points be A', B' and C',
Q2=Q,N 2IN 1 and H 2 =H,(N 2)2/(N,)2
1f. H
or (2.57)

ff
System
resistance
;I'
/
/'

Operating
point

Figure 2.30 l~lTect nf speed variation on

Figure 2.29 System resistance and
pump characteristic curves
the npl:l'Iltinl~ pnint
'I. II ,/, T II

I ()I"'l'IIlllIf',I',,11I1
/
1'''1' """1I1il('<1 Pllll1 l lH
I

["",m ,~i"""~
I
1
III',

- r - - - Single pump,
operatmg pomt

Figure 2.31 Effect of spccd variation Figure 2.32 Two similar pumps in series
Q on the efficiency

lind we Sl:l: lhal all corresponding points lie on a parabola passing through the
iJril',ill, This nwans that for an operating point at A at speed N I' it is only
I\l'n~ssary 10 apply lhe similarity laws directly to find -the corresponding
/I Single pump
opl'l'atill; poinl al lhe new speed since it will lie on the system curve itself.
Ilowever, if lhere is static lift (H s =1= 0) it will be necessary to calculate and then
plll1 the corresponding points N, B', C' at the new speed, since the system curve
will no 10llger pass through the origin. The system curve is then drawn to find
111l~ IIl:W operating point at its intersection with the N 2 characteristic such that
Figu~e 2.33 Two similar pumps
till' l:orrcsponding maximum efficiency at design point DP2 remains the same
in parallel
1I~; al I >P 1 hut at a <.iin'erent head and flow rate as in Fig. 2.31.

2.K.2 Vuriation of Pump Diameter

1\ vllriation of pump diameter may be similarly examined through the
similarity laws, For a constant speed, /I
Pumps in series
Ql/Di = Q2/D~
II lid

Ill'

(2.58)
'< Pumps in parallel
This curve docs not lie on the system characteristic and therefore part of '. '<
- ""
tll\~ IICW characteristic must be drawn through A', B' and C' at the new '",, ,'" "-

dillll1eter so that lhe new operating point may be found. The efficiency curve
moves aeross in a similar manner to before, the corresponding efficiencies
1t1' i1 weqnlll.
/
I'UIl1P I
, ........
, ,

"
'" '<

'" ...
/' ~ ~
Pump 2 " ~
2.K.:1 I-limps in Series and Parallel
Sh\lldd 11\l' head or now rale of a single pump not be sufficient for an
II "phl'lIt inll. pnmps I;an he l:oll1hined in series to obtain an increase in head, or ...11111 \'1' 1,,,'\,1 TWI1 ,11111'"'111 1'"111\1'1 I I1ll1hincd in series and parallel
67
 1I11111111111lh'/i III II~"II'I" '1'111'11"" 1,,1. 1111",,1''' 11'1'11111111' iii 11,11/1{ "' 1/111111" IIlilip filclol' u1'0.77
IIIIIV hi' IHIIIII II 11"', (1,'I"III1i1I1' 11..., liI,-oll'liml 111'11" ""vel0l":" hy Ihe impellcl', lind thc number
III' illIllI'lIl'" hlll""Ii,
Z..\ All hnl.dlc:1' wllh IIIII~YI: I'll\lill,~ ol',~ I 11I11I lind lin oulsidc diameter of 406 mm rotates at 900
1pili, 'I'hll IlIlct III1"outll,1 hlmle IIl1gles lIleasured I'rom the radinl flow direction are 75 and 83
n':IIII:clivll!y. while the hlmle depth is M mm. Assuming zero inlet whirl, zero slip and an hydraulic
dlkil:llcy III'IN pCI' I:enl, calculate
(a) the voluillc flow rate through the impeller,
(h) Ihe stllgnlltion and slatic pressure rise across the impetler,
tc) the power transferred to the fluid and
(d) the input power to the impetler.
Q
Figure 2.35 Single axial/low pump 2.4 The hasic design of a centrifugal pump has a dimensionless specific speed of 0.075 rev. The
hlndes arc forward fncing on the impetler and the outlet angle is 120 to the tangent, with an
illlpcllcr passage width at outlet equal to one-tenth of the diameter. The pump is to be used to
pUlllp water a vertical distance of 35 m at a /low rate ofO.04m 3/s. The suction and delivery pipes
II I'e each of 150 mm diameter and have a combined length of 40m with a friction factor of 0.005.
()ther losses at pipe entry, exit, bends, etc., are three times the velocity head in the pipes. If the
hilldes occupy 6 per cent of the circumferential area and the hydraulic efficiency (neglecting slip) is
- Instability
'/1, per cent, what must be the diameter of the pump impetler?
2.5 When a laboratory test was carried out on a pump, it was found that, for a pump total head of
,\6 m at a discharge of 0.05 m3/s, cavitation began when the sum of the static pressure plus the
velocity head at inlet was reduced to 3.5 m. The atmospheric pressure was 750 mmHg and the
vllpour pressure of water 1.8 kPa. If the pump is to operate at a location where atmospheric
pressure is reduced to 620 mmHg and the vapour pressure of water is 830 Pa, what is the value of
the cavitation parameter when the pump devetops the same total head and discharge? Is it
necessary to reduce the height of the pump above the supply, and if so by how much?
Q Figure 2.36 Axial/low pumps in parallel
2.6 The inner and outer diameters of an axial/low pump are 0.75 and 1.8 m respectively. Fixed
slator blades lie downstream of the rotor with an inlet angle of 40 (at the mean diameter)
in paralle.1 for an increase in flow rate. The combined pumps need not be ofth lIIeasured from the direction of blade motion. The rotor blade outlet angle (at the mean diameter)
salllc design. e IIlso measured from the direction of blade motion is 30 and the rotor rotates at a speed 01'250 rpm.
If lhc whirl velocity upstream from the rotor is zero at all radii, determine
., Fig~res 2.32 and 2.33 show the combined H-Q characteristic for the cases (n) the axial velocity if the /low onto the stator blade occurs at zero incidence,
01 lllcntical. pumps. connnected in series and parallel. It will be observed th t (b) the rotor torque if the axial velocity is constant across the flow annulus, and
lhe ()pcn.ttl~lg POint changes in both cases. In Fig. 2.34 th b' ~ (c) the root and tip rotor blade angles for zero incidence and zero inlet whirl.
dwractenstlcs of two different pumps connected' 11 I e co~ me 2.7 A twelve-bladed axial flow fan has a hydraulic efficiency of 0.92, a mean radius 01'0.93 m and
drawn. 111 para e an d senes are
I'Otates at 450 rpm. Air enters the blades axially at a speed of40 m/s and the head developed across
When axial now pumps are connected in parallel, care must be taken to
I he hlades is 35 m of air. If the chord length at the mean radius is 0,33 m, find the blade angles at
illiet and, outlet if the blades may be considered to aet as isolated aerofoils. If the blades are
I
l~nSllre that the system characteristic does not cut the pump characteristic' IIcl'llfoils with the following characteristics, find also the angle of incidence of the blades and the 1,1
I,W~I.. pl:lCes,
otherwise instability may result. This arises due to the Iater~~ hlade stagger angle. All calculations are to be carried out at the mean radius.
I'

sprc.HllIlg of the pump characteristic illustrated in Figs 2.35 and 2.36.

'I
I
'I

AIlf.\1to of incidencc (deg) - 4 -2 o 4 8 12

r
I.ift CIIIlfficil:nl ' . (Ull -0.02 0.13 0,46 0.77 1.025
l,l AI"~lIlriI'1I1111IpUlllpofl.3l11diameterdelivers3.5m3/minofwateratr d flO /
II 1I0w wlodly 01' 1.lIm/s, The outlet blade angle is at 300 to the ta t ~ t: ~pee 0 ~ sand
1\:11I111111/1/\ Z,1I'0 whirl /II i/llel, alld zero slip, calculate the torque n:~~ve~ed ~ tmthpel~er pellrJPhery.
II '1'1 I . , . ' , y e tmpe er. Z.H Al:rullIlllf\IIII'UIUP IUUM'II III (lUlllp Wlltlll' 1'1'011I11 low to a high reservoir having a water level
'. Ir 1II1~ "lola I:onlrtfll/lal pump hilS backwllrd-fncing blades inclined 'It 30" to th t IIWi,,,,IItT "I' l.\ Ill, '1'111' 101111 lI'n..lh ol'pipl' itl 101M) III wllh 1\ friclion fucttll' ofO.tlOSnnd its dinmeter
1I11111(II'IIc'I' ""III~1. Thc hladcs arc 20 III III in depth at lhe outlet. the impeller is'2S() 11111I ill ~Ii:~~~:: b /tKIIIIIIl, N.,,,,It,<tlll/lIlIIItIrIh\'" I'M','pt 1'1'11'11011. 1I,'14'l'lIIillll Ihi) mil) ol'llow hutwccn thc reservoirs
 I III' i'. I
II nlill" IIii'll' III 1111 illlt I \\111111 PIIHI'"lll III. '1'III'.. dIII1~
lind Iltll power 1"1''1"11'1 1 III dill'l' II", IHIIIII' II" ,'"",.. 10 ,I-oil, II "I t'" 1'"'"1' ii'" .lIi ro II II wr';
, l,t'"
,-;
Q (m 3 /h)
H(m) 68
o 46
64
'I.'
S4
\.IH'
42
IH-' 2:10
K
/1,"
., (/1 2 -- W,'2)
1/(%) o 49.5 61 63.5 53 10
"10 ( 1 0 -1.6)
--
'I.X I tan 30
2.9 The characteristics of a 0.7 m diameter centrifugal pump impeller running at 750 rpm are 1111
follows: '/Jellll or W/(N/s)
Power delivered ,,; x (lng)
Q (m 3 /min) o 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 'l.. \h X 103 X 3.5 x 9.81
H(m) 40 40.6 40.4 39.3 38.0 33.6 25.6 14.5 o 60
1](%) o 41 60 74 83 83 74 51 o
.4211.8W
Power
(a) If the pump is initially used to transfer water from one reservoir to another at the same Torque delivered
level, determine the pump operating point if the head lost to frictional and other resistances is 35 m Angular velocity
at 25 m3/min.
4211.8 x 0.65
(b) The pump is then used to transfer water between two reservoirs having difference in
levels of 15 m through a pipe of 0.45 m diameter. If the pipeline is 93 m long with a friction 10
factor of 0.004 and pipe entry and exit loss coefficients of 0.5 and 1.0 respectively, find the
volume flow rate and power absorbed. . :273.7Nm
(c) If the pump is now changed to one of 0.51 m diameter and the motor is changed,to
one running at 975 rpm, what is the new volume flow rate and power absorbed?
ll:xcrdsc 2.2 Consider first the lIo-slip condition in Fig. 2.5.
2.10 A single axial flow water pump has the following characteristics:
Assuming hlades of infinitesimal thickness the flow area may be
l'lIklllaled as
Q(m /s) 3
o 0.136 0.233 0.311 0.388 0,466 0.608 Flow area = Impeller periphery x Blade depth
H(m) 12.6 9.45 9.79 9.07 7,61 5.45' o = 1t x IU)2 x 0.25
= 15,7 x 10
3
m2
A pumping system in which the resistance to flow is purely resistive with no static lift exhibits the 1,'low velocily Cr2 = Q/ A
same volume flow rate when two of the pumps are connected in parallel as when they are O.02X
connected in series. What would be the flow rate and head that a single pump would deliver when =-lS.7xlO"3
connected to the same system?
= I.'fX m/s
1,'1'11111 llll: ollliet velocity trianl'k
SOLUTIONS
W e'r.~
.<2 = t-an :\()"
Exercise 2.1 Referring to Fig. 2.5, since there is no slip P2 = Pi.
The Euler head is given by Eq. (2.2): I.'IH
til 11 ,10"
E= W =U2CX2-UICXl
mg g 10K Ill/N
 NIIW

II ,~ /I /l N /1t0
1/ ;~ (),,", .. ',",0 III I)()" '/,""
(i() 15"
= 19m/s Al lllld, 11I1l1~(,lllilll illl(leller velocity is
Absolute whirl component Cxz = V z - W
xz VI =wr l
=19-3.08
= 15.92m/s = C006~ 2n )(0.051)
From Eq. (2.2) the Euler head is
= 4.81 m/s
E = VzCxz - VIC xl "I'OJIl I'ig. 2.4
g
C,! C I
and assuming CXI = 0 (no whirl at inlet) tanPI = - = - (since zero whirl)
VI VI
E= 19 x 15.92 C I = 4.81 tan 15
9.81 = 1.29mjs
= 30.83m
Volullle flow through the pump is
From Eq. (2.5)
Q = AIVI
= 2nr 1 bC'l
Therefore the theoretical head with slip is =2n x 0.051 x 0.064 x 1.29
3
EN = 0.77 x 30.83 = 0.0265 m js
= 23.74m (0) Using the continuity equation (Eq. (1.21
The Stodola slip factor is given by Eq. (2.6). rlC'1 =rzCrz
0.051 x 1.29
(J = 1_ n sin pz
S Z[I-(C,zIUz)cotPzJ 0.203
Then =0,324mjs
0.77 = I - - - n sin 30 _ Al outle~, tangential impeller velocity is
Z[I - (1.78/19)cot 300 J
whence U Z = wr 2

Z = 8.15 = (9006~ 2n }0.203)

Say, number of blades required _= 8
= 19.13mjs
Exercise 2.3 (a) Figure 2.5 may be used and in this case fJ~ = fJz where TlIlal head developed b)' pump
lIydrauliccrndcllcy: I d
pz = 90 - 83 'I'hrorcl ieal head deve ope
:.: 7" 1/
'111 I,
 II' the chllllgc ill pllll'ldiot /willi 1.1.11'''. IIII' /1111111' III 1/\11111'011. the tllllli
head developed by the pUllIp iN 1',1vrll II,V I'q. (.'.. 1):

H =.
(
. .,. (r c ,.;..
1'2' '1'1) (''')
I 1'2' . 1'1 :.c.; 143.5 k PH
pg 21/
and for an incompressible fluid the total pressure head difference is (c) Power given 10 nuid::: pl/QH

P02 - POl -_ (P2

pg
-+-
pg 2g
q) - (P1
-+- Cf) =H
pg 2g
= 10J x lJ.H I x 0.0265 x 2H.ll
=7.DkW
Now
(d) Input power 10 impeller = 7.43/0.HlJ
C uU
E=~=--.3.(U
g g 2
- Wx2 ) ,H.35kW

=19.13
- - ( 19.13 C '2_)
9.81 tan 7 ..:xcrcisc 2.4 The velocily diagram is shown in Fig. 2.4. "J'OIll (he conlinuily
equation, the velocity in the pipes is
_ 19.13 ( 0.324)
- -981 19.13 - - - V= Q/A
. tan 7
'1 0.04 x 4
= 32.15m = 'It X 0.15 2
Therefore
H = 0.89 x 31.91 = 2.26m/s
=28.6m Total losses = Pipe friction losses + Other losses
whence 4flv 2 3v 2
=_... +
P02 - POl = 28.6 X 103 x 9.81 2gd 2(/
= 278.5kPa = (~ x 0.005 x 40 + 3) ,,2
0.15 211
At impeller exit
2
8.333 x 2.26
=-_...
CXZ=U2-~ 2 x 9.81
tan /32
=2.16m
= 19.13 _ 0.324 Total required head = 35 + 2.16
tan 7
=37.16m
= 16.49m/s
C 2 = (C;2 + C;Z)1/2 "rom Eq. (1.16) the speed of the pump is determined.
= (0.324 2 + 16.49 2)1/2 NQ'/z
= 16.49m/s wn\I'~

Solving for the static pressure head (),Il'l';1\1,l~ I .\'7.1 (1).I/i~

N
pz - PI
pg
=H _ (C; -:- C:)
2U
(IW41 1/.,

\' lt~ I rv/r.

 "IIII\! 1111'/1 pi" pl'lIIllt II iii I lIt Willi '" I 'HI/h I I" 11/'111 1\'

/Iii " 11 1'.1 1'1 J' .

10 I I 1.,'\
I ll ~~II
'
Now IIl1d al this clIllditillll fli 'fl."", Ihe vapour pressure. Therefore
V~ _ 3 5 I.H X 10
3
( 'r2 : :
"'ow area 2y - . - ~81'X 10 3

0.04 == 3.317m == NPSB

== Now
0.295/)2
crTH
v
= _1_
2

0.136 2gB
==[j2 ,'m/s
Also 3.317
~36
U 2 == Nnf)
== 31.21{ x nJ) crTH == 0.0921
== 9H.3D m/s
From the steady flow energy equation (Eq. (2.38)) taking the reservoir
From Eq. (2.22) the hydraulic efficiency is
level as datum (2 0 == 0) we get for case (1) ,
_ Fluid power developed hy 1111111 11
'lH-
Fluid power supplkd 10 illlpdlc'f
PI
-- +-V~ + 2 1 =-Po - (Sum of head losses)
PO 2g pg
H
== (2 1 + hfl) == Po - P1
r.: pg
crTHB _
pg
or
== (0.75 x 13.6) - 3.317 - 0.1835
=6.7m
I 'or case (2)
9.HI x nl6
- P2 V~ Po
91UD x 0.7() -+-+ 2 2 ==--hr2
pg 2g pg
"'" 4.H 71 J) m/s
(2 2 + hr2 ) = (0.62 x 13.6) - 3.317 - 0.0846
The (Hillel velocity triangle gives
= 5.03m
( 'r.~ Since Ihe flow rate is the same, hfl == hC2 and the pump must be lowered a
C
.\.1, dislance (Z I - Z2) = 1.67 m at the new location.
0,' ,It I
I;:x(~rdsc 2.6 Referring to the velocity triangles of Fig. 2.24, i = 0, IX 2 == 40 and
/)~(4.H'11J) 'nuJ>1 /1. 1, 10" al the mean radius
' 1.8 + 0.75
J) \ ().Il4'I.~J) 1I.lI/10H Mean d Jametcr D", == - - -
2
11l1lwlll'l' di:lIlldC'f' J) 0..' 1.1111
: : 1.275111
 I. Ili.~ ." I I)f> x (II)

2~O x 2n
. -,52025 N m
V="NIJ
60
(c) At the rool
= 250 x n x 1.275 u = n x 250 x 0.75
60 r 60

= 16.69m/s =9.8m/s
Since Cxt = 0,
and tanPlr = Ca/Vr
(at the mean radius)
Now
= 5.71/9.8-
At the root Ptr = 30.2
Wx2 +Cx2 = V = Ca(~ +~)
tan 30 tan 40 At the tip
16.69 = 2.92Ca V _ n x 250 x 1.8
and t- 60
Ca = 5.71 m/s (at the mean radius) = 23.56m/s
(b) Flow rate Q through the annulus is
tanp1t = 5.71/23.56
Q=CaA At the tip /311 = 13.6
5.71
=T n (1.8 2 -0.75 2) Exercise 2.7 Since the density change across an axial flow fan is so low,
it may be considered to be operating with an incompressible fluid and
Al the mean radius
= 12m 3 /s therefore the same equations as apply for axial flow pumps may be used.
Hydraulic efficiency = H/E
C
x2
=~
tan 40 From Eq. (2.51), E = 0.5wZCL Wooc/2ng and putting w = 2VD and
=6.8m/s Z = nD/s then

16.69 E= u_W_oo,,-V_
_C;::..L
E = 9.81 x 6.8 W/(N/s) 2g
Now
Then power transferred = pgQE nND
V=- at the mean diameter
3 60
= 10 x 9.81 x 12 x 16.69 x 6.8
9.81 _.. 7t x 450 x 1.86
= 1.362MW 60
. 4lX1 m/s
Torque = Power
Also
Angular velocity
 I .. I
1/ III " '
1.11 NAI'A .'11110
1111 "
35 x I).H I lUI

C x2
= 0.92 x 43.~3 c'"
lU,
= 8.51 rn/s
0.4
Therefore from Fig. 2.24
Wx2 = U -CX1
= 43.83 - 8.51 I I I I I I I

= 35.32rn/s ,I 4 6 8 10 12 14
Now 0,2 Inddcncc. i (dcg)
Figure 2.37 Lift coefficient versus
(f = cis = cZ/nD incidence angle
0.4
0.33 x 12
=
n x 1.86
=0.678 tanPI = Ca/U
PI = tan - 1 (40/43.83)
But since CX1 = 0, and therefore Wx1 = U, then
= 42.38
W~ = C; + [(W + W x2 x1 )/2]2
= 402 + [(35,32 + 43.83)/2]2 tan P2 = tan -1 (CJWd
= 3165.78 rn/s P2 = tan -1 (40/35.32)
W co = 56.26 rn/s = 48.55
Now Blade stagger angle = i + Pco
H 2g 1
C W =-x-x- = 3.8 + 45.3
L 00 f1H U (f
= 49.1
35 x 2 x9.81
- 0.92 x 43.83 x 0.678 l<wrl'isc 2,8 From Eq. (2.54)
= 25.1 rn/s System resistance = H. + KQ2
fl'llll1 which 11"lId loss due to pipe friction only is given by
C L = 25.1/56.26 4flv 2
= 0.446
h--
r- 2gd
The acrofoil data are plotted in and the corresponding incidence angle Bitt! pUlling
fCllllld from Fig. 2.37 v=Q/A
1111'11
i = 3.8
11:=
r
4f_.l)( -nd4 )2 Q2
(2gd 2
Now
sin/I,,, = CII/Woo 4 x 0.005 x 1_000 x 16)Q2
/1,,, 'c, sin" I (40/56.26) ( 2 x 9.X I X n 2 x O,2 s
.45J"
~ If,tl ()l'lll ((J in 1l1'1/S)
 Ill. I1\'1 III i\ULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOMACHINES
HYDRAULIC PUMPS 83
'/0 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , 7 0
. pgQH
Power to dnve pump = - -
Efficienc,y '1
3
60 10 X9.81 x 145 x 40.2
= 60 x 60 x 0.625
.',0
50
= 25.4kW
Exercise 2.9 (a) Figure 2.39 shows the head-flow and efficiency characteristics
---i:: plotted for the speed of 750 rpm. Since water is being transferred between
to 40 8
Ii ... reservoirs of the same water level, then from Eq. (2.53),
,-,,
"f 5
~

:1; e- System resistance = KQ2

Ifl 5
30 '0 Solving for K at the point given:
IS
LLl
K = 35/25 2 = 0.056
.'0
20 Therefore the system head loss at the different flow rates may be calculated:
Pump characleristic

Q(m 3/min) o 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56
10 System loss (m) o 2.74 11 24.7 43.9 68.6 -

The system resistance curve is now drawn (note that it passes through
II I - - - ' - - - - - ' - -_ _.....J 0 zero) and the head and flow read off at point A. The corresponding efficiency
o ',0' 100 150 200 250 is read ofT at point B.
Vllhlllll' Ilow rate, Q (m 3 jh)
At the operating point
I "'m .' 11/ 1'111111' 1111.1 ~1.v:.II:1II characteristics
Q = 26m 3 /min
H = 38.3m
'1 = 81 per cent
Sy:HI'1I1 n~sistance H = 32 + 5164Q2 m (b) Sum of the head losses and static head is given by Eq. (2.54):
f!hll'/hl H=H.+KQ2
() 46 92 138 184 230
:, ",1' '10 11,,1:1111111'1:. /I (III) n.o 32.8 35.4 39.6 45.5 53.1 The head losses may be written as
4jlv 2 v2 v2
1'111' "1Il' f lllilll'. point is at the intersection of the pump characteristic and Head losses = 2gd + k. xh 2g + k. n1ry 2g
flVtJII'1t1 I'I'Nisllllll:C curves. At the operating point A in Fig. 2.3X

Q': '.45m J /h
=(4X93XO.OO4 1 0.5)~
0.45 + + 2g

11 40,21l1 v2
:-:(131 + 1+0.5)2
g
I'It I "'lidrlll V 1.'I'I'r"l'lIlldillP. III t!ll" nnw lilli' pI' 145 m3/h is 1
/1"
'I 1.,1', 1'1"1 ,,'111 ,Ull _
,'0
 100 Ilid til lillI', IIll' niHil. 1111

Sy~lIcm characlerisllt" W in Ill"/s)

wilh zero static head TIU' hll/1l1 loss is IIIIW dl'ln'llIilll't1 for the vlIrio\ls flow rates.
90

,
I
I
80
, I
I
(/ (IIr ' /l11ill) o 7 14 21 28 35 42 49
I
11(111) 15 15.13 15.52 16.18 17.11 IllJ 19.75 21.47
,/
I
I 70
I
I
I
I The new system resistance curve is drawn noting that it begins at H = 15 m.
\11 I
I 'I 'he operating point is at point C and the corresponding efficiency at point D.
I 60
, I At the operating point
,
I
Q =45m J /min
,,
I

I
,
I
I
H=20.4m
I
.',11
1'/ = 68.4 per cent

E,,
30 pgQH
\
, I
, I
Power absorbed = - -
~I 1'/
1175 rpm , \
I
I
-20 103 X 9.81 x 45 x 20.4
I
I
I 0.684 x 60
\ 975 rpm
......--
I 10 = 219.4kW
I
I
I
I
I
I (c) Since we have static lift, it is necessary to construct part of the
I
o eha racter,istic at the new speed of 900 rpm. The corresponding points for the
20 30 40 50 60
Volume flow rate (m 3 jmin) ncw impeller and the new speed are found from Eq. (1.6):
1"111111'1' 2.:'" 1'111111' dlUracteristics at 750 and 900 rpm
QI Q2 HI H2
- and =---=-
NID~-N2D~ (N I D I )2 (N 2D 2)2
whcnce
Now
v=Q/A
Q2 = QI G~~)e~~71 y
IIlld 1:llhstillllin/!. for v =0.503Ql
2
Head losses ,-, ,- 4.81 X 4 ] Q2 H _ (975 X 0.51)2
2 x 9.81 (n x 0.45 2 f 2- HI 750 x 0.7
1)'(IIJQ2 m n,l) III
 III
Q, 0 7 14 .~ I 'II I', .\. ~ .") "'ll
Q2 0 3.5 7.1 IO.h IU 1':' .',1..\ 24.M .~M ..\

HI 40 40.6 40.4 39.3. 3M ,Uh 2S.h 14.S 0

H2 36 36.5 36.4 35.4 34.2 30.24 23.0 III 0

The new characteristic is drawn and also the efficiency curve by moving the
PlllllPS in series
corresponding values of efficiency horizontally across. The operating point
is at E and the corresponding efficiency at G. Ii
At the operating point II;
,I I.~
Q = 23.75m 3 /min ~I
II:

H = 16.5m

11 = 62.4 per cent "-'-.....~ . Pumps in pllmllcl

~

,~
Systelll '
23.75 x 16.5 x 103 x 9.81
P ower ab sor bed =- - - - - - - - - l:lIrVIl
0.624 x 60 o ......~ I
_ _. 1 I

o 0.2 (l.6 (l.!! 1.0 1.2 1.4

= 102.7kW Volume flow rate. Q (m~/s)

"I'llIn- 2.40 Axialllllw (111111(1 charaelerislics when eonneclcd in series lind plll'lIlh,1
Exercise 2.10 The single pump characteristic is plotted in Fig. 2.40 along
with the characteristics for the pumps connected in parallel and series.
Since the same pump is used in both cases, for the series connection the flow
l'rom Eq. (2.54) for the system curve
rate through the two pumps remains the same while the head is doubled
and for the parallel connection the head across the pumps remains the same H=H.+KQ2
while the flow rate is doubled. Bllt 11,,' ,0. Therefore
Series connection
1I1l,d
Q(mJ/s) 0 0.136 0.233 0.311 0.388 0.466 0.608 , K =42.32
H(m) 25.2 t8.9
The system characteristic is parabolic and may IHlW ~e dra~n ill fOl' VIII:iIlW,
19.58 18.14 15.22 10.9 0

h~)IHls and now ratl:S lind the point B gives the operatll1g pOint for the ~Inl'k
Parallel connection plllllP within the system.
Q(mJ/s) 0 0.272 0.466 0.622 0.776 0.932 1.216 (l.1 0.2 (lJ 0.4 (lj (l.l,
SYlltmn Ilow mill (nr'jIl) ()
H(m) 12.6 9.45 9.79 9.07 7.61 5.45 0 (lA? 1.6t) llli 6.77 to.SM Is.:n
SYIIII'II\ 11I~lId loml {1lI1 (l

At point A both connections give the same head and flow and the system
characteristic must pass through this point and zero since there is no static lift. Till' r,inl'.ll' pllillp opt'fllll's lit point II:
At operating point A in Fig. 2.40 (' OJ1! III \ /~
3
Q = 0.48 m /s
H=9.75m 11 'ill
 ('IIAP'IHC
(1111111'1" l"Ipl'"1
~r~IREE 1111 hili" IlIlhllll'

1111I11'11I11"IIIt'/li1 tlpl.dfh: (I.O~ 0,4 I,ll ,1./,

HYDRAULIC TURBINnS "liI,,1I (1'11111
111"1111 (1111 IIKI 1700 HII ~(Kl lip I" 'IlHI
1\111\111111111 1"11Y1\!' (It WI ,~~ .\0 10
IInil dlll'll'III''y (""I 'll "1 1'1
11"/',1111111,,"
1I11'l'hllllhHII
SPIllI!' nozzle alld
IIdleelor plillc
(III"'"
VUIII'II
III"tI"
111"11/11'1'

t VPllN Ill' Ilxial now turbines cxist. lhesl~ hdn/\ the pwpellor and Kaplllll
IlII'hirw". Thc formcr has fixed bladcs wherea'}j Iht: lallcr has adjustahlc hllllh"j
'1'lIhlo ,1.1 sUllImaril',cs the head. powcr lind dficicncy valucs thaI 111'\' typh' il
hilt hy 110 mcans mllxima for cach type of lllrhim,.
A reversible pump -turbine call opm'at~~ as eithcr II PUIllP 01' II lurloilll
:llld iN IIsed in pump storage hydroelectric schmnes. At times of low Ch'1'I111 "V
dml1l1l1d (e.g. durin/'. the night) d1l1:lP ('h:lririly is osed to pump wah-I' 11,11)\
3.1 INTRODUCTION 1111, low to the high..level reservoir. This wah,r llIay then he used "mill/: Ill\'
.IllY 1'01' power gencration during pcak periods. when the unil !'IIW, ,HI II
Tur.bines are used for conve~ting hydraulic energy into electrical energy. The lorhi,"\ in the reverse direction.
capItal co~ts ofa hydroelectnc power scheme (i.e. reservoir, pipelines, turbines, ( )ne of the largest pump storage schemes in the world is at Cahin ( 'n'l'~
etc.) are higher than thermal stations but they have many advantages some ill ('olorado. where each turbine generat.es IC!C! MW with a head of ,\W III
of which are: ' III the sections that follow. each type of hydraulic turbine will he NllIdi,I',t
iIl:parlltely in terms 01' the velocity Iriangles. cflkiencies. reaction alld 1III'lltlld
1. High efficiency Ill'llperation.
2. Operational flexibility
3. Ease of maintenance
4. Low wear and tear
5. Potentially inexhaustible supply of energy
6. No atmospheric pollution Tlili Pelton wheel turnine is a (lure impulSle lurhine in which a jot of Ililid
iNsuilll', from a nozzle impinges on a succe:ssioll of curved huckels l'ixl'd II'
The main types of turbines used these days are impulse and reaction Ihe periphery of a WhIting wheel. liS in 1'il1~. ll. where four jets IIrc HhllWIt
turbines. The predominant type of impulse machine is the Pelton wheel 'I'ltl~ huckets deOct:t the jt:t Ihrough lI'n angk: uf hclwc 'n t (,0 lIlll
~hich is s.uit~ble for a range of heads of about 150-2000m. One ofthe larges~ t(l.~" in the same plane as the jet. lind it is Ilhe turning of the jel Ihllll'illl,'le\'i
smgle umts IS at the New Colgate Power Station, California, with a rating Ihe IlHllllentum change III' Ihe flilid :111<1 ils J"(eaclioll on the buckels. A hIH'~I:'
of 170 MW. Reaction turbines are of two types: is Ihen,l'ore pushed IIway by the jet IIlld llw II('XI IHI :h" IIloves rPlIlid til Ill"
silllilarly acted UpOIl. The spellt waleI' falls wl'Ilir:dly inl" lite IOWl"! f"'WI Villi
1. Radial or mixed flow or lailraex: alld lIlt" wltok clll'fgy 'r:'llsl~:r I'rllllH Itllzl',k olillel III 1:lill'nc!' IlIhl~,"
2. Axial flow plan' at 1:01\1;111111 jll\,SSlIr. ','igllrl' '1.~ slt",ws a IlIIW' 1'1.:1(1 111 wlwrl wilh ill.
hllChl'lI,
Of the radial flow type the Francis turbine predominates. a sinl~le unil at A dill/'nlill 1.1' 1I I'dloll wlwd hydl'od'dlll 1IIl<IIIIIulillil il: l,hllWII ill
Churchill Falls having a power output of 480 MW with a head of ,\ I:' Ill. Two "i". ,U, "'ItI' Will,', 1.IIJ1ply is u I'pnr.lllnlt .. ll\'lId 1'l":"I'Vllil' /II dl'vulit,1t IJ I
1'1'111/1

88
 Figure 3.2 Pelton wheel (cOl/rh's,\' '!I'
Escher Wyss Ltd)

Figure 3.1 Elements of a Pelton wheel turbine (courtesy of Escher Wyss Ltd)

above the centre-line of the jet. A shallow-slope pressure tunnel extends from Surge tank h,
the reservoir to a point almost vertically above the location of the turbine.
A pipe of almost vertical slope called the penstock joins the end of the
pressure tunnel to the nozzle, while a surge tank is installed at the upper
end ofthe penstock to damp out flow control pressure and velocity transients.
It is emphasized that, compared with the penstock, the pressure tunnel could Pressure tunnel
be extremely long, its slope is extremely shallow and it should undergo no
large pressure fluctuations caused by inlet valve flow control. The penstock H' H
must be protected against the large pressure fluctuations that could occur
between the nozzle and surge tank, and is usually a single steel-lined concrete
pipe or a steel-lined excavated tunnel. At the turbine end of the penstock
is the nozzle, which converts the total head at inlet to the nozzle into a
water jet with velocity C J at atmospheric pressure. I )illu:::m~ ~=-t-'-r:rJ'~rti"
The velocity triangles for the flow of fluid onto and ofT a single bucket are
shown in Fig. 3.4. If the bucket is brought to rest, then subtraclill/l. Ihe hucket
speed U J from the jet velocity C I gives the relative fluid vdndt,V WI Ollto the
bucket. The angle turned through by thcjd ill the hOl'i:l.\llltnllll/llw durill/\ ils lI'll~III'" ,I) 1"'111111 w);" \ hydroolcclric installalioll
passage over Ihe bucket SUl'r:H:~~ is ir a lid tIw rdll IiV\' I'X it yl'!'" II \ I. 1\'. Ir I hI' 1,\
r ", .'/:
I
I
I

jU,
I'

I' T ~
"
Theoretical

12 ('
"
I

\4---\ Actual

2J
V
C~

Figure 3.4 Velocity triangles for a

Pelton wheel

0.5 VIC.
hlldel speed .vector lI 2 is adqed to W]. in the appropriate direction, the Jil,:llrc 3.5 Efficiencies and jet speed ratio of a Pelton wheel
1I~,soh~le.veloclty a~ eXIt, C 2 , ~e~ults. It shollid be realized that the component
( \.\ 0.1 ( 2 can be In the posItIve or negative x direction depending on the
II III gIll (lide of U.
"rolll Euler's turbine equation (Eq. (1,24)) Fq, (11) becomes
E = V(C 1 - V)(I- k cos ex)/g
W/m= VIC"'J V 2 CX2
IIl1d sincc in this case C x2 is in the negativc x direction, where k is the relative velocity ratio W2 /W1
If the hydraulic efficiency is defmed as
W/m = V{(V + Wd + [W}, cos(180 - ex) - V]}
Energy transferred
AS:~lIming no loss of relative velocity due 10 friction across the bucket surface l1H = Energy available injet
(III', ' : W},), then
= E/(Ci/2g) (3.4)
W/m = V(W1 , WI cos ex)
Ihen if ex = 180, the maximum hydraulic efficiency is 100 per cent. In practice,
the deflection angle is in the order of 160-165 to avoid interference with
E = V(C I . 'lI)(1 - cosex)/g (3.1) the oncoming jet and l1H is accordingly reduced. Figure 3.5 shows the
Ihl~ 1I~lilS (~f E being watts per newton per sccond weight of flow. Iheoretical efficiency as a function of speed ratio. The overall efficiency is
I.qllatlon (11) can be optimized by dill'crentiating with respect to U. Thus Illwer than the theoretical as well as having a reduced speed ratio at maximum
el1iciency. This is due to pipeline and nozzle losses, which will be discussed
dE/dU =(I-coscx)(C1-2V)/g=O in a later section.
II,I' II maximum, and Ihcl1
J.2.1 Pelton Wheel Load Changes
Ilydralllic turbines are usually coupled directly to an electrical generator and,
u = ('1/2 (3.2)
since Ihc gencrator must run at a constant speed, the speed V of the turbine
mllsl rcmain constant when the load changes. It is also desirable to run at
Sllhsli(lI(ill~\ hack inlo I':q. (11) gives
IIlaxillllllll efficiency and therefore the ratio V /C I must stay the same. That
/';111"" ('i'( I ws rx)/4y (:1.3) is, Ihl~ jel velocity must not change. The only way left to adjust to a change
I
ill tIIl'hinc load is to change the input water power.
111 1"'II 'tip. SIII'I'lIl"l' I'rklioll 01' Ihl: hllt'kd is prcsellt 111111 H',. / II',. 'I'hrll 'I'hl' inplIt walcr powcr is given by the product pgQ II' hilt H' is constant
 Spell!' vlIlvc
",h"11 "SI'II':liwd IItI I,"" lit '"' 'I'V IIl'I 111111 wl'il'''l "I II"\\,, Nil\\'

!':mll','v:1I ,'lid "I'pipl\illl'

~FE::rJll _. I' i lldim; InIlH.IIII:lrli,ll1 ,'IIll'iI:IIl:Y ,
.. ~..
.~
::::: ~ ~ III
I ~IICI'/'.y lIvailahl\lllllWllll'Vt III'

High load Low load

II lid
Energy al nozzle ollllcl
NOi',i',le efficiency = . '
bnergy al nozzle IIlld
Deflector plate in
normal position
'" -<-
, '
,,
Bucket ~:\.
trajectory
\\

-.......,
Fully deflected jet

'"
III'

SII
liN = H'/(H I - "1') ::::: C~/20H (.\,/,)

. ~_:;;;:~:'i,~,..,,~;..,:_
::~~
.... _ Nozzle and pipe transmission efficiency = (H/H I )(H'/lI) ~ C;,/20H I
o Also
. . Actualjet velocity
Nozzle velocity coefficient = Th-'
eore t'IcaI'Je t ve IOCI'ty
Figure 3.6 Load control by a spear valve and deflector plate
Ill'
, \:/1
'I'hcrdore the nozzle ellkiency becomes
(and therefore C 1 ), and the only remaining variable is Q. The change in flow
rate is effected by noting that Q = CIA, where A is the nozzle area. Since C I tiN = C~/2{JH = C~ ,UI
is constant, then the cross-sectional area of the nozzle must change. This is The characteristics of an impulse turbine arc shown in Figs 3,7 alltl \ H
accomplished by a spear valve, which alters the jet cross-sectional area as These curves arc drawn for a constant head and it is seen that peak. pllwn
illustrated in Fig. 3.6. The position of the spear is controlled by a I\lId efficiency occur at about the same speed ratio for ~n~ gate openlllg 111111
servo-mechanism that senses the load change. For a sudden loss of load, a lhat the peak values of efficiency do not vary mUCh: Thl,s IS due to the I\ll/,/.II'
deflector plate rises to remove the jet totally from the buckets and to allow velocity remaining constant in magnitude and directIOn as the llo.w rail'
time for the spear to move slowly to its new load position. This prevents l:hanges, giving an optimum value of U/C I at a fixed speed. WlIldal\l'.
excessive overspeeding.

