International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50 (2011) 1138e1155

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International Journal of Thermal Sciences

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Review

A review of heat transfer between concentric rotating cylinders

with or without axial ow
M. Fnot*, Y. Bertin, E. Dorignac, G. Lalizel
Institut P, Cnrs, ENSMAeUniversit de Poitiers, UPR 3346, Dpartement uides, thermique, combustion, 1 Avenue Clment Ader, BP 40109,
86961 Futuroscope Chasseneuil Cedex, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Heat transfer in ow between concentric rotating cylinders, also known as TayloreCouette ows,
Received 29 July 2010 constitutes a long-existing academic and industrial subject (in particular for electric motors cooling). Heat
Received in revised form transfer characteristics of those ows are reviewed. Investigations of previous works for different gap
11 February 2011
thickness, axial and radial ratio, rotational velocity are compared. Congurations with axial ow and/or
Accepted 12 February 2011
Available online 29 March 2011
with slots on the cylinders are also considered. For each case, different correlations are presented. Finally,
unresolved issues are mentioned for further research.
2011 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Rotating cylinders
Heat transfer
TayloreCouette
TayloreCouetteePoiseuille
Slotted gap

1. Introduction be distinguished; closed machines (rotor rotation without axial air

Flow dynamics between two concentric rotating cylinders
constitutes an old academic subject since Couette [1] and Taylor [2],
whose names are recalled in the term TayloreCouette ow, which
has become a reference in stability studies due to the gradual
destabilizing of a ow lending itself to a rigorous mathematical
approach. Moreover, this kind of ow has many industrial appli-
cations, particularly in the elds of mechanical or chemical mixing
equipment. It has consequently been the subject of several biblio-
graphic reviews by Di Prima and Swinney [3], Cognet [4], and
Maron and Cohen [5].
The heat transfer in this ow and the impact of ow structures on
heat transfer were more recently studied (Gazley [6]); there already
existed numerous industrial applications of the rotating elements
(rotation, outer wall of the rotating heat pipes, cooling of the lower
extremities of the turbojet turbine.), especially in electric motors.
Indeed, different studies [7,8] on the heat transfer of electric motors
have demonstrated the importance of convective heat transfer within
the cylindrical gap (area separating the rotor from the stator). In fact,
the rotor is the locus for large-scale dissipations of electromagnetic
origin, and its cooling is ensured principally by the air ow of the
cylindrical gap. Two main families of rotating electric machines may
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fenot@let.ensma.fr (M. Fnot).
ow: TayloreCouette ow), and open machines (axial ow combined
with rotor rotation: TayloreCouetteePoiseuille ow). Moreover, as
regards some motor technologies, the existence of grooves on the
rotor (where copper threads, for example, may be coiled) is liable to
signicantly modify the dynamic and the thermal ow behavior.
Excepted a short part of the bibliographic review by Maron and
Cohen [5], no very detailed analysis of heat transfer in a rotating
annular gap has ever been carried out. This bibliographic review is
focused on the heat transfer of TayloreCouette ow patterns.
The kind of thermal behavior to be studied is obviously linked to
the dynamics of these kinds of ow. We shall present in detail the
different forms of ow already encountered, but our survey is not
exhaustive.
2. The fundamentals of TayloreCouette ow
Let us rst look at the different parameters of inuence. We shall
consider a basic system composed of two concentric cylinders
(Fig. 1). Its geometry is characterized by two radii, the outer radius
of the inner cylinder R1 and the inner radius of the outer cylinder
R2, as well as their length L. The ow is then characterized by the
following geometric parameters: hydraulic diameter: Dh
4Sp =Pm 2pR22  R21 =pR2 R1 , annular gap thickness (also
known as cylindrical gap): e R2  R1, radial ratio h R1/R2, and
axial ratio: G L/R2  R1.

1290-0729/$ e see front matter 2011 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2011.02.013
 M. Fnot et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50 (2011) 1138e1155 1139

Nomenclature S reference heat transfer area (m2)

Sp cross sectional area (m2)
T temperature ( C) RRR
Va $T dS 
Indexes Tm mean temperature Tm RRR ( C)
Va dS
1 rotor
2 stator Te T0 
Tmean mean temperature Tmean ( C)
a axial 2
V velocity (m/s)
c critical
4 ux density (W/m2)
e input/entrance
l thermal conductivity (W/m K)
eff effective
q open slot angle or chamfer (45 ) rib angle ( )
eq equivalent
n kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
m mean
r density (kg/m3)
w wall
u rotation velocity (rad/s)
o output/exit
f heat ux (W)
t tangential
turb turbulent
Dimensionless numbers
fm mean in the uid
n number of slots
wm mean on the wall
Cp pressure coefcient
Fg geometric factor
Dimensional numbers
Gr Grashof number
Dh hydraulic diameter (m)
Nu Nusselt number
e cylindrical gap thickness or rib height (m)
Pr Prandtl number
h convective heat transfer coefcient (W/m2 K)
Re Reynolds number
l slot width or rib width (m)
Sh Sherwood number
p slot depth or relative space between two ribs (m)
St Stanton number
t time (s)
Ta Taylor number
cp specic heat at constant pressure (J/kg K)
a weighted rotation coefcient at effective speed
L actual cylindrical gap length or canal length (m)
g slot aspect ratio
N rotation velocity (rpm)
h radial cylindrical gap aspect ratio or canal performance
P static pressure (Pa)
coefcient
W canal width (m)
s ratio between the Taylor number and its critical value
H canal height (m)
G axial cylindrical gap aspect ratio
Pm wetted perimeter (m)
g heat transfer function
Qv volume ow rate (m3/s)
R cylinder radius (m)

The main dynamic parameter characterizing cylindrical gap
ow is the rotor rotation speed u (rad/s). One may consequently
dene the tangential Reynolds number Ret uR1Dh/n. The Taylor
number is often preferred to the Reynolds number, for it may be
interpreted as the ratio between centrifugal force and viscous force
[9]. It may be expressed in the form Ta u2 R1 R2  R1 3 =n2
L temperature is often postulated as equal to the uid temperature or
R1
Va R2
Fig. 1. TayloreCouette ow geometry.
1=Fg with Fg as a geometrical factor that differs from one author to
the next and may take into account the aspect ratio of the smooth
annular gap. This ratio approaches 1 once the cylindrical gap
has become narrow; this is the number used by most authors.
Gardiner and Sabersky [10] and Becker and Kaye [11] propose: Fg
p4 R1  R2 =2R1 =16970:05711  0:652e=R1 0:00056
1  0:652e=R1 1 . Some authors (Ref. [12] for example) prefer
the formulation Ta u2 R1 Dh =23 =n2 which may take into
account possible geometrical variations by hydraulic diameter.
It should be noted that several authors, particularly in the more
ancient studies, dene the Taylor number as the square root of the
classical form.
In addition, heat transfer is dened by the Nusselt number,
whose denition may likewise vary from one author to the next.
Todays most widely used denition is:Nu hDh =l l grad
Tjp =Tw  Tref Dh =l F=STw  Tref Dh =l, where the reference
else, more generally, to the temperature of the second wall. The
Nusselt number thereby deduced serves as a translation of the ef-
ciency of heat transfer from one wall to the other by means of the uid.
As for the heat transfer surface S, it is often dened as the surface of the
heating wall (S 2$pLR1 or S 2$pLR2 [13]) Sometimes this surface
is considered as intermediate with regard to the walls, and its
exact denition differs from one author to the next (generally
S 2$pLe=ln1=h [14]). The more narrow the cylindrical gap, the
smaller the differences between the denitions of S.
1140 M. Fnot et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50 (2011) 1138e1155

Fig. 2. Regimes observed in ow between two rotating cylinders [16].

Some authors do not use the hydraulic diameter as the char-
acteristic length, but rather prefer the thickness of the annular gap:
e R2  R1.
In the following pages, we will use the most widely accepted
denitions: Ta u2 R1 Dh =23 =n2 and Nu hDh =l l grad
Tjp =Tw  Tref Dh =l.
3. Smooth cylindrical gap, TayloreCouette ow
So, the effects of natural convection occasioned by gravity are
preponderant when rotation speed is particularly low. Along with
an increase in rotation speed (and in Ret), the effects of natural
convection seem to disappear and are replaced by classical cylin-
drical gap ow. When none of the effects are dominant, structures
with two or three cells are obtained [18]. These effects are also
dependant on the way the cylinder is oriented, that is to say
vertically [18,19] or horizontally [20,21].

In this part, we shall focus on ow and convective heat transfer 3.1.2. Taylor vortex ow
in a smooth annular gap subjected to inner cylinder rotation alone. Once the critical rotation speed uC noted by Taylor is exceeded,
A description of the ow structure due to rotation alone (Tay- the ow presents instabilities structured in a toric (O ring) form and
loreCouette ow) will be given prior to a presentation of the results known as Taylor vortices. They are counter-rotative and associ-
concerning heat transfer. ated by pairs, as is indicated in Fig. 3.
From both an experimental and a theoretical standpoint, Taylor
3.1. Flow structure [2] determined the critical value of rotor rotation speed for an in-
nitely long and pronouncedly narrow annular gap Tac 1708 z 1700.
Flow in a smooth and closed annular gap has been the subject of As soon as they appeared, Taylor vortices are arranged periodically
numerous theoretical and experimental studies. The rst experi- by pairs, which rendered it possible to dene their axial wavelength
ments were conducted by Couette [1] and Mallock [15] in 1887 and as the axial space taken up by a doublet of vortices. The axial
1888.
Most studies involve a single rotating cylinder (generally the
inner one). The rotation of the second cylinder makes more
complex the ow as recorded by Andereck et al. [16] (Fig. 2). It is
important to note that in this study a strict procedure has been
followed to reduce the problem range (rst, the outer cylinder is
slowly accelerated, and then the inner cylinder is slowly acceler-
ated as well).
The following ow description will involve only one rotating
cylinder congurations since no heat transfer studies have been
conducted on two rotating cylinders.

