Running Head: ANALYSIS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESSES 1

Analysis of Information System Design Processes: An In-depth Analysis of Two Geographic

Information System Design Processes

Daniel Meighen

University of Wisconsin - Stout

Author Note

This paper has been prepared for ICT 505 taught by Professor Even Sveum as the

accepted deliverable based on the graduate project charter.

The scope of this paper is limited to system design/implementation processes and not the

actual implementation of a specific system into organizations. Only the chosen processes will be

covered and used in this paper.

ANALYSIS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESSES 2

Analysis of Information System Design Processes:

An In-depth Analysis of Two Geographic Information System Design Processes

Introduction

According to National Geographic (n.d., p. 1), a Geographic Information System (GIS) is

an Information and Communication Technology (ICT) system that is used for the “capturing,

storing, checking, and displaying of data related to positions on Earth’s surface.” It is important

to understand that an ICT system contains software, networks, hardware, and other media to be

used for the collection, processing, transmission, storage, and presentation of information (World

Bank Group, 2002). GIS and ICT systems are similar. However, unlike an ICT system, a GIS

application is focused on physical locations contained on the Earth’s surface. This allows

organizations to use the locations of different objects to compare and contrast how they relate to

one another (National Geographic, n.d.).

This paper analyzes two system design processes for implementing a GIS application

within an organization. The first process is from an organization called Environmental Systems

Research Institute (Esri). Esri is a global leader in producing GIS products with a forty-three

percent market-share in the GIS sector as of 2015 (Esri, 2015). Their influence on GIS

applications and implementation is known throughout the industry. The second process that will

be analyzed is from a publication named Advanced Geographic Information Systems. It covers

multiple aspects of GIS usage in a collaboration of peer reviewed content. The chapter “GIS

Project Planning and Implementation” written by Rebecca Somers is the specific context of this

second analysis. By analyzing the two system design processes, a single best-practices model

will be synthesized.
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Analysis of Esri’s Design Process

The information system design process of implementing a GIS application based on

Esri’s recommendations is a four-phase implementation strategy. This implementation strategy

focuses on key objectives that form an organized and structured system deployment.

Phases

Esri separates their system design process into four phases: requirements, design,

construction, and implementation. The requirements phase is critical in identifying the

requirements for both data and technology (Peters, 2014). In addition, the success of creating an

effective GIS implementation starts from obtaining a clear understanding of the organizational

goals for which the system will compliment (Tomlinson, 2013). During the design phase, the

identified requirements will be used to design and shape the GIS, as well as calculate the budget

and timeline. Esri uses a process called System Architecture Design to create recommendations

on hardware and network solutions by focusing on existing and forecasted user needs (Peters,

2014). As shown in Figure 1, this process happens in conjunction with the design phase and is

meant to build off of the requirements. According to Peters (2014), this phase is also the time

where funding and procurement decisions are often required to proceed. The construction phase

applies the design to the development of the system. In addition to the development of the

software and hardware, prototype testing plans are also completed and scheduled (Peters, 2014).

Prototype testing is one of the most critical activities during the implementation phase (Bradford,

2015). The implementation phase includes deployment, operational testing, and system

maintenance operations (Peters, 2014).

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Figure 1. Esri’s system design process model. Reprinted from Building a GIS: Implementation

Strategy and Best Practices, by D. Peters, 2014. Retrieved from https://blogs.esri.com/esri/esri-

insider/2014/10/15/building-a-gis-implementation-strategy-and-best-practices/.

Approaches

Peters (2014) states that the deployment process should be repeated on a periodic

schedule incrementally. This is in an effort to help compensate for the constant changes in

technology (Peters, 2014). Esri suggests using a tool called a Capacity Planning Tool (CPT),

which is designed for conducting and automating the performance analysis during the system

design process (“Capacity Planning Tool,” 2017). In addition, Esri provides more tools that can

be used to validate system performance throughout the phases (“System Design Process,” 2017).