3.2.2 Pelton Wheel Losses and Efficiencies

'Ill -
Head losses occur in the pipelines conveying the water to the nozzle and are Constant head
composed offriction and bend losses. Losses also occur in the nozzle and these l!1l
are expressed in terms of a velocity coefficient Cv ' Finally there are windage
and friction losses in the wheel itself. The total head line is shown in Fig. " 70
3.3, where the water supply is from a reservoir at a head HI above the nozzle.
5
As the fluid moves through the pressure tunnel and penstock up to entry to hll
the nozzle, 'a frictional head loss hr occurs. A further head loss hin due to
losses in the nozzle takes pll:!.ce so that the head available for power generation
at exit from the nozzle is H':
N
H' = HI - ("1' + "in)
_. 1'11111 1'1' ,\ 'f 111111 It "' \ \'1 1I,11f. lillll.1 III VlIl'illllll 111I1,1.hJ !IIIIIIII,'"
_.' \r2/"/1
'I -
 1I1!10I '.111'1111111111', "1"111101 1111 "I", .. I II,,' ill."t. '. 'I'll\' 1'~;:ll'lIlilll dilli'l' 111'
NIIII.It. Ill' Ilhl~1 1111", (111111 11',1,111111 I,dltl IIl1d 11I11'"ltil' wlll'd i~llIHlI ill 1111' 1'111'1111'1' IIII' wIIIl'I.
p
I Hlldll <I Ilip,1I :111I11l' 111,101. hll~; III1 pn'lwlIlI' l'II1'I/'V II.IIHlI'III'IIII~d illtll ~i1wli\"
l'ill''1W ill II IIII'/./',m, whidl ill il:.e11' 1'II1'II1S pII1'1 III' Iltl~ 1'111111'. 'I'lwn~I'IlI'l~, NilH'I'
il :llillil' pn'lllllIn', dl'lIp 111'1'111"1, 111'1'11:<:; t111~ (1II'hilll' 1'111111', parI III' lhl: wllrk dlllll'
ltv 1111' IllIid 1111 the 1'1111111;1' is dill) III I'\,al'lillll 1'1'11111 Ihe pressllre drllp. alld
4 1'111 t ill dII" III II dHllIl',e ill killel k lH!Cq',\', wh idl l'\'pnlSI)nts a n impulse I'll lid illll,
1'11'.1111' \,111 II1\11WS a CI'IISS sl:l;lioll Ihl'llll/',11 :1 1,'l'lIlIds turbine. A typical 1'01111'
I'i 111:111 HhllWII.
5 'l'lw lolal III;ad 111'11\1: radial nllW IlIrhim; 1'lIIIges from about SOil dllwlI
III \11111. alld lhl~ dillll;lIsillllkss specific specd 1'1'0111 0.3 to 2.5 rad. The WlltlH'
III ~Il ,'lllnll II vIIIIIII: III' spil'lll cllsill/.'.. It tlK;1I passes through a row of Iixl,d
",llhk VIlIII'S follllwed hy adjustahk guide valles. the cross-sectional an,a
111'1 W,'\',II till' lIdjustllhle Vlllles heing varied 1'01' now control at part load. Th,'
Figure 3.8 PelIon wheel power oulpul Wllh~1' (hell pas~es illlllledialcly illio the rotor where it moves radially thl'llll/'h
N versus speed at various nozzle sellings
II... 1'111111' valll:S allli cxits I'I'I\Il\ thc rotor hladcs at a smaller diameter. anl'l
whil'll il IUI'IIS thl'l\u,.,h I)()" illto the dl'aft tube, The function of the dmft IlIhl
I:, Itl hrill/', thl: watl:r pn:ssllrc hack to tl1l1 prcssure of the tailrace, and dlllllll'
Ihi:1 prol:tlSS 10 I'ClllOVe Ihe killclic l;lIergy still cxisting at the runnel' IIuth I
100 III 11111111\ rlltlll's thl: work Irallsfcl' is al:complishcd not only while till' Wllh I
I:: IIIIIVill/,. r:,diallv hilt also in a part axial direction. This is dOli\' IIv 11
80
Illliidolls choke of rolOI' lksigll.
Constant head
IlIl:ollsid 'ring tile now through the runnel' of a radial flow turbilll' IIlld
II ... I hWl'clical allalysis wit h respect to the velocity triangles. the lmlll\'
40 1I1lHllillptions will hl" iliad, as I'llI' Ihe e 'ntrifugal pump. Figure 3.1 t show!i
II... tolal energy line through the complete system from supply reservoir tIl
20 III ill':Il:I:. Till: I'l'l:I' SlI rl'al'l' 01" till' rcservoir is often called the 'head water', '1'1\1'
IIl1id llxpcriencl's a I'ri'lilllllll head drop hl'll in the pipeline up to the inlet
lIallge 01' the turhine al point O. At this point the fluid enters the volute. tl\l'
o 25 50 75 100 Figure 3.9 Variation of Pelion
Percentage of full load wheel efficiency with load
hXI,d inlet guid\' vaill's and also the adjustable gil ide vanes, where a furthl'l
I'tktillnal head loss hll is experiellccd. Upon leaving the inlet guide VllIWli,
1III'I111id IlIOVCS into the runner where a frictional head loss hr takes plHlT
mechanical losses and variations in loss coefficients cause the small variations. while l;nerp'y is slIpplied to the runnel' and shaft. The total energy lilli'
In practice, one is usually more interested in the fixed-speed condition since d(In':I.'I'~ h) 1111: IH,ill( J where the Iluid exits from the draft tube with a
the generators run at constant speed. Figure 3.9 shows that the I"ridional head loss 11,1 occllrring in the draft tube, and a residual kincl1l'
variation of efficiency with load is slight, except at low loads where the I'IWI)',y \IlSS 1':1 !I :It Lxii I'rllill the draft tube, In considering the (lVl.'I'\I1l
decrease is due to changes in nozzle efficiency, and at high loads where the III I'hi Ill) dlidClicy. the inlet volutc and draft tuhl' lire considered to be partH
increased jet diameter gives rise to higher bucket losses. III' til\' IlIlhilll'.
Tht' 1111("( and outkt vdlll:ily triangll's 1'01' thc runner arc shown in I,'ig
\,I.' Tlil~: :ilwws the water Illllergil\!~ from the inlet guide vanes at I'Udius 1'\
3.3 RADIAL FLOW TURBINE wit h ahsolute velocity (' \. lit all angle (X I to the direction of rotatinll. Tit\'
11I1I1'1'I1Iial vdodty at inlet is III' and hy suhtracting U \ from ('. the I'daliv\'
The radial flow or Francis turbine is a reaction machine and. to achieve wl"l ilv V\'d"I' WI i~. IIhlt,ilil'd at :111 HII)',h- fll to Ihe direction of rlll:llillll,
reaction, the rotor must be enclosed by a casing to prevent dl:villtilln of the f'l It, "I'ill Ihl' inkl "iudI' i1I1/1lr 1'111 f.lllIl'k I'll'\' mtry, AI thc ontkl radi\l~ I."
 '" ,LJ Il
I j h",

Volute
/ Ih.
" h,.

Fixed guide vanes

Adjustable guide vanes
Runner Total
Draft tube energy
line
Support bearing ..
c::
0 H
II, .
"0
..>oi
0
~
(luide vanes

m0 I~
7.11

'I'1Ii11'11"C r ()1"lfltu~I,J __-\-_--_L-f-"'+~h.

(a)

101"1111' ,1.11 1;,llI'l'l',y tlislrihutioll through a hydraulic reaction turbine

C'I

",
~
',. I
II I

"'illlll'.' .1.l1I i\ "'1'11111'1:1 IIII'hllll' II'II/II""'~.I' 4 /';8c1/I'I' WY8S Ltd): (II) hydnll'h'I'II'il' hlllllllllliioll:
IIolllllhll1l' 11111111" Finure :U2 Velocity triangles
1l1l'II Francis (moine
IJIi
99

thc watcl' Ieavcs Ill' hillde al 1111/'11' /t, II' II" 1,1"/',11111.11 \T[(I, ily \,", Itll, llil
result,a,nt of W2 and (I), hell\/" 1I11' ,d':. II [lIl, lllllh'( vdodly (',~, TIll' !low
veloclttes Crt and Cr2 arc direch:d 10WllldN till' U1ij~j lit' 1'1I1ulion and alll f'.iVl'Il
by Q/2nr t b1 and Q/2nr 1 b2 respectively, whcl'\~ I, is 1111: hci~h( dthe runlWI"
Euler's turbine equation (Eq, (1.24)) givcs
E = W/mg = (V! C x! - V 2CX2)/Y (J/N) Cl,t)l
and E is a maximum when C x2 is zero, that is when the absolute and llllw
velocities are equal at the outlet.
I.'u/"III, All till' kll/"III i111'n'lI~w:l, 11,1 UlllO IIH'II'Wll'll, IIUti llilll'l' till' IIIW,k /11'
tlIV"I/',I'I\"I' ':lllllild IHII n,'I','d IIhOll1 H", (0 l'lltllll'l' lhlll ~qllll'lltillil of till'
III'llIldllry IlIym' dlll:S 1I11t OCl:III', thc dl'llrt tllhe l'ollid Iw vl:ry 111111'.. 'I'1\t1n~ ill
Ill/itl 1111 ';1111 1;1' limit 1111 thl: valuc or Z2 due to cavitation, and this is disl:ussl:d
III II 11111'1' ~wdion,
\..\.2 Turbine Losses
1'[1l' It I~SI:S ClIIlIlIlCl: al'ain be related in terms of an energy balance through I hl\
11I1'\lilw:

3.3.1 Net Head Across Reaction Turbine

whl:l'l~ I'", ,shaft power output, Pm = mechanical power loss, P, = nllltH:1'
The net head H across the turbine is the difference in the total hcnd \II'Wl;r loss. 1'0'-' casing and draft tube loss, PI = leakage loss and P =: wain
between the inlet flange and the tail water level. Gross head H! should not IIIIWI:1' lIvnilablc, Together, P, + Pc + PI is the hydraulic power loss,
be confused with net head. Thus Runner power loss P, is due to friction, shock at impeller entry anlln"w
Turbine total inlet head = Polpg + V~/2g + 2 0 :wplll'l\l ion, and results in a head loss hr associated with a flow rate through tilt,
and 1IIIlller 01' Q,:
Turbine total outlet head = P3/pg + V~/2g + 2 3 P, = pgQrh, (N m/s)
where the pressures are gauge pressures. Summing these, I.eakage power loss PI is caused by a flow rate q leaking past till: 1'1111111'1
Total head across turbine = (Po - P3)pg + (V~ - V~)/2g + (2 0 - 2 3 ) lIllli therefore not being handled by the runner. Thus
=H Q=Qr+q
But in the tailrace P3 is atmospheric and 2 3 is zero, Therefore ,,1111. wilh a total head H r across the runner, the leakage power loss becolllcs
H = (Po/pg + V~/2g + 2 0 ) - V~/2g (110)
PI = pgHrq (N m/s) (ll'/)
Also
H = H! - hfp - V~/2g (111 ) ('asing power loss Pc is due to friction, eddy and flow separation losse~,
ill t he casing and draft tube. If this head loss is he then
and the energy given to the runner by the water per unit weight of flow is
Pc = pgQhc (N m/s) (llHI
Wlmg =H - hd - hl-h r (112)
The total energy balance of Eq. (3.14) thus becomes
If the water discharged directly into the tailrace from the runner outlet
(:\.11))
the kinetic energy lost would be high. By fitting the draft tube between runne; pgQH = Pm + pg(hrQr + hcQ + Hrl1 + Ps )
outlet ~nd tailrace, a continuous stream of water is formed between the two,
Then we have
The taIlrace velocity is reduced because of the increase in cross-sectional
area of the draft tube, and, because the tailrace pressure is atmospheric, the Shaft output power
Overall efficiency = - - - - - ---
runner outlet pr~ssure must now be below atmospheric pressure. Applying Fluid power available at inlet flange
the energy equatlOn between the runner outlet and tailrace gives
Ill'
P21pg + VV2g + 2 2 = P3/pg + VV2g + 2 3 + hd (,\}II)

and putting P3 and 2 3 equal to zero IIlld

POw~~1' received by flllllwr
P2/pg = (V~ - V~)/2g - 2 2 + hd (:',13) Ilydraulic dl'iri 'IH'Y I,'\uid pow\' I n\l:tilnhk i1t inkt 111111",1'
There is a limit to the amount that V3 can be reduced becalll't' of Inhl'
 !
'III II'" I I'",I//i,//)II
'I'hl' It'II,1I (/'" l',~,}I/~,,(J1f Ill' Hq, I V I) HI tht' 111l~ordi~:ull'III~IY'y Inllltlli'r PCI'
1I1l1l W,'II\III .d Ihlld IllIw, 'l'IH~I'eflll'l' lllf II111xilllUill effkil;llcy
'III' II I <'... , II/If
,l.U ('hllrlld(~ris.k (:urvcs
( '1I1'Vl'H or wall:r pllwer inpul. torque exerted by lhe wheel. How I'll II:. el'lkimcy
IlIld Ilrllkc pllwer output for a conslant gate opening arc drawn in I"ig, 3. 11
. . In COIlIPll~'ison with the impulse wheel. the now rale is nil IOlger
IIllkPt~lllll:nlollhe wheel speed since there is now an unbrokcn How of water
dllwlI 10 Ihe laill'lll:c and changes within Ihe runncr alTl~cl Ihe How, or most
inlm"HI. however, is Ihe bchaviour of the turbinc al conslanl spced, sinl;cthe
/'\'nl'l':Ilor nlnH at a fixed spced. As the electrical load changes. Sll thc Dow
ral\' is dlllnll.cd by varialion of Ihe gate opening. From a set of ehllradllrstic
\'III'V,:H at difTercnl gale openings, Ihe constanl-speed characteristil: of Fig.
,1.14 IS l:tlnstructed, II is seen thai the head increases slighlly as the load is
d,~,;rcas~d due to the friction head loss, which, being proportional 10 Q!, is
kss at ,hghtcl' loads, It will also be noted thaI the eflkiency curve at conSlant
~'1wcd IS 11111 as nat liS I'or an impulse turbine.
Whcn a reaction turbine operating at constant speed experiences 1I bad
dl:ITI:IlSI:, thl: cross-sectional area betweell the inlet vanes changes and angb (X 1
i~
"Iuid pllwer input
~"',"'-'.
...., """'M"'~ _ _
1'11'1" rille.
. U
.~~. - ..........;:"...,.....::::::::::::---..
N(rpllll
1,'IHIIII' t 1.1 111,1,,111'11 IllIhllll' 1'1i1l1'll1'II'd,~lk,: III l'!III,\illi' 1'1"'11111/\
(.I ..'.I)
f~h U,V\ C1
)'111, "'IIII'
-
Head
Water power input
Brake power output
I"II~III'(' .1.14 Rea<.:lion turbine <.:haracteristics at constant speed but varying gate opening
dl~t:reases. The inlet runner area is constant and therefore to satisfy continuity
ll\(~ relative velocity WI must decrease. The result is that the flow onto the :'I':
rUllner is no longer shock-free and at exit C 2 may increase. This gives a
higher kinetic energy loss at runner exit as well as increasing the whirl
I:
t:nmponent C... 2 down the draft tube. The flow is then spiral in nature, which
del;rcascs the draft tube efficiency. The efficiency of a reaction turbine at light
Inads therefore tends to be less than that of the Pelton wheel, although the
desiv,1I maximum efficiency may be greater.
:4.4 AXIAL FLOW TURBINE
The energy distribution through an axial flow hydraulic turbine is the same
liS ill Fig, 3.11. However, the velocity triangles are markedly different since
thc Iluid is assumed to flow from blade inlet to outlet at a constant radius. I
A Kaplan turbine is illustrated in Fig. l15. The inlet guide vanes are fixed
IIlid arc situated at a plane higher than the runner blades such that the fluid
I
i
IlIlisttUrtl through 90" to enter the runner in the axial direction. Load changes
III'C c1Tected by adjustment of the runner blade angle. The function of the Ii
guide vanes is 10 impart whirl to the fluid so that the radial distribution of I',
vdocily is the sallie as in a free vortex, Since this type of turbine is used for
Inw heads alld high Ilow rates, the blades must be long and have large chords
fjn lhal Ilwy 111'1) strollg enough 10 transmit the very high torques that arise.
I'ih:h/dllll'lll'lltills 111'1 loS :Il'l~ typical rill' axilll now turbines and this results
ill 1\ 1'11111' riw III' Ni1\ hl:Hkd 1'\111111:1',
 , 'I ,I' ' I 11'\ I JI ...... , ..."'l ~,;:l

U2
"'1\111'1' .1.1(, Vdlldly lriangles for an axial flow hydraulic turbine
I. Spiral casing with fixed guide vanes
2. Adjustable inlet guide vanes
3. Transition passage If /i is conslant along the blade radius, and Ca is constant over the
4. Runner ,'rll:ls"seclional area, then as U 2 increases from hub to tip, V cot PI must
5. Draft tube dl'l'1l~lIse 10 keep Eg. (3.23) constant. That is, PI must increase from hub to

liil~lICl' :1I5 Axial now Kaplan turbine (courtesy of Escher Wyss Ltd) til' alld Ihe hlade must therefore be twisted. .. .
The characteristic curves for the axial flow Kaplan turbme are slmJlar
III Ihose or the radial flow turbine, and a comparison of the efficiencies of
The velocity triangles are usually drawn at the mean radius, since
I'lllldilions change from hub to tip, and are shown in Fig. 3.16. The flow lOll
vdlldly is axial at inlet and outlet and hence Crl = Cr2 = Ca' The blade Kaplan
vdodty vector V I is subtracted from the absolute velocity vector C I (which
1111 .
is III angle (Xl to V d to yield the relative velocity vector WI' For shock-free
('lIlry onto the runner, WI is at the blade angle PI' For maximum efficiency,
Illl~ whirl component C x2 is zero, in which case the absolute velocity at exit
is lIxial, and then C2 = Cr2 Euler's turbine equation (Eq. (1.24)) gives
E = U(C x1 - Cx2 )/g (J/N)
lIlId 1'111' zero whirl at exit Propeller (fixed blade)

(3.22)
Nllw

Ill1d llln'lilre
I I I
.'0 111 (,(j till 100 liil\Ure 3.17 Conlparison of hy-
(123) III 1t1lillqfl lil ,II 11".11 I'0Wfl dl'llnlil: turhine I'Ilkh'I\I:k~
-~~-~~~~~-~--~~~~- -~---

1111 '11'1""'" lillli (\\1. 1 '" ili 11"11 I J

j' <I 1'\iI Ip"d I
II' ,11""'11 III 1111' t I (1/
lit, 11,1" IIii' '1IIpid". 11111' I i III' ''', \ "1, I i I liill, Ii 111111,'1 .I/IIHlllldl fl" I'" 'I" II...
11111\111111111 l'lli, I\"".\' ", I'J\\, I lit, 1"111' I IlItI'ill' IWill,:1 lit 1111' 111,.,111":.1
l'lIil'il~III''y 11111 l'allN off l'IIpidly III PIIIJ ""hi , IIlIt till I': IIplall (1II'1Iilll' IIIW II
11111\'11 nllilcl' Cllrvl~ I hall Ilw 1'1'11111'111 II lid , \" Ii 'II', H '.I III dol" 11111 Xillllllll dlidt'IIl'V,
'1'111: advalliage of adjustable IIladl'l: 1111 IIII' 1\ IIplall (IIrhille is showlI I;v
I'll/llparilll-\ il wilh the curve for a nXI,I.. III11lh~ propdler lurbine (also sllow;.
II
in "i!", 117).

III

.1.5 CA VITATION IN TURBINES

Tllrbine cavitation occurs on the suction surfaces of the blades, at the runnel'
olltlel. where the static pressure is a minimum and the absolute velocity high,
All hough it has little if any effect on the performance of the turhine since it
Ol;curs after the runner, it should be avoided if at all possible. Referring again
10 I~q, (3.13), as the outlet velocity V2 increases then P2 decreases and has its
lowest value when the vapour pressure is reached. At this pressure cavitation
hegins, and putting P3 equal to Patm and P2 equal to PVlIP' Eq. (3. t 3) becomes
[(Vi - V~)/2g] - hd =(Palm - PVlIP)/NJ - 2 2 (3.24)
Division of Eq. (3.24) by the net head across the turbine gives the Thoma
cavitation parameter for the turbine:
U = [(Patm - Pvap)/pg - 2 2 ]/ H = (N PSH)/H (3.25)
The critical value of NPSH at wnich cavitation occurs is determined
from a test on a model or full-size machine in which P2 is decreased until
the minimum value at which cavitation begins or the emciency suddenly
decreases is found. Knowing 2 2 and H it is easy to compute the critical
value U e, which is the value below which u, as given by Eq. (3.25), for any
other similar machine of the same homologous series must not fall.
Equation (3.25) shows that the maximum elevation of the turbine above
lhe tailrace is given by
2 2 = (Patm - p",p)/pg - ucH (3.26)
Jo:quation (3.26) indicates that, as the aet head is increased, so the turbine
elevation above the tailrace must be recreased. For an excessive net head,
'/.;~ might be negative, which implies Ihat excavation would be needed to
place the turbine below the level of the tailrace.
The dependence of U e on the dimensionless specific speed and thus on the
design of the turbine is shown in Fig. 3.18 where turbines of high N. huve
II high (Tc und must therefore be set bwer than those of smaller Nil' The
similarity relationships used for pump; in connection with cavitalion may
IIlso he IIsed for turbines.
111"1
1111:
1101 I I
0,0\ I 2 4 8
N )( 10- 1 (rcv) Figure 3.18 Cavitation limits for reaction turbines
"
1,1 II 1',,'ncl'Illor is 10 be driven by a small Pelton wheel with a head of 91.5 m at inlet to the nozzle
Illill Itllldlllrgl~ of 0.04 m3/s. The wheel rotates at 720rpm and the velocity coefficient of the
lillI/I,' hi O.IJH, If lhe efficiency of the wheel (based on the energy available at entry to the nozzle)
h flO p"r ccnt and the ratio of bucket speed to jet speed is 0.46, determine the wheel-to-jet-diameter
1111111 III Ihc centre-line of the buckets, and the speed of the wheel. What is the dimensionless
plllwr Ilpedfic speed of the wheel?
1,1 II reservoir with a height of 280 m is connected to the powerhouse of a hydroelectric plant
1111 1I111\h Ihree pipes each 2.5 km long and with friction factor 0.006, in which the head loss is
11111 III llxceed 34 m, It is a requirement that a total shaft output of 18 MW be developed, and
III nchicve lhis it is decided to install a number of single-jet Pelton wheels, each with a
din",nsillnless specific speed not exceeding 0.23 rad. The ratio of bucket speed to jet speed is
1I..l1l. while lhe wheel speed is to be 650 rpm. If the nozzles have a discharge coefficient of 0.94
Iliitl vclllcily coefficient of 0.96. and assuming that each wheel has an overall efficiency of 87
p"r I'Illlt, lind
(al Ihe number of Pelton wheels required,
(h) Ihe wheel diameter,
(cl lhe jet nozzle diameter and
(tI) lhe diameter of the supply pipes.
,1..1 The hllckets of a 'Pelton wheel ddlll,;1 Ihe jet through an angle of 170, while the
,,'llIlive' velocily of the waler is reduced hy I:~ pcr cent due to buckel friction, Calculate
III\' Ihcllrctical hydraulic efficiency from Ihel vdoclty lrian~lcs for a bucket/jet speed ratio of
11..1'1, IllIder II gross head of IIOt) III Ihe whl','l ,(e'\'I'I"p" 1:!50 kw when Ihe loss of head due to
pip, frldion hetwcen 1111\ n'~li'rv"ir and 1I11ok lu,lIllil. TIll' hlll'klli cirdc dialllcter of Ihe wheel is
 Ihl 11"11'111111,, Ihl 11111101 "",.1, "I 1111'1111"1' hhllh! il' Ih" whirl cOlllp"nent at outlet is zero.
900mm and there un' IWII 1"1", 'I'h,' 111I:;1i \, h.. Ii Iii I' 'II I II'IB, Hud Ih" 111",,'d ,,1'1'''lullllll I' I C '1I1o'1l11l1o' Ilw Ih"1I11'111'II1 1"1\\'1'1 Illllpill il' till) whirl III inlet nnd outlet IS the same at
of the wheel and tlH' ,lIulIH'11'I' "I' th,' 1111"1,, ,I II!. ", ill,,1 Io\dlllul'" 1'1111'1,,119 III 0,'1 tlllll1l1 thlll
calculated above, .llIllldll.
'II II hv,li IInlir t IIrhlnll Iii d":lll'.neoi 10 I'lln III lOO I'pm ulldel' a net head of 50 m and to pro~u~e
3.4 An electricity 1\1111"1'11111111 illSIIlIlIlII"1I W" II l'I,'Utl', 11111011\1' wllh II mlillionut sJlt.:ed of
'f\lW III pllW"!'. The nllllll~1' ollliid velocity nl' the nuid is expecled 1,0 be 10.4m/s and It ~s
1260rpm, The nlll IWlld lI<;roSS Ihe turhillll I; I 0,1111 II iii I II", V"llIlIlll Ilow ratc is 0,5 111 "/s, The
1'IIII'"woI 10 lIillllll\: Ihe runner OUIlet at a height or 6m above Ihe taJlra~e. The atmosp~enc
radius of the I'lIlIlItll' ill 0,11 Ill, the heigh I of tl'" 1'111111"1 Vlliles III illlel is 0,03 m and the angle of
I" ,,,,"1111' j,1I'qllivlllclllln 1ll,3 m ol'waler and the saturation pressure ofwaterts4 kPa. Determme
the inlet guide Vlliles is sci at 72 from the rlldlill ,1I1'1:1:lion, Assuming that the absolute now
velocity is mdilll III exil, lind the torque und power exerted by the water, Calculate III) Whl:lhlll' Cllvitation is likely 10 occur, .'
the hydraulic efficiency, (h) IIII' Iltllililll\ height of thc runner outlet if ~avitation is to.be !ust.a~olded and r
10'1 IIII' III:IIIIIIISS belwcen runner outlel and lallrace when caVitation IS Just about to occu .
3.5 An inward Ilow rudial turbine has an overall efficiency of 74 per cent. The net head H
across the turnine is 5,5 m and the required power output is 125 kW. The runner tangential 1'11110'111 "lIvilutilln parameters are given below:
velocity is 0,97(2(///)1/2 while the flow velocity is 0.4(2gH)I/2. If the speed of the runner is 230 rpm
with hydraulic losses accounting for 18 per cent of the energy available, calculate the inlet N"III'vl Il 1l,Il49 0,096 0.144 0.192 0,24
guide vane exit angle, the inlet angle of the runner vane, the runner diameter at inlet and the P,
Il tUM 0,1 0,18 0.28 0.41
height of the runner al inlet. Assume that the discharge is radial.
3.6 A Francis turbine has a diameter of l.4m and rotates at 430 rpm. Water enters the
runner without shock with a flow velocity (C .> of 9.5m/s and leaves the runner without
whirl with an absolule velocity of 7 m/s. The difference between the sum of the static
and potential heads at entrance to the runner and at the exit from the runner is 62 m. If the
turbine develops l2250kW and has a flow rate of 12m 3/s of water when the net head is S( )I,llTIONS
115m, find
(a) the absolute velocity of the water al entry to the runner and the angle of the inlet li:'t'rl'isl~ 3.1 Overall efficiency
guide vanes,
(b) the entry angle of the runner blades and Power developed
(c) the head lost in the runner. '10 = Power available
3.7 An inward flow vertical shaft reaction turbine runs at a speed of 375 rpm under an available
net total head from inlet flange to tailrace of 62 m. The external diameter of the runner is 1.5 m P = pgQHf/o
and the dimensionless power specific speed based on the power transferred to the runner is = 10 3 X 9,81 x 0.04 x 91.5 x 0.8
0.14rev. Water enters the runner without shock with a flow velocity of 9m/s and leaves the
runner without whirl with an absolute velocity of 7 m/s. It discharges to the tailrace with a Power developed = 28,72kW
velocity of 2.0m/s. The mean height of the runner entry plane is 2m above the tailrace level
while the entrance to the draft tube is 1.7 m above the tailrace, At entrance to the runner the Vdllcily coefficient
slatic pressure head is 35 m above atmospheric pressure, while at exit from the runner the static C1
pressure head is 2.2 m below atmospheric pressure. Assuming a hydraulic efficiency of 90 per C=---
v (2gH)1/2
cent, find
(a) the runner blade entry angle, C1=0.98(2 x 9.81 x 91.5)1/2
(b) the head lost in the volute casing and guide vanes, in the runner and in the draft tube and
(c) the draft lube entry diameter. =41.52m/s
.1.11 An axial flow hydraulic turbine has a net head of 23 m across it, and, when running at a
:lllCCd of 150 rpm, develops 23 MW. The blade tip and hub diameters are 4,75 and 2.0 m U =0.46C 1
n'sllCclively. If the hydraulic efficiency is 93 per cent and the overall efficiency 85 per cent,
= 0.46 x 41.52
I'ukiliule Ihe inlet and outlet blade angles at the mean radius assuming axial flow at outlet.
.\,11 A Kaplan turbine operating under a net head of 20m develops 16000kW with an overall = 19,1 mls
dlkicncy of 80 per cent. The diameter of the runner is 4.2 m while the hub diameter is 2 m and
IIH' dimensionless power specific speed is 3 rad. If the hydraulic efficiency is 90 per cent, calculate
Ih,' Inlo't und exil angles of the runner blades at the tip and at the hub if the flow leaving the
IIllInN Is purely axial, u = roD where D is wheel diameter

I
,Uti 1\11 II.\ial 0011' lurbine wilh lip and hub diamelers of 2,0 and 0,8 m respectively I'lltaies at
2
,"'II'Ilill, I'hl' IlIl'hilll' is Iitted with fixed slator blades upslream of tbe rotor 111101 III Ihn IIleun
~ x 19,1 x GO
,IIIlIIII'h11' 1111",(' III" sci ,,142" lnlhe direclion of hlade rotalion, Alsn, ul 111111111'1111 "lilllll'h',1' Ulltl
1111'11'11111'" 1'111111 111\' dm;.:!illil of hlutl\l rolalioll, Ihe hillde IIl1lde ul illll'lllI 1111" 'I.'ll ' ;l,'n:
(I') """1111111/',,, ,'''",llIIlIIlXilll vuln'ily nero!-': I Ill' :III1II1I1I1I,whllll:l till' 11o0l\' 1'110' 1111 \Vhi! h Ih,>
11111110' ,'I' Ii" I, kill t' ,d' IIll' I'llllll' hladl'll ill l,I'I'II'1 t I ',11/111
\
 HYDRAULIC TURBINES 111
IIU HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOMACHINES

Jet area p = (0.23 X 60)2(9.81 X 246)5/2 x 1000

A = Q/C 1 211: x 650
0.04 = 3266kW
---
41.52 Total power output
N urn ber 0 f whee1s = Power per machme
.
=0.963 x 10- m 2
3

and jet diameter

18 X 106
_(4A)I/2
d- - = 3.266 X 106
11:
= 5.51 (say 6 machines)
= (4 x 0.96~
3
X 10- Y/2
(b) Nozzle velocity coefficient
=0.035m
Diameter ratio C = C1
D 0.507 v (2gH)I/2
-=--
d 0.035 Jet velocity
C 1 = 0.96(2 x 9.81 x 246)1/2
= 14.5
= 66.7m/s
Dimensionless power specific speed is given by Eg. (1.20): Bucket speed
Np l / 2 U = 0.46 x 66.7
N =-'---
sp pl/~(gH)s/4 = 30.7m/s
3
Wheel diameter
= 720 x (28.72 X 10 )1/2 x ( 1 )5/4 60 xU
60 103 9.81 x 91.5 D=--
1I:N
= 0.0131 rev
60 x 30.7
= 0.0131 x 211: rad
11: x 650
Power specific speed = 0.082 rad
= 0.901 m
, A check with Fig. 1.10 shows this value of Nsp to be within the range for a
Pelton wheel. (c) Overall efficiency

Exercise 3.2 (a) From Eg. (1.20) we get the power specific speed for each wheel Shaft power developed
Npl/2 '10 = Power available per wheel
N sp = pl/2(gH)5/4 where N is in rpm 18 x 106
Power per wheel = - - -
A vailable head 0.87 x 6
H = Gross head - Head loss
l44H MW
= 280 - 34 Abo
=246m I'\I\VI'I II VlIllllhk 11I~1' wheel' : O.S mC~
Availllhk POW\)!' P\)I' WIIl.',1 o.~"(,(~,,I/)C .~'
 t~ Ii\t,
Thus
I- "'4 ~I
and flow rate
~ ~- ~
.. u'
~

I~ ~'/l ~_ . , J 1'/0"

Discharge coefficient

C _ Actual nozzle discharge

d - Theoretical nozzle discharge
rrd 2 (2gH)1 /2 Q
= where d is the nozzle diameter (J
4 Cd
1'11"11\ \.Ie, IlIkl vdlldly Irialll~lc

d= (~:~: : : yl2 x [(2 x 9.81 ~ 246)25 ]

Nozzle diameter d = 0.174 m 1':\I'l'd~l' :1.3 l'igure 119 illustrates thc system with Ihe velocity t rilllll'kh.
1'1 "III 1':'1. (14)
(d) Total discharge for six machines = 1.55 x 6
.. Power outpul
=9.3m 3/s Ilydrauhcefficiency =_. ,....
Energy available injcl
Total discharge or flow per pipe = 9.3/3
W
=3.1m 3/s = 0.5mC~
The frictional head loss in the pipe is given by
/\1 c'lllry to nozzle
2
h = 4flv
r H =600-48
2gd
=552m
where v is the flow velocity and d the pipe diameter. Whence
N"u.lc velocity coefficient
d = 4 x 0.006 X 2500v 2
2 x 9.81 x 34 C = Ct _
v Theoretical velocity
=0.09v 2 m
But 1 C
2
=---=--
(2gH)1 /2
rrd
Q=vA=v-
4 Thlls
and substituting for v C 1 = 0.98(2 x 9.81 x 552)1 12
= 102m/s
Netw
and WIlli (lIC\.,-U 2C,2
d 5 = 1.4 /I{(tJ I Wd I (J W]. ells (IMO" IX) I}
d = 1.07m r'l ' I (1)( 1 keos IXII

\
where Wz ' ,kW,. Suhstituting 1'01' thl' liylllitolt;
W/m=0.47C 1(C , 0.4'l('d(1 O.HHcos 170") '/' ,m(1' " C~2 . 1'1 C.d )
W = 0.465mC;.
11,'1 IdlH:ll the flllw is radial at outlet, C"z = 0 and therefore
Theoretical hydraulic efficiency = 0.465/0.5
T= -mrlC xl
=0.93
= -pQrlC xl
Actual hydraulic efficiency = 0.9 x 0.93 = - t0 3 x 0.5 X 0.6Cxl
=0.837 = -300Cxl Nm
Wheel bucket speed 1'11,' iukl urea A is
v = 0.47 x 102 m/s
Wheel rotational speed A,; 2nl' I hi where b 1 is the inlet runner height
N= 0.47 x 102 x 60 ;'; 2n x 0.6 x 0.Q3
0.45 X 27t , ;0.113 m Z
= 1017rpm l\low nllw velocity Cr I is given by

ffi' Actual power developed Crl = Q/A

ActuaI hydrauIIC e IClency = ----=-------=:....--
Energy available in jet 0.5
=--
0.837 = 1250 x 10
3 0.113
0. 5mC i = 4.42m/s
Substituting for C I and solving for the mass flow rate
1250 x 10 3 Cxl = tan 72
Crl
m- ~-;:;-;;---;~--:-~
- 0.837 x 0.5 x 102 2 = 4.42 x 3.08
= 287kg/s = 13.6m/s

Hence for one nozzle ~;lIhNlilllling for C,d gives

T= - 300 x 13.6
m = 143.5 kg/s
Also from continuity = -4080Nm
m=pClA where A is the nozzle area I'ltifl is the torque exerted on the control volume (i.e. on the fluid). The
pC 7td z 1111'11 1I(~ exerled by the fluid is +4080 N m and is the torque exerted on the
= 4l where d is the nozzle diameter IlIllllel'.

and hence Torque e~erted by water on runner = 4080 N m.

d2 = 143.5 x 4
7t x 102 X 10 3 I'IlWI)1' ()xcrlcd

= 1.792 x 10- 3 m2 W=Tw

d=42.3mm 4080 x 2n x 1260
60
Exercise 3.4 The angular momentum equation may he us()d. ,~:1H kW
 Hydraulic elliciellcy I',
11"111 willi h Ill .''' III I',IV\' f hI' Itll\\k 11111',1,' III Wi ( 11<11" III "I '1 I If'
PlIWCI'I1,\I"Il,d \\'11 II ", ( '" '
11.. = H1111111'1" 1l1'1'1'I1
~ Power availahle
/In,N
538 x 103
(,0
pgQH
CIO x o.n x (2 x I).XI x 5.5)1/.\
538 x 103
=--:~------ n x 23()
10 3 x 9.81 x 0.5 x 124
= 0.885 1(111111,1 illid dilllllcler' . ().H36m
= 88.5 per cent
( )vl"I'lIl1 dlkicllcy
Exercise 3.5 Figure 3.12 shows the velocity diagrams at inlet and outlet. Power output
Hydraulic efficiency 'I : - : . _ - -
" Power available
Power given to runner "~I
'1" =- - - - - - - - 125 X 10 3
Power available PIIQII : .:
0.74
m(UIC..,1 - U 2C..,2)
=
pgQH
But since the flow is radial at outlet, C..,2 is zero and m equals pQ. Therefore 125 X 10 3
UIC..,I
Q"" 0.74 X 103 x 9.81 x 5.5
'1"=--
gH =3.13m 3/s
0.82 = 0.97(2gH)1/2C"'1
gH
whence

Now
C..,l = 0.423 (2gH)1/2 " I
3.13
-- n x 0.836 x 0.4(2 x 9.81 x 5.5)1 12
tan (Xl = Crt/C..,I lleight of runner ~ 0.287 m
= 0.4/0.423
from which inlet guide vane angle K.... rt'isl :l.() t lse the notation of Fig. 3.12.
(II) l(ullllcr tip speed
(Xl = 43.4 0
nND
tan PI = Crt/W..,I U1 =60
n x 430 x 1.4
= _._--~--

60
0.4 ,-"' 31.5 m/s
= 0.423
-::-:--:-:----:--::-:::c
- 0.97 lill\Wf niwll III l'UIIIWI'
:=: O.73J
W III ( (I, ( '" (I.\l'.....l

\
113 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOMACHINES
HYDRAULIC TURBINES 119

But ex2 = 0 since there is zero whirl at outlet. Hence lienee loss of head in the runner
3
C = ~ 12250 X 10 x 60
X1
103 x 12 x 71: x 1.4 x 430
= 32.4m/s 1111\
Guide vane angle
(PI ~P2) + (2 1_ 2 2) = 62m

2
33.8 _72) (31.5 x 32.4)
Head loss in runner = 62 + ( 2 x 9.81 - 9.81
= tan-1(~)
32.4 - 13.69m
= 16.3 0