3.1.1. Couette ow
Couette observed that the torque required for rotation of the
central cylinder rises linearly to a critical speed, and then the torque
rises still more rapidly. In 1923, Taylor [2] highlighted the existence
of a critical rotation speed uC. Under this rotational speed, the ow,
referred to as Couette ow, is steady and laminar. It is driven by
viscous drag force acting on the uid. The streamlines are annular
and centered on the rotation axis.
Natural convection induced by gravity can greatly affect this
ow. It is generally recognized that for a Rayleigh number
Ra Pr$b$DT$e3 g=n2 lower than 104, the effects of natural
convection are negligible. For a higher Rayleigh number, ow
depends on the ratio between the Grashof number and the
tangential Reynolds number Ret uR1Dh/n (Guo and Zhang [17]). Fig. 3. Taylor vortices [6].
 M. Fnot et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50 (2011) 1138e1155 1141

wavelength of a pair of vortices for the critical Taylor number (or

critical wavelength) is generally slightly less than the theoretical
critical wavelength for an innitely long and pronouncedly narrow
cylindrical gap. Kirchner and Chen [22] showed that Taylor vortices
originate, at the level of the inner cylinder, in the form of axially and
radially propagated discs, which are transformed into classical
vortices. Ghayoub et al. [23] provided a number-based demonstra-
tion of the appearance of small and non-stationary Gortler-type
vortices in the zone where Taylor vortices leave the stator.
In cases where the rotation speed is still rising and the Taylor
number exceeds a second critical threshold, (Ta/Tac 1.2), Coles
[24] (for a narrow cylindrical gap: h 0.95) underscored the pres-
ence of an azimuth wave regime (wavy mode); the Taylor cell
boundaries are no longer perpendicular to the cylindrical axis, but
Fig. 5. Inuence on the transition of annular gap thickness [4].
rather present undulations or waves (Fig. 4). The ow consequently
becomes doubly periodic. As speed was gradually heightened,
Cognet [4] (once again with regard to a narrow cylindrical gap:
vortices appear (curve i), the rotation speed starting at which their
h 0.908) observed a rise in the number of azimuth waves up to waves appear (curve ii), and the corresponding theoretical
a maximum number that remains constant for 4.5  Ta/Tac  25,
numbers ( and *). Fig. 6 shows that regardless of cylinder length,
and subsequently decreases until the azimuth waves disappear (Ta/
vortices show up at essentially the same rotation speed. On the
Tac z 96). The movement then becomes virtually periodic.
other hand, cylindrical gap length has a far greater impact on wave
Moreover, experiments by Coles [24] entailed the observation of
appearance. When cylinder length goes up, rotation speed goes
up to 26 different states (number of vortices.) for the same Taylor
down exponentially and is stabilized close to its theoretical number
number. Each state depends not only on rotation speed, but also on
once the cylindrical gap has lengthened (G > 40).
previous ow history, which involves hysteresis effects marked by
Lastly, the presence of a temperature gradient can likewise
transitions that differ with regard to increasing and then decreasing
affect ow stability. This is due to variable uid properties (density
rotation speeds. Each of these states corresponds to a given number
and viscosity), to the natural convection occasioned by centrifugal
of pairs of vortices (number of axial waves) and of azimuth waves
forces, and to the natural convection occasioned by gravity, which is
(number of azimuth wave periods).
generally considered separately. Becker and Kaye [11] as well as
Cylindrical gap geometry likewise assumes an important role
Walowit [29] have shown that while a negative radial gradient
with regard to the transitions. As concerns annular space thickness,
stabilizes ow (the critical Taylor number increases), a positive
Sparow et al. [25] and Roberts [26] have used linear stability theory
gradient has the opposite effect.
when showing that the wider the cylindrical gap (small h), the
According to Walowit [29], the effects of the convection occa-
more frequent the appearance of vortices corresponding to high
sioned by centrifugal forces are negligible and the variations in uid
Taylor numbers. Cognet [4] provided experimental conrmation of
properties take on the main role.
these results (Fig. 5). In addition, Snyder and Lambert [27] showed
As regards the effects of natural convection occasioned by
that in large annular gaps (small h), Taylor cells are less rapidly
gravity, Ali and Weidman [30] have shown that the ow depends
affected by azimuth waves.
on the ratio between the Grashof numbers and the tangential
Another parameter liable to exert inuence on ow transitions
Reynolds numbers Ret and that, as regards the Couette ow, the
is the axial length of the cylindrical gap. The results gathered by
effects are negligible for a Rayleigh number Ra lower than
Cole [28] facilitate comprehension of the role assumed by annular
104.Gardiner and Sabersky [10] and Aoki et al. [31] have observed,
gap length. In Fig. 6 and in accordance with axial cylindrical gap
in their strictly thermal studies, an unusually high critical Taylor
length, we may note: the rotation speed starting at which Taylor
number (104 instead of 1700), which they attribute to the inuence
of natural convection in their experiments. Their conclusions lead

Fig. 4. Azimuth wave regime (wavy mode). Fig. 6. Transitions and cylinder length [28].
1142 M. Fnot et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50 (2011) 1138e1155

one to believe that natural convection modies e and stabilizes e
cylindrical gap ow.
3.1.3. Turbulent ow
Finally, as the rotation speeds continue to rise after the disap-
pearance of Azimuthal waves, random uctuations come to
progressively dominate the ow. In the end (above Ta/Tac z 1300),
ow becomes turbulent. The transition toward turbulence has been
conrmed experimentally by Gollub and Swinney [32] and
numerically by Alziary de Rocquefort and Grillaud [33]. The Taylor
numbers nonetheless differ, probably as a result of dissimilar
geometries. In fact, Cognet [4] noticed that an innite sequence of
uctuation appears progressively inserting a new ow frequency
for each one of them until the ow becomes turbulent.
3.2. Convective heat transfer
that heat transfer rst diminishes along with rotation speed (Fig. 7)
on account of the disturbance provoked by centrifugal forces with
regard to natural convection. The higher the Rayleigh number, the
more pronounced and belated the diminution. It may be noted that
in Fig. 6, the threshold value of the Nusselt number in the case of
heightened rotation speed is 1, which is tantamount to strictly
conductive transfer.
3.2.2. Taylor ow and turbulent ow heat transfer
Taylor ow and turbulent ow heat transfer are studies jointly
here as transition from one to the other seems to have no effect at
all on the heat transfer rate. None of the authors have noticed heat
transfer change with turbulent transition (Ta z 106). This is prob-
ably due to the progressive appearance of uctuations bringing the
ow to turbulent (see paragraph 2.1.3 Turbulent ow): as transition
to turbulence is progressive, heat transfer variation is continuous.

The initial approaches to convective heat transfer were carried

out using an analogy between heat transfer and momentum.
Couette [1] and Taylor [2] both measured the resistant torque due
to the uids being viscously rubbed between the two cylinders.
This type of measurement was likewise employed more recently by
Yamada [34]. On the basis of these studies, it is possible to deduce
friction factors or coefcients that can be linked to heat transfer by
means of Reynolds analogy.
In 1958, Gazley [6] was the rst author to show a sustained
interest in thermal study of TayloreCouette ow. Flow dynamics
were found to create three different heat transfer situations as
speed and consequently the Taylor number goes up. The rst
corresponds to the laminar regime below the critical threshold, the
second to the laminar regime with superimposed Taylor vortices
occupying the annular gap, and the third to the turbulent regime
with regard to the highest Taylor numbers presenting more or less
fully formed structures. One should recall that the Nusselt number
is calculated by these authors on the basis of the difference of
temperature from one wall to the other. It should also be noted that
all of these studies deal only with average Nusselt numbers for the
cylindrical gap taken as a whole.