Using these tools during the system architecture design process can be instrumental in the

assessment and analysis of data.

ANALYSIS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESSES 5

Factors

Although there are not specifically listed factors to consider when designing and

implementing a GIS application, there are key points mentioned that can have a significant

impact on the outcome of the design process. When conducting the requirements and design

phases, there are two sets of needs that should be considered: business and GIS. The business

needs should be identified during the system architecture design process and should cover the

strategy, organization, governance, and key processes of the business (“Enterprise business needs

assessment,” 2017). The GIS needs should be assessed during the system design process and

should identify the requirements and strategy for implementation (“GIS needs assessment,”

2017). This includes the workflow requirements as well as the areas where the technology can

increase the business’s quality and productivity (“GIS needs assessment,” 2017). Assessing these

needs will allow an organization to create a properly detailed and structured plan for the

implementation of the new system.

Furthermore, a factor to consider, after analyzing and addressing the business and GIS

needs of the organization, is the cost of the change. If the requirements phase doesn’t properly

outline the necessary information, the implementation phase may result in an increase of cost for

the changes that are needed to correct any issues (“System Design Process,” 2017). Because of

this, it is important to conduct certain forms of validation, such as performance validation of the

GIS plan (“System Design Process,” 2017).

Analysis of Advanced Geographic Information Systems’ Design Process

According to Somers (2009), the GIS design process consists of five primary phases:

planning, requirements analysis, design, acquisition and development, and operations and

maintenance. She uses a standard Information and Technology (IT) process that has been
ANALYSIS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESSES 6

modified and adapted to the specific needs of a GIS. As shown in Figure 2, the process is

performed in an incremental methodology, which builds upon each phase’s results (Somers,

2009). Somers argues that “most successful GISs are implemented according to a structured

process that assures that the end product will meet the users’ needs” (2009, p. 19).

Figure 2. Somers’s GIS design process. Reprinted from Advanced Geographic Information

Systems (p. 20), by R. Somers, 2009, Oxford, United Kingdom: EOLSS Publishers Co.

Copyright 2009 by EOLSS Publishers/UNESCO.

Phases

The planning and implementation process starts with the planning phase. This phase is

meant to be used as the foundation for which the GIS implementation and operation are built

upon (Somers, 2009). During the planning phase, the scope of the GIS application is identified

and will provide further direction in the subsequent phases (Somers, 2009). Included in the scope
ANALYSIS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESSES 7

is the outlining of the participants for the entire design and implementation process. In addition,

the amount and type of resources should be determined during this step (Somers, 2009). The next

phase, requirements analysis, focuses on the user’s specific needs (Somers, 2009). This analysis

relies on detailed information pertaining to the overall mission and goals of the organization and

its users in reference to the GIS. The design phase incorporates the findings of the requirements

phase and designs the GIS components that will fulfill the users’ needs (Somers, 2009). Somers

(2009) lists the key components of the GIS during this phase, which include: database, system

components, organization and management, and resources. The fourth phase centers on the

acquisition and development of the GIS. This phase is the point at which the system is built and

constructed based on the prior design (Somers, 2009). Because the acquisition and development

phase is based on the results of the design phase, the components are implemented based on the

key components outlined in the design phase. The final phase covers the operation and

maintenance of the GIS. During this phase, the GIS becomes operational. Somers (2009)

mentions that a variety of methods may be used to implement the system. Furthermore, the GIS

will need to be maintained to manage the integrity of data and the increasing changes in

technology.

Approaches

Somers has a simplistic ideology when it comes to the approaches of implementing a

GIS. She states that, even though there are many different types of GISs ranging from simple to

complex, “most successful GIS implementations use the same basic GIS implementation

approach” (2009, p. 25). However, Somers goes on to say that each one is adapted to their own

situation, particularly with the coordination inside of the organization (2009).