":xcrcise 3.7 (a) From Eq. (3.21) the hydraulic efficiency is given by
Inlet velocity.
Power transferred to runner
C1 = 2
(C ,1 + 2 )1 / 2
Cxl '7H = Power available
= (9.5 2
+ 32.4 2)1/ 2 Power transferred to runner = pgQH'7H
= 33.8m/s = W'7H
(b) Illli from Euler's turbine equation (Eq. (1.24))

W V C
1 X1 - V C
2 X2
9.5 E =- = --=--=-='------=---"'=
=---- mg 9
32.4 - 31.5 '1'III~rcfore

= 10.55
whence
Runner blade entry angle PI = 84.60 111111 ('x2 = O. Hence
0.9 x 9.81 x 62
C"l=-----
(c) Total head across runner VI
= Energy (head) transferred to runner + Head lost in runner

At inlet 7I:ND
U 1 =--
60

At outlet = n x 375 x 1.5

.~

60
:'" 29.45 m/s
Thl'n~"\lI'C
Now for zero whirl at outlet 0.1) x I).X I x 62
('" I
w .. V 1C.<1 ~I)AS

111(/ (/

\
 The velocity triangle is tIWI'du ... IHI 1"111\\111 ill I"i,~, 1..'0 wilh II, . (.\ I'
',b 1111111111' VlIl1l1'rl

(._ 1'1,' )
W" II, (',\'I \3 b I .1. 'IHI I ' 11',,,,,,,,1
= 29.45 ' ,. I X.5X
= 1O.86m/s h""s.1 =: 62 ~H:I.'.
tan (PI - 90) = Wx1 /C r1 I kal! losl incasing = 3.27m
10.86
=-- 1111 !"til' Ihl~ IlIss in Ihe runner, apply the steady flow energy equatilln
9
III hlil"ll \u,illts I alllJ 2:
= 1.21 m/s 2
/', I 1'.'I I Z I :
1" + V,-~, + Z2 + hlos 2 + Work (head) given

to runner
PI - 90 = 50.4 s
Entry angle /',1 .',/ 1'1/ 2~J '

I II
I W _. UtC xl
(b) (i) Fo: the volute casing and guide vane loss, apply the stead flow 1111/ 1/
energy equatIOn between points 0 and 1: y 29.45 x 18.58
.-
Po V~
2 9.81
PI V
-+-+ZO=_+_1 +Z +h
pg 2g pg 2g 1 loss, 1 ~ 55.8m
i Now VI = C I and / II' II 101'11
I
I
1
1

q = C~I + C;I
I,
I",,, /,
,(35 + 2~_26.2
x 9.81
+ 2) _ (_ 2.2 + 7 + 1.7) - 55.8
2 x 9.81
2

I I,
= 18,58 2 + 92
5K.72 - 2.0 - 55.8
= 426.2 m2/ S2
R\Inner head loss = 0.92 m of water
I, {11I1 Applying the steady flow energy equation between points 2 and :I:

I' P2 +
pg
V~
2g
+ 2 = P3 + V; + 2 + h
2 pg 2g 3 1018,3
29.45
lhlll' \ hi atmospheric pressure (zero gauge) and 2 3 is the datum level, WIWIIII'
18.58
h
1088,3
= 2.0 - (0 + 2
2.0 +
2 x 9.81
0)
9
= 2.0-0.204
1Icad loss in draft tube = 1.8 m

(rl I>imcnsionles's power specific speed from Eq. (1.20) is

~u Npl 12
N"" = I' 1/2(1/ 11)~/4'
Figure 3.20 Velocity triangle at inlet

\
 HYDRAULIC TURBINES 123
__ "'"""".I~ "."1--' ,.vn'.II\.~IDLt:. rLUW rUKUUMACHINES

p 1/2= 0.14 X (10 3 )1/2 X(9.81 X 62)5 14 X 60 Exercise 3.8 Mean diameter
375 d =D+d
m 2
=2140
P=4578kW (this is the power delivered to the runner) 4.75 + 2
Thus = 2
3
0.9 = 4578 X 10
pgQH = 3.375m
Flow rate Overall efficiency
4578 X 103 Power developed
Q = 103 X 9.81 X 62 110 = Poweraval'1able
= 7.53m 3/s . 23 X 106
Avallable Jower = - - -
Flow rate . 0.85
FI ow area = - - - - -
Flow velocity =27MW
Also
=-Q since C2 = C,2
C2 Available )ower = pgQH
and at exit from the runner the flow area may be written in terms ofthe runner 27 x 106 = 103 x 9.81 x 23Q
exit diameter and runner height b2 : Whence flow rate
1td zb2 = Q/C z
where dz is the draft tube entry diameter. Now the runner height at entry bl is Rotor speed at mean diametel
given by
u = 1tNdm
m 60
1t X 150 x 3.375
=---,.---
7.53 60
1tx1.5x9 = 26.5m/s
=0.178m Power given to lunner = Power available x 11H
Also
= 27 x 106 X 0 93
bl
bz =2+--1.7 =25.11 MW
2
= 2 + 0.089 -1.7 11111 theoretical power given tc runner is from Eq. (1.24)

=0.389m W= pQUmC.d (C x2 =0)

Substituting for bz we get 25,11 x to e,:=: 10' X 119.7 X 26.5C xl

2~,11 X lOt>
d _ 7.53 ( '.\ I
2 - 1t X 0.389 X 7 10\ .", 119,9 X 2(,5

Draft tube diameter

- = .0.88 m '/.lIlli/I,

---
124 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOMACHINES HYDRAULIC TURBINES 125

Axial velocity Therefore

G = Qx4 . 16000 X 10 3
o 1I:(D2 _ d 2 ) Avallable power = - - - -
0.8
119.7 x 4 = 20 000 kW
11:(4.75 2 _ 22 ) Also
= 8.21 m/s Available power = pgQH
Therefore
From the inlet velocity triangle
20000 X 103
tan (180 - /3d = Co Q = 103 x 9.81 x 20
Vrn -C"1
= 101.9m 3 /s
8.21 Power given to impeller = Power available x '1H
=---
26.5 -7.9
= 20000 X 10 3 x 0.9
Inlet blade angle /31 = 156.2
= 18000 x 103 kW
Now from Eq. (1.24) the power transferred per unit mass flow is
At outlet
tan /32 = CoIW"2 Wlm = V 1C"1 - V 2C"2
But W"2 equals V rn since C"2 is zero. Hence lind putting C"2 = 0 since at exit flow is purely axial, and writing VI in terms
or the radius at the blade tip, i.e. at 2.1 m, ,,~,... r
8.21
tan /3 2 = - 18000 x 10 3 = 17.41 x 2.1 x 10 3 x 101.9 X C"1
26.5
C"1 =4.8m/s
Outlet blade angle /32 = 17.2
Mean flow velocity

Exercise 3.9 Using Eq. (1.20) for power specific speed, Co = 11:(;2 ~ :2) where D and d are tip and hub diameters

Npl/2
N =----:--::-----::- where N is in rad/s 101.9 x 4
sp pI / 2(gH)5/4
11:(4.2 2 _ 22 )

N=3x( 10
3
)1 /2(9.81 X 20)5/4 = 9.51 m/s
16000 X 10 3
1111I1Il Fig. 3.16
= 17.41 rad/s
W"1 = U - C"1 at the blade tip
17.41 x60 =(17.41 x 2.1)-4.8
= 211: rpm
= 31.8 m/s
= 166.3 rpm nud
Overall efficiency lun (IHO" <c/I tl' -, C"IW'1
Power developed ')51
'10 = Poweraval'1a ble ,\ t.H
 At r = 2.1 m .' '"nl'lt,tlll (II) TIll' nllw ml!" ir. 1'1111'1111111.1 III lIlt IIltilll dlllllll*~r 111111 1/11
Inlet angle III ~ 16.14" II ""ltv lllllll,'kr: 1I11'i". ,1.111 lin IlHl~11.
l\kllll c1illl1l1~ll~r
J)ld
At r = 2.1 m dill'
2
W x2 =U (since flow is axial at exit)
2 +0.8
= 17.41 x 2.1 =
2
= 36.6mjs
and . = 104m
tanP2 = C,,!Wx2
nNdrn
9.51 :--

=36.6 60
At r= 2.1 m n x 250 x 1.4
=:----
Outlet angle P2 = 14.so 60
:. : 18.33 m!s
At the hub, r = 1m
II "Ill llw inlet velocity triangle
W X1 = 17.41-(4.8 x 2.1) Um = C,,[cot (Xl + cot (180 - PdJ
= 7.33m!s
Whence C __ 18.33
(180 - Pd = tan- l(~:l) ,,- Cot 42 + cot32
18.33
=----
_ _ 1(9.51) 1.11 + 1.6
- tan 7.33
At r= 1 m = 6.76m!s
Inlet angle PI = 127.6
C"n(D 2 - d2 )
Q= - since C" is constunt
At r= 1m 4
Wx2 =U 6. 76 X n(2 2 - 0.8 2)
=-
= 17.41 m!s 4
Whence

P2 = tan -l( 9.51 )

17.41
= 17.84m 3js
(lIll,'rom the outlet velocity triangle
At r= 1 m
Outlet angle P2 = 28.6 tanP2 = C,iU m
6.76
= 18.33
The point to note in this problem is that we have assllllwd the energy
transfer across the annulus to remain constant lind Ihlll 1/11' axial now
velocity remains constant. Ii .~().24'
128 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOMACHINES HYDRAULIC TURBINES 129

(c) The theoretical power is calculated by determining the energy transfer 11.5 ~--------------..,
through an annulus of thickness ~r and integrating between the hub and tip
radii for the total theoretical power.
From Eq. (1.24) 0.4

W= m(UCX1 - UC x2 ) ,.,
I'
But CX2 is zero and CXl is constant and writing m and U as functions of the r1lu
radius we get for an annulus of thickness dr: t;,
I'

a
2XNr) C
dW= pC (2nrdr) ( 6() x1 o.~
t'.
Integrating ,.
2
w=Pc an NC X1 !1 2d ,l , 11.1
15 r r
0.4
3
= 10 X 6.76 X x x250 x6.76 xcot 42 [r
2 3 Jl
Ow.::::----:.L,.,.--~-__:~-----:*-~
15 3 0.4 n 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Dimensionless specific speed, N. (rev)
= 8348(0.333 - 0.0213) 103
Theoretical power = 2602 kW . 11';'11'(' 3.21 Critical cavitation parameter

If the power is calculated at the mean diameter

W=mUmCxl
= 103 x 17.84 x 18.33 x 6.76 x cot 42 11\1' dWlracteristics are plotted in Fig. 3.21 and it is seen that cavitation wiJI
11 1 "11 r.
= 2455kW lh) The limiting height above the tailrace for no cavitation is when
The difference is 6 per cent. i', 0.\. Solving for 2 2
4 X 103
Exercise 3.11 (a) Dimensionless power specific speed is given by Eq. (1.20) 50 x 0.1 = to.3 - J - 22
9.81 x 10
Np 1 / 2 1.\'111'11 Ii miting height
N = --:-c-::----
sp p1/2(gH)5/4 Z2 = 10.3 - 0.408 - 5

300(2 X106)1/2 1
=4.89m
= 60 l"()3 (9.81 X 50)514
((.) Using the notation of Fig. 3.11 between sections 2 and 3:
=0.0969 rev
From Eq. (3.25) f"
~ + V~.,. + 2 2 = --
PJ + V;
-- + 2 3 + Losses
q = [ (Palm ~ Pvap ) - 22 ]1 H IIUI
I'll 20 pg 2g

f'J = Palm
C" r( IOJ
4 X 10.1 )
10.1 ), I).K I. 611 SO
V.I:-:: 0
i': ,\ :()
(negligible)
(datum)
lI,tl'l'IK
130 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOMACHINES

Therefore the head lost in the draft tube is

~ (Pvap - + V~
CHAPTER
hd Palm) + 2
pg
2
2g FOUR
At the limit ofcavitation 2 2 = 4.89 m and substituting into the above equation
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS AND FANS
4 x 103 10.42
hd = 103 98 - 10.3 + 4.89 + - -
x . 1 2 x 9.81
= 0.408 - 10.3 + 4.89 + 5.51
Head loss hd = 0.511 m

.", INTRODUCTION

Illlring the Second World War, great progress was made in the development
or gas turbines using the centrifugal compressor. This followed from the need
fill' /ws turbines to be supplied with large amounts of high-pressure air, and the
1'l~lIlrifugal compressor became a natural choice as it had previously been
II'Nt'arched for use in small high-speed internal combustion engines. Although
llw centrifugal compressor has been superseded by the axial flow compressor
1Iljd aimaft engines, it is useful where a short overall engine length is required
Hwl where it is likely that deposits will be formed in the air passages, simx~.
IU'ca lise or the relatively short passage length, loss of performance due to b lIi1d,
III' Ill' deposits will not be as great as in the axial compressor. The centrifufr.nl
I ilil II lles:;or is mainly found in turbochargers, where it is placed on th0 S:iUW
"It,d I :IS :111 inward flow radial gas turbine, which is driven by engine exhauNI
1'1';;':: (Fil' ~,I), Pressure ratios of4: 1are typical in a single stage, and ruti(l~ of
I lnre possihle if exotic materials are used for impeller manufacture. The be:>l
,'Ii,'kl1cit~N are 3-4 per cent below those obtainable from an axial fl.1W
I iltllpll:~mOI' designed for the same duty. However, at very low mass flow ratc/,

I.hl nxiaillow l:ompressor efficiency drops off rapidly. It is also difficult to htlld
IIIl lllll~mlll~lls rllquired for small axial now blading, and manufacture of thi,:
,Pld 11l11\lllc.:itlr blades becomes more expensive. If the density ratio .lcr.)s:,
Illl "1lIl\ll",';UI is less than about 1.05, the term 'fan' is used to describe tIlt'
1I111d1U\I III Iltlll case the fluid is treated as being incompressible; ()Lh~rwi~t
1"011'11','.11,10 npw equations lllust be used. The term 'hlower' is often used in
I d.I" "I '1.111'

pI
132 HVDRAULIC AND (,OMPRI~<;SIBLl' FLOW TURllOMACIIINK<;

Actual W 2
4.1.1 Elements of the Cen!rifugal Compressor
The elements of a centrifugal compressor are similar to those of a hydraulic
pump, with some important dirrerences, and these are illustrated in Fig. 4.1. - - - No slip
The gas enters the compressor at the eye in an axial direction with - - - With slip
absolute velocity C I' and moves intQ the inducer section, which can be
separate from or be a part of the blades. The inducer scction transfers the gas
onto the blades, and enables it to move smoothly into the radial direction.
Energy is imparted to the gas by the rotating blades, thereby increasing its
static pressure as it moves from radius r t to,.z (Fig. 4.2), and the gas moves orr
the blades with absolute velocity C z. It should be noted that the blades are
radial, and since it is conventional to measure blade angles from the radial
direction in centrifugal compressors, the blade angle {/z is zero, while the
relative velocity vector W z is at angle {1'z because of slip. Ideally, the
J".
component C,z equals U 2' but it is reduced due to slip. The relative velocity Hub radius. r _ _--::'ll

vector WI at the inlct is obtained by subtracting U I from C I' Pre-whirl may be

given to the gas at inlet, but this will be ~iscussed in a later section. The Stanitz

Vaneless Eye tip or shroud radius. R

/d;""~'

Impeller

Hub } Eyc
........ Shroud

('
I

"",,,,,,rJ
til _Ilk, It
, . ~li diUtlllttiifl_.... ~ t
 (4,\)

By Euler's pump equation -(Eq. (/.2511 WIt h01l1 slip, Ih" lInpclh\1 t hv Poll'; elllefs a vanck:s,; space where it moves
clllcllllg the difluscr, in whidl the static pressure is
E U 2C,,)1I V'i/~l (1 II
llKln.\'K'IIL JI\l.' dcaranu: Iwt wc(m the impeller blades and inner walls of
and with slip, I'll) kept It'O small as possible to reduce leakage and in some
H 'j
thl'llhdvcs arc shrouded. Since we are dealing with a gas and
Although Eg. (4. /l has hecll modified by the slip fador to giw Lq (>I)L in 11'HlIH::raturc and pressure causes the density to change, it is