3.2.1. Couette ow heat transfer

Below the critical Taylor number, most of the authors have
concurrently found a constant value equal to 1; this is particularly
the case for Tachibana et al. [35]. The value may vary in accordance
with Nusselt; for instance, Becker and Kaye [11] found a value of 2
by using the denition of a Nusselt number: Nu hDh/l (Nu h2e/
l) as regards a smooth cylindrical gap. This is the denition we have
chosen in order to ensure that as thereby postulated, the Nusselt
number remains identical, whatever be the conguration (smooth
with or without clipping ow, slotted.). In every case, this Nusselt
number corresponds to a conductive heat transfer between the two
walls: only parallel to these walls does the uid move, and the heat
transfer is consequently carried out perpendicularly to the ow,
which may be considered as conductive.
Two phenomena may nonetheless arise and modify the above
value. First, a radiative heat transfer involving the two cylinders
probably explains the high Nusselt numbers observed by Gazley
[6], who does not seem to have dealt specically and at length with
this kind of transfer. Second, there is the natural convection of
which Gardiner and Sabersky [10], on the other hand, have taken
particular note; since their results are in close agreement with
those reported by Aoki et al. [31], it would appear that the same
phenomenon of natural convection comes into play. Finally, Yoo
[19] focused on the air driven into rotation between two horizontal
cylinders for Rayleigh numbers ranging from 1000 to 50000 and Fig. 7. Evolution of the Nusselt number along with the tangential Reynolds number for
a relatively large cylindrical gap (aspect ratio h 0.5), and observed different Rayleigh numbers and an aspect ratio h 0.5 with Re uR2 e=n.
 M. Fnot et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50 (2011) 1138e1155 1143

So, above the critical Taylor number, Nu rises appreciably in
conjunction with the latter. And above this critical threshold, the
transportation of matter from one wall to the other of the annular
gap favors heat transfer. Becker and Kaye [36] observed a second,
less pronounced transition (simple modication of slope) for
Ta 104. The results were conrmed in the respective works of
Nijaguna and Mathiprakasam [37] as well as Bouaa et al. [12,14].
There would appear to exist another dynamic transition or differing
ow behavior altering the evolution of convective heat transfer. It
bears mentioning that thermal transition coincides for Peres [38]
with the Taylor number corresponding to the shortest axial wave-
length. In fact, wavelength diminishes, according to Peres [38]
reaching a minimum corresponding to the second transition, and
then it increases. Consequently, the transition seems to correspond
to a situation in which the vortex number is maximum. Several
reasons can explain the lack of this second transition for several
authors. First of all, as ow state depends on previous ow history
(Coles [24]), so evolution of axial wavelength can be different
depending on the experimental protocol (rarely described) and so,
there may be no shortest wavelength. Moreover, Refs. [31,39,40]
have large Taylor ranges and their measurements are less
numerous. So, it is possible that the authors have failed notice the
rst region (before the transition) which is relatively small.
A third possible transition is shown by Tachibana et al. [35] and
Tachibana and Fukui [41]. Comparison between their two studies
seems to show a transition for Ta 108. They are the only authors
working at such a high Taylor number.
The results obtained by Taylor [2] lead to the conclusion that
following the appearance of vortices: Nu z Ta1/4. Most authors have
formulated the Nusselt number through experimental correlations
of the aspect Nu ATan with A and n of the constants depending
a priori on the aspect ratio of the cylindrical gap. Several precise
correlations have been put forward by different authors, among
whom we wish to cite Becker and Kaye [36], Tachibana and Fukui
[35] and Bouaa et al. [12,14]. These correlations and the conditions
of use are reported in Table 1. The curves in Fig. 8 show sensitivity
identical to the Nusselt number of variations in the Taylor number
recorded above Ta 104 by researchers as different as Becker and
Kaye [36] and Bjorklund and Kays [39], Aoki et al. [31] and Tachibana
et al. [35]; the exponents n presented by these authors are all sit-
uated within the same range; while the multiplying factor may vary,
it nevertheless remains close to 0.2. It should also be noted that the
geometric studies are far from identical. As seen in Table 1, h, e/R1
and G vary from one author to the next. Once the Taylor number
exceeds 108,Tachibana and Fukui [41] have recorded an exponent n
of 1/3 rather than , The deviation from their prior numbers (and
from other authors) is explained by the non-overlaping of the
measuring ranges utilized in the two studies: the studies of Tachi-
bana and Fukui [41] is conducted for greater value of Taylor
numbers. It likewise bears mentioning that Tzeng [42] observed
much higher heat transfer than the other authors without any
marked differences with regard to their respective congurations.
The results reported by Tzeng [42] were associated with Taylor
numbers higher than those of the many other authors. But, the more
signicant difference between Tzengs experiment and other studies
resides in the presence of high natural convection which seems to
greatly affect heat transfer (see below).
Aside from this particular case, the different results concerning
to heat transfer are in close correspondence, with scattering
occurring once the rotation speed goes up.
Several parameters may exert some inuence on the heat
transfer depicted. Natural convection may continue to affect heat
transfer e even after the appearance of Taylor vortices. Tzeng [42]
has postulated a correlation taking into account the natural
convection effects based on the tangential Reynolds number
Ret uR1Dh/n for a horizontal conguration with h 0.895, e/
R1 0.12 and G 17. This correlation provides the ratio between the
Nusselt number with rotation NuU and the Nusselt number without
rotation Nu0:NuU =Nu0 0:375Gr$uR1 Dh =n$1011 0:328 with
Gr b$DT$e3 g=n2 .
The correlation should not be used unreservedly, for there are
differences between the thermal results of Ref. [42] and those of the
other authors (Fig. 8).
The effect of cylindrical gap size on heat transfer has been
studied by par Ball et al. [40]. They observed that the more
pronounced the rise of h, the more pronounced the rise of the radial
Reynolds number, and consequently of the Taylor number. This
observation would appear logical, since a wide cylindrical gap tends
to stabilize the ow and thereby delay the development of Taylor
cells and diminish their effects on heat transfer.
Most of the studies presented above involve global heat transfer,
and only the numerical studies record local results. Thus, Fig. 9
presents the axial evolution of the Nusselt number numerically
recorded by Ghayoub et al. [23] with a cooled stator and a heated
rotor. The reference temperature chosen was the mixing temper-
ature, of which the evolution is likewise depicted in Fig. 8; the
choice renders it possible to distinguish the Nusselt number Nu2 of
the stator from that Nu1 of the rotor. The sinusoidal evolution
corresponds to the alternation of the pairs of vortices presented in
Fig. 10. To be precise, when two vortices meet at the level of the

Table 1
Recapitulation of the different correlations for convective heat transfer in a smooth and open cylindrical gap. Note: The denition of the Nusselt number has been modied so
as to have it coincide with the other authors, and it corresponds to the denition used in the present text.

h e/R1 G Ta Tac C.L. thermal Correlations

Becker and Kaye [36] 0.807 0.238 172 0 3,3  105 1994 Cooled stator Ta < Tac: Nu 2
Heated rotor Tac < Ta < 104: Nu 0,128 Ta0,367
104 < Ta < 3.3  105:
Nu 0.409Ta0.241
Tachibana 0.75 / 0.938 0.07 / 0.33 2.25 / 11.25 108 / 5  1012 e Cooled stator, Nu 0.092(TaPr)1/3
and Fukui [41] Heated rotor or
Heated stator,
Cooled rotor
Tachibana et al. [34] 0.522 / 0.971 0.13 / 0.92 220 / 7000 0 / 108 1730e3000 Cooled stator Nu 0.42(TaPr)0.25
Heated rotor
Bjorklund 0.8 / 0.948 0.054 / 0.246 32 / 147 8000 / 4.106 1770e1994 Cooled stator Nu 0.35(Ta)0.25
and Kays [35] Heated rotor
Aoki et al. [31] e e e 5000 / 2  105 e e Nu 0.44(Ta)0.25(Pr)0.3
Ball et al. [40] 0.437 / 0.656 0.26 / 0.64 31.4 / 77.2 4000 / 4  105 e Cooled stator Nu 0.069$h2.9084$
Heated rotor (R1ue/n)0.4614ln(3.3361h)
Tzeng [42] 0.895 0.12 17 7962 / 2  108 e Heated rotor Nu 8.854 (R1ue/n)0.262(Pr)0.4
1144 M. Fnot et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50 (2011) 1138e1155
1000
100
Nu
10
1
1.00E+02 1.00E+03 1.00E+04 1.00E+05 1.00E+06 1.00E+07 1.00E+08 1.00E+09 1.00E+10
Tachibana et Fukui [41]
Aoki et al.[31]
Tzeng [42]
Fig. 8. Comparison of the different correlations Note: the denition of the Nusselt number has been modied so as to have it coincide with the other authors, and it corresponds to
the denition used in the present text.
rotor (A), the hot ow is evacuated in the direction of the stator,
thereby provoking maximal Nu1 and increased mixing tempera-
ture. Conversely, when two vortices meet at the level of stator (B),
Nu2 reaches a maximum and the mixing temperature a minimum.
One may also note that as regards Ta 2  106, the secondary Nu1
maxima present at the bottom (B) might be in correspondence with
the presence of the Gortler vortices. Moreover, the Nu peak grows
more pronounced as the Taylor number goes up. This nding is
most likely explained by a heightening of centrifugal forces and
consequently of the speed of the vortices when they meet (in (A) or
(B)). The impact of the Gortler vortices on total heat transfer
remains relatively insignicant.
4. Smooth cylindrical gap, TayloreCouetteePoiseuille ow
In the conguration of the smooth and open cylindrical gap,
axial ow is superimposed on the rotation effect provided by the
rotor. As in the preceding part of this paper, a brief description of
ow structure will be given prior to a section devoted to heat
transfer.
In the case of TayloreCouetteePoiseuille ow, a new dynamic
parameter is to be used in addition to rotation velocity u: average
axial velocity of the uid Va (m/s). The axial Reynolds number
may now be dened as Rea VaDh/n. The most widely accepted
denition of the Nusselt number remains: Nu hDh =l
l gradTjp =Tw  Tref Dh =l F=STw  Tref Dh =l, where the
reference temperature is usually taken to be equal to a uid
temperature (mean temperature Tmean (Te T0)/2), even though,
as is the case with TayloreCouette ow, some authors take it as
equal to the temperature of the second wall.
4.1. Flow structure
Flow results from the superimposing of two discrete mecha-
nisms, one of them linked to the centrifugal effects of rotational
ow, the other one axially driven. Two main transitions may be
distinguished: 1) a transition from laminar ow to turbulent ow
when axial velocity rises; 2) the appearance of Taylor vortex
structures above critical rotation velocity. When these two
Ta
Tachibana et al. [35] Bjorklund et Kays[39]
BECKER et Kaye [36] Ball et al.[40]
phenomena are combined, we may discern the four types of ow
described by Kaye and Elgar [43] (Fig. 11):
- Laminar ow
- Laminar ow with Taylor vortices
- Turbulent ow
- Turbulent ow with Taylor vortices
Nevertheless, most of the authors have focused their studies on
the two main transitions (Laminar to turbulent transition and
Taylor vortex transition) rather than on the characterization of the
ow encountered. So, we will analyze separately the two major
transitions.
4.1.1. Inuence of axial ow: turbulent ow transition
Few studies have focused on the transition from laminar to
turbulent ow, while most of them have concentrated on the
inuence of axial ow on vortex appearance. It is generally consid-
ered that, before the appearance of Taylor vortices, these ows are
similar to those encountered in duct ow with a radial velocity as
well.
Some authors have analyzed the inuence of parameters on
turbulence transition. As is the case in TayloreCouette ow, inu-
ence parameters are both geometrical and thermal. Cylindrical gap
geometry assumes a prominent role in transitions. Kaye and Elgar
[43] were the rst researchers to experimentally determine the
transitions with regard to two different numerical degrees of relative
cylindrical gap thickness h for a wide range of Ta and Rea (see Fig. 12).
The transition to turbulence is more rapidly reached with a more
narrow cylindrical gap for Rea < 1500, Reynolds number above
which the effects are likewise reversed.
Concerning thermal effects on ow, Becker and Kaye [36] studied
the inuence of existing temperature gradient and heat transfer on
ow structure in a wide range of axial ow rates and rotation
velocities (see Fig. 13). According to these authors:
e For Ta 0, turbulence appears in both cases at Rea 1800
e Transition from laminar ow to turbulent ow appears to be
independent of the axial Reynolds number when heat transfer
 M. Fnot et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50 (2011) 1138e1155 1145

