You are on page 1of 8

Arab J Geosci

DOI 10.1007/s12517-015-1825-4

ORIGINAL PAPER

Effect of recharge from a check dam and river bank filtration


on geochemical and microbial composition of groundwater
S. Parimalarenganayaki & K. Brindha & K. Sankaran &
L. Elango

Received: 12 August 2014 / Accepted: 23 January 2015


# Saudi Society for Geosciences 2015

Abstract Check dams are often constructed across the rivers will also enable to use a portion of water that otherwise would
to store excess runoff and to improve groundwater recharge. be lost due to evaporation from the dam.
Quality of groundwater around the check dam depends on the
chemical and biological characteristics of the water stored in Keywords Check dam . Drinking water quality .
the check dam. The aim of this study is to determine the Geochemistry . Microbes . Managed aquifer recharge .
benefits due to changes in chemical and microbial composi- River bank filtration . Water quality index
tion of groundwater during the process of recharge. This study
was carried out in and around a check dam constructed across
Arani River, Tamil Nadu, India, where people depend on Introduction
groundwater reserves for domestic and irrigation require-
ments. Water samples were collected from the river and sur- Groundwater is the largest freshwater resource, and 85 % of
rounding wells and were analysed for chemical and microbial the rural population in India depends on it. The use of ground-
contents. WQI based on the chemical composition indicates water for domestic water supply is considered advantageous
that the groundwater was good in this area, but microbes such as infiltration of surface water results in removal of suspended
as Escherichia spp., Salmonella spp., Shigella spp. and materials and other substances. Agricultural activities also
Clostridium spp. were present. However, the microbial quality mostly depend on the use of groundwater especially in south-
of groundwater is far better than the water stored in the check ern part of India. Extraction of groundwater for irrigation
dam. Hence, production wells can be planned at a distance of where it is slowly renewed is the main cause for depletion
about 400 m in the east so that the bank filtrate will take at (Hertig and Gleeson 2012). Groundwater depletion and its
least 60 days to reach the well. This will considerably reduce impact are more obvious at the regional scale in agriculturally
the microbial load and also the cost of post-treatment. Thus, important parts of India (Hertig and Gleeson 2012). Check
river bank filtration may be adopted near the check dams so as dams are often constructed across rivers as a method of man-
to maximise well yield and to achieve natural filtration. This aged aquifer recharge (MAR) to mitigate this problem.
Different methods of MAR techniques that are followed in-
clude aquifer storage and recovery (ASR), aquifer storage
S. Parimalarenganayaki : L. Elango (*)
transfer and recovery (ASTR), soil aquifer treatment (SAT),
Department of Geology, Anna University, Chennai 600025, India percolation pond, check dam, river bank filtration (RBF) and
e-mail: elango@annauniv.edu rain water harvesting (RWH). According to Sakthivadivel
(2007), over 0.5 million MAR structures exist in southern
L. Elango
India. During the last 30 years, many check dams have been
e-mail: elango34@hotmail.com
constructed in India to increase the rainfall recharge thereby
K. Brindha improving the groundwater potential. The effect of recharge of
International Water Management Institute, South East Asia Office, water from the check dams and other artificial recharge inter-
Vientiane, Lao PDR
ventions on groundwater quality has been studied by many
K. Sankaran researchers (Mudrakartha 2003; Bhagavan and Raghu
Centre for Biotechnology, Anna University, Chennai 600025, India 2005; Palanisami et al. 2006; Niranjan and Srinivasu 2012;
Arab J Geosci