a,UVa is still thc theoretical work done on the air, since slip will be pte,.cnt III examine the performance of the machine in terms of the
even if the fluid is frictionless. In a real fluid, some of the power supplied by IIII' properties of the gas, and this is done through the MollieI'
impeller is lIsed in overcoming losses that have a braking effed on the ail 403,
conveyed by the vanes, and these include windage, disc friction tInd Glsing
friction. The total power per unit weight of now is therefore modified by Ii
Casing
power input factor ~/, '...hich typically takes values between l.(l35 and 1.040,
equation along a streamline may be written as
Total enthalpy ho = h + C 2/2 "'" Constant
for the fluid that is being drawn from the atmosphere into the
s(~ction.the total enthalpy is
11 00 = ho + C5/2
C'
~~~
2 (~nthalpy at section I is
hOI =:: hI + CIl2
no shaft work has been done and assuming adiabatic steud"

F ,,,

11 0 + C~/2 = hi + Cfj2 (4,4)

Impeller
section I to 2 the nuid moves through the impeller where work is dcmc
It"o '" h"l II to increasc its static prcssurc from P1 to P2' Writing the work done per
hilt"" 11":1
o mass on the Guidin terms of enthalpy we get
lV/ill = 11 02 - hOI
;:; U Z Cx2 - UIC xl (4.5)

Entropy. .I' after substituting for ho'

Fi~ur~ 4.3 Mollwr chart for a ccntnfLlg,tI comprC$sor I = iii + Cil2 - U lex1 = 1/ 2 + n/2 U 2 C x2
136 HYDRAULIC AI'D COMI'lll'SSllll.l' FLOW TCRUOMAClllNFS CENTRIFUGAL COM"RESSORS Al"D I-ANS 137

where I jg l\ constant throughout the impeller. In general The slip factor should be as high as possible since it limits the energy
transfer to the fluid even under isentropic conditions and it is seen from the
1= 11 + C?/2 - lofer velocity diagrams that C.t2 approaches U 2 as the slip factor is increased, The
= II + (C; + C,;)/2 - UC',\ slip factor may be increased by increasing the number of vanes hut this
= II +(W 2 - W; + C~l/2 - UC" increases the solidity at theimpellereyc, resulting in a decrease in the flow area
= II + LW 2 -(U - cy + C;]/2 - (lex at inlet. For the same mass llow rate. the now velocity ell at inlet must therefore
he increased and this increases the loss due to friction. A compromise is usually
.", II + W 2 /2 U 2 /2 C;/2 + UC" - VC" + (:;'/2
reached, slip factors of about 0.9 being typical for a compressor with 1921
= hI W 2/2 V 2/2 vanes.
= ho.,,, U 2 /2 (4.6) While it may seem that a high value of power input factor til is dCi'lirablc, it
found that the rate of decrease of isentropic efficiency with increase in l/J
where 1l(],<o1 is the total enthalpy bascd on the relati YC velocity oflhe fluid. Thus
'W'Wll~s any apparent advantage, so the ideal should be to Imve a power input
11 2 -Ill = (U~ - Uf)/2 + (Wy - W~)/2 (4.7) factor of unity.
The pressuremtio increases with the impeller tip speed but material
since II = 12 , In Eq, (4.7) the main contribution to the static enthalpy rise is
III renl.th considerations preclude this being increai'lcd indefinitely. Centrifugal
from the term (U~ - Uf)/2.
III l'il~SS(.lS are proportional to the square of the tip speed and, for a light aUoy
tn preliminary design calculations it is usual to assume = 0, although c.'l j,nrldll~r tip speeds arc limited to about 46001/5. This gives a pressurc ratio ()f
thi~ is not always the case, whencc from Eg. (4.3) the work dOl1c on the fluid p~r
4: I. Pressure ratios of 7: 1 are possible if materials such as titanium are
lIllIt mass becomes

h(J2 "/zOJ .'" t{1rr,Ui (J/kg) Equation (4.11) can he written in terms oflluid properties and now angles
After writing C" To in place of /ZO. we get that the work input is given by
1'02 'r;l\ = ~/(iJ}VCI' (4.8)
where Cp is the mean spedlk: heat over this temperature range. Also. since no
work is done in the diffuser, 11 02 = llu3 , and Eq. (4.8) occomcs
(4,9)
a,,, J41) 111/"
l' 1..1
0. I),'):!
With reference to Figs t A and 4.3, a compressor ovcrall lotal-to-tot:ll f~ 1.04
isentropic efficiency 'Ie may he defined as
Total isentropic enthalpy rise between inlet and outlet
'ie = '------'-',.,-,." . ,.. .-,"... - .. ------..,...... ,..
Actual enthalpy fiSC between same total pressure linlits
= (11 03 ," - 11 (1 )/(1'0:1 - hOI) (4,101
where lhe subscript '5S' represents the end stale on the tofal pn;~slll'c hllV 1'" \
when the process is isenlropic. Thus
'Ie = (Tn.h , 1'od/('l~I,1 'l~ll)
== To 1 (1'().1,J/;) I 1)/('1 ;,\1;" )
BUl
I I
H!II ,,-Ill \1011 ,1HU ~,(H)

[II '1,( / 11,1 I'll d.' J.. I I,'L II Ub,l<' lil' ,,!,,'nl (mi';)

II III, Illit, I! ( ), I" 11'; II (ill II iH"'O:' \tHl'd"! lip 'I,,'!',I (l1'>l1I 1'1 H I'll
138 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRFSSllILE FLOW TURnO.\1;\CH1NFS ClJNTRlJIlJGAI. COMPRESSORS ANI) FANS 139

as follows: since
and
then
(4, I~) u,
The change of pressure ratio with blade tip speed is shown in Fig. 4.4 for
various isentropic efficiencies.

4.1.4 Diffuser (b)

The stagnation temperature of the gas at outlet from the diffuser should haw' triangles for (a) large and (bl small inlet areas
as small a kinetic energy term as possible. as this eases the problem (If
combustion chamber design. Typical compressor outlet velocities arc of
order of90 m/s. The diffusion process is carried out in a diffuser as described diameter is small, the blade speed is small but the axial velocity
Sees 2.5.2 and 2.5.3, some diffusion also taking place in the vanclcss and the velocity diagram of Fig.. 4.5b may be drawn,
between the impeller tip and diffuser vanes. The flow theory described in
sections is applicable here. The maximum included angle of the vaned extreme cases, the relative velocity vector WI is high but it
passage is about 11", any increase in this angle leading to a loss of eltlCll'nn' 1Ilinimum value when moving from one extreme to anotbcr, If
through boundary-layer separation on the passage walls. It should also .""",,1, .. ';11\1 can be determined, Mach-number effects can be avoided
remembered that any change from the design mass flow rate and presslll'c
will change the smooth now direction into the diffuser passage and l)Yl~ takes place through the annulus formed by the shroud
therefore also result in a loss of efficiency, This may be rectified by lit tlil,' hub radius ,.. For uniform axial now into the eye
variablc~angle diffuser vanes.
m=P1A1C 1 (4.14)
For adiabatic deceleration of the lluid from absolute velocity (' .. In
with a corresponding increase of static pressure from /12 to p.\, lllkl velocilY triangle (Fig. 4.5),
h02 = 11 03 and
or
'11 nH 2(1 ,,2/R 2 )
nH2/\ (4. I5)
4.2 INLET VELOCITY LIMITATIONS SIlI"i!illHlon for AI into 1:-:'1.(4.14) gives

Mach-number considcrutions at tbe eye of a centrifugal ('onljHI",~,lll 11/ /',lrU'!kC 1

relative velocity WI n very sensitive value as far as COmpfC'i'" If pelll!l Jllllfn/,(\/m z
concerncd. Should the Mach number at entry to the impelici hI' IiIlHH'lIl1i:1I vl'!ocily of the impeller at the shroud. mdius
unity, then s!wek waves will form, wilh alliheir ;ltll~lIdllllllo",',('" \{i'lIlranging gives
we have a uniform absolulC velocity C I with zero wl1ld ({' ,I 01,11
centrifugal compressor. Two cases may Ill' l~\alllllll'd hll IIl1' '."IiW U;' (' 1
rate, both cases being cxtrc.m:s. 11','(;.\11 . 1111(1'0'; /1\) l4,16}

I. If the eye tip diulllclcr is I"rp,l', t.lwullOIlI (nil' 'II Illi Yn m'ndn
Ve!odlY <'I is low :l1ld till' blillk '.pc.ed I'. IIlVh, l!'iHlfllllt' iti II!!,
diagralll of hI'..\ \1 t 1 i (i' 'I. Ii)
 140 HYDRAUIJC ANI) ('OMI'IUi5SIULii FLOW TUIUl()MACHrNI'S CENTRIFUGAL COMI'RliSSORS .... SD h\NS 141

and the righHtand side of Fq. (4.22) may be plotted and the
Illfl;.;iltlUm value determined along with the corresponding blade angle at
(4.18)
Then the maximum occurs. This maximum value may then be equated to the
IIJI'I'l1ll1nO side of Eq. (4,22) and the maximum mass now mle determined.
PIIIT, = (PotlTod[1 +(y-l)M~/2] ,,'1,. U[1 +{'1'-1)M~/2]
,.,. """1 L' 4.6 shows Eq. (4.22) plotted for air at P(ll = 101.3 kPa and TOl = 288 K
:::: (Pol/Tod[l -I- (y.- I)A'lT/2r Iii; II it is seen that the blade angle is almost constant at 60'" for maximum
Now flow. Therefore, by specifying the relative Mach num ber IVI1.'",' the
J! [ "" f!1/Wl'l t!llil~irn\lln value of mass !low may be calculated. 1~c1ativc Mach numbers arc
AI"II '"II), restrictcd to about 0.8 to ensure there is no shock-wave formation.
=(Potll~Tod[1 +(;'-l)Mi!2r li1 i' 1) (4.191
Thcref()f'c substituting for PI from Eq. (4.l <J) into Eq. (4.16),
lJn~-WHIRL AND INLET GUIDE VANF.S
tnw2RTtlllnkl'oi = ~'V~(sin2 {l1)(cosI1d/[1 +(1'-1)MT/2r l ()'-1l (4.20)
Writing the relative Ma<.:h number based on the rclntive velocity Wt, then Itluld it not be possible to restrict the Mach number at inlet to an acceptahle
l He as described in Sec. 4.2, it may be achieved by placing guide vanes at the
ltul) R7'otlnkpOt:::: Mf.felaNsin2/lt)(cosfJd/[1 + (I' l)Mi/2]11(1'-1l (4.211
t Figure 4,7 clearly shows that the inlet guide vanes impart a whirl
From Eq. (4.18), (Jodo, = [I + (~) - I)Mr/2]li2 since (/:::: (yUT)IO and ,lih'l lPOlWllt C.d to the fluid, thus reducing W l to an a<.:ceptablc value.
substituting for at in Eq. (4.21) and putting M 1 := Ml ...1COS!311 the work capacity is reduced since C.d is no longer zero. It is !lot
(mw 2 }j[nk)!poj (yRTo1 )1/2] to impart pre-whirl down to the hub, as, in this region, the lluid is
\-"hen: lll;af sonic conditions due to the lower blade speed. The pre-whirl is
:::: An.td(sin 2 IJ I )(cos /1, )/[1 + ('l! - 1)M~,rcl(eos2/J tl/2] lllr 1)1 3/2 (4..1\1 Horl: gradually n:duccd to zero by twisting the inlet guide vanes.
It should be remembered that Eq, (4.22) is applied at the shroud radius 1\
and consequently {II is also the blade angle at radius R since it is at this radul,<
that the maximum \'Hluc of relative velocity onto the hlade will ocelli'. MACH NUMUER IN THJj: DIFFUSER
Therefore, for a gas of known inlet stagnation conditi.ons (e.g. IllI'
Mach numhcr of the fluid leaving thc impeller may well he in
01 I llowevcr. it 1m::; been found that as long as the radial now vclocity
IfU;llb~;ollic. I hen no loss in efficiency is caused by the formation or shock
0.25 _.- .
e,l =0 ('
I
y 1.4

M
'"
i '~, L\
d-
...
w
0.15
, / , tl

R-~
C
.:;>
VI 0,10
:I: Ii \ ''"''JI~
I \
IX

0.05 1 \
\
\
I

\
\ I
\ 1

()
I \,
Ii/I \j
Ihl
 waves. In addition, prnvidnl \'( 'W;(illtl ;\ IIVIlIar 1l1111110nf lllll willi VIIII('~ III' ,fir,n
is maintained in the vilnckss splice ht'lwn:n illlpdkr tip alld dll1n:.\'I, llil'li
supersonic diffusion call take plat:c in the va Ill: less space. Thi:i n'dllct':i tlli'
Mach number at inlet to tfie diffuser vanes to about O.X. II igh /\'Iadl lllllllhl'l"
at inlet 10 the dilrllscr vanes will also cause high prl~SSllres 'II Ilw ::Ingllatlull
points on the diffuser vane tips, which leads to a vnriatlon of slatk pleS~;lln'
around the circumference of the diffuser. This pressure variation is t r:l1lsrnil k"
Tll<I,inlly across the VandeR$ space and can cause cyclic loading of t he illipdb,
which may lend to early ratigue failure.
4.5 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR CHAUACTERISTI('
The characteristics of compressible now machines are usually (kscribed in
terms of the groups of varia bles derived in Eq. (1.14). The characteristics ;(L('
given as a series ofcurves of PO:,/POI plotted against the mass Ilow pnrarnth'!
m1'k?/pot for fixed speed intervals of N/T~ir This might be dOllt hv
controlling the now through a valve situated downstream of the C()ltll1l'CS~lll
outlet flange.
An idealized fixed-speed characteristic is shown in Fig. 4.8, III disClIS..;illl',
the i\hapc of this curve. much of what will be said will also apply to the aXiid
flow compressor characteristics of Sec. 5.10.
Consider a centrifugal compressor delivering through a flow control valve
situated after the diffuser, If the valve is fully closed, a ccrtain pressure rali"
from inlet across to the diITuscr outlet will be developed, and this is shown ;\1
point 1in Fig. 4.8. This pressure mtio ii') due solely to the vanes moving the 1111
about in the impeller, As the now control valve is opened, and air flo".. . heglll",
the difl'usercontributcs to the pressure ratio, <lnd al point 2 the maxifllllill
5
l__ Fil.:urI.' ,til The [IW'"~IILII , <'III JIll",,, 1
(7(lmprL'SSlH dlara('ll~ri,,111'
".11,;,,111'.1, ;Ilthpugh Ih.. Inlllple"-'''l ellll:I\'IlI,')' at tillS Pl',,;~sllrl'
111'.1 bdow I h,- maXllIllllll dhcinwy. A Inri her Incrcase in III ass !low
10 pllilll :{, wllt:l\~ IIII.' prl'ssun,' tHIs dropped slig.htly from lhe
iJ~iltnlii!tl \al\le hilt Ilw dliciencv is flOW a maximulll. This Ii') likely to be the
lIow la\(' pleSS\ll'l~ r;;tio. A r\llther increase in mass flow Sl".'CS the
i'\Il\'t' tU':l't:asing unlil it is almost vertical at point 4 where the
t" 1\'111 Thl'ol'ctit:ally, point 4 would be reached when all the input
III (l\l(~rc(lming inlernal friction, However, the curve just
ltot I\hlainahle prnctkally and some of the reasons for this are now
WI: hav\' a cornpn:ssol' operating at point 3 on the negative slope of
hh',hlic(fiig. 4.R). A reduction in mass now due, suy, to a momentary
iU\\'will tallse an increase in the delivery pressure PI)), which will tend to
Itl\l' lllW;s now to point 3, and this negative slope rcpresents a region of
f~J'lwrilliun. I t is self-correcting. If the flow rate drops to a point
~~I!p"!HHng t.o 6 on the positive t-l!ope of the characteristics, the delivery
if/.',,\ will cont.inue to decrease, causing a further drop in mass flow and
II(-J .hop in flll.\' and so on until point I is reached, where the mass now is
Till' Hl;t~'S flnw mllY even become ncgative through thc compressor. When
(i~. pn,sslIl'l: 1'0.\ has reduced itself sufficiently due to the reduced flow
\Ill' pll';ilivl~ nnw becomes established once again and the compressor
fIlii) Lilli it till' rllstricled mass flow is again reached, when prllt-lSUrC
,Hili. 011(1,' again takes plaee_ The pressure therefore surges back and forth
t.1I1,,'abll' lilshion, which, if seVere enough, l:ould lead to failure of parts of
IHtPlC'i!;OI. Ikcause of the reduction of mass flow, lhe axial velocity C"
IH'TVc IN reduced and therefore the relative now angle onto the blade fj 1 is
lil'll Till: air now onto the blade will no longer be tangentiaL Surging
tn \loginatc in difl'uscr passages where frictional eITccts or the fluid next
4\'i'"\' !,ulfm:cs retard the flow. Indeed, flow may well be in reverse from
\1111\1" p;l~sage to the next. The likelihood of surging can be redllccd by
h\~kl he number of dilTuser vanes an odd-numher multiple of the impeller
III till., way a pair of diITuser passages will be supplh:d with air from un
fhiHllbn of valles and pressure fluctuations are more likely to be evened
illli\lljd ,Iw circlImference thHn if exact multiples of dilTuscr vanes are
!hlyr'd
Ilhflllirll. Stull
I'll
',fall is II separate phenomenon, which may lead to surging but C,lll
It-; own in a slablc operating condition, Figure 4.9 illustrates the <lil'
10(1<; in a !lumber of blade passages,
 CENTHU'I!Gt\1. COMPRESSORS AND FANS 145

(4,24)
(4.25)
,,/!'PIO""!: occurs when the relative velocity equals the acoustic velocity aI' Eq,

TOI = 1'( + (yRT( - U;V2C p

TtlTo1 =2[1 +(UV 2C1,To dJ/(v 'I- I) (4.26)

;,;",,11 ".,,,,,' !low.

Figure 4.9 Rotating $1.111 pTOpagalion fldpo, = (T1/To])1{('I l)

from m "'" paA

If the air angle or incidence onto blade A is excessive. due perhap~ fl) ;1 Ill/A = {JOlllOl(Tl I1 0l t"+ l)i2(}" 1)
partial blockage or uneven flow in the dilTuser, the blade may stall, Hlld bee,Uht'
of the partialm<lss flow decrease in the blmle passage. the deflected air ell"'I"! . Substituting from Eq. (4.26) and rearranging gives
the angle of incidence to the left of blade A to increase while thl' angk III (l u1 ao 1 [2(1 + UI/ 2Cp 1'otl/(Y + Or-It 11J2{)'-1)
incidence to the right of blade A will tend to dccrc'lsc. Thlls blade H will he
next to stall while blade A \\I'iIl be unstalled and the pro(;ess is repealed all'IIH
IYPuIPol[2(1 + U7/2C"T(1 )/(Y + IHr+ 1l!(~'-1)}1/2 (4.27)
the periphery of the disc. Prolonged cyclic loading and unloadi.ng of lite mill' is simply a modified version of Eq. (4.23) and shows that the
blades can lead to fatigue failure or even immediate catastrophic lililurl'. 1h,' IUlllla~;~ now rate increases with impeller speed,
stall propagutcs in the opposite direction to blade mol ion at <\ frequcllt\ diffuser passages Eq. (4.23) also applies with the subscripts changed
related to shaft speed. In compressor tests, rotating stall may be ,lUtlthl\ 'HilIit'll"! oullet conditions
recognized as a high-frequency 'screech'. mjIi = {YPo2PoZ [2/(y + l)](Y + lli(}' - I J} 112 (4.28)
r.qs (4.23), (4.27) and (4.28) refer to the flow areas at the respective
4.5.3 Choking
If the mass flow is increased to the right of point 3 on the nega live sl(lpe 01
characteristic (Fig. 4.8), a point 5 is reached where no further ilH:rcW;l: in 'lUll till!" '11i...., it Curve
flow is possible no maHer how wide open the flow control valve is. This "1,11"'11.",
that .11 some point within the compressor sonic condilions ha V(' been ... ,.,1'... t he overall pressure ratio and efficiency plotted ag~lillst
causing the limiting maximum mass 110w mle to be sci as in Ih(' rbed speed intcrvals of Nrn't.
It is usual to transfer constant
compressible flow through a cOl)vcrging-diverging nozzle. Indeed, unlo the l.'orresponding constant-speed curves of the pressure
11',,,,'11"1'1<.1 H',", and then join those points together to form constant
condition arise. shock waves may well be formed within cerlain (1":',';,1("))
III rs.
Choking may take place .It the inlet, within the impeller, 01' In the
section. It will occur in the inlet if stationary guide vanes ai" hUld lhal at all speeds the range of mass now over which the
maximum mass flow being governed by the follo\vlng siandard I"IILII "llIlInl"~"llr wiJI operate before surging or choking occurs is quite
isentropic flow at the throat of a cOllverging noah:: Ih(' margin decreases as the speed increases. The onset of surge
llIcn'JI'''lI'''n. high mass l10ws as the speed increases, while the locus of
m/Il {)'PooPl... 12/()' + 1)]1" Oil, 0: lil i;, ealbl the surge line. Maximum elliciency is seen to Qccur
where stagnation conditions at Inlel arc knowll :lnd :( is Ihl' 1I1l1\ l/it 'aHgl' point, making this type of compressor relatively
In stationary passagcs.th~: velocity Ihal is choked I~ IIII' :illsnlult' 1I1li',', /low dWl1gcs liS far asinslability is concerned, The limit of
oW I', l!'.uallv scI hvdloking in rhe ill1pdlcr, while lhcsurgc limit of
In the rotating impeller it is the rdalive vdlldly IV Ihnl i',lh" chili,,.. I
146 llYORAULIC AND COMl'RESSlllLE FLOW ILRII01.1ACHINI:S CENTRIFliGAL COMPRESSORS "'ND fANS 147

nllldilLill1~S
of 100 kPa and 15"C The hub diameler is 0.13m and the eye tip diamcler 0.3 m. If the
80 now iuto the eyc of lhe colllprcssor is S kg/s and lhe slJl:ed is 16200 rpm, calculate the blade

\\'m~
\ \ -Th.
-
\JJ D.esign
speed
angle atlhc ro~,t and tip of the eye and the Mach number at the tip of lhe eye. A,sume zero
whirl at inlel aud no los",es in Ihe inl<tke ducl.
A motnr raled at 580kW is available!(l drive a celllrifugat comprcssor of 480111111 'Hiler
0.40 U.53 0.67 0.8..0.87.931.0 at a speed ofl0(XIO rpm. At thIJ impeller outlellhe blade lInglIJ is26S measured from the
N/T:,;t ~lirection and the now vdocity (radial component) at e.~it from the imlJl:lJer is 122 m/s. If a
hl~'dlaniclli efficiency of95 percent is assumed, what nil' flow is to be ex[)Ccted? Assume there is 110
What ,Ire the eye tip and huhdiamelers ifa radius ralio of 0.3 ISChOSCIl for the impeller eye lind
velocity at inlet is 95 mis with zcro whirl'! What will be the overall lot,llto-tOllll isentropic
Design rln.ICII1CV if un overall tlltal pressure ratio or 5.5 is required'! Assumc thai the flow [0 Ihe inlet is
point m,olllpress:ihie llnd ambient air conditions llfe 101.3 kPa and 288 K.
A centrifugal CIlmprcssor compresses air at ambient temperatun: and pressurc of 211H K and
4.0- fIJspeclively. The impeller mils at " ti,) speed of 365 mis, thIJ radial velodty al exit from
iUlpdlcr is 30 mls and the slip factor is n.9, Calculate the Maeh uumber of the /low at the
,',","''',,,, lip. If Ihe impeller tOlnl-to-total efficiency is 90 per CIJOt and thc now lIrClI f"'lm the
.""....,". ;. is 0.1.193 m2, calculate the nlll.'\S now rate or air. Assumc zero whirl at inlet. and radial
Surge line
'"
.~
i\ n,nlrifugal compressor impeller has 17 mdilll YlUleS or lip diamelcr HiS mm. It mlalcs al
~3.0
o
H)(I fplll l\llll the air mass now rate is 0.6kg/s with 110 whirl at inlet. Calculate the Iheun:lical
.~
transferred tn the air. At inlet 10 the impeller, the mean diameter of the eye is 63.5mm while
til!"! ,III: milliS height at the eye is 25 mm. The sialic pressure Hnd temperature at the impdler inlet urc
~ lind 293 K respectively. Determinc
:0
t'ti the hlade angle at the mean diameter at impeller inlet,
E
~ (hI lh~: stagnation temperature at impeller exit and
2.0 l!'1 jhl' iitagniition presslIfe at impeller exit if the (otalto-l\ltal efficiency of the impcller is 9(1

I'dalive flow Mach number l~tlhe inlet ofa ccntrifuglll compressor is to be flO greater than
mtlo of hub to tip diameter at the eye is OJ!! and the air enters the eye without whirl.

I h,' j IfH.imulll iipeed of rotation for the ma~imulllmass flow rate condition if Ihe mas;; now
1.0 .~ .. Hllil
() Figure 4.10 Typl.:al I:entrifll/';i!
Ihe eye lip dblll1l:ter.
mT;,'Nptll (relative to design value) compressor Chuf<\CI(~ri5Ik
Illk! 1'[1i IOUkPa and 1;.1 =28SK.
'.'HUjll "',\0" opera lin~ at a pressure mUn of J.ll and fl speed of 12000 rpm delivers II kg!s of
tarlnt b a~!illmed to be 0.92.tl1e power factor 1.04. and the overall isentropic cfficiwcy
minimum mass flow is set by stalling of the now onto the diffuser vancs. Fl') a 'he impcller OIulct diameter. Assume zero whirl.
"'aneless diffuser the surge line would be further to the left of that shown HI M.wh l1omlx,r ortlw air k:<wing the imlJl:llcr vanes is to be unity so as 10 ensure thaI no
Fig. 4.10, thus increasing the mass now range at the design speed. i.Y""'" ,It. If Ih,' los\eli !lIlhe impelkr and diffuser arc the same, what must be the a~i:ll depth of

lOll k 1'.. amI '1;., 2l\8 K.

EXERCISES 1 (I, IIlh\: "Hlldc',s :.pa"" is 4() mill wide, the diffuser throat radius 0.4 m and there
(Hjlllni'll'l 'honlll'h, t1Ch'wllIll' IhI.' ,1I11'115er vane inlet angle and Ihe Ihroat width oft h\,) diffuser
In all the exercises below, the following properties for air may be WNlIlWd
Ratio of specific heats, i' := 1.4 '1II1i1'''''''''" II..,. inkf I:nidc VUlle:, filled at the eye such that free \lorlc~ now is
\ hi IIll' "h"I,", At ill<' III' radi1ls 01 the cye Ihe inlet relative Mach number is nVito
Specific heat of air at constant pressure, C/, 1005 J/kg K
"ii lIHl'dk' 1.,11,11,,1111,,1 dhdrnl'y ufO.9 is required. The ;tlr lcuvel> the tip (If the
Gas constant, R = 287 J/kg K wOh" 'd"lil\' "t ')(fill;':'. till' lrnpl'ller fip diameter.is 0.45 In lind the outlet
Assume a power input fador of I unkss olhc)'\\'I',t' slarrd fH ,,,,lit" ""'lIlhllll"" .. I I'rlllfily :tll'\i! from the impeller is 5(lIn/& and the
I~~" pilI 1111 ',h" lildOl "f iI 'II., ,1.slIlm"l, flllli the guide vane inlet anille allhe
4.1 A single-sided eCfllrifllgrJl "'<11111"1";',,,, dww'; ait Ir,jlll til.' .'!I""'.pl"., I"" ilt!i """"" ph",.,"'" .it I!Iqwlll'l '>1,,1,1
148 HYDRAULIC AND COMPIU:,SSIIlIE I'LOW TURlIOMAClIll'ES
CENTRIHKiAL COMPRESSORS AND h\NS 149

Assume Tv, = 2KK K and 1'(11 IOl.J kPa. Let the hub and tip radii at the eye be denoted by I'll and 1', respectively.
4.9 A ccntrifugal ~ompressor ImsJhe following design data: the now area of the impeller inlet annulus is
Mass flow 15 kgis AI = n(r; .... r~)
Speed 16000 rpm
Inlet total tempcrature 288K = 11:(0.15 2 - 0.065 2 )
Inlet totlll pressure 101 kPa
Impeller isentropic dlicieTlcy 0.9 "'" O.0574m 2
Width of vaneless space 42mm
A'~fjumc first a value for density jJ I based on ambient conditions:
Axial depth of vaneless space J7 mm
Slip factor 0,9
1.04 POI
Power input factor Pl=--
Impeller outer diulUcter O,55m RTo1

(al Assuming no pre-whirl at the inlel, whal ,Ife Ihc stagnation conditions at the impeller 105
outlc!'!
= 287 X 288
(h) Show lhllt the radial velocity is approximately 100 mis at the impeller outlet anti
c..,lculate the Mach number and air angle ,ll the impeller outlet. == 1.21 kg/m 3
(c) Calculate the angle ofthedilTuser v,lnc !cilllin!! edges and the Mach number at this radius
if the diffusion in the valleless space is j,entropic.
I,he continuity equation (Eq. (1.21))
4.10 Tile stagnlltion pressure lind tcmpcrllture at the inlet of a centrifug,lI compressor an' m
CIl ==
WI kPli and lOOK respectively. The impeller has 19 mdinl vallCS and uo inlet guide vanes. 'I'll" PIAl
following dntll apply.
::=
8 ""0'

Mass flow ralc 2kgis 1.21 x 0.0574

Impclltlr lip speed 525 mis
Mechanical cfficiency 96pcr cellt == 115.18m/s
Absolute air velocity :It diffuser exit 95m/,
Compressor tolal-to-lolal cffiekncy 81 per cent is 110 inlet whirl component, CII == C I' the absolute inlet velocity,
Absolutc velocity at ililpelicr cutry 16(lm/s klllperal ure equivalent of this velocity is
DilTu~er cfficieney l!3 per cent
Axial dcpth of impellt:r 6mm C~ .=_.115.18
2
,.,_. _-.. -..,.".. .
Power input factor 1,()4
lC 2 x 1005
"
(al Delerminc the shan power, =6.6K
(b) Cnlculatc tile total and Sialic pressur~'ll OIl diffuser outlet.
(e) If thc reaction ratio (II, - hd/(II) lid is 0.5. lind the radial velocity. ;lhsoilltl" M.\.lI
number nnd totalllnd static pressures at thcimpcller exit. Diffuscrcmdency (ill. II J )/(11 \ II, i T01 -
Cr
(d) Determine lhe impeller tntal-ta-total efficiency. 2C p
(e) If a VlllIClcss dilfu,cl' is filled. what is the ratio of inlel to oul\I~1 Ia(!ius PI' Ihe dlf".,1"1 '
(f) Detefmine the impeller slX-ocd. 288 6.6
281.4 K
i'H'IHIOpk lIow al th(~ inlet
SOLUTIONS

Exercise 4.1 In Fig. 4.2 the blade angle 11" mcasurtd wil" IC~illl'1'1 10 IhI' iPHd
/)"1
velocity Ca' is required to be found at the huh and tip, Fil'.1 Ihe i1~.illl VdOlI!
must bcdetcrmined froHllhcconlinlllly l~q";lIIOI1. bUI idll." IIII' inkl dCtliiHV
is unknown a Irial-;1I1l1crror pllll'l'duH' llllH,l III' lollow\'d., ;H,'HI.nIlIlH IiIiH 11
dcnsity bast"d Ol! the ink! !;la".l1l1liOIl Ulltdll!llll'i 'llw 1IH'lhpd h 'wI. nllllu'l...\
r
I
150 HYVRAllI.IC AND COMI'RESS!IlLE FLOW TURIIOMACHINES CENTRIFUGAL COMI'RliSSORS AND FANS 151

Then new lhe hub

PI
PI = /iT. u __ 2 x n x 16_~~~_~. o~~~
1- 60
92.2 x 10"
2M7 x 281.4
= llO.3 m/s
= \.I4kg/m 3
and new
III h = tan
I (
1'110.3
22.25 )
c= 8
=42.05"
u 1.14 x 0.0574
= 122.25m/s Mach number required is thal based on the relative velocity at the eye
Repeat velocity
!\l'llllslilC

q
--- =
122.25 2 (it = (yRTtl 112
2CI' 2 x 1005 = (1.4 x 287 x 280.57)112
=7,43K =:: 335.8 m/s
Tl = 288 - 7.43 i"ll~t velocity triangic
::= 280.57 K WI = (C; + U~)lf2
5(280.57)3.5 := (122.25 2 + 254.5 }li2
2
Pt::= 10 -288
= 282.3 m/s
= 91.25 kPa
Relative Mach number =: WI/at
91.25 x 10"
PI = 287 x280.56 282.3
= 335.8
"" 1.13 kg/m)
Further iterations arc unnecessary and the value f} I = 1. I J kg/Ill' IIlil Y
taken as the inlet density and e" =:;; C. = 122.25 m/s as the inlcl vdncily llsing Fig. 4.2, since there is no slip the blade angle at impeller
At the lip tlw rdativc velocity vector angle (/J~ =: {12)'
. 21lNr t 2 x 1t x 16200 x 0.15 nND,
UI = "60-= 60 U, ""
~ 60
-

= 254.5 rnls n x 20000 x OAR

Blade angle 60
{J It = tan' I (V.
(II
I
)
503 m/s
p, C r1 lan/1 1
tall
122 tall 26.S
152 HYDRAULIC AND COMI'RESSIllLE FLOW TURllOMACHI"liS CENTRIH.lGAL C()MI'RIi~SORS A"n I'A:-:S J53

From Eq, (1.25) the power per unit mass flow is r, = 51.7/0.3
Wjm == U 2 C,v2 - U,C X1 Ti(> diam~er = I ~2.mm
But e xl is zero, therefore From Eg. (4.10), compressor total-to-total efficiency is

W/m = 503 x 442 1103", - h O'

II = . . .....-'
e Il o3 -Ir 01
and
til = WJ222.3 X 103 01 3/s
Theoretical power = Power available x Mechanical efficiency
w= 580 x 10 3 X 0.95
= 551 kW
Hence
m = 551/222.3
1005 X 288(5.5286 - 1)
ExpeclC~rnas~I~~.~.~ 2.47 kg/s 'Ie =22'2'.) X 10 3 .--.
Using the continuity equation, the mass flow rate through the annulus 01
Efficiency.:=, 0.818
the eye is
m=p,A1C 1 'c\'t'II't'l!lt 4.3 The absolute Mach number of the air leaving the impeller
== p, n(rr - rr,)C I
(a2 = acoustic velocity Ht impeller tip)
== {Jlnr~G~ - I)C 1

('1'2 =stutic temperature at impeller tip)

Assuming incompressible flow at inlet
PI =POI pfDhkll1 therefore requires C2 and T 2 to be evaluated.

::::=. ,. POI
T~Tol

101.3 x 10:'
= 287 x 288
since ex:! = u2 for zero sUp
= 1.226 kg/m"> 0.9 x .~65
Thus
:L!IL5 mjs
r2 _ 2.47
" - 7t x 1.226 x (J.:D3' I j'e (I~ lht vdol'll\' Iriallgle" of Fig. 2,5,

6.677 x 10 1 III ('; (.t') t ( 'I,.,"}

1'10 ''Ill IIlIlI

II. II" dill/III 11'1 " I 1 n\tll

154 HYDRAUUC AND COMI'RESSlllLE FLOW nm.UOMACfllNES CENHUH)(iAL ('OMI'lWSSORS AND FANS 155

With zero inlet whirl Eq. (4.2) gives f),'

. 1.
_.,....,.. ',= (' ~"3
-)~ . .'),
-
-,~-,
.-
)3..,
Pal 407.3,
W/m = 0'.c'.'2U 2
= 0.607

Thus fl2 = (P2 )(. P(2)POI

()1l2 POI,

a.Vi == 0.607 x 3.03 101.3 x 1O~

T02 =T(1I +c I'
X

:::: 186.3 kPa

2
_ "8 0.9 x 365 3
- ... g + 1005" p., = 186.3
'.,.,..,x., ...10_-.
~ 287 x 353.2
=407.3 K
::= 1.84 kg/m 2
Also
c~ m;:;;: 1,84 x 0.093 x 30
T2 :::: T Ol _.'
2e p "'" 5.13 kg/s
108800
:::: 407,3 - 2~j005 4.4 For rmtial vanes the slip factor may be found from the Slallil/
(Eq. (2.9)) with {J 2 =:; 90".
= 353.2 K fad or
O.63n
Hence a,= I
Z
M=(i:41~()~:7~1~;12rl2
2 "'" I .... 0.63 x n
17
=0.876
O.8X4
At impeller outlet 111 = P2A2C,2 where (12;:;: P2/RT2 and note that these all'
static properties. The static pressure 1'2 is found by first solving for the impell",
total pressure ratio POl/POI' and then relating 1'2 to P02 by means or thl' IIN1>;1
isentropic pressure ,temperature relationships. Ml
From Eqs (4.10) and (4.11) rearranged for flow in the impeller:
11 oI(d)OO><. 0, I (15
""" I + '10 ('r-C-::.
[10'[
~
ep _. 1)]//()' I) (;0
i'Ol TOI
I'I)-I,ni',
407.3
= [ 1 + 0.9 ( 288"
)];\.5
I '. II //11 r)) 1,(", u I (' ,I
::=3.03 II'TII alhl ( , ,'qn"h /1., I hI' wlllri wlodtv at lll\pdkr lip Wln,nlll

Now
156 HYDRi\Cl.IC AND COMl'lll'SSmLF FLOW TCRIlOMACHlNI:S CENTRIFUGAL COMI'RESSORS AND FANS 157

(a} I't - 1'0 = 25 mm and (I'll + I't)/2 = 31.75 mm. Solving for I'll gives from Eq. (4.5),
(2 x 31.75) ...- 25
I'h =
83760
h01 == 0.6 + ..
"\ 004 X 10 5
= f9.25nun
1', = 44.25mm = 4.4 x lOS N mjkg
At the eye
1'1 PI
= .... 4.4 X 10 5
RT I To;! = .....
("
93 x 10;\ 4.4 x lOS
= 287 x 293 . ' " " '--'< ~.-----'--

IOOS
= 1.I06kg!m'\ == 437.8 K
Mass flow From Fig. 4.3 the impeller efficiency is
m=p,A.Ca since C. 1 ::::: 0
h02 ' hOI
Iii::::: ""-"'--._ ..
=P1A1C 1
h02 - hOI
C 0.6
CI'(To1s - Tod::::: '1i W jm
'1 = IJO;r~n(O.()44 25 2 ~ 0.61(252)
"'" 108.7mjs = 0.9 x 83.76
. "".,-.- ' ..... x lOJ
""_-~-~---_

0,6
From the vclodly triangles of Fig. 4.2
= 125.64 x 10 3
tan/i l = Ut/C I , 125.64 X 10 3 Ci
Al tht~ mean radius T1)2' = . _ - + Tj +
e p 2C p
u ~~ nND m
_ 125.64 X 10.1 + 293 + IOSY
1- 60
1005 2 x 1005
::::: 152.9m/s
'''' 423.9K
/1 1 = tan - I C~~:~) hWnll('pic relationships
'1'.. .()2~_
. ))'/11'''1)
Inlel blade angle = 54.6' (
-

b) _.'- .. I q , Tn!
( 10' =h j +2

101\ I t .\00100
(IO(h "'I) I 100';

I t III I
158 HYDRAULIC A='D COMPIWSSIIILE ILOW rURBOMAClIINES
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRL',SORS AND FANs 159

0.3

298.9)3.5
POI= 93 ( -293
= 99.7 kPa

Therefore
0.1
423.9),1.5
POl = 99. 7( 29H:ij
"" 338.67kPa
o .....-...l.._~_~..J
o m ~ ~ W
Bladtl inlet illlgic at shroud, III (deg)
Exercise 4.5 (a) Using Eq. (4.22) the appropriate known dula arc substituted,
noting thaI all conditions apply al the eye tip or shroud. 4.11 Mus. flow parameler versm blade inlet angle at the shroud

k=l (~r 2 0.2869

2 w "'"
"" I - 0.38 3.08 X lOll
== 0.8.556 =9313987
The LHS of Eq. (4.22) becomes W = 3051 radis
2
LHS= 410 . . Optimum s~~e~~.29143 rpm
n x IUi556 x 1.4 x IOU x 103 X (1.4 x 287 x 288)1/2 [hI The eye lip diameter is found from lhe continuity equation for now into
= 3.08 x 10- Hw2 rye. Once again all equations apply al the lip radius.
and the RHS of Eq. (4.22) becomes m=P I A t C I since C 1 = Cu (no whirl)

RHS = 0.9!~~i~2IJlcos{J1 t he area in terms of the radius ratio and tip radius
2 2
[1 +0.5(1.4- I)O.9S coS flit til = 1tPlkl~2Cl
2
0.9127 sin fll cos {II IInessary tn determine C t and Pl'
= (l + 0.1805 I.:OS 2 fJ 1)4 It 1 find (. I' from the inlet velocity triangle of fig. 4.2 althc eye tip radius
Choosing values of fJ I the RHS of Eq. (4.22) is evaluated: WI"" (\/c:os{J I

fl1ldeg) 10 211 30 40 50 55 59 60 61 65 711 HI!

RHs O.0!4 0.0550.11l) 0.193 11258 0.279 O.2S6 0.2870.28'1 OII'l lL'\i ill', IV I
,\I, I and
The results arc ploued in Fig. 4.11 from which it is tkduced I hal I h,' Rll~\
reaches a maximum at f11 = 60". :\1. 1 COS {I,
Equaling lhe LHS and RIIS wilh (i l 110,
0.'1/ cOs lIO'
It )
J.m: 10 itt
II I (l I II', (,l! )1
160 HYDRAVI.IC AND COMPRESSIllLE fLOW nJRIlOMAC'III~ES ('E"ITRll'lIG,\L COMf'IlFSSORS Mm h\t\S 161

Now

Putting 4
nl< 1.11 x 0.8556 x 161

= 0.008 33
then
R =0.0913m
Eye tip diameter"" 183 mill
and putting
From Eq, (4,1 I) the stagnation temperature difference is

then
I)Mr
IJ
2 = 288 e'\ gtl.2 H, 1 I)
2
O.Bl .
'-" 1 + 0.4 X 0.485
2 = 1613111/s
= 1.047
Whence
(from Eq. (4.9))
T ." 288
1-1.047

=275K
, 163.3 x 1005
'rhcn u~=
1Jl4 x 0.92
(', = M 1bR'f\)li 2 =171526
=0.485(1.4 x 287 x 275)1/2 U 2 = 414. 15111,/S
== 161 mjs

TrIV' [) 1
u,
60
414.15 x 60
n ;, 12000
'1lIpdkl '11111'1' di:lIllder O.659m