Fig. 11. Nature of the ow in accordance with axial Re and Ta [43].

Given the unique character of Becker and Kaye [36] study, it

would be dangerous to extrapolate and generalize on the basis of the
reported results. The absent inuence of Rea on the transition from
laminar to turbulent in a diabatic setting appears rather astonishing.

4.1.2. Inuence of rotation: Taylor vortex ow transition

Studies about the Taylor vortex transition have been much more
numerous. So, Fig. 11 clearly shows the stabilizing effect of axial
velocity with regard to Taylor vortices: The initial instabilities (the
vortices) appear for higher Taylor numbers in the presence of axial
ow. It mention that the ows nature has already been established
by the different authors cited [34,43e45] if: 0  Rea  104 and
0  Ta  106. The study by Jakoby et al. [46] bears special mention
on account of a particularly high axial Reynolds number: 2  104
< Re < 3  104; this entails equally high critical Taylor numbers,
which may reach 4  107 and even 2  109.
In order to determine the critical Taylor number, Chandrasekhar
[44] employed linear stability theory so as to calculate this number
for a narrow cylindrical gap (h 1; 0.95; 0.90). He showed that with
regard to narrow annular space and particularly low Reynolds
numbers (the authors suppose that Rea approaches zero), we may
26.5Rea2. The Taylor number is dened
write: Tac(Rea) Tac(0)p
as: Tac R1 e = 2h=1 h. This analysis would appear to
u 2 3 n 2

Fig. 9. Axial evolution of the mixing temperature and the Nusselt number [23].

takes place (as for adiabatic ow, Kaye and Elgar [43] have
shown highly pronounced dependence with regard to axial
ow rate and rotation velocity).
e The ow is stabilized by the temperature gradient, as transition
to turbulence occurs for greater axial Reynolds number for the
diabatic conguration.

Fig. 10. An example of ow in the presence of Taylor vortices [23]. Velocity eld in Fig. 12. Nature of the ow in accordance with Reynolds and Taylor numbers: Inuence
a radially proled cylindrical gap. of cylindrical gap thickness, according to Ref. [43].
1146 M. Fnot et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50 (2011) 1138e1155
Fig. 13. Nature of the ow in accordance with the Taylor and Reynolds numbers for an
adiabatic and a non-adiabatic ow [36].
indicate that zones with and without vortices are distinctly sepa-
rated. On the other hand, the results of experiments by Yamada [34]
show that the transition from turbulent ow to turbulent ow with
vortices is punctuated by a critical zone and not by an analytically
dened separation. Jakoby et al. [46] have likewise conrmed the
existence of a transition area rather than a pronounced boundary
between ows with as opposed to ows without vortices; one may
consult their frequency study for high axial Reynolds and Taylor
numbers (2  104 < Re < 3  104 et 105 < Ta < 2  108). Most of the
publications cited involve relatively low Taylor numbers, that is to
say approximately 0 < Ta/Tac < 100. The studies are consequently
focused on the appearance of vortices and their deformation under
the inuence of heightened rotation velocity.
Some studies have also described the different ow and velocity
proles involved. For instance, Simmers and Coney [47] analyzed
ow with velocity prole measurements for Re 500; Ta was made
to vary with regard to relatively narrow cylindrical gaps (h 0.955
and 0.8). Following the appearance of vortices, a constant velocity
zone develops; at once tangential and axial, it is located halfway
between the two walls. This zone would seem to correspond to
relocation of the vortices in an overall movement at a speed equal to
axial speed. This phenomenon has similarly been observed by Astill
[48] and by Gu and Fahidy [49]. Lueptow et al. [50] carried out
a highly meticulous experimental study pertaining to types of ows
for low Taylor numbers (Ta < 3000) and very low Reynolds numbers
(Rea < 540) in the framework of a narrow cylindrical gap: h 0.885,
e/R1 0.083 and G 41. They observed a strikingly high number of
ow regimes ranging from laminar ow to turbulent ow along with
Fig. 14. Nature of the ow for Rea < 40 and Ta < 3000 [50].
Taylor vortices. Limits and small description of these ows are pre-
sented in Fig. 14. The results reported by Coney [47,51e54] show that
when the rotation velocity of the inner cylinder rises along with the
Taylor number, vortex wavelength likewise goes up. This phenom-
enon, which also exists without axial owing and is then contingent
upon the way in which the nominal value of the Taylor number is
reached, may be due to the merging of adjacent cells.
Finally several authors have focused on inuence parameters on
transition between ows with and without vortices. Cylindrical gap
geometry assumes a prominent role in this transition. Kaye and
Elgar [43] have determined the transitions for two different relative
cylindrical gap thicknesses h (see Fig. 12). As regards low axial
Reynolds numbers (Rea < 100), annular gap thickness does not
seem to exert a pronounced inuence on the transitions. As for
higher Reynolds numbers, Taylor vortices would seem to appear for
lower Taylor numbers in the case of a narrow cylindrical gap up to
Rea z 1500, Reynolds number above which the effect is reversed.
Similar results have been observed by Jakoby et al. [46] as concerns
transition between ows, with or without vortices.
On the contrary, Hasoon and Martin [55] employed the Galerkin
method by using mean axial velocity to analytically analyze the
effect of relative cylindrical gap thickness h on the transition from
laminar ow to laminar ow with vortices, and they show (Fig. 15)
that the heightening of h stabilizes the ow (the appearance of
vortices occurs with higher Taylor numbers). The inuence of h is
consequently identical to the inuence of TayloreCouette ow. The
inuence of h seems to diminish as the axial Reynolds number rises.
These results were conrmed by Di Prima and Pridor [56], who
studied the problem of theoretically linear stability while none-
theless using a developed and thereby parabolic axial velocity
prole, rather than a uniform velocity prole. This difference no
doubt explains the deviations between the two types of curves
(Fig. 15), particularly the difference in slope for the highest Rey-
nolds axial numbers. These results are equally conrmed by those
of Wan and Coney [51], whose work has been focused on a Ta and
Rea range close to that studied by Kaye and Elgar [43].
These contradictory ndings involving on the one hand Kaye
and Elgar [43] and on the other hand Hasoon and Martin [55], Di
Prima and Pridor [56] and Wan and Coney [51] can be explained by
another parameter of inuence, the axial aspect ratio G. Indeed, it is
hard to achieve variation of h without variation of G, which may
vary in a proportion of 1e2 for Kaye and Elgar [43], and in
a proportion of 1e5 for Wan and Coney [51].
Fig. 13 provides some relevant information on the inuence of the
axial aspect ratio G. Becker and Kaye [36] therein show the results of
three authors ([43,57,71]) who started with highly different geom-
etries, with the ow always remaining adiabatic. An initial reading of
this gure shows that a longer cylindrical gap allows vortices to
 M. Fnot et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50 (2011) 1138e1155
Fig. 15. Critical Taylor number, inuence of cylindrical gap thickness with N 1  h
[56].
appear for lower Taylor numbers (comparison of the results reported
by Kaye and Elgar [43] with those of FAGE [57], for example).
Moreover, the transition situation proposed by Cornish [58] appears
to prove that the role of length is dominant in comparison with the
role of annular gap thickness.
The pronounced inuence of G may be explained by the input
effects and the development of axial velocity proles. Indeed, Astill
[48] has taken note of a precise distance, short of which Taylor cells
either do not or only very partially appear. This distance rises along
with Rea and falls along with rotation velocity. It functions with an
axial velocity prole fully developed at the cylindrical gap entry.
Molki et al. [59] likewise observed, with an adequately high Taylor
number (higher than Tac) the appearance of vortices at a distance
from the cylindrical gap entrance proportionally as sizable as Rea.
Hasoon and Martin [55] have likewise shown that the critical Taylor
number decreases in accordance with distance from the cylindrical
gap entrance. It would consequently seem that only with
pronouncedly higher rotation velocities do Taylor vortices appear in
the so-called zones of development.
Finally and in addition to the geometrical parameters, Becker and
Kaye [36] studied the inuence of existing heat transfer on vortex
structures (see Fig. 13). Transition from laminar ow to laminar ow
with vortices proceeds similarly within each of the two congura-
tions. This nding is conrmed through the experimental
measurements carried out by Sorour and Coney [53], the critical
Taylor number being independent of thermal limit conditions in the
absence of axial ow. On the contrary, transition from turbulent ow
to turbulent ow with vortices seems to occur for smaller Taylor
numbers for the diabatic conguration. As for transition to turbu-
lence (3.1.1), the unique character of the Becker and Kaye [36] should
be borne in mind when considering the results they have reported.
Notwithstanding their limits, these results show that the struc-
ture of combined ow in annular space hinges not only on the
operating point (axial Reynolds and Taylor numbers), but also e and
strongly e on geometry and, to a lesser degree, on parietal thermal
conditions.
4.2. Convective heat transfer
In this type of open conguration, dening a convective heat
transfer coefcient is more complex than in a closed conguration;
1147
the choice of a reference temperature may be particularly difcult. As
regards closed cylindrical gap space, the temperature difference used
when calculating the heat transfer coefcient is consequently
(T1  T2). With regard to axial ow rate, on the other hand, a third
temperature that of entering uid must also be taken into account
and it is that much harder to establish a reference temperature.
Becker and Kaye [36] decided to maintain the distinction between
the two walls, but they could compare their results only to the
temperature at entrance of a given uid; they could not dissociate the
heat transfer on each one of the walls. The mean temperature
calculated from the enthalpy assessment utilized by Bouaa et al. [14]
in particular seems to be the most physically accurate, but also the
most difcult to obtain experimentally. An intermediate solution
occasionally adopted (by Grosgeorge [45] for instance) involves
calculation of the mean value between entrance and exit
temperature.
As a rule, the main results available in the bibliography are
preliminarily limited to the eld: 0  Rea  5  104, 0  Ta  107,
with the exception of a few publications such as those of Hirai et al.
[60] (Even though they do not put forward any experimental
correlations), Grosgeorge [45] and, especially, Childs and Turner [61].
As is the case with closed smooth cylindrical gaps, heat transfer
in an open annular space is integrally linked to the different types of
ow commonly encountered (Table 2).
The inuence of the two main parameters, axial and radial
velocity, has been differently quantied by the authors. So, before
studying the effects and contributions of each of these velocities on
heat transfer, we need to observe how heat transfer has been
modeled and connected with axial and radial velocities. Then,
contrary to uid ow, two heat transfer regions have to be consid-
ered: the stator and the rotor.
4.2.1. Modelizations and correlations
Regardless of the techniques put to use by specic authors,
estimation of the Nusselt number is frequently provided in the form
of experimental correlations established under particular condi-
tions. The most widely proposed expressions take on the following
forms:
Axial flow rate rotation/Nu AReaa Tab Prg or Nu
Reaeff Prg
The number Reeff is based on an effective velocity dened by:
 1=2  
Veff Va2 auR1 2 0Reeff Veff Dh =n
with A, a, b and g as constants depending on experimental condi-
tions these expression depends on whether they describe the
inuence of axial ow rate, rotation velocity or a combination of the
two by means of the effective Reynolds number Reeff, based on
effective velocity, a combination of the axial and radial contribu-
tions. Table 3 includes some of the experimental correlations that
best represent the smooth cylindrical gap of a rotating electric
machine as well as experimental conditions and their eld of
application.
Table 2
Inuence of rotation speed and axial ow rate on nature of ow and heat transfer
[36].
Ta < Tac(Rea) Ta > Tac(Rea)
Rea < ReaC(Ta) Nu constant with Ta and Rea Nu increasing with Ta and
decreasing with Rea
Rea > ReaC(Ta) Nu constant with Ta and Nu increasing with Ta and
increasing with Rea decreasing with Rea
 1148
Table 3
Recapitulation of the main correlations for convective heat transfer in a smooth open cylindrical gap. Note: the Nusselt number denition has been modied so as to make it coincide with those of the other authors and
correspond to the denition given in the present article.