Parimalarenganayaki and Elango 2014). RBF is also practised drought years has led to decline in groundwater level. To cope
to supply large quantity of groundwater in major cities of the up with this problem, several check dams are constructed in
world including India. Many researchers have also reported the rivers flowing north of Chennai to harvest water during
the advantages of RBF which is an inexpensive, in situ water the monsoon period. One of the check dams located at about
treatment technology, where the quality of surface water gets 40 km northwest of Chennai across the Arani River in
improved during the process of recharge (Dillon et al. 2002; Tiruvallur district, Tamil Nadu, India (Fig. 1), was taken up
Hiscock and Grischek 2002; Sandhu et al. 2011). In RBF, for the present study. This river flows towards east, and it
pumping wells located adjacent to a surface water body such meets the Bay of Bengal at a distance of about 35 km from
as river and lake may, over time, withdraw enough water from the study area. Arani River is non-perennial and carries
the flow system to reverse flow gradients and induce recharge substantial flow during monsoon, only for a few days in a
from the surface source (Ray et al. 2002). As river water is year.
withdrawn through wells, RBF is implemented generally near This area experiences tropical and dry climate. For most of
perennial rivers. the year, the climate is hot and humid. The period between late
The quality of groundwater in the vicinity of check dams or May and early June is the hottest period of the year. During
water derived through RBF depends on the water stored or this period, the maximum and minimum temperatures range
that flows in the river. In general, the water quality depends on from 38 to 42 C. During December and January, the mini-
its chemical (major ions, minor ions, trace elements etc.) mum temperature ranges from 18 to 24 C. The average an-
and biological (bacteria, algae, viruses etc.) constituents. nual rainfall is around 1200 mm, 35 % of which is received
Several studies have been carried out globally to determine from the southwest monsoon (JuneSep) and 60 % during the
the chemical (Brindha and Elango 2011, 2012; Umar and northeast monsoon (OctDec) (Parimalarenganayaki and
Alam 2012) and biological (Aydin 2007; Locas et al. 2008; Elango 2014). Topographically, the area gently slopes towards
Al-Khatib and Arafat 2009; Parimalarenganayaki et al. 2014) the east, and the average elevation of the region is 25 m msl.
quality of water for various purposes. The quality of water
in check dam across Arani river, Tamil Nadu, India and its
Geomorphology and hydrogeology
influence on the groundwater of the nearby wells were studied
by Parimalarenganayaki and Elango (2014). However, this
Geologically, the study area consists of recent alluvium over-
study has not considered the possibility of implementing
lying a thick pile of Gondwana shales, clays and sandstone.
RBF to extract large quantity of groundwater for domestic
The alluvium mainly consists of sand, sand with clay lenses
and irrigational use. Thus, past studies have looked into
and clay. A small patch of laterite deposit occurs in the north-
the advantages of check dams and RBF independently,
eastern part of this area. The stratigraphic succession of the
and no systematic studies on the potential of RBF near
geologic formation is given in Table 1. The geological cross
the check dams across non-perennial rivers have been car-
section along XY is given in Fig. 2. There is not much var-
ried out. Further, the issues related to the quality of the
iation in its thickness from east to west since the level of pre-
surface water and its changes during the process of re-
quaternary formation is generally at the same elevation except
charge need to be understood. Hence, the present study
for small local variations. Groundwater occurs in an uncon-
was carried out with the objective of assessing the poten-
fined condition in the alluvium deposits above the pre-
tial of RBF near check dams due to changes in the chem-
quaternary formation. Thickness of the aquifer is about
ical and microbial constituents during the process of
50 m, and the general groundwater flow direction is from west
groundwater recharge.
to east. In this area, groundwater is pumped from large-
diameter open wells, bore wells and dug-cum borewells by
using submersible, centrifugal pumps, and it is used for irri-
Materials and methods
gation and drinking purposes.
Study area
Data collection
Chennai, which is the capital of the state of Tamil Nadu, India,
is one of the water-starved city where the demand always Base maps of the study area were prepared using Arc GIS 9.3.
exceeds the supply. Water supply to this city is met from the Toposheet number 66C published by the Survey of India
surface water reservoirs and also by pumping groundwater (scale 1:50,000) was used for this purpose. The geology
from the well fields located in the alluvial aquifers in the north. map acquired from the Geological Survey of India (1:250,
Overextraction of groundwater from these well fields during 000) was used to understand the geology. Primary data was
Arab J Geosci

Fig. 1 Location of study area


with monitoring wells

collected through the field survey, which includes collection the temperature at about 4 C in an ice box and subjected to
of groundwater and surface water samples. microbial analysis.