IOU 10\ . ' I")!"
I'. PlOt"ll liolla 110 II '1,,1 II o.x:n Half of the overall
2Wl,'XiI (, 04 , o H') (1,0') alld IIWrt'hll'l' the dfcdivc efficiency oCthe
1.11 HI 11"01/"11 I" /,,,. i.. (I oWl! 0,91.
162 IIYDRAUUC AND ('(),fPRf.'>SlIlLE !'LOW Tl.iRIlOMAClllNFS

From Eq. (4.11) aftel' rearranging the subs.cripts 1'0 l'ind the now velocity normal to the periphery of the impeller
;::: ='( 11- "1(T(j~1l1!()_I) )"'(: II

=0.92 x 414.15
._-, (I 'I' OY!A_.;'",~63.~);\.~ '00 since Till"" TUJ = 381 m,/s
== 4.29 c~ = ,Hh'RTz

Tllz = 163.3 + 2gg = (II J X (1.4 x 287 x :176.1)

=45UK = 151 117 In 2is"

q I he vdoci t y I rjangles of Fig. 4.2

T 2 = T oz "'?C and
-'I'
C;z = C~- C~""
Therefore substituting for q = 151 It 7 145 161
., (1 )2(1.4 x 2g7T z) = 5956 m"js
J z = 451.3 --''''2x1005. -
Crz = 77.17m,/s
451.3
T 2 "" 1 -t.0"
._ the Ullltinuity ~~~IUalh,)(l the arca

= 376.1 K It!
/1 2
pz-
-" .. -~' .. :;:;;:;:.
',I,"2 )YiiY-ll l',e"2
POJ
( '['OJ

2.127 x 77.17
=(~~f~~r'5 O.l14X7 m':
=0.5282 ,1.'
lin,
n,nIX!
/I Ol,'ll)
= 0.528 x 4.29

= 2.266 , I', 111111

and
pz "'" 2.266 x 10 1.3 ili{ dHI\\, lht ab"olnt; vdorltv vI'dOl (' ;It ;Il1git' t'lil
\\'IF!I ihl'IW' flul\,,< 11110 Ihe dil\',I';;'II'H'~;\af'(', illllW,1 do "0
= 229.58 kPa
Ii, !he IlIkl illlgir .. I IIii' ,llIluo,;'1 V.lIIl";

Un i ',f ,

HIl!,' Iht '11111. t liltd dill""."! \ illll':, Iii, II. III I~,
1,1.1111', P''!HIf;', th,d ! ,t I "ll'd
,!Olllll\l 1 hI!
, I '
164 HYDRAULIC A~[) COMPRESSIBLIi FLOW TLJRI10MA("IlINI'"~
CrSI'RlI'liGAI. ('OMI'RrSSORS ANI> IANs I(.s

(151117)1.'2 X 0.3295
0,3695
= 346.7m/s
To find the radial velocity C, at the diffuser vane entry, !itart by assuming
the value at the impeller exit, i.e. 77.17 m/s. Then
C2 c; + c;
2(", 2e"
77.17 2 + 346.7 2
= 2 x 1005
=125.5K
Now if we assume that no losses occur across the vandes:> space, the (llhel
half of the total losses takes place in the diffuser itself. Then fl02 at the impdkr
tip equals the stagnation pressure at the diffuser vane inlet Po. Therefor!' 1 Flow horn impeller to diffu,cr

Po = 4.29 flo I (from exercise 4.6)

('2 P
'1'0- 2('; 1'=
'1'= UT
I'

= 451.3 - 125.5 139 X 10 3

287 X 325.8
= 325.8
1.487 kg/m J
P =('_~)";('I-l1
POl '1'02 III Fig. 4,12. the area of flow in the radial direction at

= G~i:~YS ii, 2/f:< OJ69 x Depth of vane

=0,32 .~II :.: (1,]69 x 0.0235
Also 0.0:14 'i 11l'~

p (p )(/10:')
1~1= p;~ Po;
( ,
"" 0.32 x 4.29 ,
'-'" 1.37)
fl Lj7J 10/'
I 191-, I'i!
1(,(, IIYIlRALil.lC AND COMPRl:SSIIlU: FI.OW niRIIO\lAClIlNliS CE:-:TR1FIXlAl. COMPRESSORS ANI) PANS 167

Repeat the calculation using this new value of c,. Nt:glccting vane thickness
C1/(2CI') = 61 K Flow area = 2n x Radius of diffuser throat x Depth
T"" 390,3 K "" 211: x 0.4 x 0.0235
P/P02 = ().601 A, 0.()591 m l
p:= 261.4kP" 4
C := . .' -----.---.

p ::::: 2.33 kg,im'\ , 2.47 x ll0591

C,=31.6m/s =27.4m/s
Repeat the: {;alculation.
C 2 /(2C)= 51.38K
C 2 /(2C pJ= 60.29 K
T=399.9K
T = 391 K
~well that
there is no change in the new values so the radial velocity at
P/P02 =0.605 t 11 roat ""
27.4 m/s.
p=263kPa now direction of the absolute velocity is given by '1.' at the throat:
p ::; 2.34 kg/m 3 tan x' = ex/c,
C, "'" 31.37 m/s 320,2
"" 27.4
No further iterations arc necessary. Thus at the inlet to the valle:, ( "
31.37 mis. Then CI.'::::: 85.1'
346.7 f1'I,'II'I,"'. to Fig. 4.12
tan c(' = 31.37
III pAC II/l,e, (r means W.r.t. radial direction)
!j,' = 84.83
it ,C,
Moving to the radius ut the diffuser throat, at Ihtl throat radllh. llA ('

C . =(151117)'i2xO.3295
.\ 0.4 C (5UK X 2CI')li2
"'0 J20.2m,/s .12.1.4 m/s
Start the iteration at the previous valuc of C, at tIl\' dillm.\1 inlet
C~/(2C'I) 51.51' ,-I, 1l.o:U5 (thL~ vane depth)
T J')9.X K

nIl} rl )7.4
f' .)~4 k I'd \} '1
/ , , ' .. 1/1, I'illl \ II Uti' III
168 IIYDRAULtC AND COMI'RESSIllU: FLOW TlJlUIOMi\('W:-;ES (,UN'\l{IlUGAI. COMl'lWSSOftS ""II FA'S 16')

As ...i e have 10 diffuser vanes. the width of each throat is + 90 2 - 253035 2

C = 282,71
. . - .----.-.... ,
. A xl 2 x 282.7
Throat width = 1(') x Dept 11
= 42.1 5 m/8
0.002
- -
10 x 0.0235
= 0.0085

= 8.5 mill

Exercise 4.8 The velocity triangles of Fig. 4.2 may be used.

,\1 1 == WI/aj

impeller total-ta-total efficiency is g.iven by

2
90
:::: ""!SX ...
- 2 x 1005
""" 284K
Therefore
al = (}'RT[}112
= (1.4 x 287 x 284}112 W/m = CI'(T02 T(1 )

== 337.8 l11/s := 0'.U;lC x2 - U I c.d

At the tip

. rrND 1 (since U 2 "'" ('x2

l! 1= "--...- ..
60
12000 x 1! x 0.45 nND 2
-
60 60
= 282.7 nI/s If x 12 noo x 0.76
WI :::: 0.75 x 337.X 60
= 253.35 IIl/S ,111.51l1/S
Now from Fig. 4.7 at the inlet tip
0,9 4TI.,V 2H2.7 :': 42.15
(al 111(" til')
'HR. 11lO~

I 1l.IIc,H
I " I' .~ I : I ( "I I (
170 llYlJRAt"lJC AND COMI'RES~lnLl, l'LOW T1JRlI()~lAClII~TS CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS A~[) I'II:'\S 171

From the clTicicncy equation 1C x 16000 x 0.55

-"'_._--"----~~._-"---

PojPol = [(1.668 - 1)0.9 + IJ\~ 60

= 5.2 = 460.7 m,/s

Now
T . - T. _ ~/(1.l)J and
11.\ 01 - 1005

1.04 x 0.9 x 460,72

T-, ..,..,....,.,._.-._._-.
Also 01 - 1005

"",197K
T02 197
Therefore = 288 + 1
TOl

= 1.68
Now for the impeller

~:: =( I + 17;( T()~8~ To I))3.5

But

= ( I+ 0.92~J??}1.5
= 0.9 x 477.5
= 429.75 mi'S = 5.36
J~12 = 1.668 x 288 = 541.4kPa
=480.3 K
Su bstituting
T;12 = 197 + 288
"l~ = I _ 429.75 2 + 50 2 =485K
T02 2 x 1005 x 480.3
= 0.806
(",2:;:; a,V 2
()2/1'01 == 5.2 X O.l106L5 0,9 x 460
= 2.44 414m/s
Impelkr out!ct stalic pressure 2(15.X k 1':1 101111l';
illl';' l\tillWtl (11 impdkllH'nphrry
Exercise 4.9 (~l) Impeller lip speed I HII, llllprllci dcplh
ill\! /I, II IUUl
I" , UO<. \'1111 '
172 IIYDRAULI(' AND COMPIU:SSIIIlJ', FLOW Tl:RUO~IA('HINES ('I'NTRIHIOAL C(JMf'RESSUI{S ,~'m FANS 17.1

From the outlet velocity triangle x 287 x 394.75)11

-'" (1.4

C?, e 22 + C'~ = 191<.1 m/s

_.. ,,, .... :::=. .,-~_.~---_ ..,',., ...

2C p 2C r ('1 = (90.25 x 2 x 1005)1'1

IOO~ + 414 2 = 425.9 m!s
2 x 1005
i'vl, =
425.9
=':)0.25 K 39803
Thus
= 1.07
c~
U.',.
til(: outlet velocity triangle
=4SS 90.25
= 394.75 K
100
From isentropic relationships at a point = 425.9
= 76.4'
t\ssuming free vortex flow in the vaneless space and denoting coudl
= 541.4(~~~;?}U II(' diffuser vane tip without a subscript,

= 263.4kPa
Using the cq uatio!l of state
414 x 0.275
<U17
35(), I m;\
263.4
= 287 x 394.75 as ;1 lirst try C, lOOmis. Then
(,} 100"1 359,1.1
= 2,33kg/rn'\ :1('" 2 '~ 1005
The equation of continuity gives
tNI\K
1111' ~':IHH' PfI.ll'tdllll' as in p:trllh)
,He, Ill). II
15 ,II \'1 1\
0.0619 x, 2.13
, I
Impeller outlet radial vclocit y HHU Ill,'; /' {'" ,( I",

'11 " lj ')' "

I mpcller outlet Mach 1l1l111lwl (' )i,l, '.-II ,I (,
Now
1.1'.1
174 IfVDRACT.l<' AND (OMI'RI'SSmu: FLOW TIIRIlOMAClHNLS f'!':-;T1l1HX;,\L (OMI'RLSSORS AND I.\NS 175

316,3 . ... Power transfcrn:d to air

1'.,.{'n:ISC 4.10 (al Mcchamcal effiClencv =--- .
fl2"" 287 x 415.9 , Power supplied to shaft
Hi
"" 2Ji5 Shaft power -,~
Ii = 2nr x Depth of vanes 'I",
"'" 2 x 1t x OJ 17 x ll.037 Now for a radial vaned impeller the Stanit.. . slip lhctor equation is used.
=0.0737111 2 0.6311.
(f, =I - Z
C .._ 15
r - 2.65 x 0.0737
0.63rr
= 76.8 m/s 19

Next try C, = 76.8 m/s. = O.lN58

C2 76,8 2 t- 359Y
2C I ) 2 x 1005 W/III = 11 0 .1 - hnl

= 67.09m 2j s2
= ljJa.U 2 C., 2 since Cd =0
=llJ(T,U.~ since U, ..., ::= C.
.\.r.
7'-417.9K
W = 1.04 x 0.8958 x 525 2 x 2
p= 321.7kPa
3 :;:;: 513.56 kW
1'2 = 2.68 kg/m
C. = 75.9mis 513.56
Shaft powcr=
0.96
Therefore there is little change in C, and thus this is the radial vdodl\' = 5J5kW
at the diffuser vane tip.
At the vane
hom Fq. (4.11)

POJ = (1 + tl~.I~rr.~,{}j YWi- 1)

~_.
359.1 POI C"Tol ,
75.9 I + O.~I.~1.?4x O.8958X?~~2)_\.5
( 1005 x 290
Vane angle
6.59
'J.' =: 78'

Mach number at vane

1',,\ 6.';() III I

i (170'1 I tlO', ')'

(
11 'in 11 /'1 Ii
I', I, (
f j
i,
17{1 HYDRAULIC Al'lJ COMI'RESSIllLl' FI.OW TlJRIIOMACHlNES CENTRIFUGAL COMPRFSSORS AND FANS .77

But
= 51 ~:)~~"~{~~ + ( I~(~~~r)
= 255.5 + 8.25
"" 263.7K
2 x 1005 x 7~u

Also
T,!. .- T, == 0.5 x 263.7
==131.87K

513.56 x 10.1 c 21 +(1' -Tl

2 x 1005
+ 290 1('
- 'I'
2 1.

= 545.5 K 160 2
= 290 - -----.. ' + 131,87
Thus 2 x 1005
2
T~==I_ 95 . =29012.74+131.87
J~u 2 x 1005 x 545.5
=409.1 K
=0.9917
Substituting C 2 = [2 x 1005(255.5 + 290 - 409,I)J ' !2
f'J= 665(0,9917)3.5 = 523Ji m/s
"" 646kPa
"2"" (i'RT2 )l/2
Di!1'uscr outlet static pressure == 646 kPa ;;=(1.4 x 287 x409.1)1!2
= 405,4
(c) At the impeller (Jutlel ilIil",I,,-,. at impdlcr outlet

c2
"t'02 -- l'2 + )C..2 M 2 = C 2 1a.!
- 'r 523.6
or - 405,4
'I'
l l ' ""
c~.
't' 1+ . --
(., - 'C
- 1'
= 1,29
Rearranging
il j ill!lwllcr uut k~l
c~=
*
2C p ['('1'
. ' 0.\ r,ll
From the equation for reaction c~ " C~22
52J.6" (aJ! 2)2
and ":'3.(,' (O.RlJ5R x 52sf
( C; I \ )
'.11(,.' ,170,1"
.'1/, I ,

II
( ,,. .,
I \

,'I /'
178 HYDRAULIC AND COMI'IU'SSlRLE FLOW TlJRllOMACHINES CENTIUFUGAI. COMI'RESSOR$ AND FANS t79

to the impeller outlet. Diffuser efficiency (c) Assume that C. Cr and if the gas moves in a free vortex then
11 30 '- h2 Cx3f3 "'" Cx2 f 2
'/0='---"
It;! - hz
since C,d Cr;l' then C"" ~ C 3 and
and this relates the isentropic enthalpy increase to the actual enthalpy
increase. Rearranging f2 C,d
f:\ = C,d
tIl> = 'l2(i; ,- 1)/ (T3 - T2 )

p)(i"lliY
:::: [ T 2 ( /;~ -
Ji( T;, - )
I / T]. 95
= O.8958~ 525
whence
l' - T)i',1(i 1)
P3= I+tl ;I ].
( () '1'].
PI
0.83 x 13 1.87
:::: ( J + - - - -
)3.5 since (T~ - Td =(T"
P2
409.1
T.) P2 =R1~

=2.29 282.1 x 10 3
::: 2trlx 409.1
646
P]. = 2.29 = 2.402 kg/m 3
"'" 282.1 kPn rille at impeller outlet
m "" ()2A2Cr2
Using isentropic relationships at a point "" 21tP].f 2 Cr1 h2

POl.. ',
02 )ii(Y-1)
"." ~ .1,,

P2
(
,T2 where l\i' is in rpm

545.5 ),1.5 nNm

P02:::: 282.1 ( 40ff .,~.,_.,-,----

1'21(("r2/)2 x 60
= 772.3 kPa
525 x 2.402 x 230.2 x 0.006 x 60
N

[( ) )(r
2
(d) ,. 102 Ui}' 'III (
Ili""'J O ! --- -I 110.1 52253 rpm
POI. , .'

772.1)ILlMr,'JI(
= 290 [( I(fl~ ,- 1 /,,54.\<1
228.9
--~

255.5

CHAPTU(
FIVE
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS AND FANS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Because of a lack of knowledge of the aerodynamic bchaviour of axial IIllw
comprcssor blades, the initial simple concept of using a reversed turbine ;1'; ;111
axial flow compressor resulted in compressor elliciencies of less than 40 1"'1
cent. Some early gas turbines did use axial flow compressors but these !';IVI'
turbine efficiencies of thc order of 55 per cent, and it was only willl IIII'
development of aeroplanes, and research into the aerodynamic hchavillill ,1/
wing scctions, that blade design for axial flow compressors beC<\IlH' (".
tablished, Some early investigators suggested that efficiencies of l)() PCI (I'lil
would be reached, and this is now indeed the case, this figure surpassilll' 1111'
maximum centrifugal compressor efficiency by about 4 pCI' cent. Ilmwl'l'l, It
penalty has to be paid for such high etliciencies and, with tile :lXI:1I IIllw
compressor, the performance is very sensitive to its mass l10w rak at tile dl",I~t11
point. Any deviation from the design condition causes (he c1licicncy II) dlllllllil
drastically. Thus the axial flow comprcssor is ideal lelr cOlls(alll 1011.1
applications such as in aircraft gas turbine engines, They arc alsn II) he Illlllhl
in fossil fuel power stations where gas turbines arc used lelr (oPl'lI'l', Ill' IhlJ
station output when normal peak loads arc exceeded.
The simple expedient of using a turbine to opcralt' as ;1 ('nlllpn'~,';", 11111
into difficultics because of the nature of thc air nnw ill III(' two l'a~,I'~, III tlit!
turbine, the blades form a converging passagl\ I Ill' all'a al ,"kt hl"lll~' funl.ttl!
than at outlet, with the Iluid Iwilll'. ;In'l'il'lakd III IhI' paw,agl' Illl'lllll!,I,"''''
the Iluid is diffllsed wllh a plnsillc )Jilin fllkllll!, ph,\'(- throllV,h II hilldl' lll1'iMM-f
of in ncasi lip. nos~, s,'l'liol1al 0111':1 Wlilk ,I IIlIld I'/HI hI' 1I1.II'lI'nlfI"lIIlW'j II wittli!
INU
AXIAL FLOW COMI'RESSORS AND FANS 181
t
(a) (n)
Compressor and turbine blade passages: (a) turbine; (b) compressor
~c with high efficiency, the process of diffusion cannot be carried out so
idly due to the onset of separation on the suction side of the blades, and
sequent stalling. This is similar to the included angle of a diffuser being too
\l and separation taking place along the diffuser walls. Typical blade
ions arc shown in Fig. 5, I, where it will be noted that the angular turning of
rdative velocity vector is mueh greater in the turhine than in the
1'1'l~ss()r. The maximum rate of efficient diffusion within the hlade rows is
lvulcnt to a cone angle of about 7" or S".
tn studying the now of the l1uid through an axial compressor, it is usual to
Illdm' Ihe changes taking place through a compressor stage, Astage consists
row of moving blades attached to the periphery of a rotor hub followed by
of fixed blades attached to the walls of the outer casing. The compressor
de up of a number of such stages to give an overall pressure ratio from
to outkt. l'igun: 5.2 illustrates a ICw compressor stages,
t will be Sl~ell that al the inlet to the compressor, an extra row of fixed
,l~nlkd inkt guidc vanes, are litted. These do not form part of the stage
~t solely 10 guide the air at the correct angle onto the first row of moving
Till' hci~:hl ur lhl: hbdes is also seen to decreasl; as the fluid moves
l,I.h IIll' compressor. This is su that a constant axial velocity through the
teNsor IS nwillfaill\:d as the density increases from the low- to high-
I'~ l'e~lons.1\ 1:(lIISlalll axial velocity is convenient from the point ofvicw
1""1\ hull,s hv 1IIlIlIl';lIl<;;t l'equin:llIcllt. The analysis for flow through the
will Ii, Nt Iw ,lest' I ihed Itl Il'fIlls 111'1 wp-dill1ensionalllow. The flow through
IIllt' iN lIsslIllll'd III (akr plan' at a l11eall hlade hcight where the blade
Imll vdorllilm III Iltkl ,\lid \I\llh'( ,Ill' till' sallie, there bcing no llow in the
dltlll'lIilH Whitl UllIIlHlIll'lilN "f VdOl'lly will nisi ill lhe direction or
t1lo II nil
Hl2 IWDRAULJC A:"1) COMl'l{ESSlIlU I LOW TURIlOMACHIr-;fS ,\XIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS AND FANS 183

I
G
R S R V

i
[nle[
are:\
.'1'
Disc or
huh
L.-., {'_.,--.
C,~

fS'.
--- _ ._--~--

"'igurc 5.2 An ;\~ial compressor stage cts

~,,\ Vdocil)' triangles for an llxial now comrrcssm staGe
5.2 COMPRESSOR STAG~:

The rotor and stator rows ofu stage arc shown in Fig, 5.3. Note that all :Inglt>,
arc wferrcd to the axial velocity vector CIl'
nt(. (1.25))
Air exits from the previolls row of stator blades at angle (',(1 with ahstillllt' ~5.11
velocity C l . The rotor row has tang,cnti<ll velocity U, and comhining the t\\'o
velocity vectors gives the relative inlet velocity vector WI at angle Ill' AI rotnl E == (U 2C. 2 - U 1 c., )/0
t
row outlet the velocity triangles arc similar to those drawn for the axial 110\1
Ilw W!O('ily triangks. and noting that C. is COllstant through thl.:
pump, und the absolute velocity vector C~ moves i/lto the stator row whell' th,'
iii ill U,
now direction is changed to:13 with absolute velodty C.J' The diagrams hillt'
hecn drawn showing a large g;,tp between the rotor and stator blades; this i', IIi!
clarity. In practice, the clearance between rotor and slator rows is sOlal!
II' the following stage is the same as the preceding one, the stagc i~. s.. id II i h"
normal. For a normal stage C I ::;;;. CJ andy, c. )J' Hi" is less Ih"ll HI' "howmg
thut difTusion oftlu; rdative vclodty has taken plaCl~ with ~Ollll' ';l"lic P'I".',UI<
risc across the rotor blades. The air is' llmed low;, nb t he axial 11111'1'1 lOil I,V thf
blade camber and the cOcctivc now an'a is illnl~as('d from ink I to \llllkt. 11111', /' (I(',,(lall/l, lallll,l/ll (Wi(N/s)1 (5.2)
causing diffusion 10 take plal:e. Similnr diffllsltln (\1' the .. b';\IIIlU' vein'll \'
ClWIHY lIall',ln nlaV obI> !It "'1\lltll ill II'nns Ill' till' absolute velocity
place in tile stator, whcl'l~ the ahsolute vl'l,,(ilv vcrl,,\ h illWl1l lllllli'd Ii.,,,,,, ....,
the axial directiol\ and a f\lflhn\tati. lHI",'illll' 11',1' "nlll
The energy givcn tn Iht' ;111 Pi', IIlllt \lIa,,'i 11.,\\' tiltl' h l.'lH\l hI lidl" liil I.W (.\ II
184 "YDl~AlJl.IC AND COMI'Rh'l.'iIllI.1: H.(lW TlJRIlOMACHlNI:S
AXIAl. FL.OW COMPIUiSSOIl.S AND FANS 185

J{carranging.

(11 2 lid (("2 - Cd)[(U-- ell + (V -- C'I)1/2 = 0

(11 2 - hd .j- (W'2 W"dIWx2 + Wxl )/2 = 0
{Ill 11 d + (W~2 W.;tl/2 "'" 0
(J'V;, '" W;,) "" (Wi Wf) since C, is constant Therefore
il 2 + WV2 = ill + wil2 (5.5)
Eq. (5.5) can be written

1I02rd = 1101 rei (5.6)

the relative total enthalpy is based on the relative velocity.
Equation (5.6) shows that the total enthalpy based on relative velocities in
rotor is constnnt Heros." the rotor and this result is nlso valid for the axial
gas turbine rotor. A comparison of Eq. (5.5) with Eq.(4.7) indicates why
WI halpy change in a single.stage axial now compressor is so low compared
centrifugal compressor. The relative velocities may be 01' the same order
"""('"''''~'''''' but the axial Oow compressor reed ves no I,;onlribution from the
l!llllllll.H.' in tangential velocity.
Till' isentropic efficiency is written as

'I. .-.. isentropic

= Ideal-----~_..-..-- work
.... input
,. Actual work input
Figun> 5.4 Mollier chart for lITl axiallhlw wmpfe~~l1r stage
= (1r 0 .1 " hod.!(h oJ hod

Equation (5.2) or (5.3) may he used depending upon the infil1111al

available.
The flow through the slage is shown thermodynamically Oil the
chart in Fig. 5.4 and is similar to that for a centrifugal complCSS(l1
enthalpy l.:hange is l.:ontinuous taking account of irrevcrsibililics ill the
and stator.
Assuming adiabatic now through the stage. h'l\ 11 0 .', and 1
Eq. (5.1) may be written as (5.7)
W!III,-"lto2~h()t (W/(kg/s)) I hi ,'IWlg\, Ill/HI I In lhl' lluid will k ahsorbl,;d usefully in raising the
'ilid volt hl' ;\11 and SOllie will he wasted in overcoming various
\'\'luIIi
Writing 'nill 10""f" l/uWl'\'t'I. Ihl' whole of Illl' wOIk input will appear as a
/dn IrmpcLtllH" 11',1' ull hI' ,Hi n'gal tlks~; 011 he isenfropic cl1'icil~ncy.
then l \\ III 1I'1i III In IIi', iii tr'lHpn .11111 ("; illld ;Ill it llJ'-ks 1'1'0111 Jlq. (5.2) is
(\Xl
186 HYDRAULIC AND COMI'RFSSlIlLE I'LO\V TlrRHOMACH[};US AXIAL FLOW COMl'lU'SSORS AND rANS I K7

In practice C u is not constant along the lcngt h of the blade and, to account for Figure 5.5 illustrates thaI it is only at the inlet of the machine that lht:
this. II work done l~lctor..;. is introduced, dcl1ncd as ve!i:)ci1lv profile is fairly constant over the blade length. The fiolid boundaries of
rotor and stator exert more and more inllucncc on the velocity profile as
Actual work absorbing capacity
Work done factor"" . -.------ . air moves through the compressor. The variation in work donc factor ill
Ideal work absorbing capacity 5.6 shows that ? decreases as the number of compressor stages incn:ascs.
Hence
(5.9) REACTION RATIO

reaction ratio is a measure of the static enthalpy rise that OCClll'S in the
expressed as a percentage of the ((llal static enthalpy rise across Ilw
It is defined as
Static enthalpy risc in rolM
R = . ------.-... . . . ----..- .
Static enthalpy rise in stage
"" (11 2 -II J }/{II) hi) (5,10)

(11 2 -. hi) == (Wi - W~)/2

if C 1 ::= C", then
(11:\-1,\)::= (11(1.\ - hal) = UIC'2 - C xl )
',uhslitnting for (11 2 -- hI) and (11 3 - II al in Eq. 15.10) the reaction 1;11 in

J< (Wf W~)/L2U(Cx2 C.,d]

liigurc 5.5 Variation of :Ixilll velocity along a blade llC.~ I IV;d ... (c,; + W~2).I/[2UICd C.\I n
(IV', 1+ 11', . )( WI! Wd/[2U(Cd C\I U
10 fi IV,) and e'l U ~V.'I' Thercl'ore

(C \.' C, I) (Ifill II',:)

-.:: O.lJ5
~
t;
..:! U (W'I I lI',dl2U
~ 0.9
()I:111/111 lall/I,,)/.ll;
~
~
a (t '".I'Hlnn /1.)
~ 0.85
./. LlIl/l,
(LIIlII, j IHII/II. .', wllik till' WIIO <!l axial vdowy to hLhk
0.8 ':-_ _..J..-_ _ .L_. . L,... _..,.~L .
0 4 8 12 16 .:0 lIow'iwlhcwlll It limy Iii' showlI ';IlIlHady thnl til\' Ir;\l'!illll
Stage I1t1mlwr

Figure 5.6 Variation of WDl'h ,h'lll' f;ll'lo, w,llt IHIIIIII"1 .. I \L'r- " {', I't
188 HYI>RAlJlIC AND COMI'(U'SSIllU: FLlIW llJRIIOMAClllNI,$ AXIAL H.OW COMPRESSORS AND FANS IR9

1/ = W/IlIU 2 = (1I 0J - ho d/U

2 (5.13)

= },(C.d - C.~l)/U

= J.(C"./IJ)(tan:X2 - tan a.)

ljI = ..ttfJ(tan:X2 - tan \Xd (5.14)

U
LIFT AND DRAG COEFFICIENTS
(a) R 0.5
the rotor blade showlI in Fig. 5,S with relative velocity vectors WI
illl<,iri"r
W2 at anglcs Ii t and /1 2, This system is similar to now over an aerofoil so
lift and drag forces will be set up all the blade while the forces on the air
act in the opposite direction as shown in Fig. 5.9.
The drag force is defined as acting in the line of the rnean velocity vector
at angle 11.,. to the axial direction as defined by Eq. 15.11), and the lift force
perpendicular to this,
The resultant force experienced by the air is therefore given by the vector
Fig. 5.9, so that the force acting in the direction of blade rotation (the x
is written as
u lJ
(b) R;:. 0.5 (e) R < 0.5 Fx = Lcos (J,~ + J) sin fl",
Figure 5.7 EfTcCI of reaction ratio 011 the velocity lri:lfIg1cs = Lcosfl",[1 + (Cn/Cd tan !1 ,]
the lift coefficient is defined as
C L = L/O,5pl~/;,A
For a reaction ratio of 50 pCI' cent, (/1 2 -lId:::: (h.\ -liz), that is the stall;-
enthalpy and temperature increase in the rotor and stalor arc equal. Also, fnHIl I Ill' bhlde arca is the product of the dtOl'd c and Lhe span I, und putting
Eq. (5.12), #2 = ':Xl' and when the outlet and inlet velocity triangles an: ~;IIPcr
imposed, the resulting diagram is symmetric;11. This is shown in Fig. 5.7a In,
R > 0.5, Fig. 5.7b shows the diagram skewed to the right since Ill> ':1. and Ihr
static enthalpy risc in the rOWr is greater than in the stator. The static" pn'c".lIt"
rise is also greater in the rotor than the stator. If R < 0.5 the diagra.tn is sb~wrd
to the left as in Fig. 5.7c, and static enthalpy and pressure rises arc grcah'l
the stator than in the rotor. A reactiml ratio of 50 per cellt is usually cho';rll
that the adverse pressure gradient over the stage is shared equally hy I ht' :,liitlll
and rotor. This decreases the likelihood of boundary-layer scpnJ'illillll III hU11l ... u
the stator and rotor blades and is the condition for maximum tcrl1peral 1I1~' ,
and cll'icicncy.

5.4 STAGE LOADING

!
If t.he power input is divided hy 1111' 1l't11\
called the sta!!c load Ill!, lildl", I\"-IIIt"
lUI II dlll1t'!I.l"llk,f. ,,,t'IlI,wlll "
r 190 HYDRAULIC AND COMI'RESSllll.l' FLOW TUIU10MACIlINES

BLADE CASCADES
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS AND FANS 1')1

previous sections have concentrated on relating. the required energy

I.mnsfc~r or stage work to the blade inlet and outlet angles for both the rotor
stator. The next requirement is to decide on the blade shape that will give
required stage work at the maximum efficiency along with the minimum of
nn~ssure loss.
In Sec. 2,7.1 usc was made of blade element theory to relate the blade lift
~i(ll~lTil~jCllt to the energy transfer across the impeller of an axial now pump
(2.61, the blades of axial flow pumps and hydraulic turbines being of
solidity. Axial now compressor (and gas turbine) blading is of high
", J. with the result that the gas now around a blade is affected by tlw

Hround adjacent blades. In order to obtain infonnation on the effcct of

nlfrcn~nt blade designs on air flow angles. pressure losses and expected encrgy
lJUllsfcr across blade rows. one must resort to cascade wind tunnels and
Fi"ure 5.9 Resolving hlade forcc~ into tli"
410flcade theory.
F
difcction of rotation 1\ cascade lS a row of geometrically similar blades arranged at equHI
~U!ltanccs from each other and aligned to the flow direction as shown ill
fit.", 5.10. The row of blades is installed on a turntable at the end of a wll1d
11l1H\cl channel such that the angle of incidence of the blades with respect hIt he
l'V", = Calcos fJr.: then Jllll'(wching air may he varied. Vertical traverses between successive hbHll",
uy then be made with pitot tubes, and yaw meters to determine pres~all(,
Fx """ pC,;dC L scc{1.,[l + (Cn/CL)lan Ii ,,,]/2 11!IC:; and air flow angles, Figure 5.10 is known as a linear cascade and call Ill'
The power delivered to the air is given by IllVjllcd as a row of compressor blades unwound from the rot~)r to form 111L'

U F.t = m(h 03 - hod (W)

"" (le)s(1'OJ - hOI)
where the flow through one blade passage QI' width 8 has becn
Therefore
'/1 "" (ho ) -/i O! )/iP
= Fx/pC"lsU
= (C"I U )({,/81 sec (i , (CI. f CD tan /1 ,1/2
=(/*'/S) sec fJ",(CL + CI) tan /1, )/2
For maximum efficiency, the mean flow angle If, is usually ahottl ,h
substituting f(>r this into Eq. (5.15), the optimum hlade loadlllp ladnl
becomes
V/"PI =: (</1/ \/'2)(c/s)('1 -I C n)
If Cu is much smaller than C\, which is w,wtlly Ihe \":t:.e f(l, a writ "".11'.".",
blade, then
192 IlYDRAULIC A!'-[) COMI'RESSlIILE HJIW n'RIlOMACIllNES AXIA! II.OW COMI'RnSSORS ,\NIl FANS 193

cascade. The number of blades comprising Ihe cascade has to be sufficient 10

eliminate any wind tunnd wall boundary-layer efftx:ls, and suction slots arc
often let into the tunnel walls to control the bOllndary layer.
The data obtained from cascade lesting have to be corrected before
. /\ M"", 1\ __
v-----Y V--~~ V --~ /\
.\';1

application to II prototype compressor can be made. The reasons for the

7' 30 I
corrections arc because of the differences between now in the actual machine 25 j'
I
and flow through Ihe cascudc. These differences arc as !i)lIows: 20 .'
Trailing
I. Jn the machine, annulus wall houndary layers exist at the blade hub and lip. edge posltinns
'} In the mm;hine, alternate blade rows interfere with the perceived cascade /1\
.. ' / \
data now pattern. / \
3. In the machine, the solidity decreases from hub to tip.
4. Blade velocity varies from hub to tip, thereby affecting the blade inlet angk. /
'
\ \.
; \~
From 3 and 4 it is evident that a cascade lest only applies for one radius alld / \
\,
inlet angle, and therefore it lTlay be necessary to carry out a number of tests 10
obtain u reliable picture of the flow in the blades.
2
I t 4
1
5
J

Distance along trailing edge of casell\!I:

5.601 Cascade Nomenclature and Curves
Before venturing further into cascade testing and blade design, it is l1ecessan'
to define various important angles relevant to the design. In Fig. 5.11 ;1
cambered blade is shown with a curved camber line through the ccntn;.
The tangents to the cam her line at inlet and outlet arc the camber angles (I,
and CL~ to Ihe axial direction respectively. The blade camber angle {I is defined :1',
5.12 ('llscadc deflcdioll allli prCSSlII'e loss curves al otIC Hf\[de of illl'ldcllu:
), Thl: chord (' is the distance between blade inlet and trailing edges,
. i.tllgga angle ~ is Ihat between the axial din;ction and the chord and
I\UR'1l1s t he angle at which the blade is set in the cascade, The Illude spacing
!tlill n.~pn.:selll.s the blade pitch. If til,: air enlers wilh velocity C\ al angle Ci l ,
f\Jlgk of incidence j is (a I . cr'l ). The air leaves the blade with velocity C,~ at
j i(,: and Ihe dilTcrcllcc (CL 2 ._. :x~) is the deviation angle ii, The air deflection

j'i t ( 1 1 1..! l. and it is this angle along with the cascade inlet and outlet
Hillill pressures flo I and flo} that are measured in the tra verse along s. The
HI I he I raverses arc lIsually presented as in Fig. 5.12, the stagnation
Iii,,;:, being plulkd as a dimensionless number given by
(5.18)
UlOId H'l nf ClIl\'(:S ';(1(:11 as Fig. 5.12 are obtained for different im:idem;c
Ihe mean ddkclion and presslll'e loss coclTicknt for cach curve, i:
L11',/,1 ';, arc plolted againsl incidence angle as in Fig. 5.13, The
1'.1':(", wlllt ;Ji\gk or llIt'idcm:c lip 10 a maximum I;" This is the
wlll'II' ',l'p:lIatioll ,IITlils till the suctiou surface of the hlade, and
Illay !Hlllw wi'll ddlll,'d in sllllletksiglls, il is taken as the angle
flw UI\"II\ IHI':,'<lIl(" Ill"~' j" twil't' 1111' minimulll, (I is eVident
tlllwldtllll. Ihl' 1'11'.. ;III1~ In'," I', Llirly Cpllstillll alld it is
iln dIH'\' III ddk, 'I"" /+ lhal I', ai",. Illlltp;lllhlc with low

Iq1lF',,'lblll\( till I f1iltllilllitt d'''.I~''II, alld hy U'II\I'lIlillll

194 HYDRAl.II.1C A:-in COMI'IUiSSlRlJ-: FLOW TlIR!lOMACH1>:ES AXIAL FLO\\! CO\H'RESSORS Ar-;O ,;\>;S 195

0.025

'---- - -_ _1.-....__-
._l..--L..._
10
I
30
I ---l_._LI_~
50 70 Figure 5,14 Cascade nominal deflectio!l
-20 -15
Air outlet lingle, .:t.: (dcg l versus air llutlet angle

Figure 5.13 Cascade mean (\.:ncetio!l and rrl.'Ssur,~ loss curves
1:*= 0.81;,. The nominal defiection angle 1:* is dependent mainly 011 I
pitch/chord ratio (s/c) and ':;(2' this being detcrmined from a large lltllnhcf
cascade tests. It is thus possible to plot a set of mastcr curvcs of 1.:* vcrs liS 1 !
diOcrcnt values of (Sid. These curves arc particularly useful to the ii,',: II> "" "
when any two of the three variables are fixed. For example, iI'the rolnt
and outlet angles {J I ,lOd /12 are known, 1:* can be found, and at angle Ii"
can be read from Fig. 5.14.
111lnUtlli C'Il may be obtained, where ell is the blade profile drag. The method
approach is to equate all forces acting on the ail' to the rate of change of
1.1I1\l'lltlltn of the air,
III Fig. 5.15 two blades of a cascade having chord c and pitch s are shown.
1-,1'1'1 iOllS I and 2 the total ail' pressures arc Jlo 1 and P02 respectively with
l,!,pondillg velocilies of C\ and C 2' while the density change across the
'11th: is negligible. The static pressure change across the cascade is tht~reforc
Ct
, '"
fl

The deviation angle (> is caused by the air not remaining attached I..
blade over its tolal curvature. () is given by the empirical relationship
() = mO(s/'c)1/2
where ,,i"""\'
ui,
m =O.2J(2a/d + 0.1(((2/50)
"
and II is the distance along the chord to the point of flIHxilllUlll ('amlin lot
circular arc camber line, (211/c) "" J, Hnd this hlade form is oncll tho:.rH

5.6.2 Cascade Lift and Dnlg Cocftkil'llts

The pressure ratio is gl!Vl:nwd hy thl' dllll!'l It' Vllf III!' ''';tW' nlld Ih!'; ,'11,. ,,,,,,i
depends on the total dnq~ 101 holh tht' wi,lI illl" !,tnlill ltl\\', lPHIl
mcasur(~d cascade k:d "'\1"". III 1/-0 iI'" lilt\' lill PH'IIl' hid i I ;11111
]<)6 IIYDRAt.:1.1C I\ND COMI'RFSSII\J.l' Fl.OW TUIUIOMACIlINES

given hy
D/cos 1 ct., "~(flc,~x/2 cos CI., )(tan 2 1X 1 tan 1 :x~l
- (f/C';s/2cosCI.",){tan 2 :x) ._- lan 2 til)
where it should be noted that 1'0 I > POl because no work is done in the eascatlt'
and the flow is irreversible. Equation (5.21) will be written as
+ ('~f)o/COS :X,,)
The first two terms on the RHS arc equal and therefore disappear to k;,I\'\:
!:J.p = /I(Cf qJ/2 Po (5.12)
D = stio cos a,
where !:J.p = (P2- 1'1) and PI) = (POI .- 1'(2)'
"IJfvllllll!1 the drag by 0.5 pC;,c gives the drag codfit:icnl
The summation of all forccs acting on the air in the control volume in the\
and y directions must cqual the rate ofdHlnge of momentum of the air in the:,!' (5.25)
directions. Considering first the y direction, since ell is constant, there is nu C'". '"" C)COSCL, and ('II = C\ CO$a,; thus substituting in Eq. (5.15) gives
velocity change from 1 to 2 in the y direction and consequently no momentultl
change. Hence for a unit length of blade, C n = 2(s/cJ({'o/pCy)(cos;\ .a,)cm:,2 ':Xl) (5.2(1)

/. sin Ct. i D ens Yo", --- .~!:J.[I = 0 1\ similar procedure may be followed for C L by suhstituting for 1) and 1\1'
(5.24) to give
Therefore
L""(I'C~slcosG(,Htan':Xl lanal)
J) = /. tan :1., --. 8/1.p/cos Ct.", 1Ltan a, (s/cos C(,)[p(Cf .. ('D!2 - f'o]} tan IX.,
In the x direction the velocity changes from C.d to C.'2' and noting that tJII'-;i-
are in the negative x direction.
Ian"' :1.,,) = (pC;s/cos G(,Htan C(l - (.In :X 2 )
Leos :1.,. + D sin::t, := - pC".~'(C'2 - C,<1)
.j (spC;'/2cosCt.,)(tan 2 a j tan 2 ,x z ltantx,
= pC;s(tan a l tan al)
(.~{lo/cos ::t"Jtan ax
and rearranging
L = (1'(',; s cos a, )[(t,1l1 ::I l - tan (;(2 1
L = (pC/~,~/C()S a,,)(tan:t I - tan ,Xl) - () tan a, >
+ ( lan~ r.t) 0
tan'Xl)(tan a l + tan:Xz}/4]
Substituting for Land /l.p in Eq. (5.23)
("i/'o cos :x, ) tan rt,
f) = [(pC,~s/cos rt,)(tan ctl - tan :):2) - [) tan a, ] tan rL,
(pC,;SCOS~("lltanaltan:Xl)[!+ (tana 1 +tatlCt. z)2/41
(s/cos Ct.,J[p(C~-- C3l/2 - Po]
(.~il(l (;08 11",) 1<111'1.",
and
(f/C',:S cos rt "Hlanr:;(t - taox2)!cm,2 a". (sj'io cos iX,.) Ian IX ,

(s/cosa,l[p(q ('ni2 Pu I
Now {l + tan l ("I,) = sec:'.:x" and tan:X L = (tan Cit + tan ""I)i,), TIt,.'1l'It'I"
D/cos 2 '1.. =(pC,:,~/2C()8C(,J(tall(X1 l;lIll'x.,)(I:lIlZI j Lill ,I
! ! ,- ,(IH 11 "1 1:\11 d .. 1

" , ! I) I HII! ,.
and noting that
198 lIYDRAUI.lC ANI> CO\WRrSSlllLE FLOW TURllOMACHI:-;ES AXIAl. FI.OW COMPRI'SSORS A::"'D I'Al'S 199

..-------------------,1.5

1.0 ~
5
C I.
3
,'/<'
-----J1.5
-----JI.O

O.ll75 0
c
V ....
c::
ti
'J 0.050
I; 70 Figure 5.17 Nominal lift coeffi
\I
:;
cients for the cascade
',.;"
bJ,

0 0.025 ell

drag coefficient
0
__L_
-20 -15 -to -5 () 5 !O GOA = 0,02(8/1) (5.29)
InciJ~nce <lllgle. i (dcg)
I is the blade height.
!,'il:llre 5.16 Lift alld drag cocllkicnts [tlf the cascade from Eqs (5.26) and (5.27)

CDS = O.018Ct (5.30)

The air inlet velocity C l ' the incidence angle i and the blade inlet ;lI\ld,
:x 'I arc known and therefore:x, ( =. (X'1 + i) is also know'n, The deviatiolll: is I COif I drag cocfficient is given by
from Fig. 5.13 for the angle of incidence, and ':X., ..,... tan- I [(tan all tan ,1,).1 ('In = CD + ellA -+ CDS (5.31)
whereGC2=(Ct, I:),
Knowing (s/c), values of i;o/O.5pCf can be read from Fig. 5,13 for V:\ll~
incidence angles and upon substitution or these variables into Eqs (5.2111 EFFICIENCY AND STAGE EFFICIENCY