h e/R1 G Rea Ta C.L. thermique DT Correlation

Tachibana and Fukui [41] 0.75 / 0.937 0.03 / 0.17 2.25 / 11.25 380 / 4200 71 / 3400 Variables Rotation: T1  T2 Rotation: Nu 0.092(TaPr)1/3
Axial ow:
Axial ow: Nu ARea0.8Pr1/3
T1  Tmean
and A 0.015(1 2,3(Dh/L))h0.45
Global: f ft fa
Kuzay and Scott [62] 0.571 0.75 12 1.5  104 / 6.5  105 4.87  109 Heated stator T 1  T2 Axial ow: Nu0 0.022Rea0.8Pr0,5
/ 8.65  109 Insulated rotor
Global: Nu Nu0(1 b2)0.87
b (1/p)(Dh/R1)(uR1/Va)

M. Fnot et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50 (2011) 1138e1155

Nijaguna and 0.75 0.165 195 293 / 1995 0 / 3.6  105 Insulated stator T 1  T2 Global: s Ta/Tac
Mathiprakasam [37] Heated rotor
1 < s < 4.817: Nu 4.294s0.4845
s > 4.817: Nu 5.08s0.3507
4 5 5
Kosterin and Finatev [67] 0.78 0.0271 77.5 3.10 / 3  10 0 / 8  10 Insulated stator T1  Tmean Global: rotor: Nu 0.018 Reeff0.8
Heated rotor Reeff (Rea2 0.6Rerot2)1/2
5 6
Grosgeorges [45] 0.98 0.02 200 9900 / 26,850 1.4.10 / 4.9  10 Insulated stator T1  Tmean Rotor:
Heated rotor Global: Nu 0.023j(Rea)Pr1/3Reeff0.8
with j(Rea) 0.16Rea0.175
and Reeff (Rea2 0.8Rerot2)1/2
Childs and Turner [61] 0.869 0.15 13.3 1.7.105 / 13.7  105 6.107 / 12  1010 Insulated stator T 1  T2 Axial ow: Nu 0.023Rea0.8Pr0.5
Heated rotor Global:((Nu  Nuz)/Nuz) 0.068(uR1/Va)2
4 6
Simmers and Coney [54] 0.955 0.024 / 0.124 65 / 288 400 / 1200 10 / 2  10 Heated stator T 2  Tm Stator:
and 0.8 Insulated rotor
4$Pr$Re0:5
a Ta
0:3675
Nu
BA= 1=2 $h= 1=4 Ta0:6175
1h 1h c

2
with B Pr$f1 Pr$exp h= 1=4
3 1h
Ah= 1=2 Re0:5 Ta0:1325 $Ta0:1175  1  1g
1  h2 a c

1 h2 1  h2 =
lnh
and A
2 1  h2 =
lnh
Bouaa et al. [14] 0.956 0.045 98.4 1.1.104 / 3.1  104 1800 / 4  106 Cooled stator T 1  Tm Global: Rotor: Nu 0.025 Reeff0.8
Heated rotor T2  Tm
Reeff (Rea2 0.5Rerot2)1/2
Au stator: Nu 0.046 Reeff0.7
Reeff (Rea2 0.25Rerot2)1/2
Gilchrist et al. [64] 0.833 0.2 56.9 950 / 2080 6
10 / 5  10 7
Heated uid DTLM Rotor:
Cooled rotor Nu 0.65Ta0.226Pr0.333
4 4 5
Hanagida and 0.99 0.0094 283 900 / 10 2.3.10 / 2  10 Heated stator T 1  Tm Stator or rotor:
Kawasaki [65] Heated rotor T2  Tm
St 0.218X1/2Pr2/3 quand X  5000
St 0.0072X0.1 Pr2/3 quand X  5000
Avec X Rea2/Rerot
 M. Fnot et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50 (2011) 1138e1155 1149