Chemical analysis
Water sampling
The collected water samples were analysed for the con-
After a well inventory survey, seven groundwater samples and centration of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium and
one river water sample was collected from the check dam. chloride using Metrohm 861 advanced compact ion
Samples were collected in the month of March 2012 in chromatograph. Samples were filtered using 0.45 m
500 ml bottles for chemical analysis. Electrical conductivity millipore filter paper before carrying out the chemical
(EC) and pH were measured in the field immediately after analysis. Blanks and standards were run simultaneously
sampling using pre-calibrated YSI multiparameter portable during the measurement for ensuring accuracy of the re-
instrument. Before sampling, the bottles were cleaned by sults. All the chemicals were of analytical reagent (AR)
soaking them in 1:1 diluted HNO3 for 24 h and washed thor- grade and procured from Merck Limited, India. Total dis-
oughly with distilled water. These bottles were washed again solved solids (TDS) was calculated using the measured
before each sampling with the water to be sampled. The sam- EC values by the relationship, TDS (mg/l) = EC (S/
ples for microbial analysis were collected in sterile 500 ml cm) 0.64 (Lloyd and Heathcote 1985). Total hardness
containers. Hand gloves were used at the time of sampling (TH) was calculated by TH (mg/l) = 2.497 Ca (mg/l) +
so as to avoid contact of fingers with the samples. The 4.115 Mg (mg/l) (Sawyer and McCarty 1978). These pa-
samples collected were kept in tightly closed bottles to avoid rameters were compared with the maximum permissible
interaction with air and were transported to the laboratory for limits of WHO (2006) and BIS (2012) for drinking water
geochemical analysis. Four groundwater and one surface wa- quality. Further, water quality index (WQI) was calculated
ter samples were transported to the laboratory by maintaining to comprehensively study the quality of water based on
the seven parameters namely pH, EC, calcium, magne-
sium, sodium, potassium and chloride. The advantage of
Table 1 Stratigraphic succession of the geological formation WQI is that it represents the overall quality of the water
sample as a single value.
Quaternary (up to 40 m) Fine to coarse sand, gravel,
laterite clay and sand, clay with
Kankars Microbial analysis
Tertiary (4550 m) Shale, clay and sandstone
Mesozoic Gondwana shale and clay
Analysis was performed on the same day of sample collection
Archean Crystalline rocks
so as to prevent microbial loss or false results. All glassware,
growth media and selective media were autoclaved at 121 C
Arab J Geosci

Fig. 2 Geological cross section


along XY

for 21 min at 15 psi. Sterile plates were poured with nutrient counted using a colony counter. Plates containing well-isolated
agar (NA) (M001, HiMedia) and selective media at bearable bacterial colonies were selected for further studies. After partial
warmth. The selective and differential media procured from identification using selective media, further, the isolated strains
HiMedia include thiol citrate bile salt (TCBS) agar (M189) were identified using biochemical and serological methods
for Vibrio spp., Rapport Vassiliadis Salmonella Enrichment such as gram staining (K001, HiMedia), catalase (88597-
(RVSE) broth (MH1491) for Salmonella spp., eosin methylene 100ML-F, Sigma-Aldrich), oxidase disc (DD018, HiMedia)
blue (EMB) agar (M317) for Escherichia spp., differential re- and IMViC (KB001, HiMedia) tests.
inforced clostridial (DRC) agar (M1603) for Clostridium spp.,
Salmonella and Shigella (SS) agar (M108) for both Salmonella
spp. and Shigella spp. and deoxycholate citrate (DC) agar Results and discussion
(M065) for Salmonella spp. (APHA 1998; Cappuccino and
Sherman 2001; Garrity et al. 2009). A raw sample without Geochemical quality
any dilution was plated by spread plate method in NA and
six different selective media. Samples were tested in triplicates, The minimum, maximum and mean values of the various
and average of the number of colonies was used for interpre- parameters measured in the water samples are given in
tation of the results. The bacterial colonies in each plate were Table 2. The chemical concentration of these water samples

Table 2 Minimum, maximum and mean of various parameters in surface and groundwater