(5.27) curves of CL and Cn may be plolted against the incidem;e angle as
in Fig. 5.16. Finally the lift coefficient can bc plolled against lhe air olltkt ;, shown in thc previous sectkm that linear cascade data may be
':1. 2 for the nominal value of c* for a whole serics ofditTcrent g~:(1Jl1d ry ,"'.,..1 .... ,
lIs\;d 10 determine the lift and drag coefficients for the cascade and
to givl"l the vari<ltion of C'" with air outlet <Ingle for a particular (sid ItHl(hllc(1 hv the addition ofannulus drag and secondary losses in order
(Fig. 5.171. ima te I h~~ drag cocO'icicnt for an annular cascade. After determining
The drag coefficient is usually very small in comp;lrison wil.h ( I
hl15J 1), the prt~ssure loss coefficient po/O.5pCr is determined from
therefore often ignored so that Eq. (5.27) bt~comes 111(' hlade row cfllcicncy lib is defined as
C" = 2(s/c)eos:X,(tanCt I tallC(2 1 1\I'I\lal Iln'~'~'IIlC rise in compre"sor blade row
(5.32)
To the profile drag as givcn hy Eq. (5.2(1) tWll further dlil!,~' Illll'.! 1,, IlIl'll! rlll'i11 pll.:s~nre rhl.~
in blade row
for reasons described in Sec. 5.6. Th~'sc al<..' t1h' drill' d'ftTh due I" lit, \vlll Oci'ur wlH'1! Po is zero, that is when there
the compressor, usu;llty ealkd the ;\IIlltdn'; dlHI'. 'Ind IIH' ';l'IIlIHhl \' I. iii'il'iHh' f1wldorc from Fq. (5.22)
caused by trailing vortices al tIll' bl;td, tip'., I;n'llllllill rdilllllllo,lllp'; 1\1
these drags ilS 1'01111\\1\,
200 HYDRAULIC A'>;I) COMPRESSIBlE FLOW TlJIU\OMACllt:<:I'S AXIAl. FLOW CO~lPRrSS()RS ANI) FANS 201

and blade dricicm:y is defined as (p+dp) \r+drldl!

~ lib = (L\ij'h"," Po )/~l'lhc",

=I {in/lip, h.", (5.34)

where both actual and theoretical static pressure differences are expressed in
terms of known angles. For the normal stage, C I "" C.\, and therefort: the stag!:
ist;nj ropic eO'ideney can be approximated to
(5,351
dp/2) dr'
It can be shown that for reaction ratios of 50 per cent, when (T 2 Td in the

It"\
rotor will equal (T \ T 2 ) in the stator, the blade cl1iciency and stage iscntropic
\
cfficiencics arc the'same, For other reaction ratios, the stage efficiency is given
by \.
If, for 50 per cent reaction, total values arc used instead of static values, thtH
the total-to-tol.al pressure ratio is approximately equal to the static-to-slaln
pressure ratio.
dO
\
/"
/

5.8 THREE~DIMENSIONAL FLOW

SO (~H we have heen considering only those now;; Ihat arc two-dimensional III
nature in that only whirl and axial now velocities exist with no radial vclOt:il.\
component. In axial now turbomachincs with hub/tip ratios greater than 011
this is a fair!v reasonable assumption concerning the flow in the annulm., hIli
for hub/tip ~ltiOS less than 0,8, the assumption of t wodimcnsionaillow is HO
longer valid. This is seen to be so in the case of aircraft compressors, and at I
low~prcssure end of gas turbines where, because of the high mass
requirements and the need for as small a fmntal area as possible, the trend Is
longer blades on a smaller hub, Radial velocities set up in the blade nm
now result in an appreciable redistribution of the mass Oow, which
seriously affect the blade outlet velocity distribution, Consequently allY
[{OIOT hlade Slat or lJ.l,uJc
~,I'.I Pfc~surc f(lfCC~ on a nuid clement
on the two-dimensional principle could be seriously in error as
ce,hHHll'Il" blade angles,
Radial now is caused by a temporary imbalance between the centrifugal
radial pressure forces acting on the fluid. When these forces balance each
then.: is no radial velocity and the fluid is said to be in radial equilibrium,
lll('! hod of analysis is known as the 'radinl equilibrium method' and
1II,lt~S lhat all radial movement of the streamlines takes place in the rotating
passages, while on either side the streamlines arc two-dimensional us
raledi" hg. 5.18. The analysis examines the pressure forces acting on an
ollluid, shown in Fig, 5.19, and equates these forces to the centrifugal
ill'lllIg nn the fluid. The stagnation enthalpy ho at any radius is then
and tht following equation is derived:
dllll/lIr C;/rt (', dC)dr + Cn dCjdr (5.37)
1'l,I;1l1PII {'l \ IJ I:, II\!' radi;d l.quilihritllll equation and may be applied to
III dllkn.'111 I\',IV~, 1'01 lIh(anu', jf il i~ assumed that the energy
11111';1:.1111 iU ,ill udti. Ihcn liltiJdr (\ and

, I f ,lit ./dl' 1(, .11 ',.!dt tl 15.]!'!)

l'htUft' ~Jk'>HlIiIf\IHH' fh;\
11,,1<
777T1I17Tl/l!/ 1/ /}/ / " .. illi/.' !Iihr, fl!\\' Lq LHIHI f:q"HtidHiHI Ii \\' I\i
202 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIllLE FLOW TlJROMACHINI'S
AXIAL FLOW COMPIU:SSORS AND FANS 203

C. is constant over the annulus, then dCIl/dr == 0 and hcnce

dC.../dr = _. C,,:/'- (5.39)

which upon integration gives

C,r "" cansl (SAO)
and this is the requirement for flow in a free vortex with the whirl velocity being
inversely proportional to the radius. The outlet blade angles would therefore
be calculated using the free vortex velocity distribution.
It is not necessary to stipulate that dl/o/dr be zero or indeed that ell is
constant at all radii. It might be desirable to specify a radial distribution of
energy transfer, choose a radial distribution for CII and calculate C., as a
function of r which satisfies Eq. (5.37). Having discussed the principle of thrl~l:
dimensional analysis, however, it should be stressed that it is not a panacea 1'01
all design problems since loss of performance due to boundury-layer growth Figure 5.20 Mlllti-,Iagc comprcssion
s
and secondary losses detract even from the improved accuracy of radial
equilibrium analysis.
the numerator consists of a number of isentropic enthalpy increases. But
entropy increases through the compression, so the constant pressure
5.9 MULTI-STAGE PERFORMANCE "'\i"'I'1'" and

The total pressure ratio across a single stage is dependent upon the
tempcruture rise across the stage, and the unthinking might assume thaI, Iii
find the total pressure ratio across N stages, it would only he necessary ttl IJ. > 'h
the prcssure ratio to the power of tile number of stages, such that if Pnr i~; Ih, IS. I he overall single isentropic compression efficiency is less thun the
pressure rutio for one stage, then the total pressure ratio is given by (PIIt.)" 'elficicncy. The difference also increases with pressure ratio and with the
However, this is not correct, since for the same temperature rise per stage. lhl~r Ilf stages, .
the entropy increases, the pressure rise decreases, as examination nl I Tn accuunt for compression in stages, a small stage or polytropiC
Mollier chart will show. It is here lhat the small stage or polytropic t~lIjlL'h'lt, lell!,\' is dell ned for an elemental compression process, This efficiency is
'Jl' is employed, (\I','\'(I to bl.: constant throughout the whole compression. As~mmjng
In Fig. 5.20, if we compress in a single compression from I ttl ~,pccifk heal. then for the elemental compression in Fig. 5,21
isentropic work done is
'I I' == d TidT
'
(5.41)
WI",== (1111' ~III) topic process,
and the isentropic efficiency of the compression is (5.42)
'Ie == (hils - hlJ/(h ll ltd
II'./' tllllstll' \ I ii'l{~. 11..!I' ]d11
lfwe now compress from Ito 5 in a number of small linilc slagc~., Ihe h"HI
work done is IIplII Iq. (.'i .. II). and fill" the constant in Eq. (5.42). then

W,lm == (/1 2, hI) + (11.1" h,)l (h,j., h,d I (II". h,) 11.,(111.'1) II)' I )i)" l(d/'/I')

and if for similarly dcsigm:d stage" the dHl"hmty 'I" i~. !Ill' ";11111'. th"1i ,"""",,' lidWI'l'l1 II... linn\; 01 till' fllll'T'lIqll\,~,~.itln from I 10 II.
('I'U)
'I" (W,"lIlt (h u
t h,)
204 lIYDRAtJLlC Al"J) COMI'RI1SSIIlLE FI.OW TURllO!>1ACIIINES AXIAL "LOW (OMPIU,SSORS ANn FANS 205

[)c,ign pomt
tiT

Figure 5.21 Polytropic or small "law

compression

and rearranging,
PU/PI = (TII/Tl)'I")'/(Y -1) I
_J
A typical valuc for polytropic emciency is (j,SH and in initial design I,;lU'l..lllillll 'IPi 1.2
it is often assumed that Ill' ;;;:; 1"-
If it is assumed that we have equal totnl temperature riscs in cach
Axial now compressor characteristic
and denoting the inlet conditions by 01 and outlet conditions at the last
as 0[1, then for N stages,
I opt:rating at this condition, all air flow angles and velocities throughout
I -
POll POI'~ (Tfill IT('1 )'1")'/(1-'
.
I)
\'nIlIJH'cssor arc at their correct design values. We will examine what
Also
Ill~lI~, within the compressor when the mass Oow at the design speed is
1;1I1/~H == (J~I + N L1To)/'I;J1 H!!:d. and when the speed itself is changed. In practice the design point is
where A'/~ is the stage total temperature rise. It is abo usual to assume thilll III the surgt: linc (point 5) and if the mass tl(W,I is only slightly
polytropic and tolal-to-total stage isentropic efficiencies arc equal at a tllt~ pressure ralio uud density in the rear stages will both incrcklsc.
about 0.88. IIIfpA, the axial velocity will decrease and hence the incidence
While it is possible to make a very rapid calculation of prc~;sure will incrcase sharply in the rear stages. thereby causing stalling in
I hrough the compressor by this method, the step-by-step Cil kula 110li
conditions lhroughollt the machine should still be made, p:trticui:lrly II \\,tsdy, a small im~rcasc in mass now will lead to a sharp drop in
forms change. latlo In point 2, 'nlc dcnsity also drops sharply so that ea increases.
ill Ille large deCl'cas(~ of the incidence angle in the rear stages,
UIlll'illll' ,.Ialiing III the fear slagcs with negative incidence.
5.10 AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR CHARA(TEIUSTI< 'S ''I"'ed (,f til" \,UlIlpn'SSUf is redllced sothal the operating poinl moves
111;\',', II. oW and I hcrdorc ( '" 1:,11 fash:r lhanl he hlade speed V, result.ing
A multi-stage axial compressor characteristic is shown III "II'. I, IIlllden,,, ;tllglv i\ hlllh,." :.Iighl reduction inlllHss now along
compming this with Fig. 4.10, il is seen I hn lllll: prcsslIn' .illill iif I he 'XIII fIJI I .,p",'d dlill .Hln hi Ii' wllllt;I\'!' Itll Ie dle!'l Oil Ihe lirst-slagc density
compressor is less scnsitive to mass now variations at;r /',!Vt'll ',pted lIliltll'" 41"'" il hili 11'1 ill II ;tnd llll',,ibk slallillp ill 1111.' first slagl~. If
axial compressor. IHflil',,'d ,111m\, >.\,1".'.1, till' ldu'lthflnd ofli,sl:;I:lgeslalling
In Fig. 5.22, Ihe ,k'ill'll IlIW.'; lIow illld p,nqlJ(' nlilP ,HI' ,It 1"'1111 I 10 I nill I'> Inv low illid '"W'UllIl"lItly ( "
2()(i HYDRAUI.JC AND CO~IPtWSSJBLE !'LOW TURlloMACHINES
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS AND FA-SS 207

increases until sonic conditions and choking of the fiow in the rear SIal""
fUI the blade and air angles at the mcan radius.
occurs.
Ib) the mean mllius.
When the design speed is exceeded (point 3), the characteristic cv(:ntll:lI1> (~l the bl.\de height,
becomes almost vertical. The increased speed allows more air to be passed III 1<1) the pitch und chord and
higher density and pressure ratio. But at the inlet, the mass flow increases fa',1I'1 the number of blades.
than the density and choking of the inlet is usually the first to occur. All 01 thedatll ofexerdsc 5.5, ira circular arc camber linc for the b\t\dc is assumed, ,md abn th\'
limiting conditions discussed above lead to unstable or inefficient <""'\""",'1,,,;, Fig, 5.13. determine:
and should be avoided at all times, (al the blade camhcr angle,
the deviutioll.
Ihe blade stagger,
the tout! dmg coefficient of the blade,
EXERCISES blade row efficiency and stage efficicncy.
'Hage sIalic pressure ralio and
the stage lolal pressure rllHo.
Unless otherwise stated, the work done factor is unity and inlet stagmlllntl t.cro incidence und n normal stage (C I "'" C)
conditions are 101.3 kPa and 288 K. For air Cp = 1005 J/kg K: R "" 287 Illllal flow c~)mpressor has constant axial velocity throughout the compressor of 16() Ill:''', a
j' -= lA, speed of 244 mls lind delivers a pressure riltio of 5: 1. Each stagc is of 50 1'('1' (,'I\t
Ill! ilnd thc relative outlet nir angles are the same (30') for cueh stage. If a polytl "pi,
5.1 Using lht: notation given in the text, show that ill lin axial now cumpressor Slag.: llCy of 88 per cent is assumed, determine the number of stages in the compressor,
II ,t~ialflow compressor delivers a totul pressure ratio of 6. the total head pl(':,')II11' lIud
'l(III!rc at entry being 0.408 MPa and 300 K rcspcclively and the o\lcra1l1,cntropll' dt"''''I\<I
5.2 An axial nuw compressor stage with 50 per !.'Cnt reaction has lhc following dat:!:
Ii;' percent. TI,,:dcgrcc ofrclIction is 50 percent und all stages contribute an eqllal allllll'''' "~I
At II pllrticular /llage the blude speed at the meun height is 203m/s 1I11l1lhe aXlalvri"'I!\
Air inlel st.lgnation temperature 1'I(IK If the ilhsolute air angle entering the rotor at this slagcis 15' alld the work tlm\" 1,1',10 >! h
Rdutivc flow angle at rotor oullel measured from Ihe axial dircction ,n
Flow coefficient OJ,, llw rotor uit inlel ungle,
Rehllivc inlet \<facn number Ollto the rotor 0.7" til,: 11I1I11hcf of stages required.
till: stalic lempcrutufc of the air at cntry to the rotor and
!he rotor inkt rdative Mach tIllmher.
Iflhe stage is normal. whal I'; the stagualiotl tcmp~~ratllre rise in lhe firsl stage of thl' nllll'" 1"",'",,1'"
llow C'ltllPI'CS~Of' has 10 stage,; and the following data apply loe:lch slagl' at th.. 11'1\.'.111
5.3 An axial flow compressor stage is to be designed for a stagnatiotltcmpcrat lIrc rise ul ,'ll h
work done factor i> 0,92 amI the blade vclt,citics at the root, mean radius and tip ;m: 1'\ I:"
262.5 Illis respectively. Thc .udal velocity is cOllstant from root to tip and bi 15'1." III"
reaction r'llio at the mean radius is 0.5. what un: the ialet and outlet air and htn<k dll,+" lOOmis
root, mean radius aad tip for a free vortex design') Calculate also till: I'Ci\(;liOll ilf Ih.. I,I<!! 0.5
5.4 An alternative de,ign proposal to that in exercise 5.3 is to !wvc 50 pcrn'lli I('adi"" n.HI\
whole hladc, V'ihat, thcn, willthc air and blade angles be? lU,,1
!lll'.nlllll' "II \'dol:!ly at ['Utor inkl I.l
5,5 The design of the fir,! stage of un axial flow compl'cssor calls for thl' 1'"I!"Wi'II'. h"I.'1!
1l111".."I,,!.. 'I'll \l'I\iuIY af wll\l' onlkl 4~

,h!lIi'III\,lo, 0,1\11
Stage stagnation t,'mlxraWre rise 12K '1'1 I kl'.1
Muss flow of air 25 kg.s 1\', .
Rotational specd 150revil'
Axial velocity through stage 1571\1/s
Work dOlle f<ldOl' 0.95 110.' lol,d Imv.1l11' fill,,, "llh.. lli'd ',"we "Il'! Ih.. ,11"1,111 ',l:ltB' 1'1"""'" 1' 1"11,,
Mean blude speed 200111/\ np11, tT'I1I'Hr'~i,.lIJ IIn~h~! fl'\t lH ;1 l,thul,'I.OI y t"I"'lfl'~ ;1 ',[iq'plil,\,IIHH ,Ill 01 ,hI' if
Rcat:llon at thc lI\Ciln radius 50 p',r \:\:1\1 U-o\ rlfHt 11,.\\ Iltl'Ult.j~~u~ o.~\\, ff h tkculnlln tnlW I ' till} 1I).h\ IId\'\ h~' l p,:t I,I~H'
Rolor bhulc :.18PCC[ l'atio .1 1.1",1., ';\,d'd I', I.,I'( ",,""I ,Ill! , ,,,,,I d I, ,1\'''1".11 Hu,kl Ihh 11""\ l'olld'lI,illll",tlllt' ,,1,,11\
Inlet stagnation tcmperatur,' .'XX l\ hll.h,h~;' Iqlnl iHlil"lilh.' ,,-HHHl _IlH'lwHpcd \Vlild t; tfu '\ldi U " ~qr4dlHe fllHI
Inlel stagnation pressure lnlltl',. HWtH't\'I~HHIHhHI-' IIw \hHt ~hlJh;' t:tl,tlt, Ii: U~)
208 HYDRAULIC ANn COMPI\I'SSlIlLr FI.OW TllRflOMAC'HI:'>:L~ AXIAL I'LOW COMl'lUiSSOns AND IANS 209

SOLUTIONS

Exercise 5.1 From Eg. (5.6), in the rotor of a turbine or cornprl';,~,ol

~..
C p (lo2- 1 0I}""'
, c,;
(p (tanIJ ,-tan{i2 )
1
quantity I is constant from inlet and hOI'"' = h02 ,el' Therefore
ur(lblem resolves itself into finding PI and Ca'
wi W; Eq. (5,! I)
ill +.,::::11 2 +-,,-
- .. 2R
or
tan Ii 1""'-- - tan {12
w~ - lv'f (II
III ,- 17, "" 2
2 x 0.5
= "'-- --- -- tan {i,
Across the stage the fluid may be assumed incompressible. Tlwrdotl' 0.55 -

pWf pHi; "'" 1.19

POlrcl == PI + 2 and P02'c1 = P2 + :1
PI = 50 deg
Hence

Now from Fig. 5A along an isclltrope ('2 )

W 21 ="RM
J
2
,I
T.01 - 2C !
(
I III
'I'd" = dh - ,- tip "" 0
II C,.leos III and C I = Co/cos ~l' also fJ 2 = !X J , Thus
Therefore
C 1 = C,,/cos 32" = C,.l0.848
I
dh= dp
p WI = C,)cos 50" = Cn /O.643
Along I 2s Ill( WI and (;1

C2 )
i'RM~1 ( 'l;n - i.4d~.,1'
() 2
C,: cos 50'
Thus
1,4 x 287 x 0.5625 (290 - c;
1.44 x 1005
)0.643 2

(I 271 .:>; 10" O.OMC,;

"
""",-
flo 1lL'1 fill,'" I 170
I ',Il(. rn/s
lUi the l'akllialcd vahws
Exercise 5.2 Since Ihe slngc is 1101'11\;11 ;1IIi! 11'01111"11 "lJ
triangle is symmetriGd ilS ill Fig. \1
From Eq. (5.4) IF/ill C')'('I;,-, I;'! l ;1< In\', Ilw

C',.tl /Iii 1 I II
21U HYDRAULIC AND CO.\1PRESSlllLE FLOW 't'LRllOMACHINI'S AXIAL. FL.OW C(J.\lI'RESSORS AND "AN" 21 t

Exercise 5.3 Solution begins at the meat! radius fm and from Eq. (5.9)
0, AUmCu
T,(1,\ - T.0 I = ...,.C.-..,.., (tan f'If I - tun fl.
fl,)
r
whence
20 x 1005
lanlJ I -lan/J! ='" o.92xIiOx-157S lip, inlet air angle

=0.66 -_
il ll :::: 15.21"
.. _.".

Also from Eq. (5.11)

Ian 15.21"
C". I'J} I
R = 2U-(tun + tun,If 2)
Thus
.. tip, blade air angle
0.5 x 2 x 210 = 54,37'
tan III + tan/J 2 = -1"57.5
= 1.333 "C:<;z =: COllsI al all radii
Eliminating tan P2 gives
2 tan II l = 1.99 tan ,x21:= 0.8 Ian ':x 2",
{J,l =~.8' ::: 0.8 Ian 44.8"
Thcn =0,794
tan 112 "'" 1.333 -- 0.993 outlet air angle
&.=.~lI2~" (X2t = 38.45"
:XI = {J2 and tt2 = III since R = 0.5 at the mean radius,
At the tip, from the velocity triangle of Fig. 5.3 at inlct
tun //z! = 1.66 - tan :::(21
tan ttl +tan{J\ = u/e" = 1.66 0.794
262.5 lIulkt blade angle
. - Ts'fs
{i lt = 40.9'"
; ; ; 1.666
Similarly ut outlet l\ll!villl'. now to lhe ")(1/, the sume equations apply. At inlet
tan tt 2 + tan #2 = 1,66 lall :'Xl + lun {JI = I
For free vortex design rC-"1 = const at all radii and tlwrd'olt' lw(wc"n
mean radius and the tip ~Ol\st

1'11\ C."" 1'1 C.<t

Ii",
::= tan I'/lm
r/tltan'~l'" I',lnn f1'I
f1 ,
Since ell is a constant

II I, \
212 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRfSSIBI,F FLOW TURUOMACIIINrS AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS .,\"in F,\NIl 213

At inlet, air angle At the lip using Eg. (5.! I)

= 24.3K'

tan{1 1,= I tan 24.38' using Eq. (5. 1))

At root, inlet blade angle 20 x 1005
tan III - tan /1 2 = 0.92 x 157.5 x 262.5
/1 1 , == 28.68"
= 0.528
At root, outlet air angle <Slllvllll' simultaneously for tan/I,
210 2 tan Ii 1 := 1.666 + 0.528
tan rJ.,., =-_.'.
157.5 tan !x,III
tan II I := J.097
= I.Tn tan 44K tip, blade angle and air nngics arc equal:
'X 2 , = 52.94" {l, = 47.64" ,; ''X2
At root, outlet blade angle
oLltlet angle
tan IJ2-' = I Ian i'Y. z, tan /J 2 = Ian 47.64 - 0.528
:= I 1.324
"" 1.097 - 0.528
=- 0.324
and {l z, is given by f12 := 29.64" = a l

{1 2t = 17.95'
AlIIII' root \Ising lhe same equations
At the tip, reaction 0.5 x 2>< 157.5
Ian {J, + tan If 2 "" .' "-15"7.'5-
=1

157.5
:= (tan 54.37' + Ian 40,9' l 20 x 1005
262.5 x 2 tall{f, tan fL := ._ _._._- . . . . . . .
~ 0.92 x 157.5 x 157.5
=0.68
=0.881
At the root. reaction
157.5 :'. tall Ii I I.XX I
Rr =----- .. ". (tan 28.6X" I lalll 11')';))
2 x 157.5 {11,1\ '1:,
:;IUI2

ian {I 0').\
Exercise 5.4 I!qnariollS ('" III and' \'110110' u:,,,11 al .i11 1,1.1" I lie lIllg" , ,Ii ,
I!! \ ,11 ,J I
mean radii will olconc:(' p'llla'" litH ILlIlI',-d
214 HYDRAULIC AND COMJ>RESSIIlLE FLOW TURUOMACHI:-;ES AXIAL !'LOW COMI'RESSOItS ANIl IANS 215

Exercise 5.5 (al Using Eq. (5.9) at the mean radius cf

T 1 = Ttl 1
2ei'
2
= 2SS _ 162.4
2 x 1005
0.95 x 200 x 157
22= .. _.. 1005 (tan/II tan/J 2 ) == 274.88 K
i!\HSllIllIflg isentropic flow at inlet we may use isentropic relationships at a point
tan{J , -tan{J 2 =O.741
Using Eg. (5.11) Pt = (?\ )11<1' II
POI . 101

274.9);1.5
and hence PI = 101.3 ( 2Sle
,) ) 0.5 x 2 x 200
tan IJI + tan I/.> = =86.1 kPa
- 157
= 1.27 PI
PI ='R..~-
Solving simultaneously for /1 1 and #2
2 tan III "'" 2.(HI 86.1 x 10 3
/1 1 = 45.IC,' = eL2 =28i'X 274.88
= 1.09kg/m.l
(since diagram is symmetrical) and
the continuity equation
tanfJz= 1.27-tan45.16 A= .25 ..__
/1 2 = 14.81" = al 1.09 x 157
(b) Mean radius = O.146m 2
U
r
III
= 2rrN
200
= 2rr x ISO 0,146
=2n ";("0.212
=O.212m
=(Ul In

(c) The hladc height is found from the annulus arca of flow a~; !lsi'll III I
continuity equation \'anatiollofuir angle across the annulus is determined us in cl(crcises
and will llol hI: rqx~all:d here. Suffice it to say that they will be
ti-ik"IPI,ol lljl(lll t.l1\' t Yilt: ,.1' flow chosen, i.e. free vortex, contant reaction. etc.
Now Ilw llotllillal ddkdi(lll tUl'vt (Fig. 5.14) for a number of blade
c,. ;It"".<I "'" 11Ii\\' 1I0W lit' used In find the pilch and chord. At the mean rudius,
cos (II IIl!,- lhill hind",., Ii. illl t'quivakllt to cl~cadcs. .x,

I Yl 1:+ III II .
ILl', '1 HI ,1\11.' r( HI
III
216 Il'iDl{AUL1C A"D CO~f'I([SSmUi HDW n:RnOM!lCHlNFS AXIAL FLOW (,()~IPRrSSORS ANI) fANS 217

and hence from Fig. 5.14 at the air outlet angle {J 2 of 14.81", the solidity is fOlllld (b) Camber angle
sic = 0.8 () = :x'\ Ct~

. Span
= :z'\ -:X 2 + <>
Blade aspect ratio = . = :z'l - :X2 + 0.2330
Chord
The cascade air inlet angle:Zl = compressor relative air inlet angle {J \ = 45.16.
0.11
c= lind since there is no incidence on the blade. cascade blade inlet anglc:x'! equals
3 air inlet angle :Xl'
Blade chord = 0.0366 rn
0= 45.16 - 14.81+ 0.2330
Blade pitch
Camber angleO = 39.57'
s= 0.8 x 0.0366
= 0.0293 m (0) From the geometry of Fig. 5.11 the blade stugger for a circular arc
Circumference at mean nldius caSC(lCle is gi ven by
(e)N umber of blades = ;.. ---- .
Pitch at mean radiUS
2n x 0.212
0.0293 39.57
= 45.16 --_.;:;--
= 45.46 '-

Stagger angle = 25.4'

Blade num bers ure usuHlly chosen to avoid those with common multipks
is to avoid the chances of resonant frequencies being set up between the All information is now available for construction of a chosen profile blmlc
and moving blades. In this exercise a choice of 45 is divisible by 5 and I) Ihe circular arc camber line at the angles calculated.
thereforc a prime under such as 43 or 47 blades would be choscn. This ;111<'1 (<I) The cascade lift coefficient for (sic) = 0.8 is given from Fig. 5.17 as
the calculations slightly and so if we choose 47 blades 0.9 at 11. 1 "" 14.81'. From Eq. (5.30) the secondary losses arc
s = O.02lS3 ro, c == Q.:Q~54 ill and ASl?~c::t ra tin""' J, I CDS = om SCt.
=: 0.018 x (0.9)2
Exercise 5.6 (a) The deviation angle (5 = !1.2 a~ as !'ihoWIl ill Fig. ), II ;lIld = O.{)I4 58
given by Eq. (5.19). In Eq. (5.20) for m, (2aM is unity (for circular ale (';1
and at the mean radius, 11.1. for the caseadc equals {J 2 for the moving hl:llh', from Eq. (5.29) the annulus losses arc given by
= 14,81. Therefore ('1)>\ 0.02(slll) (span = blade height)

( 2(1)2 + 0, I (''X
0.02X3
m = 0.23 -;.- 50 ",,0.02 x
0,11
14.81 ,.) O.OOS 145
== 0.23 x (I) + 0.1 ( '\ , ,I ,I {"
.0 , tI';jllg I'll''> 1.1 :II /\'10 1Il1~11 ellCl\
/lq/d' ; 0.012 ilnd substituting this
=0.26 "q. t', ,'11) I'IVi'\ I;" thl' "tlilighl c:I:;cadc

and
() 1/1(/(8/1'11/ J t. ~ 1

O)I,(!llq I ' tl
nOI'
I );-\'1<111011 ,I II .' Ill/
218 HYDRAUI.IC A:-;j> COMI'RESSIlILI, l'LOW TlJRBOMAClII:-;I"'i AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS AND b\NS 219

Now
o.on)
'ib = I
0.468
tan 45.16 + tan 14.81 =0.931
2 Blade ro\V efficiency := n.931
IX", "'" 32.41'
Then The stator bladl.: row efficiency will be almost identical for 50 per cent
c = 0.8 x 0.012 x cos] 32.41 \;Iion (at the mean diameter). Dilfercnces in the height and blndc pitch
-I) 45.16 tween rotor and stator rows can affect C DA but, as shown in (d), this drug
lIlilitutcs only a small part of the total drag audits clreet therefore is
=0.0116
uligible.
Therefore substituting for the losses into Eq. (5.31) the total drag co\?lli The stage efficiency for 50 per cent reaction is found from Eq. (5.36) to
dent is the same as the blade efficiency,
CUT = CD + CDA + Cns = 0.931
=0.0116 + 0.005145 + 0.01458
Blade drag coefficient == 0.0313 ,f) The stage static pressure ratio is found from Eq. (5.35)

(e) Using Eq. (5.26) again to lind the pressure loss coeffi.cient in the IUm/Ol'
T (
;~" = 1 + '1. --~'7\
T- T) = (~.~ ),r-ll!l'
I
blades sincc the same equations and urguments will apply to circular cHsl'adl':.
as well a" straight cascades CI C.I for a normal shlge and therefore the stage static temperature
, s -
Po 1
COS" :x,. i'tllIals the stage stagnation temperature rise
em = ( ~. ) '~p(~~~;Si:Xl 3 5
and 1'3
PI
= [1 + 0.93\ (. 22 )-1
274.88 _
.
2
jio 0.0313 x cos 45.16
I/lc'y ='0.8 cos'J 32.4C- "'" 1.29
=, 0.0323 1'0.1
[
= t + 0.931 ( ,.">2 )J.1.5
.
Now the theoretical pressure rise through the row of blades is gl\l'H 1'02" .88
Eg. (5033) when Po is zero and this leads to the blade efficiency of Iq, t '. c:. 1.27
HJade efficiency

Sinn' we hnvl~ 50 per cellt reaction the velocity diagrams arc

nn", " ... "01 as ill Fig. 5.7:1. ilnd ,",( I {1 2 'Y. 2 = Ill' The number of stages may be
Dividing Eq. (5.33) by pCi/2 we get ItOlll t'q. (~4(1)

TOil! '1'11I I N ATtl

1~t~r:; (~:) 2 (tan
2
:X J
2
tan a 2 1 T"I '1'''1
2 IIII' :.I:t~t'. ';(,lpo;1111I1l It'mpetaluH' list' is
=COS [(t(lan 2 (Y.l taw'", .. )
CO".' 45. Ill(I;IlI!.I\U, lilll! II,HII
I . , 10'
(l.lhK
220 HYDRAULIC A:"l.J COMI'IH'Smll.E fl.OWI U!{/JOMA< :HI:"I\S AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS AND FANS 221

Now lan/I\ =0.919

-W'1 = CIJ tan /J 2 /J I = 42.6" = :X2 for 50 per cent reaction
= 160tan 30' ~ot()rinlet ll.nglc ~I =~.2.6'-'
= 92.38 m/s
Therefore (b) The overall isentropic dTicicncy is obtained by working between the
WI = C1 = [(U _.- W'2)2 + C;]1/2 inlet and outlet conditions.
C(HlrnrC:SS(}f

= [(244 - 92.38)2 + 160 2]1/2 . . . Isentropic work done

Overall IsentropIC effiCiency = -Actu~lfwork done-'
= 220.4m/s
cosfJ 1 ~ CjW I
160
= 220.4
{J l = 43.45'"
Therefore ',i'lllII!Slllll'LUll~ for (l~lII/I(H) from Eg. (5.45) and ("I'oll.rrOI )' using isentropic
244 x 160 relationships we gel
ATo = IOOS (tan 43.45" - tan 30')
"'(pon),,- 1l
IY J1-'
l[-(polJ.)(j' . Il/j~p
Ij
=14,37 K
11,,:= [ POI - 1
i POI
Equation (5.44) gives the overall temperature ratio as 0.82 = (6o.2~(' __.1)!(6o.2H<iI~I' - 1)

1011 = (r(J.lJ.)IY-I)/~"'1 6o.2H(;I~" = ( L6S.~i~) + 1

TOl POI

"" 5{).4iIO.lHI x 1.4) = 1.816

= 5(1.;\247 0.286 1
log6 = og 1.816
== 1.68 11"
Thus cllicicncy
N = (1.68 x 288) - 288
". II" = 0.859
14.37
= 13.3 'f.011 .= (p '011
)O'2Rli/O'859

Nlimber of full stages = 14 Till 1'01

= 1.82 K
Exercise 5.8 (a) The velocity diagrams of Fig. 5J are nnce ngalll ':\11111",';/,
ilibhlitull' IlIto Fq,(5.46) to lind the number of stages
lInd~l = 15" = fl2'
Cxl = CIJ tan a 1 'fOil Till + N b. To
",,17IxtaI\15 '1'01 Tor
''''' 45.8 Ill/s
,\ I" Slltl'.lllltltlll 1t'lI1pnature rise in the stage
U <'.1
('II
/ I" \ I" IfI I ,;Ii (Iallli I Ia u/l., Irotll Jiq.15.9)
. '(11 .IS.H tfl in \{tilIl4.'./1 LIII I
III
222 HYDRAl.:U(' AND COMI'RESSlllI.I,: FLO\V TUltllOMM'HINFS AXIAl, FLO\V COMV'WSSORS AND FANS 223

NUll1her of stages Exercise 5.9 (a) The axial velocity is first found from the velocity triangles
and since they arc symmetrical for 50 per t."Cl1t reaction from Fig. 5.7a. ':1. 1= #2
1-,.- [(1.R2 x 3(X - 300J . and C(2 = {I,. Thl.:rcforc
.II, ". 20.lH x Hl"' 100)
U -. C"tun'J.l
= IloR . "" tan II,
ell
__=.-._---,_._,
12 stages
,.... "",200
. .
C =
(e) At entry to rotor " tan 45' + tan 13"
= 162.501/s
Cf
2e" Work done in the first slage is given by Eq. (5.9) as
Now
C/,(To \ 1;JI)=I/JC"U(tan{1. tan/Jz)
C
I
= CIl
= 0.86 x 1625 x 200(tan 45" - tan 13")
I:OSC(I
= 21497 Jjkg
171
= the first stage, the pressure ratio is given byEq. (5.7):
cos 15'
= 177 ~:: =( 1+ tl" !~:lT;lITolr'(? n
Therefore
'/', = 30n -_!_~~= . =( 1 + O;8:-><;~i)6rr5
2 x 1005
= 300 IS.S!' = 1.24
= 284.4K
To find the overall static pressure ratio, we mHy usc Eq. (5.44):
(d) The rotor relative inlet Mach numher is given by
M I ,,,,,, Hi l / III J'11=
I (' T.,II )~I'?i(' - lJ

where PI Ii
(/1 = ()'1~TI)li2
= (1.4 x 287 x 284A)t,.~ 1~1II:;::: Tm + 10 x "'I~
= 338 mls = 288 + I0 x 21 497
Also
1005
w~ = (U C,~1)2 + C,;
= (203 .. 45.lW + 171 ~ .'''' 502K
= 53953
ell
~VI = 232.3 mis ('
t
C()~ ,x I
Therefore suhstituting
212.3 Ih}',
ip:, 1\'

11>('.11
224 IIHJRAULIC AI'D COMPRESSIIlU; FLOW TLJIlIJOMACHINJ;S
,\Xl;\L I LOW COMI'RI!SSORS "I'll IANS 225

Therdore EqlJallon (5.11) gives the reactioll ratio

c 21
l '1= 'I'011- 2(' R = eJl2 (tan{i\ + tan 11 2 )
I'
2
= 288 ... 166.8 Nnllvl/'W simultaneously for III and IJ 2
2 X 1005
= 274.1 K
t'm
'1
11= (R +if ') 1
.o-it
l
.) /
/
!
III
and
111 = 7011 --~
c2 tLlnlJ 2 = (Rr .. !/ljJ
~/
J
;)
2(1'
2 'flllcn:I'Ol'c under the initial flow conditions
= 502 _ 166.8
2 x 1005 Lan {1 1 = 0.65
( + O.4);i.
..... ,(1.)5
1.8 I
=488.\ K
Thus II, = 57.76
I!I! "" (488,1)0.86 x 1.4jO.4

PI 274.\ 0.4 \ i
tan Ill'" ( 0.65 - ...... ) / 0.55
Overall static pressure ratio = 5.91 1.0/ "
11 2 = 37.87'
Exercise 5.10 The velocity diagrams at both conditions arc sketched hdD\\' the velocity triangles
(Fig. 5,23\ and it will be noted thut they arc no longer symmetricaL When 1Ili'
mllSS 110w is reduced. axial velocity Cu is also reduced, and noting that it h U = C,,(lan liz + Lan :Xz)
angles #2 and 0: 1that remain constant, the dotted lines give the new vdodt)'
triangles. The angle OIl is constant as this is the exit angle of the air fwnl the I
tan ex, = . - tan 37.87
previous stator. 0,55
Equation (5.14) gives the stage loading ::t z = 46.14"
l/J = ),ljI(tan C(2 - tan:x tl
U=C,,(lanrt.\ +lall/i,)
= Alp(tan {I I - tan flz)

taolX\ "" I -tan 57.76"

0.55
IX 1 = 13.1

41 ()j5 x 0.93
OJ ( I')

I
tall 1\.1
I II I I '.

ii " Ii
226 IIYDRI\lJlIC ASl> COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TUIWOM,I,CIll:-:ES

Also
., I
tan:x, = ------ - tan 37.87' CHAPTER
- 0.5115
SIX
New stage loading AXIAL FLOW STEAM AND GAS TURBINES
tjI = 0,9 x 0.5115 (tan 59.86'," tan 37.87')
= 0.435
New reaction
R = 0.5115 (tan,)"9 .86
) - +. tan.37 .0"7')'
2
=0.64

INTRODUCTION

section, steam and gas turbines will be considered together, with the
~!l1lI1lrltil.1i1l that the same theory applies to both types of machines, This
llulIlilalily is valid providing the steam is in the superheated state and
Id'orc behaves approximately as a perfeCll::!<ls. Care should be taken. when
Ctllldition oftne steam falls below the saluration line on the Mol1icr chart
'llw thellry and equations developed in later sections arc not applied in
I (a~(', This would most likely oceur at the low-pressure end of the steam
hille
\illl lIow lurbim:s were lirst built and used successfully by Sir Charles
whclI he instalkd a reaction steam turbine in a small marine vessel for
'.HH Il', 1011. Sinn' t hell development of the steam turbine has bccn rapid and
tile power output at the prescnt time ranging from a few
III MO MW. The (kvclopmcllt of the high outputs is duc in part to

I v,-Iv easy maHer of superheating steam in a boiler and superhcater,

palldllll' it through the turbine to bdow atmospheric.: pressure in the
It'w,n III ('\11 al'l Ille Illllximlltn energy from the stearn.
Ik\',+lnplIll'lI! nllhe il\ial flow ga~ turhine was hindered by the necd to
III it It it 1111'11 (,1100/",11 llnw tal<' a lid (,.lllll'n~sion ra tin from a compressor
ill !Ill' ,til ll''!lIllnnl'ltl 101 IIII' (,olllhu:;tioll pru('css and subsequent
of tile nlt,i\l:,l hUlI"ll\' till' all Was plnvidL~d hy (,L~ntrirllgal
il!ld lillir HlI ,r,,,11 ,1<1\\ '''tJipn':,-''"IIl':I'. di'\'C!OPId. which. in the
,in.llwlnilflll '1',", IIH' 1'1111'1'1 dn.'l''lwd hy lhc '1IIhll":
tlli \ wwd ill 10..11'''1\''1'1 'd ;i!lillh ;\lld
228 BYDRAUUC ASD CO~Il'R[S-<;mLF FLOW TURHOMM'HISES
AXIAL FLOW STnA~I ASf) GAS TL:RlIIl'ES 229

for steam-driven propulsion in ships, although gas turbine propulsion \lllll; Fixed nozzle rings Slator casing '" Ld

y~. ~Ptll
"/1
arc often titted in the smaller class of naval vessel. Gas turbines an.: universally ,/,./' I

used as the pow'cr unit for Jargejet aircraft propulsion, their advantage hl~IH,! /,,/ Stalor
.........".."'t-I'r4:"""""!fr'::"-'f,l~':!-T}?'i casing
thal they have a high power-to-weight ratio.
The principle of energy extraction from the gus is one of v,r;lldllaIlY , Oullet Rolor
reducing the high-pressure energy by converting it into kinetic energy, Thill
accomplished by passing the gas alternately through rows of fixed and
blades. The kinetic energy or the gas is reduced in the moving hlades, whidi
attm:hcd to the turhine hub. and recovered in the fixed stationary
attal~hed to the casing. This necessitates a gradual density decrease as th,'
moves through the turbine and the blade height therefore increuscs 11\\"lIlh",
the low-pressure cnd, if a constant axial flow velocity is to be m.;"I ...."'1
through the turhine. The stator row is often termed the nozzle row aud
ccrtuin types of steam turbine the nozzle row consists of a set of '-"'"VI'.Illlilli
nozzles spaced around the drum.

l
Figure 6.1 shows a steam turbine rotor in the bottom half of its
will be noted that the blade height increases in the direction of gas now
two important types of axial flow turbines are the reaction and impuhc p,~,u"
and combinations of each lype may be found in a single turbine. Blade j
arc discussed in Sec. 6.6 hut Fig. 6.2 describes how the velocity alld (b)
vary through impulse and reaction stnges. The overall trend is it ,b'll'''',!
(,:2 Pre~~Uf\~ and velocity through impul~c alld rcaction axial now lurhines: (Ill impulsc;
pressure with velocity recovery in the stator row or nozzle ring. A row
blades followed by a set of rotor bhules is considered to be a :,1;\1,(

filhlinns through the stage will be examined in detail. The following

,llnptiolls will be made:

tdow conditions will be evaluated at the melln radius unless otherwise

~IHlml.
Hinde In:ight/mc:m radius is small, allowing two-dimensional now theory