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She outlines specific categories that determine certain approaches where she covers the

distinction between a GIS project and program. A project is generally short-term, specific need

implementation, while a program is a long-term, broad implementation (Somers, 2009). Each

type determines a different approach to how the solution is implemented. In addition, the

different types of organizations can have an impact on the specific approach being used.

Factors

There are multiple factors to consider in Somers’s system design process. The first factor

is the implementation drivers. These can include internal and external influences, such as

immediate operational needs, software availability, or the need for immediate results (Somers,

2009). The second factor is the cost effectiveness of the technology. The GIS application has

numerous benefits with enormous power to analyze and interpret location-based data. However,

a GIS can be very costly depending on the size and time of implementation. Timing is a

contributing factor that may make a GIS appear to cost more than the benefits it provides

(Somers, 2009). Because of the lack of operation in the early stages of the system design process,

the costs can be much higher than the benefits at those times. The final factor Somers mentions is

the data and software availability. As more and more GIS solutions are created, there is an

increase in the availability of geospatial data and software. Rather than waiting for a completely

new and custom GIS, a small organization with less requirements can choose a pre-configured

solution that could increase the cost-effectiveness due to timing and availability.

Comparison of Processes

The processes of each GIS implementation system design follow similar flows and

concepts. However, there is a difference between the two processes in the phases that each had.

Esri’s first phase is the requirements phase, which identifies the requirements for both data and
ANALYSIS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESSES 9

technology, and obtains a clear understanding of the organizational goals for which the system

will compliment (Peters, 2014; Tomlinson, 2013). Somers’s first phase is the planning phase,

which covers the scope and resources required for the entire system design process. These points

are not explicitly covered in Esri’s design process as they are assumed to be finished prior to

starting the process.

Aside from this difference in the phases, there are some differences in the approaches that

each process contains. Esri conveys the approaches as more of a tips or best-practices viewpoint.

For example, Peters (2014) mentions that the deployment process should be repeated on a

periodic schedule incrementally in an effort to help compensate for the constant changes in

technology. On the other hand, Somers mentions various characteristics that may affect the

approach an organization makes towards the implementation of the GIS. This is shown when she

mentions the effect that different types of organizations may have on the selected approach.

However, it should be noted that Esri does mention that not all GIS design processes are the

same and they can differ depending on various factors (“System Design Process,” 2017).

Similar to its format on approaches, Esri does not specifically list factors, while Somers’s

design process does. Instead, there are certain categories that should be focused on, such as

business and GIS needs. This differs greatly from the factors Somers produces as she outlines

various topics that can have a significant effect of the final outcome of the implementation. For

example, one should consider the implementation drivers, such as software availability or the

need for immediate results.

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Best-practices Design Model

Based on the analysis and comparison of Esri’s and Somers’s system design processes of

their implementation of a GIS, there are certain aspects of both that can be contributed to a best-

practices design process. For this paper, a best-practices design model has been synthesized that

reflects concepts from Bradford’s (2015) Modern ERP and both of the system design processes

that have been previously analyzed, which can be referenced in Figure 3.

The phases of this model will resemble much of the model from Somers’s process. The

first phase is the key phase that Esri lacked and should be included in the design process.

Bradford states, “poor planning can lead to missed opportunities, costly mistakes, or even failure,

depending upon how massive the problems are and how long they continue” (2015, p.80).

Because of this, it is imperative to include this in the system design process. Identifying scope,

participants, and resources is required even before the requirements of the new GIS have been

determined.

The requirements phases of both processes are very similar and should be included in any

system design process of a GIS implementation. A key component of Esri’s design phase is their

use of the system architecture design process. This sub-process is very crucial to the proper

design of the GIS application. The system architecture design allows an organization to build on

its existing IT infrastructure based on the business’s needs (Peters, 2014). Following this phase,

the construction and development phases of both designs are similar and should be required in a

system design process.