Parameter Unit Groundwater (N=7) Surface Standard maximum


water (N=1) permissible limit
Minimum Maximum Mean (WHO 2006; BIS 2012)

pH No unit 6.8 7.5 7.1 7.0 6.58.5


EC S/cm 583.0 946.0 774.5 625.0 1500
Calcium mg/l 42.0 112.0 76.8 42.0 75
Magnesium mg/l 60.3 75.9 67.8 14.0 30
Sodium mg/l 20.0 98.0 55.1 88.0 200
Potassium mg/l 1.8 4.7 3.3 4.3 12
Chloride mg/l 43.0 98.0 76.4 97.0 250
Arab J Geosci

was compared with the drinking water quality standards Table 3 Weight assigned to each parameter and the maximum
permissible limit
prescribed by WHO (2006) and BIS (2012) to ascertain their
suitability for drinking and domestic purposes. Parameter Unit Standard maximum Unit weight (Wn)
The surface and groundwater samples were fresh permissible limit
(<1000 mg/l) (Freeze and Cherry 1979) and permissible for (WHO 2006; BIS 2012)
drinking (500 to 1000 mg/l) (David and DeWiest 1966) based pH No unit 6.58.5 0.03
on TDS. TH of groundwater ranged from 366 to 538 mg/l EC S/cm 1500 0.003
with an average of 471 mg/l which is classified as very hard
Calcium mg/l 75 0.009
(Sawyer and McCarty 1978), and the surface water was mod-
Magnesium mg/l 30 0.001
erately hard (162 mg/l).
Sodium mg/l 200 0.02
WQI has been used as a tool to determine the water quality
Potassium mg/l 12 0.001
by many researchers (Alam and Pathak 2010; Massoud 2012;
Chloride mg/l 250 0.0002
Pius et al. 2012; Akkaraboyin and Raju 2012). WQI was cal-
culated using Eqs. 15.
. the groundwater and surface water quality is suitable for
WQI W n qn W n 1 drinking in this area.
Three major processes, physical, chemical and biological
may affect the characteristics of water during infiltration from
. surface water bodies into the groundwater zone. The physical
Where qn 100 x V n V i0  S n V i0  2 process includes trapping of suspended particles in pore
spaces, and chemical processes include sorption, precipitation,
coagulation and ion exchange. Biological process includes
degradation of organic matter present in the surface water.
EC of water is a good indicator which will help in identifying
W n K=S n 3
the interaction between surface and groundwater. The spatial
variation in EC along the distance of sampling location mea-
sured from the riverbank (Fig. 3) shows that EC of ground-
water in wells closer to the river is similar. As the distance
.Xn
1
K1 4 increases from the river, the EC of groundwater increases.
S
i1 n This indicates that the wells located within 110 m are very
much influenced by the recharge from the check dam, whereas
the wells located beyond that are not affected by check dam
recharge.
n 1 1 1 1 1
5
i1 S n S pH S EC S Calcium Sn
Microbial quality

qn quality rating or sub index corresponding to the nth This study limits itself to the identification of the bacterial load
parameter and selection of few class of genus of microbes in the river and
Vn measured value of the nth parameter at a sampling
location
Vi0 ideal value of the nth parameter in the water, i.e., 0
for all the parameters except for pH=7
Sn standard permissible limit in water for the nth
parameter
Wn unit weight of the nth parameter
K proportionality constant
Based on Eqs. 3, 4 and 5, the weightage assigned to each
parameter is given in Table 3. WQI ranged from 20 to 50 for
groundwater, and it was 25 for surface water. WQI is classified
as excellent (025), good (2650), poor (5175), very poor
(76100) and unsuitable (>100). Based on this classification, Fig. 3 Variation of EC (S/cm) with distance from the river bank (m)
Arab J Geosci