In he \lSl~\1.
velodties arc :1''':1'0,

ur!lii!t' ';I<ll'e alld velocity triatlgks arc iIIustl'Htcd in Figs 6.3 and 6.4
I hi' mil'l (II lite statnr hindI'S is d..~siglllltcd section 0, inlet to the
ia'ilioll I lUll! Illltld Irol1l Ill\' rolor :-a~etioll 2. This numbering system
'iub'lnpl" "I the ,;irlithk:, nu' ';;lIIlC ils In Ihe 1:;lSC of the axiall10w
;\11 lIu\.\' IUll,I;'i !HI' "Wihlllt'd holll fill' ;I\Ial direction and care
IIl~,i)n wlll.n !!ildllW Ilil ,,"cIllerilllll" IIi whlth It j~; customary
"\11,11I1-/01 I,o~,t\\ '1",\
IHi'!P,!IIH 1 I , , \ \ l h ' ; \ W t lOti ..1 hlHIt. Ii1nll<lll
,."'" I,", \' "I I "I" 1 II I", I h! I
r 230 lIYDRAl:L1(' AND COMI'HFSSIllUi Fl.OW HJRIlOMAClllNFS AXIAL !'LOW STbAM AND (J,\S Tl.JRlllNJiS 231

other as shown in Fig. 6A, from which the energy transfer is given by
t: = U(C xt - C.dl/o
sincc C... 2 is in the ncgative x direction, the w(lfk done per unit mass flow is
Ey = lV/ill = U(C'l + (\~) (6.1)

= U(W.d + W.o.2 ) (6.2)

If C,II : C1I2 there will be un axial thrust in the flow direction. Hov,.'cver, we
assume that C is constant and therefore
W/m= UCII(tancx, +tan':X~J (6.3)

~v
.".,UC II (tan/J j +tan/J 2 1 (6.4)
(6.4) is often referred to as the diagram work per unit mass /low and
!t)ciatt~d with this is the diagram efficiency defined as
s I Figure 6.3 Velocity triangle, '''I
"I . . . Diagram work done per unit mass now
;lxial now l!HS (or steaml I'll Omgram CfflC1C1H:Y = .. _;-_........, ........
S\:lge
Work available per uml mass flow
=U{W.dl WX2)/~n (6.5)
thermodynamic conditions or the gas through the stage arc shown in
6.5. where the inlet conditions to the stator arc at lotal pressure POll and
Work dOlle llmlhalpy 11 00 , For adiabatic flow through the stator row or nozzle ring,
'hoI' bUI, owing to irrcvcrsibililics, the Iota 1 pressure drops to {Inl at
\11 olltlel (rotor inlet). Expansion 10 P02 and lotal enthalpy II n2 takes place
rotor rowand, as shown in Eq. (5.6), hOlrel ;::: ho2ro " The work done
II, mass flow by the gas is given by
W/m = Ir oo fr 02 = hOI - Ito:'.. (6.6)

HI /m = C,,(To1 _. T(2 ) (6.7)

i~It!llllln!!, for II'/m from Eq. (6.4),
Fillure 6.4 Superimposed vclodty 'ri,lngles
<',,('1'01- T (2 )= UC,,(tan/f l + lan/Ill (6.8)
be Iloll,d that the work done factor ). is not lIsed in Eq, (6,8). This
ill a gas 01' steam turbine, !low through the blade passages is
The gas leaves the stator blades wilh absolu(c vl'lo\i!v ( I ill iillph lllirlllS('d to dcu:lcrating. Flow III the compressor and the cried
by subtracting Ihe blade velocity vector lI, the rt'!;III\'I' vcliwil\ 1'\'( lfli ,UII.lIl'l'\l hIP,. grOWl It in I he fonner arc therefore negligible. For a normal
to Ihe rolor WI is determined. In movinj' anil,,', Ihe 1010' hl:uti wltkh (" Co. Ihe slat it lcmpera (lin, drop across the stage equals the
direction is changed, and Ihe presslIl'C' reduced willII' th .. ilb"illoiJ~ IFI.ll.,'I,.III1,' drup.
decreased and the relative wllwity iIIC/I':!';"', IIII' P.W, kinT', Iwl"III' "Ia)',(' IlltalllHnLtl i~H'ntl'Opk: dliciency 11'1l' II is defined us
tangentially at angle fl.! with rclatlVl' velolitv II \'",IOll.lIh
AdHal Wilik dnnc hy Iht' gas
blade speed results in lht: absllllllc I'dodt\' ('! fill'; h ilUIV tllf' Inln Il u , II I I
the next stator row at angle rx,_ which In, H 1If1111\:1I Hjllllh 1>;1'11111'1'1\' WOI" 1011('
rcspcctivl'ly. Thl~ 11\'0 vdocil V II ia 111(11'\ ill!' cPIlVnH I" II
232 IIYDRi\ULI( A>':l) COMl'ltESSIIIl.E II.OW TURllOMAClIINrs ,'}iI"t FI ow STh\~'l AI'D GAS" LRIllNrs 233

P." to the work oul put. It is defined as

'11(1 ,) = (11 00 -/i o ::! )!(Jloo - 1t 2,,) (6.11 )
Considering the totaI-to-total elliciency of a normal stage,
JI 'tf Ii '--" (/roo- h(2 )i(l'o{l II 02 "}
= (lr o ..- !l2)/(h o 11 2 ,J
For a normal stage Co = C 2 and \to = ell' and upon rcarranging
'1 l11 "' 11 == (h o -/1 2 )/[ (h o -- "2) + (11 2 --Itl..)1 (1l2' - 11 2 ,.1] (6.12)
Hut consider now the slope of a constant-pressure line on the MollieI' chart
(Fig. 6.S}. Since d/l "" T ds then the slope along a constant-pressure line is given
by
(?h/i's)" = 7' (6.13)
therefore for a finite change of enthalpy /\11 at constant pressure
A/1~ T~s
Is 1,.-."""'" ,,,.' (I""
,~--'"
02s O~~:~lrl , .
(6.14)
..
U2ss ' .. -I ~

t
'2'~"""" ..-.-'
25
2
......... ,'~... (I;

l'illure 6.5 Mollkr dmr.

through un axial flnw
lurhinc shll,lt
f(lI !'

SkHl1I "! l'xaminatiol1 of Fig. 6.5 show!'>

(Sl< - s~,,) "" (SI slsI

IWI'dl.m: ~ubstituting into Eg, (6.14) gives

Thlls
'I;)(),.. To~ "" '/1<1 II Too (1 7:12,,/'l~)(}) (11 2, -11 2.,) ;;;;; ('1'1/'1'I)(1t 1 "\ (6.15)
'/;H) .... '1;\2 "'" Il llt il1~I(JI ... {P01/POO )(~" I )iiJ hI!' both I he stator (nozzle) <lnd hlade rows, dimensionless los!'> cocm-
llIay be defined in two ways. For the nozzle

6.3 STATOR (NOZZLE) AND ROTOR LOSSI(S 'N (IJ I 11,,)iO.5Cf or YN=(Poo-POtl/(P'11 pd (6.16)
th" rotor
Before considering the 108s(;$ o(~curring in the rotor ilnd stiltll[ I cow'., II \\111
worth while distinguishing bctween two iscllt ropie dlidcncll':; ,(\IIHlIlll\l\ (/'" 1t.',JiO,5H'~ or YIt=(Plllrd-P02rd)/(P02l<t-P2) (6.17)
in axiall10w turbine work. The first has already hCI.~11 ddil1nlul hi ((I \)1 \,lIu,' III r or ,:; ill I.he slator and rotor represents the percentage drop of
the temperature limits arc taken between lntal h:lllp'.;l;11 III I,,;, "lid dlH' t., hil'lll\ll ill the blades. which results in a total pressure and static
dcl1ned in this way, the eflicicncy is thl: [olat'(llIolal dll.wm \ I Ill', Ip\ d I' 'I' a.'I. ,.... 11\l' 1,,," ks, Typkallllsses arc of Ih\.: order of 10, 15 per
used whcn the kinetic cnergy at the nulkt or (he stal',I' i'. ilillt/td f'" t!1 \tIll 1;111 tn' low." I", \TI Ii Illw v;lllIt,,; of Ilow cot:flkknl.
work. Such a case would hi' the propdlill/., lI11llk nl a IiHhl'It'I I' ;,ltll',!illllillV lilt III' 'd",1t- I",." ,IwIIIlWIII:, intn Eq, (6.12l, we gel
inll:rlllcdiatc stagc(,f<llllllltJ'hlagt Itllhw" wlttll'lhe kil\lllP I Ii
I1,,11 1\ '' /11:/
. , ' / 'Ik"./ji
. . . ".. J
lIsed in Ihe following st:""" TI" .. 1IWI ,Ill, I< II' \' I'. II,, I.. tilll .. '.HI" "nil 'II!

\vhich is lIsed whell til(' 1,.;1\ 111/', I, Ilh'[1I .nl' \ \\';1'.11". IlIw 1l!'1 I I lilt /I"
i II . t I: I
 234 HYDRAULIC ANn C:OMJ>RESS1llLli FLOW TlJRBOMACIIINES
AXiAl. FLOW Slb\:\'1 AND GAS TURlIlNUl 235

If the exit velocity is not utilized, then following a similar procedure for tht'
analysis, the tolal-tcHitalic cmciency becomes rand ~nom
... 1 r are the loss coefficients at the new aspc'ct ratio and at an
ratio of 3 respectively.
rl!H-s) =: 1 + [(R W; + CNq(T:dT1) + QJ![2(h o -112)]} -I (6. Jill Also, in Eqs (6.21) and (6.22) I is the blade length. while a Reynolds number
IO~ is slill assumed. Should the Reynolds number not be 10-\ it further
As a starting point for a calculation, since '1'2 and 1\ are not very ditlcrenL I he
t~lllt'I'el:~li(lt\ may be made as follows. The Reynolds number for the now is given
ratio (T2/'T1) is often taken as unity. Typical values of ( are given hy
( = <>.04 + 0.06(1:/100)2 Re:::::(2P1sIC1cOiHt:d/[/t(sCOSC(1 + I)] (6.23)
where the deflection angle (; is I: = ::1: 0 + for
(Xt the stator (nozzle) and
I: = {;l + fl2 for the rotor. if'l is the loss coefficient at a Reynold:> number of lOS, then at the new
UI:VI1101<is number, the corrected loss coefficient is given by
Equation (6.20) applies only fl.)r a Reynolds number of 10'\ based 011 11\l' (2 = (l05/l<e)0.25'1 (6.24)
characteristic velocity C't at the stator outlet and the characteristic hvdra1l1"
diameter dll defined as - This empirical method or loss prediction is based on the Soderb~rg
11\)rJ'c:latiorl" and is derived from the analysis of a large number of turblOC
dll =: ~._~.I"low area at stator_~~~~~.~... t!hanlctl~ril;tic:s. The cl-ror over a wide range of Reynolds numbers is as low as 3
Welled perimeter at stator outlet Nozzle loss coefficients obtained from a largc tIllmber of turbine lests
With reference to Fig. 6.6, typically 0.09 and 0.05 for the rotor and stator rows respectively. The total-
efficiency is in the region of 90 per cent, the variation with blade
dll "'" (481 cos (Xl )/[2c~ cos Gil + I)] l!Hldllllgund now'coefficient being plotted in Fig. 6.7, where it is seen that low VI
=(2slcosxd/(scOSGi 1 + I) 1/' give high stage cflicicncies.
The ratio of maximum blade thickness to chord ((",:lX/ C) is 0.2 and lhe hLIlli'
aspect ratio (span/chord) based on the axiul chord {I.e. c cos Cl.J is \ 1 'li
conditions other than the above, for instance if the aspect ratio is
the following empirical cq uutiollS may be used: made Loading Coefficient
For rotors work capacity of the stage is expressed in terms of a temperature drop
!l'lllki'L~nt
(If blade loading coefficient

If = W/mU 2 = (,,(1'01 - T(2 )/U 2 (6.25)

f'or stators (nozz!t:s) from Eq. (6.4) may also he written as
1+ '1 = (I + ("0",)[0.933 + (O.02Iccos t.(,,)/II ~I = (,,(tan {II +- tun/J 2)/U
= (tan{l, + tilnP:>J (6.26)
4' is t he flow coefficient.
Illr llllpikation of a low flow coefficient is that frictional losses arc
I '"' length of blade III 111\, sInge since e'l is low, but for a given mass t10w rate the annulus
W<aH'a Wlltlld be larg~'. Low values of VI imply a small amount of work done
. lind t he t't'fo!'c for a required overall power output, <llarge number of
.1 cos ! l l - _.. i', I("tjllll'("d.
'.!'llioIliIlV mdH'.lflill power plants where the specific fuel consumption
ll\lpoll'llllC. :1 blll'.l'di'IlIll'il"l', rclativdy long turbine, of low now
".lIi,I"", <lnd Il,\\, hLIlI,.loil.llllg. gl\'lIIg a hi,dl rrllcicncy, would probably be

,, IIp\\'!' IIllIHIH". H'",d III ;111'1'11111 IHIlplihioll hav..: minimum

all.l I! 'null nO!lI'11 jl',lil il"" luO"adn.ltH'n'. llti~ 11IC,IllS using
236 HYDRAULIC A]\;l) COMPIHiSSlIILE I'LO\V TIJ1UlOMACHlt'ES AXIAL I'LOW STEAM AND (.AS Tl)ItBlNlOS '237

and substituting for (Ill 11 2 ) in Eq. (6.27),

2.5
R;=; (W; -. W~)/[2(hl)1 hn2 )]
= (W~ - Wf)/[2U(C,! + C.d )] (6.28)
2.0 -
" If it is assumed that the axial velocity C~ is constant through the stage then
~
-.
.
~
~

1.5
R = (1'V;2 W~!}/[2U(U + W.d + W'2 - Un
=(Wx2 W\I)(I-V,2 + Wxd/[2U(I-f'.<1 + Wx2 )]
f:-,'if

:Co. 1.0 _ = C.,(tan/l! -tan/ld/2U

= (jl(tan/J 2 - tan lid/2 (6.29)
Equalion (6.29) can be rearranged into a second form,
0.5
H = (C"tan/J 2 )/2U [(C"tan:z 1)/2U- U/2U]
o I--L-.......L-..L-..L_-LI.......L_J.---J.----..I_.Lt-L-J.---J.---l_LI-L...-...-. = 0.5 + C,,(tan 112'- Ian Ct.,)/2 U (6.30)
0.5 1.0 1.5
a third form is given by subslituting for
r/> '" C.lt!
l'illure 6.7 made loadinll cm:fTidcnl versus flow cocllkiclll tan fi2 = (U + C.'2)/C" = (tan 11. 2 -I- [JIC,,)
Eq. (6.30), giving

higher values of flow coefficient and blade loading factor to give
compact turbine but also, as a consequence, accepting a lower
(Fig. 6.7).
6.4 REACnON RATIO
The reaction ratio has more meaning in the CHse of an axiall10w lurhiw
for un axial flow compressor where it is usu'llly set at 50 pOl' cenl for the
The turbine reaction ratio ean vary widely from 100 per cellt 10 II,
implications of which are described in this section.
The reaction mtio is
R Stati,:_cnthalpx drop across rotor
0=
;1 slllli
R = 0.5 + C,,(tan '1.2 1 VjC" tan (Xd/2U
= I + C,,(tan0: 2 - tan<xdj2U (6.31)
of Eq. (6,29) reveals that for zero reaction, 1/2::= PI and
W2 . The gas conditions through the stage, and the accompanying
VI~IIIII~illv triangles, are shown in Fig. 6.8, where the velocity triangles arc
~kj:'W/'" to the left. Ideally, for reversible adiab<ltic flow, the points I, 2 and
the MoUier chart should coincide, and in th,lt case no pressure drop
in the rotor. Now consider a pure impulse stage where, by definition,
is no pressure drop in the rotor. Figure 6.9 shows the MoUier chart
the pure impulse stage where, for reversible adiabatic now, the points L
2s will coincide, and therefore with isentropic flow conditions prevailing

Static enthalpy drop across stage 02,d

= (hi - h2 )/lho - 11 2 )
= (Ill h2l/[(h oo - C6/2)- (li o) (':;/211 ] . PI

~/I'
But for a normal stage Co ::= ('2 and since hoo ::= II,n jn t h~' IIlil/le, !IltH

R = (Ill II} )/(11 0 I hoJ) Ii

Remembering that ho1rd ::::: h021d then
1I f,lI
23H tlYDRAUUC A!'Ll COMI'RESSlllLE !'LOW TURIIOMAOllNI,S AXIAL FLOW STEAM AND GAS TURIlINI:S 239

P"

II
:. {l,

Is '" 1".,;;:::::::-
.--~-r I

:".""..- P~
Is 2s Ji
2~s
i
.J.-"
2s
t-

FIJ,:urc 6.1 t A 50 per cent reaclioll stage

Figure 6.9 Pure impulse stagc

the zero reaclion stage is exactly the same as an impulse stage. However, /p"
when the flow is irreversible, the zero reaction and impulse stages arc IIU!
o ,,//~"'/'
the same undin fact an increase in enthalpy occurs in the rotor of the impubl'
stage. the implication being that the reaction is negative. For a negallv!'
reaction stage. the tendency will be for Wz < WI' thereby causing dilTusioli
of the relative velocity vector in the rotor and a subsequent rise in prcsstlll'
This should be avoided since adverse pressure gradients causing flow
separation on the blade surfaces can then occur. Figure 6.10 illustrates I ht'
Mollier chart for negative reaction.
u
With 50 per cent reaction. Eq. (6.30) requires that 112 "" (;(1.//1 .""'1~, AI:,II Fi~ .. re 6.12 A 100 per cent reaction stage
C 1 "" W 2 and C 2 == WI' resulting in the symmelrical velocity diagram 01
Fig, 6.11 with equal enthalpy drops in the stator and rotor.
For JOO per cent reaction. Eq, (6.31) gives (XI == (X2 and C, = C 1 Wilh Iltl'
velocity diagram skewed to the right as illustrated in Fig. 6.12. IncJ'(,~a~il\g Ihe
reaction ratio lO greater than I gives rise to diffusion in the stator passage:, ot
nozzles with C 1 < Co. This situation should also be avoided because IIf fhr
likelihood of How separation on the stator blade surfaces (Fig. 6.lil,

Ii P.
"'i~ure6.13 Stage expansion with reaction more than
100 per cenl

,.5 .<... FE( TO"'I~EACTION RATIO ON STAGE EFFICIENCY

Hr.wltllll and IIlltH/lse hlad ing find usc in dilTcrent types of machines. (n steam
I III hOH", \\ here, III Ihe high-pressmc end. pressure ratios across a stage would
Is Iiii'll, ItHPlll;.l~ bludillf' j~ alllio~;1 univnsally IIsed sincc there is no
dlHP in 11ll' -itill'\' ,lIld 111\"ICllll(' 110 lip Ii':ikagr of till' steam from
240 lIYDRAULl(: AND ('OMJ'IU,SSIllLl, I'LOW TlIRIlOMACIIl1"FS
AXIAL FLOW STEAM AND GAS TURlUNES 24]

one blade I'OW to the next. At the low-pressure end of steam turbines and
in gas turbines where the pressure ratios arc more modest. reaction blading
is employed. A choice of 50 per \.:cnt reliction means a sharing of the lolal
expansion between the stator and rotor rows.
It was seen in Fig. 6.7 that, for a high lotal-t[).[otal efficiency. tbe blatk
loading factor should be as low as possible, which implies as high a blade
speed as possible. consistent with allowable blade strcsses. lIowever. the
variation in total-t<Hotal efficiency with slight variation in the blade loading
coefficient is very small. this being true for a wide choice of reaction ratio.
[n contrast, the totalto-static efficiency is heavily dependent upon the
reaction ratio and it can be shown that the total-to-static efficiency at a given
-----,.,-__ Aimosl straight
blade loading may bc optimizcd by choosing a suitable value of reaction, -'-~at Irailing cdge

6.]4 Reactioll blading

6.6 BLADE TYPES

It has been noted in the previous section that steam turbines urc usualh
impulse or a mixture of impulse and reaction stages whereas gas tlll'hIIH".
tend to be always of the reaction type, The pressure ralio of steam tlll'hiIH".
can be of the order or 1000: t but for a gas turbine it is usually no more I ha II
10:!. It is obvious that II very long steam turbine with many reaction stap(",
would be required to reduce I he pressurc by a ratio of 1000: I, and even II
the prcssure drop per stage were made large to reduce the number of stul~''''\
blade tip leakage loss would stilllcad to very inefficient operation. Thcrdnl "
reaction stages arc used where the pressure drop per stage is low alld ;Ihll
where the overall pressure ratio of the turbine is relatively low. as would
the case in an aero-engine. which may typically have only three or 101\1 Figure 6,15 Shrouded gas turhine reactioll
reaction stages of or near 50 per cent reaction at the mean radIII'; blades
The requiremenl of different types of stages has led to differing design', III
blades for each type. and this section describes some of the pertinent plIlllh
relevant to each design. blade cvolved I:;mpirically in steam turbine practice. and comparisons
I"., "",'l'n hlades designed in the laIc nineteenth century for the first steam
till hun' and those designed by the later aerodynamic theory showed only
6.6. J Reaction Blading a 4 per cent illcrcasc in maximum efficiency. However. efficiency
ht,'l"'''''''~ of only 0.5 pel' cent or less arc noW very import<mt when fuel costs are
As described in Fig. 6.2, the pressure reduces through succccding slalol
rotor rows, the vclocity being recovered as the prcsslll'c drop~;. ;Ind lnt II aCCOllllt. Reaclion blading is often shrouded at the tips, especially if
hilldcs arc long, This aids in preventing excessive vibration by tying the
necessitates a bladc passage that is convergent towards the uUIlt-I,
Fig,6.14. together ami thus changing them from cantilevers to blades fixed at
For 50 per cent reaction tbe stutor Hnd rotor hlade'; Will Ill' 1111' ['Ill h (hg, ld S).
whereas zero reaction implies impulse rolor hbdt" Wllh I !l1l,UIl!
cross-sedional area passages and no change in now \'('I"llt\, 1{1';IIIHln
100 pCI' cent implies that the stator blades arc of the "011'.1,1111 ;lIlil 11111
IVpf III l,h,di!lv 11i\'1 ,kvdopnllll',tnllndly hOIll :;h'alll llll"billc practice,
type. It will be noted that the inlet angk III for the r,'acllpJl hl:Hh' 1';
/11111'11111 I, I IIi'" v.IUllIV II iiI 111'11':, wen' drawn al lhl' lI\ean radius
zero while the prorik of lIw back (II flit' hlade h allno',l ItIlC:11 Iht lililli
242 HY1>RAUI-W AND COMPRESSIlILl:: HOW TURllOMACIIINf$
AXIAl. FLOW STEAM AND GAS TU/UHNES 243

of the blades. Because of the tip speed variation along the length of the blade.
inddcl1(.'C angles should ch.l'ngc from root to tip, resulting in a twisted blade.
However, it has been customary to ignore the twisted blade requirement and
to have an untapcrcd, untwisted blade of either 50 per cent rt~action or zenl
reaction (impulse). The loss of efficiency of the straight blades is very sm:i11
for the short blades that are used at the high,pressure end of the turbim:,
But for the much longer blades at the low-pressure end, larger losses call ..........,.--/-__ Con~tnnl-
-_. area passage
occur, and blades in this region arc now designed on the frce vortex principiI'
instead of constant reaction ratio. For revcrsible flow through the rotor.
impulse llnd zero reaction blading arc the same.
Impulse blading is employed succcssfully at the high-pressure end III
steam turbincs. The velocity of the steam is increased in the convergent nO/Ill':
row to perhaps 800 m/s before entering the rotor blades and passing throltf!,h
them at constant pressure as in Fig. 6.2b. From Eq. (6.S), we can rcarranpr
(l1~" + !'V~2) as

W..,l + W"2 = Wt sin {it + W2 sin liz Fi~ure 6,16 Impulse turbine blades

and putting PI = fl. for impulse or zero reaction,

W.. } + W..,2::= Wt sin/ll(l -+- WR )
,",,(f'. sinex l - UHf + WR)
thc chances of flow separation on the b~lck convex surface of the blade are
where WR is the relative velocity ratio Wul \1ll' Substituting Eq. (6JJl illln h~dtlced by decreasing the radius of curvature or the convex surface. Thc
Eq, (6.5) tilightly convergcnt pllssage aids in prcserving uniform now as the fluid flows
into the bend, lIud although the diverging section causes difl'usion of the
Diagram elliciency = 2U(C 1 sin XI U)(l + WR)/C: flow, the net effect is beneficial when the turning angles arc large and radii
;;;; 2[( V/C d sin:x , - (U/C t>2]( 1 + H",d Ill' blade curvature are small.
For maximum diagram cnldcncy. differcntiatc Bq. (6.34) with l'l:spnl
(ti/e d lind equate to zero. Then (1.(.,3 Free Vortex and Constant-Nozzle-Angie Design
0= sin:X 1 - 2U/C 1 was pointed out in Sec. 6.6.2 that free vortex and other design criteria
or IIHIY be cmployed for the dcsign of long blades. where constant-angle design
UIe! ;;;; (sin ad/2 lead to low efficiencies.
Equation (6.35) indicates that the nozzle angle CI. 1 shnultl \11' iI', 1111'11 As shown in Eq. (5.40), for constant stagnation enthalpy across the
possiblc. the ideal being 90, However, Ct.! is limited by C'", ~"IIC(: tlw IIf\tWItIS (dho/dr = 0) and constant axial velocity (dC,Jdr = m, then the whirl

aI' the smaller ell becomes and thercCore the longer is Ihl' bhHk kn,'.11I
accommodate the rcquired mass now rak. Typical nOllk allgll'" all' IWI
65' and 78". The rotor blade passages art: 1l."lI.dly 01 ('lIp.lillll
symmetrical cross scction, with inlet and outkt ilngles (II ,I" 1/11 mHI
being typical (Fig. 6.16). The centres of l;urvill 1m' l)f I Ill' I' '11\\'\ .111,1 , I!!!'
surfaces of adjacent blades arc tht:n localed ill t lie san", p"llll In r. 'lilt 1',11.;.''''''
passages. Another design of impulse hluding I h:11 II"" Iwell d,,',I"Wd
convergent divcrgt:nt IYpt', This llesh'lI IHI'; kell Iplilld IIwhtl III
VOlnpOIlI.:nt of velocity C., is inversely proportional to the I'mlius and radial
r(Jllllihlillln is achieved, Now if we know conditions at the mean diamctcr
II ';lIhscripl 111 denotes '~lt the mean diameter', then at any nozzle hlade
1',.
(free vortex condition)
244 IIYDI\AUl.lC ANIl ('OMI'I{JlSSIIlI.I' FLOW TURtlOMAClUNES AXIAL n.ow STEM. AND GAS TURUINES 245

and at the stage outlet when there is a whirl Gomponelll
tan '';(2 = (1'2I1JI'2) tan Cf. 2m
Another design criterion is that of constant-nozzle-angle design where the
nOl,zle angle Ct.l is constant as well as d110/dl' = 0 and dCjdr = O. This Icad~,
to the axial velocity distribution given by
and since Ct.! is constant, then Cal is proportional to C, I as well as dl1 0 /dl'
Therefore
In many cases the change in vortex design has only u marginal cl1ccl on
the performance of the blade while secondary losses Illay actually increase
It is left to Ihe experience of the designer and the results of cascade test daLI
to settle on a purticular type of vortex now.
6.8 MULTI-STAGE GAS TURBINES
When the multi-stage compressor was discussed in Sec. 5.3, the polytropic or
small-stage efficiency was made eq ual to the stage isentropic efficiency, and
an initial estimat.e of the expected overall pressure ratio was obtained. In
multi-stage gas turbines a similar procedure could be followed, but since
there are probably only three or four stages at the most, little extra work is
necessary to carry out a calculation stage by stage to determine the
0, temperatures and pressures through the turbine, the outlet conditions of the
preceding stage becoming the inlet conditions for the following stage. Once
the overall temperature and pressure drops have been established, t1w
isentropic efficiency can be calculated,
The performance characteristics arc usually drawn in terms of the mass
now parameter IIlT/f/po, and efficiency // 1 versus overall pressure ratio POI/PIIII
at differing speeds given by the parameter N,/1)kl . All speed curves arc seen
to be grouped closely together, merging into a single line at a maximum

6.7 AERODYNAMIC BLADE DESIGN

Cascade data similar to that discussed in Sec. 5.1 arc used for modern tlll'hll'"
rotor blade design where the lift and drag coefficients are obtained fWIll lhl'
cascade data curves. Pressure losses can then be determined and an estlll1all\ III
of the efficiency m~ldc. The drag coefficient must again be modified dul' '"
the blades actually bcing.in annular form. Real boundaries exist at the llllh
and tip ,vhilc the ideall10w pattern is disturbed by preceding and follnwlIW
blades. The drag cocllicient is modil1ed by tip clearance loss ('II' aud
1U -
secondary f1O\v loss ellS given by7
CDC := IlC~(k('/I,~)
and

Hcre k is the clearance between the casing ami blade tip whik II is takl'll;Pi
for unshrouded blades and 0.25 for tip-shrouded hlades. The par;lIl1clt'l
estimated from a functional relationship of lhe form
" .' [" ( Blade outlet area normal to flow ")2 i( I 111'11 radills '.)
= f
J.
, Blade inlet area normallo flow, / ",
I I
lip radills
I
Hence for the turbine
II !
eDT = ep (from cascade lIat:l} I ('," I ('Ii';

II
Further informatinl\ on blade ik!,ip,lI 111;1\' hI' ultliliwd It"," I ""~_tf"'(l";' ('IpIIH'!fIJ'dh t'lItIH~i', IiH
texts. detailed design pl'Ot'l't!lln", hClllg "11"'1\1<' Oil' ""'lW ..( till" tHll,h In 'Vlr;!,.f illl\\' ~Ui,': llpldHt
246 HYDRi\UUC A:-;n COMPRESSIBLE t'LOW TURIJOMAOUNES AXIAL FLOW STEAM A)oo;D GAS TURUlNES 247

turbine closely follows the ellipse law

mTb;2!P()I = k[ I -- {Pon/POI)2] 1i2 (6,39)
where k is a constant

EXERC[SES

The following constants should be used, except where otherwise stated:

One-stage
Specific heat of turbine gas at constant pressure, Cp = I 148 JjkgK
Ratio of specilic heats, "I = 1.333, gas constant R = 287 J/kg K
6.1 An impulsc stage (11' a steam turbinc is designed for a nozzle isentropic enthalpy drop of
:'i8 kJ/kg with a mass now rotc of 0,3 kg/so The steam leaving the nozzle enters the rotor blnde
0,2 passage at an angle of 75" measured from the axial now direction and has its relative velocity
by 5 rer ~ent in the blade passage. If the blade speed is In m!s and the velocity
coefficient of the nozzle is 0.98, determine:
O'--_ _.l...._ _. J -_ _--l._ _-..l_ _ (al the blnde inlet angle,
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3,0 (b) the power dcvclopcd,
Overall pressure ratio. P'll/POII (c) the tangential thrust on the blades nnd
(d) the sInge diagram efficiency,
Figure 6.18 Multi-st'lgC characteristics of an axial flow gas turbine Assume that the binding is symmetrical.
6.2 A single-whecl impulsc stcarn turbinc has cquiangular rotor blndes thut develop 3,75 kWand
!lwduce a torquc in the disc of 1.62 Nm at a mean radius of 132.5 mm. The rotor receives 0.014 kg/s
stcam fwm nozzlcs inclined at 70 10 the axial direction and the stealll discharges from the
Illass nOw value (Fig, 6.17), This is the choked condition and is causee! hI ,vhccl ehambcr in an axial direction. Find:
velocities in the nozzle or at exit from the rotor becoming sonic. (a) the blade anglcs,
(Ill the diagram efficiency,
Since the mass now characteristics arc grouped so closely together, C\LIl
te) the end thrust on the shaft and
towards the lower pressure ratios. a mean curve through all the speed \;mVC, h (ill the langcntial thrust on the blades,
often drawn and taken to be representative of that turbine. The isenll II 50 pel' cent reaelion stcam turbine running al 450rpm develops 5 MW and hilS a steam
efliciency remains within a narrow baJ1d for a wide range of prCSSllll: L\t I' Pi IlllW rate of 6,5 kg/kWh. At a particular siage ill the l'xpansioll the absolute pressure is
(once choking has occurred) and speed, implying that the gas lurhillC ,; at a stearn dryness fraction of 0.94, If the exil angle or lhc blades is 7()', measured f!"Om
very l1exiblc machine as far as matching to u compresscr is conccflwd, th' lIxmt now direction, and the outlet relalive velocity of the I\team is 1J times the mean blade
filHI the blade height if the ratio of f\ltnr hub diumeter to blade height is 14,
compressor as we have seen in Sec. 5.9 being very sensil iVl: In 011
In a tel'll reaction gll~ turbine, the bl:ldc speed at the mean diameter is 290 m/s. Gas lellyeS the
conditions. Therefore, if the compressor design speed is differellt from i
rillg al an angle of 65" to the axial direction while the stage inlel stagnatiolliempt:raturc is
turbine design speed. the turbine efficiency will be litlle challged h,,"! K, The li.llowil1g prcssurc~ were measured at the various locatiOnS:
maximum value when running at the off-design specd. This Ilolhilll\
operation is duc to a wide range of im:ic.lence lingle heilll',
without incurring high rotor blade pressure loss codficicnls .Ilhl linn I. ('nl I y. ,tap-nation pressure 400kPa
IIlI II Itl ('\II, ';I ;I!~nali"n prl'ssure .'190 k I'll
observed from cascade data.
Il\INk nil, .\lill il' pfllS'Olnc 200 k I'a
Finally for this section, Fig, 6.18 shows t he Cn~('t of il\CIC;dl1j' till' f\LHlfnl f'll. ')liltie IHt~"S\lI\~ IXX k I'a
of stagcs. The limiting mass flow for the sillgle-st.II',I' I mhllH' Ih'lil".
pressure mtio just in excess of 2. and is dUl~ to choking ill lhe !.Iallll ",'"n"
"""'''''''''111,,1 IIii' 11'''1'1111'''\' ",IlI.lnnll<lll .. r \'\'1''1',11,,>, at entr y and exit dthe silige ;\I'C the same,
The choking pressure ratio increases. however, wilh an 1111'11""';1' lilliit' flllllll".'f <11'11'111/1111" ,I ... ,,\;11" ",I;.! f" 'nlid ,ilkit'll, \
of stages, but 1'01' a givcn prcsslire rail ... lhe 'malluwllIl' ':lI'I\('lt\ {ntH"l
decreases as the number of stage', 111111'.1'.(',1 he illl VI' till lh,
248 HYDRAUliC AND COMI'RE.'iSJIlLl! !'LOW TURUOMACHlN(S AXIAL l'LO\V STEAM AND GAS TL'Rm:-';ES 249

Ieallcs the stator bhuJcs at all angle of 65' to the axial direction. Calculate:
Mass tlow, m 30kg/s
I.IJ the blade loading c1.1dlident, .' Inlet st;lgnationlempcllllurc. 'J;w 1225K
(b) the rotor blade rclativc flow angles,
Inlet stagnatioll pressure, roo 800kPa
(e) the degree of reaction and
'l\:mpcraturc drop, ('I~", - 'I;,,) 160K
(tlJ the tot;d-t,Hotal and total-to-stark efficiencies.
Iscntropic cfficicnl,:Y, Jl w tI 0.9
6.6 A smul! axial flow gas turbine with equal stage inlet and outlet velocities has the foHowill~ Mean bladespced. V., 330mis
design data bascd on the mean diamcter: Rotational speed. N I5O()Orprn
Outlet velocity, C 1 390m/s
Inlel slugnlllion tcmperature, Too 11001<
Inlet stagnation pressure, Poo 350kPa Calculate:
Axial How vc!tldty (collstant through stage), C 260m/. (a) t he blade height lind radius ratio of the anllulus,
Mass flow, m I R kg/~ (b) the llxial velocity al nozzle exit if Ilow in the nozzle is iscntropic and
Blade spt.'Cd, V 350m!s (.:j the ink:1 rellUivc Milch number lit the rotor hh,,!c root radius.
NllZzle effiux. IIngli:. Cl J 6W
Gas stage exit ungle, Clz 12' SOLUTIONS

Calculate: Exercise 6.1 (a) A nozzle velocity cocOleicnt was defined in Eq. (3.7) and in
(al the rotor blade gas angles,
(bj thc degree ,,1' reacHon, blade loading coefficient and power output and
terms or enthalpy mny be redefined as
(c) the (owl nozzle throat area required if the thrmlt is situah,:d at the nozzle oulkt ;tml
nonlc loss coefficient is 0.05. C, "" ~~.~~al nozz!~<~_,:l()city
Ideal nozzle velocity
6.7 A single-stage ax.ial flow gas turbine with eonvcrgent nozzles Ims the following d:lI<1
across the nozzle, /roo == hOI' and since no work is done in the nozzle,
Inlet stagniltion temperature, 1;)0 1150K
C2 C2
Tnlel stagnation pressure, P"" 420kPa 11 0 <I_II = III + !
<<>

Pressure ratio.lloo /P02 1.9 2 2

Stage stagnation tempcraturc drop. (Tno - Ttd 150K
Mussfiow./Il 25 kg/s in the steam chest at entry to the nozzle, Co is negligibly small compared
Mean blade speed, (J 340m!s and therefore
(' I '
Roliitiollul speed, N 15000rpm
Flow cocllicient, <p 0.75 ci = 2(h 1 - h2 )
Angle ofgas leaving stage. (ll 12"
ideal nO:lzlc velocity will be when the l10w through the nozzle is isentropic,
is when (11 0 lid:;;: (hl) - "to) Thus ideal Ci == 2(h o hls)' Actual nozzle
If the axial velol,:ily remains eunMant and the gas velocities at inlet a III I IJlll1\'1 all
determine at tin: meun radius:
(a) the blade loading coefficient and degrec of rcaction. C t =(58 x 10 3 X 2) 112 0.98
(b) the gas angles. = 333.8 m/s
(0::) thc rcquireLl noule throat area,
(d) the annulus area at nozzle inlet and outlet amI at rotOI IIUI"'! \' 0.11:, ,u,,1 Jhe vdocil~ diagrams of Figs 6.3 and 6.4
(el the height and radius ratio of the illltlulus at the ;dlOW lotil tiln,',
('" C I cos IX I
6.11 Usitlg the duta ofexercise 6.7, if the turbine is offn'e VoIlC\ dr;oIl'Il,llll,1 t)"
and {II at the root and tip of the rotor blades and the relativt'lvfadl 111111I1"'1 iii ll1Xcos75
tip and rool.
X6A I\l/s
6.9 Once again using the dilla of cxerds.:s 6,7 and (\,~, lithe tl,""!'" I'. 11">,,,1 "h ,I
llllgle, cillculate the ;lIlgle fil at the blndc '001 alltl tip. Mid 11111 pall' th"H' \\11 Ii
1/ I 11'" (', ~,ill(XI
6.10 The data below apply t.. 'I sifl",k-"l,W<' ,1\1;11 lI.. w I'll\ I"floilll \ \ \ H ',Ill /'\
theory. The oullct vdodty ie; ilxial ilild lh,' lullllli<' I', ,jhllUlo'd willr
through Ih" stagt', I.' '
250 HYDRAULIC A:-;D COMI'RF$SIBUi FLOW n:RROMACHlNES AXIAL FLOW STEAM AND (JAS TURlllNES 251

Whence 1
= J6.3 x- ")I0.
_._~--_.~
X 2
11'-'1'= 322.4 - 173 333,8 x 0.3
= 149.4m/s
= 0.975
Therefore
tanfJ, = WXt/C il
Exercise 6.2 {al rn the velocity diagram of Fig. 6.4. eil = C 2 since dischl.lrge
from the wheel chamber is axial. Then Wx2 = U at the mean radius.
149.4
86.4 Torque = mr(W,'2 + W"d at the mean radius

111 == 60 1
W w:= 1.62
x2 + .< 1 0.1325)(""0..-.0-1-4

(b) Relative inlet velocity = 873.3 m/s

From Eg, (6.2)
11'1 =Ca(cOs{J t
86.4 whence
=---
cos 60' 3.75 X 10 3
U = _..
:= I72.8 m/s 0,()[4 x 873.3
Therefore == 306.7m/s
W2 = 0.95 x 172.8 Now
= 164.1 m/s c = Wd + W'l
til tan 7010
~il'2 = 1+'2 sin {II since {J l = /32
= 164.1 sin 60'" 873.3
= 142.1 m/s tan 70'

From Eg. (6.2) = 317.9 m/s

Wxl = 873.29 - 306.7
H'7m = U(W'2 + W'll
= 566.6 m/s
Power developed
W = OJ x 173 (142.1 + 172.8)
"" 16.3 kW
566.6
=:
(c) Tangential thrust : : :. m(W~l + Wx1 ) 317.9
:::::. O.3( 142.1 +- In.X) til = 60.7"
;= 94.47 N
fi, WT
From Elj. (6.5)
Work done per unillll;tss lIow (hi r\ 1:;0 IIPIll tilt' vdndt v di;Il~I'i1 illS
(d) Diagram efficiency