The final phase of the process is the implementation and maintenance phase. This is a

combination of both Esri’s and Somers’s final phases. The overall concept is that the GIS

solution is now being implemented and operational. This includes user training as well as
ANALYSIS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESSES 11

ongoing maintenance in an effort to maintain data integrity, user knowledge and competence,

and adjustments due to technological change. Furthermore, there are three main implementation

strategies that should be considered: phased, big bang, and parallel (Bradford, 2015). Phased

implementation is an incremental strategy that deploys the system over separate steps or units

(Bradford, 2015). Big bang implementation is the most difficult and risky approach due to the

implementation happening at a single time (Bradford, 2015). Parallel implementation is typically

seen as the least risky strategy because the implementation is happening along-side the legacy

system (Bradford, 2015). This also assumes there is a legacy system that can be run in parallel

with the new system.

Figure 3. Best-practices design process. Created for this paper by Daniel Meighen.

Conclusion

The analyses of the Esri and Somers system design processes were very similar with

respect to the phases of the processes. Esri uses a four phase process which includes:

requirements, design, construction, and implementation (“System Design Process,” 2017).

ANALYSIS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESSES 12

Somers uses a five phase process consisting of planning, requirements analysis, design,

acquisition and development, and operation and maintenance (Somers, 2009). Somers’s first

phase is the significant difference in the phases and consists of scope and resources. This is not

explicitly included in Esri’s process. In addition, the approaches and factors from Esri did not

contain a specific list but rather various viewpoints and tips.

The best-practices system design model of implementing a GIS solution is based on three

concepts: Esri’s process, Somers’s process, and viewpoints presented by Bradford. Mainly using

the structure of Somers’s process, the process of the best-practices model consists of five phases:

planning, requirements analysis, design, acquisition and development, and implementation and

maintenance. The key difference in these phases is the addition of the planning phase that Esri

did not include. This phase is essential as “poor planning can lead to missed opportunities, costly

mistakes, or even failure” (Bradford, 2015, p. 80). Furthermore, the design phases utilize Esri’s

system architecture design process to help facilitate the overall design of the GIS. The

implementation and maintenance phase is similar to both Esri’s and Somers’s processes except

that there is the inclusion of Bradford’s three implementation strategies.

Keeping in mind that each design and implementation of a GIS application may be

different due to multiple factors, it is crucial to follow a structure and organized path from

planning to implementation. Based on the analysis, comparison, and detailed information of Esri,

Somers, and Bradford, this best-practices system design model addresses the proper

implementation of a GIS into an organization.

ANALYSIS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESSES 13

References

Bradford, M. (2015). Modern ERP (3rd ed.).

Capacity Planning Tool. (2017). Retrieved from

http://wiki.gis.com/wiki/index.php/Capacity_Planning_Tool

Enterprise business needs assessment. (2017). Retrieved from

http://wiki.gis.com/wiki/index.php/System_Design_Process#Enterprise_business_needs_ass

essment

Esri. (2015). Independent Report Highlights Esri as Leader in Global GIS Market. Retrieved

from http://www.esri.com/esri-news/releases/15-1qtr/independent-report-highlights-esri-as-

leader-in-global-gis-market

GIS needs assessment. (2017). Retrieved from

http://www.wiki.gis.com/wiki/index.php/System_Design_Process#Traditional_system_desi

gn_process

National Geographic. (n.d.). GIS (geographic information system). Retrieved from

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/geographic-information-system-gis/

Peters, D. (2014). Building a GIS: Implementation Strategy and Best Practices. Retrieved

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implementation-strategy-and-best-practices/

Somers, R. (2009). GIS Project Planning and Implementation. In C. Medeiros (Ed.), Advanced

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System Design Process. (2017). Retrieved from

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http://www.wiki.gis.com/wiki/index.php/System_Design_Process

Tomlinson, R. (2013). Thinking About GIS: Geographic Information System Planning for

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World Bank Group. (2002). Information and Communications Technologies: A World Bank

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