comparatively fresh surface water. But the water in the check


dam is with high microbial load (>150 CFU/100 l), and it
affects the quality of groundwater also. The wells located at
300 m in the west and 450 m in the east of the river also have
microbial presence of <50 CFU/100 l but is less than that in
the check dam water, i.e. >150 CFU/100 l. The presence of
pathogenic species have been analysed from samples located
until 110 m in the west and 450 m in the east. The groundwater
quality may not be suitable for domestic use based on the
microbial content in groundwater and surface water. The con-
ceptual west to east cross section showing the groundwater
quality is given in Fig. 5.
Production wells can be planned on the eastern side of the
river to tap the water stored in the check dam by RBF. As
Fig. 4 Variation in the number of microbial colonies (CFU/100 l) with general groundwater flow direction is towards the east, it is
distance from the river bank (m) not recommended to have RBF wells on the western side as
the percentage of RBF will be relatively less. As the water in
the check dam has considerable microbial load, the RBF
groundwater samples collected at different distances from the
wells need to be at an appropriate distance to make use of
river bank. The microbial load decreased with an increase in
the natural filtering process. In general, it is recommended
distance from the river. Figure 4 shows the progressive reduc-
that a travel time for the bank filtrate needs to be at least
tion in the microbial load of groundwater with distance from
60 days (Knorr 1937) to effectively remove the microbial
the check dam. That is, the recharging waters with high mi-
load. The hydraulic conductivity of the alluvium in the study
crobial content lose its load during infiltration and also due to
region ranges from 60 to 90 m/day and the porosity is 0.2
the increase in residence times. This process was also reported
(UN Development Programme 1987). The approximate
by Clancy and Stendahl (1997), Gollnitz et al. (1997) and
minimum time for the bank filtrate to reach the well under
Schijven and Rietveld (1997). This indicates effective remov-
steady state conditions was calculated by considering the
al of microbes during the process of infiltration and ground-
head difference between the water level in the check dam
water flow.
and the RBF well for different discharges, hydraulic conduc-
The presence of microbial species such as Salmonella
tivity and effective porosity by the equation
spp., Shigella spp., Escherichia spp. and Clostridium spp.
in the water at low levels (<50 CFU/100 l) was observed Traveltime L=Kh=L=ne  6
in most cases. However, the microbial species like Vibrio
spp., the presence of which is undesirable, was absent in
all of the sampling locations. From Table 4, it can be
where
observed that groundwater in the west bank located at a
distance of about 300 m is desirable for drinking purposes h head difference between water level in the check dam
because all of the tested species were absent, i.e. low and RBF well
microbial load. K hydraulic conductivity
This study indicates that the chemical quality of groundwa- ne effective porosity
ter has improved near the check dam due to the recharge of L distance between the river bank and the RBF well

Table 4 Qualitative estimation of microbial species in raw sample by selective media

Distance of sampling wells 300 m west 110 m west 0 m river 150 m east 450 m east Pathogenicity
Selective agar

TCBS agar (Vibrio spp.) Absent Absent Absent Absent Absent Most of the species are pathogenic
RVSE broth (Salmonella spp.) Absent Present Present Present Present All species are pathogenic
EMB agar (Escherichia spp.) Absent Present Present Present Present Few species are pathogenic
DRC agar (Clostridium spp.) Absent Present Present Present Present Few species are pathogenic
SS agar (Salmonella and Shigella spp.) Absent Present Present Present Present All species are pathogenic
DC agar (Salmonella spp.) Absent Present Present Present Present All species are pathogenic
Arab J Geosci