As regards combined ow, the authors mentioned in Table 3
propose several different ways of quantifying the respective roles of
the Taylor and axial Reynolds numbers.
Tachibana and Fukui [41] multiply their results by a coefcient
that takes into account the axial lengthening of annular space
(Table 3). Their approach consists in directly adding the heat ux
transferred by simple rotation to the heat ux transferred through
simple axial ow. The temperature difference used for the contri-
bution of rotation alone is (T1  T2), while for axial ow, it is
(T1  (To Te)/2). Tachibana and Fukui [41] consequently cannot take
into account any possible combining of axial and radial ow. Their
approach has remained less inuential than those of the other
authors mentioned in Table 3.
Kuzay and Scott [62] propose a correlation based upon a char-
acteristic ow parameter. 1/b represents the axial path of the ow
in terms of hydraulic diameter during half a revolution of the inner
cylinder: b 1=pDh =R1 uR1 =Va .
Through their use of b, Kuzay and Scott [62] modify the axial
contribution to heat transfer so as to take into account the role
assumed by rotation.
Since there exists a relation between the axial Reynolds number
and the critical Taylor number, Nijaguna and Mathiprakasam [37]
utilized a different approach, which consisted in correlating the
Nusselt number only to the ratio: s Ta/Tac.
This approach may be explained by the low degree and
amplitude of Rea variation. A supplementary difculty consists
in accurately assessing the critical Taylor number. Nijaguna and
Mathiprakasam [37] partially extricated themselves from this
problem as follows: when the axial Reynolds number is sufciently
low (Re < 2000 in this case), the transition is highly pronounced, and
the crucial Taylor number is that much easier to measure. Under
a turbulent regime, on the other hand, the critical Taylor number is
considerably more difcult to estimate. Moreover, Nijaguna and
Mathiprakasam [37] provide no explanation as to the signicance of
the critical s value assumed at 4.817. This value may perhaps be
linked to the transition observed by Becker and Kaye [36] and by
Bouaa et al. [12,14] for Ta 104 in a case without axial ow (Fig. 8).
We may also cite Simmers and Coney [47], who correlated the
Nusselt number to the product ReanTam.
Gazley [6], Luke [63] and Bouaa et al. [12,14] correlated their
thermal results with an effective Reynolds number characteristic of
helicoid ow
   1=2 
Reeff Veff Dh =n Va2 auR1 2 Dh n authors [14,36] agree that radial velocity exerts little if any inu-
where a is a weighted coefcient potentially taking into account the
rotation of the inner cylinder at the level of heat transfer. The different
studies by these authors allow for characterization of convective heat
transfer with regard to relatively high Taylor and Reynolds numbers,
and their correlations are worthy of consideration.
Gilchrist et al. [64] are among the few authors to have worked
with a uid different from air, namely water. Moreover, their
measurements are based on heated cylindrical gap uid and
a cooled rotor. Their correlations do not take into account the axial
Reynolds number, which does not appear to have affected heat
transfer during their experiments e a nding that is largely
explained by the limited Rea area.
Hanagida and Kawasaki [65] worked in a more traditional
manner, with air as the uid being studied and while using electric
of inuence: X Rea2/Rerot. Based on the ratio rather than the sum
total of two Reynolds numbers, this parameter is derived from
studies of the friction coefcient.
Childs and Turner [61] studied convective heat transfer in
a relatively short and wide annular area; the Taylor and Reynolds
numbers were quite high in comparison with most currently avail-
able references. Without rotation, they found a usual expression of
the Nusselt number, which varies in conjunction with the axial
Reynolds number at the power of 0.8. With rotation, the researchers
modied the correlation through a coefcient in accordance with
the ratio of the two velocities characteristic of the ow. This ratio
may be likened to the b utilized by par Kuzay and Scott [62] and also
to the X utilized by Hanagida and Kawasaki [65].
Finally, Jakoby et al. [46] are the only authors to have considered
local heat transfer at the entrance of the cylindrical gap, taking into
account the entrance region. They have provided a correlation of
the overall Nusselt number as integrated on a cylindrical gap length
of L (coefcients are presented in Table 4):
0 1=2 1N
Va2 uR1 2 L
Nu C @ A with C
y
a0 $etGb au $etGb
and N
etGb etGb
a0 $etGb au $etGb
etGb etGb
These observations once again conrm the specic character of
each study. The extrapolation of the results to other particular cases
is necessarily problematic.
4.2.2. Rotor convective heat transfer
In the rst part, we will analyze heat transfer on the rotor, which
has been the focus of most of the studies. Differences between rotor
and stator heat transfer and specic evolution on the stator will be
presented in the paragraph 3.2.3.
4.2.2.1. Inuence of axial ow. According to paragraph 3.2.1, most of
the authors qualied the axial speed inuence using an axial Rey-
nolds number Rea. This axial Reynolds number does not have the
same effect on convective heat transfer in a laminar as in a turbu-
lent regime when the structures are present.
As regards laminar ow (see Fig. 16 lower part), most of the
ence: Nusselt number is constant until a critical Taylor number,
corresponding to vortex appearance. The higher the Reynolds
number, the greater the critical Taylor number (and the larger the
low inuence area). In fact, a stronger axial ow rate drives away
the Taylor vortices toward the exit.
As for turbulent ow, the diminution in heat transfer caused by
the number of structures may be compensated for by increased
convective heat transfer due to turbulence. That is why, in one
example, for Ta 5  104, the Nusselt number declines along with
the axial number up to 1592, and rises once that gure is exceeded.
Table 4
Correlations coefcients.
Steady ow Periodic ow