Work available per 111\11111;10;'; flow or, ,I W... l" ! C.: 1

IV/m Ii/l\' I Il/.j)'

(" II t \ III
252 llYl>RAULlC AND COMI'RlOSSlIILE FLOW TlJRIlOMACHlSES AXIAL FLOW STEAM AND liM, TUR81NES 253

Equation (6.5) gives the diagram efficiency as Substituting

.
DIagram .
efficIency"" U(W,l2 + Wd)
,.,.,--_._,..-
, 0.445 x 2n x 450(1411
C = --...---.".-,.,,,-,
+ Il)
e 21')
"1 1 - " 2x60
= 306.7 x 873.3 x 2 0 _ "" 157.3 II mJs
863700 But the area of the annulus of now == nll(])h + 11), i.e.
=0.62 A == 15nIJ 2
(c) If there is an axial thrust C,O i: Cal Now lise steam tables, at a pressure of 85 kPa. At saturation the specific
_ W'\'2
volume of the steam is 1.972 m 3/kg. At a dryness frat:tion of 0.94, then
C.'.,2 -
tan {12 Specific volume of sleam = J.972 x 0.94
U = 1.85 mJ/kg
= (U =- ~YX2 since C2 is axial) Now mass flow ratc
tan {J2
5 X 103 X 6.5
306.7 111""
= tan60.T 3600
== 9.03 kg/s
= 172.1 mls
Axial thrust = m(C"1 .- Ca2 ) (Eq. (1.23) in axial direction) C"ll
/11= where tl is specillc volume
l!
=0.014(317.9-- In.l}
Therefore
=2.04 N _157.311 x 15nl1 2
9.03 -
1.85
(d) Tangential thrust on blades ~ m(Wx2 + W"I) (Eq. (LDII
whence
= 0.014 x 873.3
hJ = 2.254 X 10- 3
= 12.23N II = 0.131 m
~.lt~~e height = 0.1 ~L!,l
Exercise 6.3 From the velocity diagram (Fig. 6.4)
W 2 = UU It:Xl~rcise
6.4 The condition of the gas through the stage is shown in Fig. 6.8 for
Now /t~roreaction where it is noted that there is no temperature (or enthalpy) drop
C.,:: W z cOs {1 2 through the rotor.
== 1.3 U cos 70" hlf' zero reaction
==0,445U m/s from Eq. (6.27)
Now
reND ,'\1>.0 in Ihe rolor
U== at Ihe IllC;1l1 dlallH'h'1
60 from Eq. (5.6)

2rrNU)" + iI)
(,0 .' II I II,
254 HYDHAlJUC AND COMPRESSmU: FLOW TtJRIIOMACHlNES ,\XIAL FLOW STliAM AND GAS rUJUlINES 255

m,Ly be rearranged in terms of temperature differences U~ stage

To - T 2
q= c; + C~l
11th Il = (To ..- T2 ) + (71 -- 1'2)
= 263.25 2 + 15.5 2
= 69540m 1 /s l
and so the problem resolves itself into all evaluation of the above temperature Thus
differences. c~
Through the nozzle row '{~o:= TOJ and at a poinl T.(I - T~
~
= l '00 - ~.... - T
2C'p 1

PI )()'-lln,
T l = Tnl ( .
POI ::=: 1100 - C?:~~~8) -931 since '1'1 = T2
200)(1.:\3.\ -1)/1 ..\3.\ = 138.7K
= 1100 ( ....
)90 Using isentropic relationships

Then
=931 K

C~=2Cl,(1~ll- T 1)
i:: = (:(~Or-l)iY
=2x 1148(1100-931) 188)0.25
T~
~S"
= 1100 ( --
400
= 388024
CI "" 622.9 m/s =910.8 K
Now Therefore
Cal = C 1casal '1'2 '1'2", = 931 910.8
= 20.2 K
= 622.9cos65"
= 263.25 m,is Substituting for these lcmpcmlure difTercnccs gives
and 138.7
Cxt = C, ~il1c(\ t}1(t I) = 138.7+ 20.2
= 622.9 sin 65' ::=: O.lP3
= 564.5 m!s
Therefore Exercise 6.5 (a) From Eq. (6.26), the blade loading coefllcient is
WX1 = CXI .- U
1/1 = <jJ(tan If I + tan /J 2)
= 564.5 290_e

=ql(tanal + tana2)
= 274.5 m/s
Now bUI ill (hi:-; case '12 = 0 since at outlet the flow is axial. Therefore
C,,2:= W"2 - U l/J = 0.05 tan 65"
and since we have zero reaction then W,. = 1'1",). So ",,1.394

('..2 = 274.5 290 (hI hOIll tlw velocity ldangles

15.5 lll/S
lilO/I.. I iii
The negative sign indicates that Ihere i~ a wlml v<'I ",II v III nli' llbl'ddh'

direction [0 blade motion.

Since the stage is normal. I'., ( '" ,Illd ;1'\,,\11111111' 1"1"\>1111 /
2S(i I-IYORAlII,1C ,\ND COMPRESSIULL !'LOW TURllIlMAClIll'ES AXIAL ROW SlEAM AND GAS TUJUlI:-I'S 257

Blade outlet angle II2 = 57" and

~I
tan III = 4) tanf!2 and from Eq. (6.6)
Iro - h 2 = U(C.<1 + C'2) (since Co =( 2 )
1.394
tanS?" =UC.d (no whirl at exit)
0.65
=:: ue" tan C(l
Blade inlet angle fJ, = 31.2"
Therefore upon substiluting
I + 0.O~~?~:C2 57" ~~ . ~654 sec
l
(c) From Eq. (6.30) 'I = (' 65'(:!il I'll) - 1
2 tan 65"/0.65
R "" 0.5 + O.5ql(tun {1 2 tan Cl:d 1(111

;:: 0.5 + 0.5 x O.65(tan 57" -- tall 65) Putting 1'2/1'1 = I,

Degree of reaction = 0.303 tlt(HJ "'" 0.909
= 90.9:).~;
(d) Equation (6.lt'O gives the total-lo-total efficiency in terms of the nO'//h'
and I'Otor loss coefficients:
Equation (6. t 9) gives the total-to-static efficiency with Co = CII
_ (' 1
+
CR wi + (NCf(12/'I'd) .1
2(h -11
'
~K
lu2
n 2 + (,N
\. ('2(
.. , 'J' 21"/' 1) '
.1.
0C2) - I
tlt(t.t) -
o 2
)
'Il(t'sl'= ( 1 +------2(11 _ "1) ._',
0
Using the Soderberg correlation of Sec. 6.3, for lhe stator (noZl.le) row
I: N = (;(0 + r:t,
= (t + 'RSCC21{~2~ ,~SCC.~:_~+ I)
2 tan (Xt/q)
I

=0"+65'
= (1 + ()'o8~?sec2 5?"_+ O.0654s~~265" +1) I
=65" 2 tan 65'/0.65
For the rotor row
=0.799
I:R = {II + {12
= 31.2" + 51'
=: R8.2"
Therefore from Eg. (6.20), rotor loss coefficient (':xcrcisc 6.6 (a) From the velocity triangles (Fig. 6.4)
= C"talHil
= 0.04 + 0.06 ( ' l~(;,
88 ?)~ Cxl
CR = 260tan 60'
=0.0867 = 450.3m/s
and nozzle loss coefficient Cx2 = C" lan(X2
= 260 tan 12"
61 )}
(N = 0.04 + ()'(l6,( . , :'" 55.26m/s
rOil
I kiln'
:.=, 0.0654 H"I e" U
Also 4 ',oJ ISO
IV'; ( ',,' M't 1/1 . 100 I IIIi'.
258 HYDRM:UC AND COMPIWSSlHl.E FLOW TURaOMACHISl!S AXIAL FLOW STEAM AND GAS 'nJRIHNFS 25 )
'

Therefore

cr:
Power output
W = mU(C xI + ('x2)
111 = tan 1 I )
= 18 x 350(450.3 + 55.26)
e~~~~)
=3185kW
= tan 1
(e) From velocity triangles
=21.1"
C 1 = C"sec:>:l
Also = 260 sec 60"
W..,2 == u + C.<l = 520m/s
=350 + 55.26 To find the area of the nozzle throat we must find the density (II' J l\

== 405.3 m/s Eq. (6.16) the nozzle enthalpy loss coefficient is

Therefore " C/l'l- 'T\..l
_1('W~2) <ON = le l
2 'I
{J 2 = tan--
e,l or
T T. 0.05 x 0.5 x 520 2
[. = 1148
= tan 1 ( 405.3)
260
1-

= 57.3" = 5.89 K
Now in the nozzle TOI = 1~)O. That is, if the flow in the nozzle is adiaballl,
(b) From Eq. (6.29), reaction then the stagnation temperature is constant. Now

R =; (tan{l2'- tan/Jd T 1 = TOI -

Ci
2C
p
2
520
=., 260 5'7 r ?' = 1100 --.-----
_ x.150(tal1 . -tao_1.I) 2 x 1148

= 0.435 =982 K
Therefore
Tl~ "'" 982 - 5.89
Blade loading coefficient is given by Eq. (6.26) = 976.1 K
Thus
[100 = (TOO))'!ll' 1)

PI ./\",
[Note: Another dctinitioll for blade leading cocllkktll Ihal is u"cd I~j
~I = Cp(Too '/~2)/lU2, which has a numerical valli\.' twin' l!l,,( .., =( 1100)'1
Eq. (6.26).J 976.1
Thus :::: 1.61
260 350
I/J = 350 (t1ln ::1.I"j Ian 57,1')
1.61
1.44
260 HYORAUUC ANi) COMI'RES....IJlLE FLOW nJRUOMACIIlJ'ES AXIAL FLOW STEAM Al'D GAS TURlllSES 261

Then Therefore
PI
Pl=RT; tan 57.1 c = 2><~j5 (1.49 + 2R)
3
217x 10
- whence reaction
287 x 982
=0.77 kg/m 3 R == 0.414
Mass now rate
m=pjAjC 1 (b) Solving the above simultaneous equations for tan P. gives
AI == 18 1
0.77 x 520 tan II. = 2Ip('" - 2R)
Nozzle outlet area;: 0.045 m2
I
- 1.49 - 2 x 0.414)
2 x 0.75
Exercise 6.7 (a) Substituting the data into Eq. (6.25) for the blade loading
coefficient

I/J =~~pFOl __ 1i)2)

Then
V" 1
1148 x ISO tan IX I = tan PI +-
=-340 2 -
4>

= 1.49 = tan 23.8') + I

0.75
From the turbine velocity di<lgrams = 60.6"
Vie" = tan {1 2 -- tan '::x 2
or
(el The nozzle throat area requires the density at the nozzle throat and tbe
1
tan/J 2 = + tana l absolute velocity at that location. Since we have a simple convergent nozzle,
the nozzle throat is at plane I in our notation.
1 From the velocity diagrnm
= 0.75 + tan 12"
ell! = V(P
fJ 2 = 57.1" = 340 x 0.75
From Eqs (6.26) and (6.29), = 255m/s
1/J=(tanIJ 1 +tan!JI} and
and
IP
R =2 (tan P2 - tan II.)
from which 255
l'O~ 60.6'
') 1'1 ') lII/~i
262 HYDRAULIC ANO CO~H'RL..%JllLlj ROW TlJRROMACIIINI;:S AXIAL ROW STEAM AND GAS TURUlNES 2fl3

Now 25
::::::: ~.,~

TUl T1 =. Ci
~ . 0.9 x 519.5
2el'
== O.0534m 2
519.5 2
2 X 1148 (d) Annulus area at plane I is
= 117.6K
From Eq. (6,16)
T - T C2
C
_,'1'1,1 25
I Is - 2C p =--~

0.9 x 255
2

==
0,05 X 519.5 Annulus _~~a Al = O.I~~m2
2 x 1148
== 5.87 K A similar procedure is followed for locations 0 and 2. Now
and
255
Co == C 2 =----."..
cos 12
But
== 260.7mjs
therefore
and
T 1 == 1150 - 117.6 q 260,7 2
:::::'h
;:::; 1032.4 K 2C p 2 x 1148
and hence =29.6K
1'1.= 1032.4- 5.87
== 1026.5 K T0= T. 00
C~
,;;-c
-'1'
From isentropic relations between two points
""" 1150- 29.6
P00 :::. (T. ) 00
""".'.0 .'
i'IIY 1)

== 1120K
PI T"
== 420( I026.~)4
PI 1150
= 266.6kPa lt20)4
1'0=4")0 _.,
Thus density - ( 1150
== 377.9kPa

272.X X 10' Po
f'n
2}{7 x IO.UA U'/;l
O,9kg/m ' l/Il ,I Ill'
1\'0
III
NllZl.k throat area
264 IIY[)I\AllUC Ai'lD (,OMf'I\I'SSIHLI' FLOW TliR!iOMACHll'ES AXI,\L FLOW STl'I\M ANI> GAS Tl1RIIlNI,S 265

Annulus area 25
= 0.704-;-255
=: O.139m 2
25
1.1 77 x 255 (e) If 11 is denoted as the blade height and, is the huh radius while R is the
tip radius, then if the mean radius condition is denoted by subscript III
= 0.0838 m Z

U rrND
:=-...... m
_..
'm 60
At the stage outlet
'1(J2 = 1~)() - (Too - TId 340 x 60
D = ..-
=: 1150 - 150 In 'It x 150{)0

= 1000K = 0.433 m
and
Now annulus Ufea
q
l '2 = 'r.02 -2(;
'p

= 1000 - 29.6 Then

= 970,4 K AN
h=--,
Then 60U m
= 0.735 A
and so
But

P02 = POo ( 1'02)

---
POO, Also
420
= 1.9
= 211.1 kPa and so

r
Then

P2 = 221.1 G;~;J
=:: 196.1 kPL\ Excrdsc 6.8 At the root
Hence
196.1
II, = .,---,.".",
X /0.1 r =: 'm - (hI2)
~ 2S7 x 970.4 AI t1w tip
N "'" 'fl' + (11/2)
= 0.704 kg/m.l Thl'Il'lIlI'C

Therefore annulus area

1/1

1"( '" tUII

266 HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBl.E ROW TURDOMACIII:"ES AXIAL JiLOW STEAM ANO GAS TURUlNIJS 267

and
( R) ; ; : 1.185
rm I
lanIJl=(r~,) tanC(lm-(~) U m

'm 1 CIt
( ~)
I I
=0.764
'm ~ At the lip

( ~-)
1m 2
= 1.236 tan/l 21l = r m ( R) 2
Um
Ca' +
(rR m)
2 tan ::x 2 '"
For free vortex design Sec. 6.6.3 shows that at the root 1.236 tan 12'
=0.75
- - +1.236
--

= 1.23 tan 60.6~

= 65.5 0 tan 60.6" 1.181
(Xlr
Lan {IIR ='''-''-,-- - - -
and U81 0.75
tan:X2r = (r; )2 tan 1;(211\ {/l R =:.. =- 4.0
0

= 1.31 tan 12' At the root

:>'.2r == 15.5"
tan 12 0.764
At the tip
tan fJ2 =--- + -_.._-
r 0.764 0.75
tan IXIR = O.847lan 60.6' {12r = 52.3';
~B. =_~~:~~
and
and
tan ,:t,21l = 0.809 tun 12' Lan IJ 1 = t_~~ 6~~ _ 0.81
r 0.81 0.75
'''1.2R = 9.~
=48"
To lind the relative gas lIngles. from the velocity triungles. at :IIIV !HllltP;
Summarizing the results:
U
tun {to"'" tan 1;(, +
~ - C" :XI

and
u At tip 56.4' -4.0' ().w' 61.2'
tunfll = tan "1.1 AI !'I."I 65.5" 48.0" ISS 52.3'
AI II1Cilll radius 60.6' 23.!!" 12,0' 57.\"
But

Bbde ;ulltk-, at ..II Ii' I pllints can be calculated to give the blade geometry
Therefore substituting fol' U and t;\ n it. 111'1'1 tlh' whlll\' ~'Pilll
Iflill! 1".. 0'1 to !
I' il'l
tan fl., (';." .Ialll:", (," W. ("fif.c/l l
268 llY()Ri\UI.lC ANl) COMI'RI.S51lHF FLOW n;RIIO.\lACl!INES AXIAL FLOW STEAM ASD GAS nJlUIJNI~" 269

At the root Then

~Vlr"= 255 sec fllr de"l
_..... = dC xl cot:Xl
"'" 255 sec 48' dr dl'
== 381 mls Equation (5.37) therefore becomes
Also
dC~l
C;l + C_- . 2 (Xl dCl
C I' = C" S(.'C (Xl' 0= + Cd col '......
r xl dr ell'
== 255 sec 65.5'
==615m/s
Thus
BUl
f + cot 2 a. = sin 1'a 1
615 2 dC xl . 2 . dr
= 1150- -"C' := -8111 ~l--
2 x 1148 C.'l I'
Integrating
=985K
Thus Mach number loge Cd = - sin~al log"r + const
Hi or
(M Lfol), == (-.RT,tr\., (see Sec. 6.6.3)
i' . I rIO,
Now if IX. is constant and tana l = C.<I/e" then eXl is proportional to C,,;
31.\1
=--"..".. ,.-, . . :.._. '--"A~1' therefore
(1.33 x 287 X 985J1'~

Mach number at root"", 0,664

At the mean radius C"m "" 255 m/s and rim = 0,2165 m. a l = 60.6". Therefore
At the tip const :: 255 x O.216S,ilt'b(),(;'
W'l = 255.7 m/s
"'" 79,83mjs
('Ill=460.8 mis At the root
Till = 1057.4 K

Al tip, Mach number

79.83
:= (0.2165- O.08/2F7~9
It witl be noled thal the higher Mach number occurs al the hl'H.le I."o(
= 297,77m/s
Thus
f:xcrcisc 6.9 The radial equilibrium equation is giwli by hi j;'\ 1\

dll o C; I- C de't cdC"

dl' r ., dl' " til'

In plane 1, cillo/elI' "" 0 as bdorc and al:-;(\ if 'x, I~. u,n"tilll! 11,.n 7,97.77
\,10 IUi1
I all 'I,
\,
ill 10K
 270 HYDRAULIC AND COMPIU'$SIBLE FLOW TURBOMACIlINES AXIAL FLOW SUAM AND GAS Tl:IlBI~t:S 271
1 1 From isentropic relationships
I,m /1.,= tan ai' - T
.. ti', T02",)Y/IY"ll
P02 = Poo ( ..-.
1 Too
= tan 60.6 - (~l" = ~l," = const)
1.08 = 800(1047.2)4
{i., = 40';' 1225

At the root {J I, = 40' = 427.3kPa

Now
At the tip '['-1'
2 - ()2 -"C
q
~p
(C ) _ 79.83
, "al R - (
r trn + h II12)0' B9 = (1225 _. 160)- 390 2
2 x 1148
79.83
:::: ... .. , .,,-~ _----.~--

(0.2165 + 0.08/2)0.7 S9 =998.7K

Then
= 224.2m/s
So
A. = 224.2 (" m )
'l'R 340 R I = 427.3(99~ ..
1065
!.)4
224.2( 1 )
=--340 U8 := 330kPa
and
=0.559
P2
1 P2= wr;
tan fJ I R = tan Ct. R - --
<I'R 330 x 10 3
=-".. .
1 287 x 998.7
:= tan 60.6 -.--. (Itt R = (Xl In := cOllsl)
0.559 = 1.153 kg/mol
11tH = - 0.81" Fm!ll continuity
At the /1 1 = -- 0.81'

Exercise 6.JO (u) From Eq. (6.9) 30

1.153 x 390
~7 0.0667 m!
AI lll<~an radills
160
-- 0.9
177.771\. I III (,0
Therefore
11110 'If
/~, ..., In
"H'!/K
272 IIYORAVLlC AND COMI'RFSSlRLE FLOW TURDOMACUlNF.S AXIAL FLOW STEAM AND GAS TUIUlIl'ES 273

Blade height Then

., AI.
Ir=,--
lnr",
0.0667 198
=211" x ().Il ==
COS 70.4'

=O.0506m = 590.4I11/s
Now
Radius ratio .,It = Too ._;'
Cf
R r m + hl2
2(1'
r = r:t:-~ 11/2
590.4 2
0.21 + 0,0253 = 1225-~--
2 x I t48
= 0.2i=- 0.0253
= 1.27 = 1073 K
Using isentropic relations
(b) An iterative procedure must be followed to determine C,,\, This is set out
below. The continuity equation must be satislied; therefore at the nozzle oulkt PI =Poo ( -,-
T, ))'/h II
since Poo = Po I
~)O
station 1,
m=PICuIA\ Al = const and Cn , = const = 800( !_073)~
1225
As a first guess let
) _Poo = 470,9kPa
II - RJ~o
Thus
800 x 10 3 PI
=287 x 1225 PI ==R-i~

= 2.27kg!m 3 =
470.9 x 1()3
'~"""~.~--'''''''~

Then 287 x 1073

30
CII! =---- ,
2.27 x 0.0667
= 1.529 kg/m 3
= 198m/s This value is now used in a new ilcration until Cui and PI do not change. A
Now remembering that ("'2 == 0, table in set up below.

111'r<llillll 3 4 5 (, 7

2.27 1.53 144 1.42 1.42

1148 x 160= 330 x 1981"n')'1 200.2 2')4 312.:1 316.7
70.2 62.1 60.67 60.34
from which
590.4 62H.:1 637,6 640
1148 >.: Ifill 1073 1053 1047,8 10464
110, I'IH 470,9 436.6 428,2 426
1.5;\ 1.44 1,42 1.42
'1 lOA'
274 IIYDRAlILlC\NO COMI'RESSIBJ.I' FLOW TlJRIIOMACJII:\ES

At nozzle outlct axial velocity

CHAPT!'I,
C". =316.7m/s
SEVEN
(e) To find (1\.'1 1,<1),- where subscript /' refers to the root radius, RADIAL FLOW GAS TURBINI:S
r
rm
0.21 - 0.0253
U
r
= 330 x 0.21
= 290.2 m/s
At the root

u
= 1148 x 160 ._ 290.2
290,2
7.1 INTRODUCTION
= 342.7mjs
Then The inward flow radial gas turbine is used for applications where the flow nile
is very low, for example turbochargers for commercial (diesel) engines and ftt c
= 316.7 2
+ 342.7 2 pumps. They arc very compact, the maximum diameter being about 0..' III
I,V l = 466.6 m/s
Speeds arc high, ranging from 40000 to 1800000 rpm. They arc usually of fill'
90 type, the blades being perpendicular to the tangent at the rotor ollkr illkl
Acoustic velocity
periphery, and the gas after entering in the radial direction exits axi;t1ly ;11
(/1 == (j'RT1)W
outlet.
"" (1.333 x 287 x 1046.4)112 The turbine and its es~entiHI parts are shown in Fig. 7, I, when' II',
= 632.7 similarity to the centrifugal compressor is noted, the difference being Ihal Ihr
gus flow is in the opposite direction. Figure 7.1 shows that gas enters the :;CII ill
casing, the cross-sectional area of the scroll decreasing as the gas pil'."\'"
466.6 through it. This keeps the velocity at entry to the nozzle vanes (:on51"nl ;1: 11h'
='
632.7 gas is gradually drawn ofT on its circumferential path. The nozzle v;\lle:, ,11\
Relative Mach number at rool -::;, 0.74 converging to increase the kinetic energy of the gas and they sct the gil', ;lllgic
for lmlry into the rotor. This angle is usulllly about 70'" (measurcd fnllli fill'
radial dircction) but the vanes can be pivoted to allow for adjustnwIII olfhl'
now allgle as the load changes. In some designs, there may he no valles al ,Ill.
hilt II passage similar to that of the V<lllelcss diffuser of Fig. 2.17 is filled
(Fig, 7.2). A vanell'ss space exists betwccn the outlct tip of the ValW~ and the
fOlol', this space being. utilized by the gas for further now adjustllll'1l1 ;llld
,lidillg ill the rcdudioll of vibratory disturbances within the 1mbilll'.
fhl' loin!, which is usually lllallUfacturcd of cast nickel alloy, Ita', hl;ilk.
Jllll! ;lIe 1'111 \'('d II' dlallgl' thl' flow ("'lin the radial to lhe aKial din'cltllli Ill('
 RADIAL FLOW GAS TlJIUlI:-:1 S 17'
shrouding for the blades is formed by the casing, and a diO'uscr can be fll Inf ;11
the outlet, to reduce further the high kinetic energy at that point and therehy t,l
increase the enthalpy drop across the rotor,

7.2 VELOCITY DIAGRAMS AND THERMODYNAMICS

OF FLOW
Diffuser
The velocity triangles for this turbine arc drawn in Fig, 7.3. The 1l~.u;1i
Flow inl()
inlet noules numbering system of 1 to 2 across the rotor will be used and thereforc 0
indicates the point ofentry to the nozzle vanes and 3 the diffuser outlet scclioll
The thermodynamic path followed by rhe gas is shown on the Mollier challll!
Fig. 7.4. In the noule no work is done, therefore 11 00 =: hOI although the lolal
SCT(lll
casing pressure drops from floo to flo I because of irrevcrsibilitics, Thus
(71 )

The work dOlle per unit mass flow in the rotor is given by Eulcr's 1llrhifll'
Figure 7.l Elements or a 90" inward flow radial gas turbine with inlet no:r.zlc rillg
equation (Eq. (1.24
W/IIl=(U 1C.d UzCd (J/sl/(kgjs)
If the whirl velocity is zero at exit then
W/m"" U1Cxl
and for radial relative velocity at entry
W/m"'" uf
In more general terms, substituting for Wjm
hUt .- 11(12::::: U I C.d - U 2 Cx2
nul it was shown in Sec 4.1.2 that the quantity I for a centrifugal compressor 1\

'.I J :~ljF
'II,'

Figure 7.2 A l)(}" inward nnw 1,,,1;;11 J!,"~' Illthim' II'llh""1 lIouk nllH ('Ijll1!" I \ < L" Ii

176
278 IlYDRAUllC ANI) COMPRFSSlllU FLOW TURIl()~IACIllNES RADIAL FLO\\-' GAS 'I L"RIlINI':S!.7'1

Table 7.1 Spoutill~ \'c1ocitics

Total-tn-total

With diffuser C? (11"0 II O-hJ!2 c; = (/roo ~" /r,\,,)/2

Wilhon) ditrw,cr C; '" (11,,,. 11 0 ".1/2 C;' (11,,\1 -1',,,),/2

l Is
if a diffuser is fitted. This energy change may be related to a kinetic Clll~rgy.
where the associated velocity term is known as the spollting velocity C" Tillb
four spouting velocilies may bc dcfincd, as in Table 7.1, with and withll\tl d
diffuser and for total-lo-tolal or total-to-static conditions,
The appropriate definition would be llsed depending upon the cJ'liciclIcy
being determined. It will be noted that for isenlropic flow throughout
W/m = Ui == C;/2
or
UdC.= 0.707 (/1)
,,",,'" ,--,,-------,----,--- In practice U l IC, lies in the range 0,68 to 0.7.

FJIlllrc 7,4 Mollier chart for expansion in a 9()" inward flow radial g;18 turbine
7.4 TURBINE EFFICIENCY
given by
1 = hor _I V z/2 The method or determining the elIicicm:y of an inward flow radial turbine Is 10
-- where / is a constanl
determine the total-to-static efiiciency in terms of loss cocflidcnts fur Iltt'
Therefore nozzle and rotor, and then obtain a relationship for the totalto-total dlkil'llcy
hi - liz = [(Ui - U~) - (Wi IVi)]/2 in terms of known turbine dimensions and the previously determined tota I-ttl
static ellicicncy. However, before doing that, a number of relatiollships thai
If C'1 = 0, then (W~ - Vi) == C~ and
will be needed in the derivation of 11,(,.) arc disclIsscd. From Fig_ 7,3
h,-hz=(Uf- Wr+C~}/2 (7.4)
W1 = U 1 cot:I 1
In the diffuser 11 0 2 = 11 03 , Thus
C}= UzcotlJ}
It . - It z = (C~ - C~)f2
and substituting for WI and ('2 into Eq. (7.4) yields
If lhe losses in the diffuser arc neglected, lhen '/;13" ""' 1;)2" alld lhl' total III
total isentropic elliciency is given by
hI Ii: Un, e<1l2Ytl(U!/lll)!rot2/11Ii.)

(1(.)
lind putting (! ,,11 I' ,ir I
'II(H) == (Too - Toz)/O;w 'J;12")
efficiencies being in the region of 80-90 per cenl.
1" h, Uilt 0.',.1 'XI Ilf.-it'd'!'o!:/I,,!.) 1/):)

Nil\\' Ih, It ,I I ,.t Ii I' Hi '\1.1/( j' I) ;md hi ( Ul) 111"'01111':'

7.3 SPOUTING VELOCITV 1, Ill! ,,,' I I (I, 1.1 lilt: II: LJ,liT,

rr the gas passes through lhe tmhilu' bl'l\lrllpk:tllv. Ih"11 lhe i~,"IlIIPI* tulid
enl halpy drop i~, ,oiVCIl by Olil" II" ) If flO' Illlll'.!'l 1'.111 tnl d lid Iiv/h l' " 'I ! if I,' 1'1' Ii I , lil
 RAOlAL FLOW GAS TUIWINIS lHI
280 IIYDRAlJL({' A:\() COMI'RESSIBLE FLOW TUIUIOMACIIINES

The [otaJ-to-slatic efficiency (without lhe diffuser) is given by However, substituting typical values of the variHbles into Eq, (7.9) yield.
('1'2ITd approximately equal to I and so il is often ignored an;' til\"
rlt(H}= (h oo ..- II 02 J/(h()() - 1I z,,) approximate cquatiQtl for lOlal-lo-stalic elTiciency is given by
= (h oo lI,d/(li oo 11 2 ,) + (h z h2 ,,)] '11(1 .,={l + [(I" c05ec 2 (,(1 +(rz"jrIl2((Rcosec2fl2.v+cot2/J2.,)]/2} 1 P,I~I

But The totalta-tolal efficiency may be found from the following equatioll
hoo = Ur + 11 0 2 (since U ~ = W 1m) (1/'1t(II)) = (lfr/1(t ,j) - [(r2.Iry coe Pz"J/2 (7.1(.)

Loss coefficients usually lie in the following rHnges l{)r 90" inward !low
turbinos H
Therefore
0,063 ::;; eN :s:; 0.235
t1t(H) "'" UT!rUr + n/2 + (IT" -l1 z,)+ (ll~, -lIZ,.)] (1. to)
0,384 IS; (R ,,;; 0.777
Defining a nozzle and rotor loss coefficient in terms of the enthalpy loss in
each divided by the kinetic energy al outlet from each,
7.5 DIMENSIONLESS SPECIFIC SPEED
'N = (Ill - h 1,)/(O,5Ci) (7.11)

But from inspection of lhe Mollicr chart The inward flow radial gas turbine can he shown to have its lI1:lxirnlHl1
efficiency in a very narrow range of dimensionless specific speeds. Ilowt'vn,
hi -- his;::::; "ft(SI - Sl.) whereas the volume now ratc through hydraulic machines remains \'Oll';';lnl,
and that through the radial flow gas turbine changes significantly, and this ~:hall!,-I'
must be taken into account. One suggested volume now ratc to usc is that it!
the outlet Q2' Therefore referring to Eq. (1.16) and writing (y11) in terllJs of I Ill'
from which enthalpy,
III - hls = (TdT2 )(h 2 , - hz",) N,=NQ~'~/(h()(1 h02 ,JJ.75 Ol/}
and substituting into Eq. (7.11) and rearranging gives Now N = UlinD 1 and hoo "02., = (';/2 and, upon subslituting, r':q.O/I)
hz, li h , = (T,,/T j KNcr/2 (7.12) becomes
Similarly N, "" (U lrrD I N)0.5(U d1tDd[Q~,5 I(C; /2)0.75]
: : : O.302(Qz/NDt)O.5(U dC,)l.~ (l.1 X)
or
11 2 - 11 2, = 'R WV2 (7, III Equation (7.7) showed that for an ideal turhinc the ratio U ,/(', was equill
Now substituting Eqs (7.12) and (7.13) into Eq. (7.10) 100.707. Therefore substituting for this into Eq. (7,18) gives

['C2Z + 2 ~R + C2~ N, "" O.18(QliN [)~)(),5 (/.1 ill

t1W-ol = (.12/IV"
1 l 1 + 'I ~N
U12'"
H
)]/"1
("T'2 /'['1., - j

t Ifa uniform ilxia( velocity at exit is assumed, thell Ql" /I)C}. Also writing tilt'
= u~I{Ui + [U~coe Il2 + (Uieoscc /1].)(1\
+ (U i cosec Z ex I )( T2rr ,)( N]/2 : Plili(~cl(~d area of the rotor as II, "" nD7/4, thell
(1.'01
= (I + ['N(TzIT )cosec2 (Xl + (rdrl f(~ll Cllseci./I)
j

+ cot 2 f}2)]/2l 1 (I I,ll I\lultlplYl/lV IIii' 1I11!JIIli,I'" dlld delllllllill;llor by .1,. Fq, /1.'01 l!Iil\, Ill'
HllillW,'d ,I',
At the outlet section 2, two radii arc possihle, viz, at lhe slnond Hlld ;,1111,
(l (I 1,)(11' ,11/(' fit
hub. It is usual to lake Lhe average radius
I I . 1.1111 ,Ill I ,111 ( Jl

while lhe t,;mpcralllll' ralio('J'.. /l'j) I', ohl,IlI\l,t! IIii II I 1'1 t I 'II
282 HYDRAUI.1C AND COMI'RESSIRU FI.OW TliRUDMACUlJ"I!S KADlAL 1'1.01,',' GAS T1lltlllJ-;IS un

l'rand~ turbine 7.2 A small inward flow radial c~ha\lsl gas turbinc has the following dcsign data:
tOO ~..,....;_~;.;;;:::;;~:===--_ _ AKial
Rotor inlet tip dimlleter 90mm
flow
HO Rotor outlet tip diameter 621111n
Rotor outlet hub diameter 25mm
\10' wdial now Ratio (',ie, 0.447
ti' 60- gas turbine
e Ratio U ,!e (ideal) 0.707
~ 40
Blade speed JO 000 rpm
w Density at impeller exit 1.8kgim il
20 Delcfll1ine:
(al the dimcnsionh:ss spccilic speed of the turbine,
() 1 (bl the volume flow rate at Impeller outlet lind
om 0.1 1.0 10.0
re) the power developed by tile turbine.
Dimensionles. specific speed. lV; (rad)
7.3 llle desif.tn datu of a proposed inward radial now exhaust turbine arc as follow":
~".,--..,.. . _._--'.
Figure 7.5 Varilltiol1 of efficiency with dimcnsionless specilie speed Stagnation pressure al inlet to 1l00,zlcs, I'll" 7()OkPa
Stagnation t,~mperalure at inlet to l1ozzh:s, T()11 1075K
Stalic pressure at cxit from nozzles, 1'1 5l0kPa
Slatic temperature at exit from uou.les, '1'1 lJ95K
Thus substituting for Q2/NDi in Eq. (7.19) gives Static pre~surc at exit from rotor, 1'2 350 kPa
St,ltic tempcnlturc at cxit fnlm rotor. T, 91R K
IV, "" 0.336(C2/Ct~(A 2/Ai,5 rev (7.21) Stagnation temperature at exit hom rotor. 7~'2 920K
Ratio r l,,/r I O.S
= 2.11(C 2/C,)o.5(A 1 /A,lo.s md (7.22)
RotatimUlI speed. N 2(>000 rpm
The flow lIlto the rotor is purely radial aud at exit the flow is axial at all radii. CalcuLllc
In practice (al the tola!-to-static elTicieney Ilf the turbme.
0.04 < (C1/CY < OJ (b) the outer di..metcr oj' the rotor,
(c) thc cnthalpy Joss coelTidenl for the nozzle and rotc)r rows,
O. t < (A 2 IA r ) < 0.5 (d) the nInde outlet angle at the mean diameter /I J and
(e) the total-to-l"tal efficiency of thu turbine.
Then
7.4 Using lh~ datl! ofCMlfClse 7,3. tlte mass !low ofcxh,lUs( glls llvailab1c Inlhe huhuH' " ,'.1,1, " . ,
0.3 < N, < Ll md Calculate:
(a) the volurre !low rate III rotor exit,
Thus the dimensionless specific speed range is very small and the variation of (hI the huh lind lip diameters or the rotor at cxit.
eflicicncy with N, is shown in Fig. 7.5, where it is seen to match the axial now Ic) the power developed by thc turhinc.
g.as turbine over the limited range of iV,. (d) the rol<lr exit blade angles al the huh and tip,
(c) the nozzle exit angle and
(f) the ratio of rotOl' widlll at illiet to il~ inlet tip (lilllJlctcr.
7.5 An inwmd flow radial turbinc is fitted wilh 1\ diffuser. which elll hi' ""IIIIIn! tt. It.,,,,
itU

EXERCISES dn(l~'ncy of 100 pcr cent. If the tlll'oine chokes wllcn the ahsolult' vdontv ,It "\11 It "Ill I hi' Itllld",
leHell"s the sp,:cd of ,ollnd (M, I). show tll:,l the limitillg toLd pl,,,.:,un lillh' j,. 1'11111 "\
In the following exercises, unless otherwise stated, use the following values 1/(1 WI W,il',)':11 +051'/ 1)i\nJ/IO.'i(~ 1),\/'11 11 /"",

Specific heat at constant pressure, Cp = 1.147 Jjkg K

Ratio of specific heats, i' = 1.333, gas constant R ,.~ 2'1'.7 Jjkg K
7.1 An inw;lrd fl,)\\' radial !.las lllrnin~'operal';~ with 1I (otal-loI,llal dfi,:w,'ty (fllHlllIllllk 1111..'1 hi
diffu~er oUllet) of 0.9. Al cntry to til.; ntlnk~.thl' ~tagllalion pr~,s'lIrt and (('II IJ 1<' r.III", "I IIi< I'd'-
are 300 kPa and II SO K respectively. At outlet from Ihe Ihffus~:r Ihr plr',\lllC .'. Ilkl t 1'" ill"lih'
velocity of now is negligible at Ihut point. Fillli the' impdkr lip :,prT.l 'till I till' lI'h' iilil'.I,. ,,' IIi<
... Hfd",' "I I I h!
l10llk outlet if thc gas cnters Ill'; impellel rat!i,dlv ;tIlt! tlt"ll' i', II" \\ hili . 1 flw Illll'diu ,,,1 II..
dillll''''1 1\
!'v1tlch n\lmber ,It c~it fn'lIl tht lIf1uks h II.')
284 IlYDRAI:IJC ANI) ('OMI'RESSIRI.E FLOW TURUOMA('HINF$ R"'''AL FLOW (JAS TlJRfllNI'S 2H~

and substituting for C" we get

'['I U ~(j' - 1)
= 1- ,,-------,
Now from Eq. (7.3) '1'00 2yRToosinl.=t\
Uib' -.. 1)
= 1- .... y-.-2'--
2u o\ sm :x I
when C,<2 "'" O. Also
But

(' T) = Too , I _
'l~)() I - ._~~
Too
l"
,1'00
( 1'0.1 )(Y- \!"~J
since 1~){) = 1'01
Therefore and
al :.::;::;
VI
,"~.m._' ~ __

Go 1 M I a o L sin :x 1

=0.9 x 1147 x 1l50[1-G~~r249RJ Therefore

Impeller tiJl sree~ V '.=_?~~:l.m/s

The Mach number of the absolute flow velocity at exit from the nozzle is and
given by
M, =C'/a\ 1= ( alII
UI
sIll~1
)2(1'"'2"- 1 + Alt1)
lI\
= ll\sinC<l
Across the nozzle the now is udiabatk; therefore
But
.,100 = 1'01 = 1" q
I + ...
2C"
U l = l.333 x 287 x ll50
=1' +_.1_.
I ' ) ( ' " 2.
_'pSIn (XI ;: 439956 m2Js 2
or Therefore
T UJ. 2
= 1- . , 533.7 (0.3,33 , 1 )
I ,t. sm"IX = 439956 + 2
'I'
, 00 'c
.. ' p '1'00 sm
':2 IX 1 1 2 0.9
Now ,,,0.9071
and Nozzle angle al 12.25
1 R
1--=---
i' C p
or
i' ... I
0'I
2H6 HYDltAlJLlC AND CO,MPRFSSlRLF FLOW Tl)~1l0MA(,H1NFS RADIAL "LOW (lAS TlJRIIIN.I:S 2K7

Now Exercise 7.3 (a) The total-to-static efficiency is given by

~(,I~~-0.rC J)~ h"b)
A2 ::::
4 " .
IH.) -
- hoo -Ir 02
-_.--
hoo
_
... _- .. ... -
11 2",
n(O.062 2 - 0.025 2 )
4
'"" 2.53 x 10- J m 2
From isentropic relationships
nJ)2
At = . -----~
4
O.09 2 jT
- Therefore
4
I - ('/~12/Too)
1/1(1 ,SI = T=-(i;~7i)'~-())Fl)l:'
Dimensionless specific speed
1 - (920/1075)
N = 0~36 ( 0.447 X 2.53)112
... <---.---- = i ....:-(3SCi,l7C)6j(l.I4.i8
> 6.36
= 0.144/0.159
= 0.142 rev
= 0.906
:= 0.89 rad

If this value is compared with Fig. 7.5 it is sccn that a reasonable overall (b) From Eq. (7.3) the specific work done is
efliciency is achieved. W/m= vi
(b) The flow ra Ic at outlet for the ideal turbine is given by Bq. (7.19)
since C xl = 0 and C>;! = U 1 for radial inlet flow. Therefore
Q ) til
N = 0.18 ( -_!... rev Cp(Ton - T 02 ) = Vr
> ND-\l.
and
Q2 X60 )1 '2 1

0.142 = 0.18-- "

( 30000 x 0.09- vi = 1147(1075 -- 920)
whence
= \77 785 m2 /s 2
Q2 = 0.227 m"is
VI =42L6m/s
(e) From Eq. (7.3) Thcn
W=I/lU~

=P2Q2 U i
n
=1.8xlL_7x (nNDI)J 60 .'< 421.6
, 60 . II :!6000
J! ~, .\0 001l
"" 1.8 x 0.227 x (__
(I\P) )' o. \1 III
(,0
Power Ikvdoped K I()() k W
1 2M8 UYI1RAUUC A~[) COMI'RtSSIULE fLOW TURIIO!>1ACHINES
RADI,.\!. ROW GAS TlIlUllNJ'S 2!l"

inlo an equation involving only pressures and temperatures: Also

hi - II h
q "" 2C/,('1'()2'" '1'2)
'N = 0.5 C~ '"" 2 x 1147(920- 9181

Now = 4588 m 2/s 2

Therefore
(since '1'01 ;::: Too)
w~= 4588 + 210.8 2
Therefore = 49025 Jl12,is 2
and fol' the numerator

11 2 ,- h2,;::: cl,l' '1'2 - (~'~l') 'I'll

We may write

T 1 i'J. ) 1 00
~.,
p,
ell [. . T 2 ,- ( i;~
)('i-llh ]'1'1
'1'1'= ( T
'-'=

00
PI )(~.'.I)i1 , = 1147(918 - 905.7)
=( . x 1 00 = 14108 Jjkg (or m 2/s!)
Poo
51O)O.24~llj
Therefore
=..
( 700 x 1075 ,. 14108
~R= ----- .
. 0.5 x 49025
= 993.2 K
= 0.58
Substituting
_ 995 - 993.2 (d) The totaltototal elTicicl1cy is found from Eq. (7. J6).
=-fois::':ij95
i,,,,
I == 1 (r"IV
1 ,.. !:.~-" cot IJ 2a\'
-"', )2
Nozzle loss coe!1icicnt = 0.0225 'Itjt.n '11(1 ,) 2 r,
Now
The rotor loss coefficient is given by Eq. (7.13) , (' '('
cot IJ2nv ='2/ ) l

C - 11 2 - 112~ (458R)1i2
.R- O.5W~
210.X
Now ==(U21
C" + ("Ji:
W 'i =3:
and using the mean diameter for the calculation of condit inns at tlll.' tllIpdhl
outlet

11'/

f tlli
290 HYDRAULIC A:"D COMl'RESSlIlLE fLOW TURHOMI\CHINFS RADIAL FLOW GAS llIlWINJ'S 2')1

Exercise 7.4 The dimensionless specific speed based on the total-to-total Therefore
enthalpy drop in the turbl'ne is given by Eq. (7.17).
NQli2 2.66
N, 2 Q2 = 1.328
= (h oo -/102 ,,)3/4
But =.1,Q[11.3/8
This gives
N = 2722.7 X{2.0)112
, (193.78 X 10 3).'1 4
= 0.416 rad
Now Since it was not stated in the problem which was Lhe clTicicm.:y of impOl'lalln',
the dimcmionbs specific speed could equally have been hased Oil the lotalh,
static enthalpy drop (h oo - 112,,) Lo correspond to the total-to-static clTici"flcy
The error is small however:
Therefore
( 1'2)1'" -I.I,';'J
[1
920)4 ~
h2,,=Cf'l~)()
P02 = 350 ( 918 1'00

"'" 353.06kPa = 196035J/kg

and and

(h oo h02 ,,) = 1147 x 107s[ l-c~~~6r'14981

(b) Volume flow raLe
;:= 193.78 kJ/kg
Rotational speed
2nN
In=
60
2n x 26000 where " is the height of the blade betwccn hub and tip and 1'1",
60 (rHn.h +1" 2Ii l')/2. Now
::::: 2722.7 rad!s q =: 2C/,('I'o2 'l'J
,,,,,2 x 1147(920 91:-(1
and
III (, (, r Illl;\
P2 = Wf 2
lIlid
350 X 10\
287 x 91H (I 'j U.I:,',
292 IlYDRAIJI.IC AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 'IURIJOMAClIlNES RAmAl, FLOW GA!; Tl1I0IlNESl'),1

Therefore At the hub

2.0
11 = - - - , ' ,
2n x 0.0775 x 67.7 v 2buh = 421.6(O~~2)
0.155
== 0.061 m
= 127.8mjs
Ii
f2hub == flay - 2
tan n = 127.8
1'2 67.7
0.061
= (0.5 X 0.155) - 2 ~~ exit h~lb #2,= 62"
= {).047 m
(e) Across the nozzle 11 00 = h01 and
Hub diameter = 0.094 m
Cf = 2C p(TIl Ttl l)
11
f 211 1' = '2uv + 2 = 2 x 1147(1075 -995)
0.061 = 183 520kJjkg
== (0.5 x 0.155) +
2 Nozzle exit velocity
::= O.108m C I = 428.4 mls
Tip di~~l1eter=~0.2 t 6 ~_ The inlet velocity triangle shows
(c) From Eq. (7.3)
sin (Xl = U IIC I
W=mVi
421.6
= 2.66 x 421.6 2 =
428.4
Pow~r de.v,~lopcd =,~!2.8 k~ Nozzle angle ~I == 79.7'"
(d) From the outlet vd~)city triangle, since C 2 is axial and uniform OVt~r
the exit annulus, (0 From the continuily equation at impeller inlet,
m==P1AIC,1
At the tip
=p,nD1Wlb l
where hi is the depth of the impeller blades at inkt

== 421.6(.108) m
-
0.155 llPI J)f WI
= 293.8 m/s But
293.8
tan flo =
~ 67.7
At exit tip III 7'1'
294 IIYDR,\lJUC ,\NO COMPRESSIllLE FLOW TUIUlOMACllINI,S RADIAL I'LOW GAS TUlUIINFS 29~

and Now
PI (iii)
PI ::= 1< T,

510 and
=: ~--------

287 x 995 !:. = C p - C" = I _ 1 = ~::::~

= 1.786 kg/m 3 e'l Cp Y Y
Substituting for Cp in Eq. (iii)
Therefore !>ubstitllting
hI 2.66 !!!.~:::: I + (y - IlEI.
fj.; = Tr x 1.79 x 05j2776.62 T2 2 )'RT2
But
"" 0.0642
Blade depth = 0.02 m Therefore

Exercise 7.5 Since the now is isentropic in the diffuser. Toz " = T03 '"
T
..02 (y -1) j\l/-,
= 1 + -~- 1
(iv)
T2 ..
J~2 = 10.\ and P02 = 1'03' With the diffuser the total-to-tota1 efficiency is
Thus

From Table 7.1 the spouting velocity is

(v)
c,2 'J'02
?('
-p
= T 00 -
and hence
Substituting
c~ 16' - I)M~
1 2To2 C/ J
(i) 2C p T02 = 1+1(}' -=Tj'Mf (vi)
'luH} = -1-(T IT--) - -C-T -
~. (U ..I 00 ."
Substituting from Eq. (vi) into Eq. (ii) and writing W = (P02/POO){V- 1l/r
Using isentropic relationships
( ~~)2
C,
: : (.1-R"
t ... 11
I(tt)
)(_J(f'- I)M~
I+!((-I)M~
..... )

and r\.:amlllging
Substituting for th\.: temperature ratio and multiplying both sides by ('3 we gd I
I ~ R" = C,
(C 2)2( .....I + !(i' -1)Ml)M~)
t()' _ ~. + /hu t)

2
2T02 C )2
C (C.
P or
'.:"1.

or

( .; I til dlll',ell villlu"i "I II", " and At., ((,/( './ um 1)(' vari,t1 nwl (1"lI/P",,)
III)
1/'"
\" II', !( ',.1 \I' lie f\'llllllll'tI