Fig. 5 West to east conceptual


cross section in the study area

Table 5 indicates that if the wells are located at a distance Conclusion


greater than or equal to 400 m, the bank filtrate will take about
61 days to reach them when the hydraulic conductivity is The impact of RBF on surface and groundwater quality and its
assumed to be 90 m/day. So, groundwater production wells suitability was studied in a part of Arani river, Tamil Nadu,
need to be located after a distance of about 400 m in the east so southern India, by determining the geochemical and microbial
as to reduce the microbial load and thereby cost of post- composition. The quality of water was assessed for drinking
treatment. However, depending upon the microbial load in by collection of seven groundwater samples and one surface
the water from the production wells, disinfection using halo- water sample from the check dam. WQI indicated that the
gens such as chlorine, iodine, bromide or by ultraviolet treat- water quality is good in this area for drinking purposes based
ment, ozonation etc. may be considered. It is not necessary to on the chemical composition. The microbial analysis of sam-
treat the water with regard to chemical constituents as they are ples revealed the presence of Escherichia spp., Salmonella
within the permissible limit in the water stored by the check spp., Shigella spp. and Clostridium spp. in groundwater and
dam. Thus promoting RBF around the check dam will in- surface water. The recharge of river water stored in the check
crease the recharge and part of the water lost by evaporation dam has improved the ambient chemical quality of groundwa-
can also be utilised. ter by natural treatment processes. However, this filtering pro-
cess is not sufficient enough to completely remove the micro-
bial load in the groundwater. Hence, production wells need to
Table 5 Approximate minimum travel time for the bank filtrate to be planned at a distance of about 400 m in the east so that the
reach wells at different distances bank filtrate will take at least 60 days to reach the well. This
will considerably reduce the microbial load and thereby cost
Hydraulic Approximate minimum travel time (day) to reach a well at
conductivity a distance (m) of of post-treatment. Thus, RBF may be adopted near the check
(m/day) dams to increase the recharge and to tap the portion of water
200 400 600 800 1000
that otherwise might be lost due to evaporation from the dam.
if the head difference (m) between water level in the check
dam and the well for different discharges is
Acknowledgments First two authors and the last author thank the De-
4 5.8 7 7.6 8 partment of Science and Technologys Funds under the Women Scientist
Scheme (SR/WOS-A/ET-49/2010(G)) for funding this work. Partial sup-
60 33 92 171 281 417 port from the Department of Science and Technologys Funds for Im-
provement in Science and Technology scheme (Grant No. SR/FST/ESI-
70 29 79 147 241 357 106/2010) and University Grants Commissions Special Assistance
80 25 69 129 211 313 Programme (Grant No. UGC DRS II F.550/10/DRS/2007 (SAP-1)) is
90 22 61 114 187 278 also acknowledged. All authors thank the Centre with Potential for
Excellence in Environmental Science scheme of the University Grants
Arab J Geosci