heating systems to create pronounced variations in temperature. N C N C

And yet, contrarily to some other authors, they determined the heat a0 0.8 0.04 0.8 0.04
transfer on both the rotor and the stator and went so far as to au 0.5 0.6 0.625 0.136
observe a lack of inuence on uid/rotor heat transfer in stator t 0.27 0.32 0.27 0.3
b 12.1 8.85 15 12.9
heating. One may also note their utilization of an original parameter
1150 M. Fnot et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50 (2011) 1138e1155
Fig. 16. Evolution of the Nusselt number in accordance with Taylor numbers given at
Rea by Becker and Kaye [36].
After the transition to turbulence and even if annular spaces,
experimental conditions and the axial Taylor and Reynolds
numbers are quite different. Study of Table 3 shows that the
inuence of the axial Reynolds number is expressed approximately
by a classical Rea0.8 (encountered in many duct correlations such
as Dittus and Boelter [66]).
Previous results pertain to developed axial ow. But in many
TayloreCouetteePoiseuille ow applications, the cylindrical gap is
too short to permit a developed ow. Given the importance of the
entrance area in classical axial duct ow, numerous recent studies
have dealt with the development of an axial regime and its inu-
ence on heat transfer (and of mass, as well). One of the less recent
studies of this type was carried out by Hirai et al. [60], who worked
on a water ow. They observed that the Nusselt number declines
from the onset of the cylindrical gap and then tends to reach
a constant number. This nding perfectly corresponds to thermal
development of ow in a pipe or duct. The higher the rotation
speed, the more rapidly Nu tends to reach its numerical limit. This
observation is apparently conrmed by the results reported by
Molki et al. [59], who worked on mass transfer (naphthalene) with
an air ow of which the input had been controlled in such a way as
to reduce the dimensions of the zone preceding the cylindrical gap.
It should nonetheless be noted that the cylindrical gap is pro-
portionately much shorter than the one presented by Hirai et al.
[60] and consequently does not quite allow for developed ow to be
reached. On the other hand, heightened spatial accuracy allows for
a rise of the Sherwood number (and thus of the Nusselt number) for
high Taylor numbers from a given length upwards; the higher the
axial Reynolds number, the greater the length. Smoke-based visu-
alizations have enabled researchers to conrm that the heightening
corresponds to the appearance of Taylor vortices. A heightened
Nusselt number was likewise observed by Bouaa et al. [14] in spite
of the fact that their ow was already partially developed prior to
cylindrical gap entrance. This fact also explains the highly limited
decrease of the Nusselt number at the onset of the cylindrical gap.
In one particular case [60], as in another, [14], the local heat transfer
appears on an overall basis to have risen slightly when Ta rose,
except in the zone where Taylor vortices appeared; in this zone the
transfer would seem to have risen more sharply. The last study of
this kind was carried out by Jakoby et al. [46]. It involves an air ow
for several cylindrical gap sizes. Total cylindrical gap length is not
modied, and G consequently varies together with e. Researchers
have also noted the pronounced inuence of the entrance zone and
of regime development; their nding is underscored by the fact
that their ow changes from laminar to turbulent with regard to the
dimensions of a cylindrical gap. They went on to observe a rise in
the overall Nusselt number when cylindrical gap length has been
reduced, but they essentially attribute this variation to the
appearance of a turbulent ow zone at the end of the cylindrical
gap with regard to the shortest lengths of the latter.
4.2.2.2. Inuence of rotation. Heat transfer is subsequently favored
by the appearance of vortices once the Taylor number rises (see
Fig. 16). In accordance with the ow regime, these structures come
about in different ways. In laminar ow, the structures appearance
is manifested through an abrupt change in the slope of the Nusselt
number variation in accordance with the Taylor number. In
a turbulent regime, on the other hand, this change of direction is
identied not with a threshold but rather in terms of a critical eld.
Considering the correlations of Table 3, the inuence of the Taylor
number after the appearance of vortices, is expressed at approxi-
mately Ta1/3 by nearly all the authors. Small differences between
authors can be attributed to differences in annular spaces, experi-
mental conditions and Taylor and axial Reynolds numbers areas. But,
concerning the inuence of rotation compared to axial ow, opin-
ions tend to differ greatly. Thus, comparison of results of the authors
using effective Reynolds number Reeff Va2 auR1 2 1=2 Dh =n
shows great differences. Unfortunately, axial and radial velocity
proles are quite different from one author to another and so, it is
difcult to compare studies. For example, Hanagida and Kawasaki
[65], who have carried out measurements in laminar as well as
turbulent ow, have observed only a weak inuence of rotation in
turbulent regime, and a pronouncedly greater inuence for laminar
regime.
Nevertheless, many authors have noted a pronounced prepon-
derance of the inuence of axial velocity over that of radial velocity;
they include Bouaa et al. [14] (a 0.5 for the rotor), and Kosterin
and Finatev [67] (a 0.6). Gazley [6] indicated in his study
a greater inuence (a 0.25) but axial ow is clearly turbulent and
not developed before entering the cylindrical gap. So, heat transfer
due to axial ow is high at the entrance length, a factor that may
help to explain the weak inuence of rotation.
Grosgeorge [45] seems to report strong dependence of the Nus-
selt number on rotation as regards high axial Reynolds numbers
(rotation inuence coefcient a 0.8). But, as we can see in Table 3,
axial Reynolds number appears twice in his correlation. In the nal
analysis, axial velocity is also quite inuent (even if it is difcult to
compare with other authors). Jacoby et al. [46] observe that the
contribution of Taylor vortices to heat transfer is relatively weak.
According to these authors, radial velocity exerts as much inuence
on heat transfer as axial velocity (a 1). So, radial velocity has
a greater inuence in comparison with other authors. This is prob-
ably due to the principally laminar axial ow in their experiment
since inuence of rotation is greater in laminar regime (Hanagida
and Kawasaki [65]). Finally, Gilchrist et al. [64] go so far as to observe
that as regards the conguration they have studied, rotation alone
exerts inuence on heat transfer. It is true that in their experiment,
a particularly small Rea area (950 / 2080) as compared with the Ta
area (106 / 5  107) may explain the absent observable variation of
the Nusselt number.
As concerns the inuence of thermal conditions applied to each
heated, cooled or insulated wall, Hanagida and Kawasaki [65]
studied the case of one wall (rotor or stator) heated alone and of
two walls heated simultaneously, but we have not detected any
pronounced differences in their respective congurations.
4.2.3. Stator convective heat transfer
As may be observed in Table 3, few authors have studied stator
heat transfer. This is largely due to their simple denition of the
 M. Fnot et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50 (2011) 1138e1155
heat transfer coefcient (heat transfer between rotor and stator:
h l gradTjw =Trotor  Tstator ) [37,41,61,62] and to the fact that
their experiments allow for measurement of only one of the two
walls, which is generally the rotor.
Kuzay and Scott [62] studied the thermal behavior of the xed
stator wall. Through their use of b (see paragraph 3.2.1), they
modied the axial contribution to heat transfer so as to take into
account the role assumed by rotation. They note a limited role of
rotation and estimate a lower Nusselt number than those estimated
on the rotor by other authors.
Simmers and Coney [47], who correlated the Nusselt number at
the stator to the product ReanTam have also studied stator heat
transfer. The Rea and Ta areas are unfortunately so far from those
discussed by Kuzay and Scott [62] that it is all but impossible to
make a comparison. In both cases, the limited inuence of rotation
is mentioned.
We may go on to note that two studies have been focused on
comparison of heat transfer to the stator and the rotor: Hanagida and
Kawasaki [65], and Bouaa et al. [14]. Hanagida and Kawasaki [65]
detected no noteworthy difference between the two walls, but their
Taylor number range was relatively limited. The study conducted by
Bouaa et al. [14] was more wide-ranging; the researchers observed
rather similar stator and rotor developments with regard to axial
ow and pronounced differences with regard to radial ow (rotation
coefcient inuence at coefcient a 0.5 for the rotor and at a 0.25
for the stator). The weighted coefcient for the stator is lower than
with regard to the rotor. This appreciable difference stems from the
dynamic conditions imposed on the walls. The inuence exerted by
rotation on convective heat transfer on the stator is likely to be
attenuated to the degree that the cylindrical gap is widened.
5. Slotted cylindrical gap
The studies involving non-smooth cylindrical gaps may be
classied in two categories. Some of them attempt to reproduce the
cylindrical gaps of electric machines, the slots being carved out in
the packs of sheet metal comprising the stator and the rotor that
allow for the passage of various coils. Other studies are aimed at
improving heat transfer within the cylindrical gap. The objective of
this part is to consider the thermo-aerodynamic behavior of the
slotted cylindrical gap. Only a few articles contain references to an
axially grooved cylindrical gap. What is more, most of the reported
results are of experimental origin and remain general (or global)
[6,10,41]. Only the analyses carried out by Hayase et al. [13] and
Hirai et al. [60] put forward, by means of numerical simulation,
a more fully nuanced description of ow and heat transfer in
a closed and slotted cylindrical gap.
Moreover, highly diversied geometry renders it exceedingly
difcult to compare, much less generalize. Among the possible
geometric parameters, one may cite the following: existence of
slots on the rotor, on the stator, or on both walls simultaneously, the
width 1 and the depth (p) of the slots, which may vary from 0.05e to
10e, their number, their layout, and possible geometric peculiarities
(Jeng et al. [68] have studied a rotor presenting longitudinal slots
themselves equipped with internal slots). In addition, there remain
the dynamic parameters: presence or absence of axial ow, axial
Reynolds number, and Taylor number. As regards the last two
parameters (Rea and Ta), it should be noted that while some
authors take into account any geometrical differences between
cases with and without slots, others apply the same denition to
both cases. And nally, rigor demands that when slots are to be
found, the following, above-mentioned parameters must be added:
number of slots n, their width l, their depth p, which enters into the
slot aspect ratio: The characteristic physical quantities have got to
be modied (Fig. 17).
1151
l
p
L
R1
R2
Fig. 17. Geometry of a slotted TayloreCouette ow.
The hydraulic diameter is expressed as:Dh 2pR22  R21
nlp=pR2 R1 np. One may dene an equivalent smooth
cylindrical gap with the same hydraulic diameter and the same
rotor diameter with an equivalent width for the annular eeq and an
equivalent inner radius for the stator R2eq:Dh 2R2eq  R1
2eeq , which gives eeq pR22  R21 nlp=pR2 R1 np.
5.1. Flow structure
Most of the studies pertaining to slotted cylindrical gaps are
thermal studies; they may nonetheless provide useful information
on ow dynamics.
5.1.1. TayloreCouette ow
As regards ow without axial ow, Tachibana and Fukui [41]
have compared the critical Taylor number of smooth cylindrical
gaps with the critical Taylor number at the rotor for slotted cylin-
drical gaps. The cylindrical gaps they studied are not described in
their entirety; the number of slots on the rotor and the diameter of
the rotor and the stator have not been specied. The cylindrical gap
would appear to be wide (up to 20.5 mm), and the slots are likewise
wide (10 mm for 3 mm of depth). The rotor is heated. The authors
show that when slots are present, the transition toward ow with
Taylor vortices is delayed: Tac 1680 if the rotor is smooth, and
TaC 6400 if the rotor is slotted. It should be noted that the authors
take the slots existence into account by modifying the size of the
cylindrical gap: eslotted esmooth p/2. Their results were reached
on the basis of several cylindrical gap geometries, and it is difcult
to dissociate the role directly assumed by the slots from that
attributable to annular space thickness. Tachibana and Fukui [41]