Commission (Grant no. F.No.1-9/2004 (NS/PE)) which facilitated this Lloyd JW, Heathcote JA (1985) Natural inorganic hydrochemistry in
multidisciplinary research work. relation to groundwater. Clarendon, Oxford
Locas A, Barthe C, Margolin AB, Payment P (2008) Groundwater mi-
crobiological quality in Canadian drinking water municipal wells.
Can J Microbiol 54(6):472478
References Massoud MA (2012) Assessment of water quality along a recreational
section of the Damour River in Lebanon using the water quality
Akkaraboyin MK, Raju BSN (2012) Assessment of water quality index index. Environ Monit Assess 184:41514160
of River Godavari at Rajahmundry. Univ J Environ Res Tech 2(3): Mudrakartha S (2003) Augmenting groundwater resources by artificial
161167 recharge at Aravalli Hills. Gujarat, India. Online at: http://r4d.dfid.
Alam M, Pathak JK (2010) Rapid assessment of water quality index of gov.uk/PDF/Outputs/Water/R8169-VIKSAT_INCEPTION_
Ramganga River, Western Uttar Pradesh (India) using a computer REPORT12_May_04.pdf
programme. Nat Sci 8(11):18 Niranjan V, Srinivasu VK (2012) Small water harvesting and artificial
Al-Khatib IA, Arafat HA (2009) Chemical and microbiological quality of recharge interventions in Singoda river basin, coastal Saurashtra:
desalinated water, groundwater and rain-fed cisterns in the Gaza hydrological and socio-economic impacts. Report-Institute for
strip, Palestine. Desalination 249:11651170 Resource Analysis and Policy, Hyderabad
APHA (1998) American Public Health Association, American Water Palanisami K, Raviraj A, Thirumurthi S (2006) Artificial recharge in hard
Works Association, and Water Environment Federation. Standard rock areas of Coimbatore Districta case study. International con-
methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American ference on groundwater sustainable development problems, per-
Public Health Association, Washington spectives and challenges (IGC-2006). Online at: http://jnuenvis.
Aydin A (2007) The microbiological and physico-chemical quality of nic.in/publication/IGC %202006%20Abstracts.pdf
groundwater in West Thrace, Turkey. Polish J Environ Stud 16(3): Parimalarenganayaki S, Elango L (2014) Impact of recharge from a check
377383 dam on groundwater quality and assessment of suitability for drink-
Bhagavan S, Raghu V (2005) Utility of check dams in dilution of fluoride ing and irrigation purposes. Arab J Geosci 7(8):31193129
concentration in groundwater and the resultant analysis of blood Parimalarenganayaki S, Prock J, Yu L, Wintgens T, Elango L (2014)
serum and urine of villagers, Anantapur District, Andhra Pradesh, Microbiological quality of groundwater and surface water in a part
India. Environ Geochem Health 27(1):97108 of Arani River basin, Tamil Nadu, India. In: Prasad NBN,
BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) (2012) Indian standard drinking water Harikumar PS, Gopinath EJJG, Resmi TR, Surendran U, Ambili
specification, second revision ISO: 10500:2012, Bureau of Indian GK (eds.) Proceedings of international symposium on integrated
Standards. Drinking Water Sectional Committee, FAD 25, New Delhi water resources management, CWRDM, Kozhikode, India, vol. 1,
Brindha K, Elango L (2011) Hydrochemical characteristics of groundwa- pp. 415424
ter for domestic and irrigation purposes in Madhuranthakam, Tamil Pius A, Jerome C, Sharma N (2012) Evaluation of groundwater quality in
Nadu, India. Earth Sci Res J 15(2):101108 and around Peenya industrial area of Bangalore, South India using
Brindha K, Elango L (2012) Impact of tanning industries on groundwater GIS techniques. Environ Monit Assess 184:4067407
quality near a metropolitan city in India. Water Resour Manag 26(6): Ray C, Melin G, Linsky R (eds) (2002) Riverbank filtration: improving
17471761 source water quality. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht
Cappuccino JG, Sherman N (2001) Microbiology: a laboratory manual.
Sakthivadivel R (2007) The agricultural groundwater revolution: oppor-
Benjamin Cummings Publishing, Tempe
tunities and threats to development and the groundwater recharge
Clancy JL, Stendahl D (1997) Ground water or surface watermicro-
movement in India. Chapt 10. Vol. 3. In: Giordano M, Villholth KG
scopic evaluation of an Ontario River well system. Proceedings of
(eds) Comprehensive assessment. CABI Publ, Wallingford, pp 195
the American Water Works Association Water Quality Technology
210
Conference. Denver, CO, American Water Works Association
Sandhu C, Grischek T, Kumar P, Ray C (2011) Potential for riverbank
David SN, DeWiest RJM (1966) Hydrogeology. Wiley, New York, p 463
filtration in India. Clean Tech Environ Policy 13:295316
Dillon PJ, Miller M, Fallowfield H, Hutson J (2002) The potential of
riverbank filtration for drinking water supplies in relation to Sawyer CN, McCarty PL (1978) Chemistry of environmental engineer-
microcystin removal in brackish aquifers. J Hydrol 266(34):209221 ing, 3rd ed. Series in water resources and environmental engineer-
Freeze RA, Cherry JA (1979) Groundwater. Prentice Hall Inc, New ing. McGrawHill, New York, p 532
Jersey, p 604 Schijven JF, Rietveld LC (1997) How do field observations compare with
Garrity GM, Brenner DJ, Krieg NR, Staley JT (eds) (2009) Bergeys models of microbial removal? Under the microscopeexamining
manual of systemic bacteriology, volume 2, 2nd edn. Springer, microbes in groundwater. American Water Works Association
New York Research Foundation and the American Water Works Association,
Gollnitz WD, Cossins F, DeMarco J (1997) Impact of induced infiltration Denver
on microbial transport in an alluvial aquifer. Proceedings of the Umar R, Alam F (2012) Assessment of hydrogeochemical characteristics
American water works association water quality technology confer- of groundwater in parts of HindonYamuna interfluves region,
ence. Denver, CO, American Water Works Association Baghpat District, Western Uttar Pradesh. Environ Monit Assess
Hertig AW, Gleeson T (2012) Regional strategies for the accelerating 184:23212336
global problem of groundwater depletion. Nat Geosci 5:853861 UN Development Programme (1987) Hydrogeological and artificial re-
Hiscock KM, Grischek T (2002) Attenuation of groundwater pollution by charge studies. Technical report number DP/UN/IND-78-029/2,
bank filtration. J Hydrol 266(34):139144 Madras
Knorr N (1937) Die schutzzonenfrage in der trinkwasserhygiene [protec- W H O ( 2 00 6 ) G u i d e l i n e f o r d r i nki n g w a t e r q u a l i t y. Vo l .
tion zones in drinking water hygiene]. Gas Wasserfach 80:33035 Recommendations. World Health Organization, Geneva, p 130

You might also like