attribute the variation in Tac to the variation in cylindrical gap size,
and not to the slots. In total contradiction with the preceding result,
the study authored by Pecheux et al. [69] observe no difference as
regards the value of Tac between the smooth and the slotted cases
(Tac 1790 for the slotted case). The study proceeds by visualiza-
tion in water as regards a slotted cylindrical gap: R1 14 cm,
R2 14.5 cm, L 64 cm, 48 slots on the stator: p 1.5 cm and
l 0.83 cm and Ta u2 R1 e3 =n2 . The apparent contradiction of
1152 M. Fnot et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50 (2011) 1138e1155
these results with regard to those reported by the other authors
may be partially explained by the difference in geometry; Pcheux
et al. [69] worked on a cylindrical gap equipped with particularly
large slots (p equals 3 times the cylindrical gap) located only in the
stationary part. Moreover, no smooth geometry was studied, and
the smooth/slotted comparison was carried out with regard to the
results reported by other authors. Finally, it should be noted that
when dening the Taylor number, the researchers did not take the
geometry into account. And use of the hydraulic diameter would
yield: Tac w 3900. The above remark appears particularly plausible
in light of the fact that a geometric study quite similar to that
carried out by Pcheux et al. [69] was performed with regard to air
by Bouaa et al. [14], who indeed observed thermal transition
neighboring Tac 3900. Considering all those remarks, it seems
that transition to Taylor ow is delayed if a correct denition of the
Taylor number is used.
Above and beyond the transition, only a few experimental studies
have been conducted as regards the dynamics of TayloreCouette
ow in a slotted cylindrical gap, and most of them have been based
on numerical studies. Pcheux et al. [69] noted that the wavelength
of the Taylor vortices is about twice the length of the vortices present
in the smooth cylindrical gap. Moreover, they observed that the
structures uctuate in time, and they attributed this fact to inter-
action with the internal structure of the slots. Numerically, Hayase
et al. [13] and Bouaa et al. [12] have worked with slotted congu-
rations (especially on a large-slotted stator), and they took note of
interaction between cylindrical gap ow and slot ow (Fig. 18). The
higher the rotation velocity, the more pronounced the interaction.
5.1.2. TayloreCouetteePoiseuille ow
In the presence of axial ow, Gardiner and Sabersky [10]
underscored the paradoxical behavior of the critical Taylor number,
which at rst goes up, along with the Reynolds number, before it
goes down: at rst it is 104 without ow, then it is 6  104 for
a Reynolds number of 800, nally it is 1.5  104 for 2700.
As for Lee and Minkowycz [70], they reported that with slots and
with regard to different cylindrical gap geometries, the length of
dynamic ow development is small and even of negligible exten-
sion for high Taylor numbers (Ta > 105). They also observed that
given the respective values of rotation velocity and axial ow
(103 < Ta < 2.107 and 52 < Rea < 1000), a heightened axial Reynolds
number has little effect on ow and heat transfer.
In their panoramic study and by means of a more local approach
to ow in a slotted cylindrical gap, Bouaa et al. [14] carried out an
analysis devoted to the respective roles of rotation and axial ow.
The results reported by these authors are applicable with regard to
4400  Rea  1:7104 ; 300  Ret  6:4  104 , (corresponding to 103
 Ta  4:8  107 ) for deep slots located at the stator. The authors
Fig. 18. Velocity elds in a schema (r, z) crossing the channel (according to Ref. [12]).
noted that the higher the rotation velocity, the greater the inter-
action of cylindrical gap ow with slot ow, which drives some of
the air from the gap toward the channels when rotation velocity
remains high.
5.2. Convective heat transfer
5.2.1. TayloreCouette ow
In the absence of axial ow, and below the critical threshold,
Gardiner and Sabersky [10] reported that the presence or absence
of the slot has no effect on heat transfer, which rather tends to be
driven, given their location, by natural convection.
On the contrary, Bouaa et al. [14] observed slight evolution of
Nu in the slotted case, but not in the smooth case (Fig. 19); this is
due to heightened interaction with rotation speed between cylin-
drical gap ow and slot ow.
Bouaa et al. [12,14] have shown that above the critical
threshold, the presence of channels at the level of the stator favors
heat transfer, especially for high Taylor numbers. They go on to put
forward a correlation:
6000 < Ta < 1.4  106: Nu 0.132(Ta)0.3
4  106 < Ta < 2  107: Nu 0.029(Ta)0.4
The convective heat transfer is equally heightened from 40 to
50%, above the threshold, when the rotor is slotted (Gardiner and
Sabersky [10]). According to these authors, it is once again difcult
to dene the exact impact of natural convection as regards these
results.
In addition, Hayase et al. [13] have shown in their numerical
study that when vortices are present, the Nusselt number is higher
with slots on the rotor than with slots on the stationary wall. As for
the evolution of local Nu, it generally corresponds to that reported
by Bouaa et al. [12,14], in spite of the fact that in their study, these
researchers dealt with slots on the stator.
Axial distribution of the averaged rotor-located Nusselt number
employed along the internal cylinder and based on the temperature
difference between rotor and stator has the same overall compo-
sition for two-dimensional and three-dimensional calculations
(Fig. 20). One may note that the heat transfer is weak at the slots
and preponderant in the annular part.
The more globally oriented study by Gazley [6] presents results
contradicting those reported by Gardiner and Sabersky [10] and by
Hayase et al. [13] and by Bouaa et al. [12,14]. According to Gazley
[6], in the case of laminar ow the presence of slots entails an
Fig. 19. Distribution of mean Nusselt number for smooth and slotted cylinders
(according to Ref. [14]).
 M. Fnot et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50 (2011) 1138e1155
Fig. 20. Distribution of the Nusselt number for the slotted cylinder e three-dimen-
sional calculation, q 10 , Ta 218 (according to Ref. [13]).
overall diminution of the rotor-located Nusselt numbers (from 10%
when only the rotor is slotted, to 20% when the two walls are
channeled). In the case of turbulent ow, he observed a slight rise of
the Nusselt number when the slots were present. It is nonetheless
worth noting that Gazley [6] based his study on thermally insulated
slots. The efcient surface offered for heat transfer is consequently
quite small, and contrarily to a laminar case, it can be only partially
compensated by supplementary ow disturbance.
As for Tachibana and Fukui [41], they have shown that above
approximately Ta 4  104, slot presence has no effect on the heat
transfer coefcient.
5.2.2. TayloreCouetteePoiseuille ow
In the presence of axial ow, several authors have recently
devoted attention to the problem, but taken as a whole, their
results remains just as self-contradictory as the previous ones.
A majority of the authors nevertheless observes heightened heat
transfer when slots are present. For example, Gardiner and Sabersky
[10] take note, with a low Reynolds number (800), of heightened
convective heat transfer, even prior to the transition. Gilchrist et al.
[64] and Jeng et al. [68] (who work on congurations equipped with
small teeth at the rotor) have calculated an overall improvement
in Nu ranging from 5 to 40%. It should be noted that in determination
of the characteristic quantities (Reynolds number.), slot geometry
is not taken into account, and that this omission may modify the
results (variation as regards the heat transfer surface).
According to Gazley [6], on the other hand, the presence of slots
at the stator or rotor has no effect on the rotor-located Nusselt
number. But slots are thermally insulated in Gazley [6] study.
Moreover, heat transfer coefcient is calculated between rotor and
stator whereas previous authors have calculated heat transfer
coefcient between rotor and uid.
Yet, Bouaa et al. [14] (once again in the case of a slotted stator)
have distinguished stator from rotor-based heat transfer. They have
observed that convective heat transfer is heightened with the
presence of channels at the stator, but they have also noted
a degradation of rotor-based heat transfer with regard to the smooth
cylindrical gap (which can explain the contradiction between
1153
Gazleys [6] and other authors results). Moreover, according to these
authors it is not possible to correlate Nu according to (Rea aRerot)
with regard to a slotted stator.
Several authors such as Gardiner and Sabersky [10], Gilchrist
et al. [64], and Hanagida and Kawasaki [65] have observed
heightened heat transfer, but have not observed any noteworthy
difference between slotted and smooth cases in the evolution of the
heat transfer with regard to characteristic quantities.
On the contrary, Jeng et al. [68] have noted different forms of
evolution at the level of the rotor. As for Bouaa et al. [14], they are
convinced that if there is no actual difference at the rotor; the
Nusselt number at the stator depends essentially on the ratio Vt/Va.
In terms of correlations, let us mention those reported by
Hanagida and Kawasaki [65] at the stator and the rotor with regard
to a slotted stator with 60 axial channels at h 0.99, e/R1 0.0094,
G 283, 4 mm < p < 22.5 mm and l 12.5 mm, and 4400 < Rea <
1.7  104, 500 < Ret < 6.4  104:
St 0.297X1/2 Pr2/3 when X  4000
St 0.0026X1/5 Pr2/3 when X  4000 with X Rea2/Rerot
And those of Bouaa et al. [14] with regard to a slotted stator with
48 axial channels, h 0.956, e/R1 0.045, G 98.4, p 15 mm and
l 8.3 mm and 4400 < Rea < 1.7  104, 300 < Ret < 6.4  104:
At the rotor: Nu 0.021 Reeff0.8 with Reeff (Rea2 0.5Rerot2)1/2
At the stator: (Nu  Nu0)/Nu0 with Nu0 0.021 Rea0.8
6. Conclusion
In light of the results summarized above, we may conclude that
notwithstanding the sizable quantity of studies focused on the
subject of ows in rotating annular space, the similarly large
number of inuence and impact factors still leaves many question
marks pertaining to the dynamics and, more specically, to the heat
transfer in the ow.
As regards a smooth closed cylindrical gap, that is to say a Tay-
loreCouette ow, its dynamics are now well-documented. Heat
transfer has been rather comprehensively studied, at least from
a global standpoint; only a few congurations, such as very large
cylindrical gaps (h < 0.8) and a rotating external cylinder, remain
virtually unexplored. Moreover, a high degree of congruence
between numerical and experimental results appears to open up the
possibility of studying local heat transfer, which up until now have
remained somewhat neglected, by means of numerical simulations.
Lastly, the complex effects of natural convection on ow and heat
transfer call for more in-depth studies, even though such inuence
appears negligible when rotation velocity grows high (Ta > Tac), as is
the case in the majority of industrial applications.
On the other hand, the multiplication of inuential factors
renders open cylindrical gap (TayloreCouetteePoiseuille) far less
widely understood, and it leads to contradictory conclusions among
the authors. This state of affairs would seem to be essentially due to
the entrance or input conditions for axial ow, whether it be
dynamic or thermal. Indeed, the impact of velocity prole and
development length on cylindrical gap ow, and particularly on the
Taylor structures, appear to be thermally conrmed by the inuence
of cylinder length on heat transfer. It should be added that important
data such as entry velocity prole and turbulence rate are generally
not given consideration by the authors, and this omission no doubt
partially explains to striking disparities in their reported results.
What is more, there exists a multitude of denitions pertaining to
heat transfer and, more particularly, to the reference temperature.
One may suppose that only more local studies, in uid as well as on
the wall surface, are likely to eliminate the many question marks
1154 M. Fnot et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50 (2011) 1138e1155
with regard to ow in general and TayloreCouetteePoiseuille heat
transfer ow in particular.
Though many years have elapsed since publication of the initial
studies, the works on slotted cylindrical gaps have not allowed
researchers to derive general analyses from the reported results; in
any event, the large number of possible geometries renders any
analysis particularly complex. A wide range of investigation remains
open for exploration.
To conclude, the published results hinge to a great extent on the
congurations that have been studied, and do not yet offer an
adequate basis for large-scale extrapolation.
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